Significant

Figures
Used in Biology, Chemistry,
Physics, Social Science, and
Mathematics
 Projected Learning Outcomes

How to identify Significant Figures Rules for Addition, Subtraction,

Rounding
Multiplication, and Division of
Significant Figures
 Significant Figures
Significant Figures (SF) are also known as SigFigs or Significant Digits and are used when
evaluating and compiling measurements/research data.
SF is used in the following fields of study:
 Biology
 Chemistry
 Physics
 Earth Sciences
 Social Science Research
 Mathematics
 Significant Figures
When scientists conduct experiments, they record data and take measurements, but not all measurements
are exact. Most numbers have uncertainties associated with them that can make them inexact. The
concept of Significant Figures helps scientists to identify the number of digits believed to constitute the
most precise in measurement. 
Example of exact: There are exactly 12 eggs in a dozen. (Twelve is the EXACT measurement)
Most measurements, however, are inexact─
Examples of inexact: When discussing temperature, most people think within whole number frames
(inexact data), not in exact temperatures. For example, a weatherperson might say that the temperature is
86° when in fact the temperature can more accurately be measured as 86.24°. When asked our age, most
of us will say, “I am sixty-three,” not “I am sixty-three years, seven months, six days, five hours, and
twenty seconds old.”
 Exact Numbers

Exact numbers—
— are concrete and therefore are not measured* and do not have a limited number of
significant figures
— do not affect the number of significant figures in a calculated answer
— result when using definitions that compare two units in the same measuring
system (defined equalities). For example, one pint can also be specified as 16 ounces
Some Examples of Exact Numbers
Counting Numbers 8 doughnuts 2 baseballs 5 capsules
Defined Metric System 1 L = 1,000 mL 1 m = 100 cm 1 kg = 1,000 g
Equalities
U.S System 1 ft = 12 in 1 qt = 4 cups 1 lb = 16 oz

*For example, when you have one dozen eggs, no measurement would be required to understand that one dozen = 12 and
cannot equal any other quantity
 Significant Figures
In class, students may be asked to measure using rulers, beakers, or graduated cylinders.

 When visual measurements are taken, a degree of uncertainty always exists.

 Students should understand the difference between the concepts of Accuracy and Precision and
how to achieve their congruence in determining the most exact measurement.
 Significant Figures
Accuracy and Precision
 Accuracy and Precision both measure certainty.

 Accuracy gauges how close a measurement is to its true value. Thus, to evaluate accuracy, only
one measure and the true value need to be considered.

 A measure is considered precise only when nearly identical values can be reproduced by
multiple people, so a series of measurements is required to evaluate precision.
 Significant Figures
Accuracy and Precision

A visual explanation:

swartzje. (2015). Sig Figs and Accuracy. [PowerPoint slides].  https://www.slideshare.net/swartzje/sig-figs-and-accuracy

 Significant Figures
Accuracy and Precision
 When attempting to achieve parity, precision and accuracy must coincide. It is best to determine this
concision by using more than one set of measures.
 By using scientific instruments like pH probes or digital thermometers, scientists target both accuracy and
precision. [Such instruments are not typically used in associate-level coursework.]
 However, when making visual measurements such as when using a ruler or beaker, students are not
expected to measure for complete accuracy; instead, students are expected to measure for precision.
 It is okay for students to record slight differences in an estimated value. The goal is that classmates arrive
at nearly identical measurements when performing the same experiment. This is precision.
 Significant Figures
Digit Inclusion Rule

Question: How many digits should students include when recording SigFigs?

Answer: The rule is to record all known digits plus one extra digit.

Always include all digits that are certain and one uncertain digit (one best guess)
 Significant Figures
Look at the ruler below. The crayon’s length is clearly between 6 cm and 7 cm. Visually, one
can see it is closer to 6 cm. Here, six is the known digit.
Each space on the ruler below represents a 1 cm interval. According to the Digit Inclusion
Rule, one should record all known digits plus one extra.
Students should estimate their measurement to the tenths place (0.1 cm).
 Significant Figures
 Here are sample measurements:
Students Value of Measurement
Maria 6.4 cm
Ali 6.3 cm
Cliff 6 cm

 Maria recorded 6.4 cm (6 is a known digit and 0.4 is the estimated, unknown digit).
 Ali recorded 6.3 cm (6 is a known digit and 0.3 is the estimated, unknown digit).
 Cliff recorded 6 cm (6 is a known digit but no estimated unknown digit is included).
 Both Maria and Ali are correct, but Cliff is not. The most exact estimates report the smallest
known digit (6), plus one visual guess that includes the required extra digit (in this case 0.4 or
0.3).
 Significant Figures
A further example follows: Suppose that three students were told to determine the length of a
crayon visually and were given a ruler which smallest markings were at 0.1 cm intervals.

Applying the Digit Inclusion Rule, record all known digits plus one extra digit (one guess). This
means the answer will be recorded to the hundredths place (0.01 cm).
 Significant Figures
 Here are sample measurements:
Students Value of Measurement
Amanda 7.1 cm
James 7.1283476 cm
Drew 7.14 cm

 Who is correct? The better question is not who is correct, but who recorded the value of the
measurement most precisely? Scientists use significant figures to report in the most precise way
possible.
 The smallest unit of measure is 0.1 cm. To apply the Digit Inclusion Rule, take the smallest known
digit plus one extra digit. The extra digit is uncertain and is estimated visually (educated guess). Thus,
the answer will be reported to 0.01 cm precision.
 Significant Figures
Students Value of Measurement
Amanda 7.1 cm
James 7.1283476 cm
Drew 7.14 cm

 Amanda is too conservative in her estimate. Look at the ruler; it is clear that the tip of the crayon is longer than 7.1
cm. In order to be precise, measure to the hundredths place according to the Digit Inclusion Rule. So, the SF is
recorded as 7.1 (known dights) plus an extra digit (estimated number) = 7.1#
 Significant Figures
Students Value of Measurement
Amanda 7.1 cm
James 7.1283476 cm
Drew 7.14 cm

 James is too liberal in his estimate. One cannot calculate such a small value visually based only on an educated
guess. To be precise, measurements should be recorded to the hundredths place. So, the SF is recorded as 7.1
(known dights) plus a extra digit (estimated number)= 7.1#
 Significant Figures
Students Value of Measurement
Amanda 7.1 cm
James 7.1283476 cm
Drew 7.14 cm
 Drew is the most precise with her estimate. The measurement records the smallest known digit plus one estimated
value. According to the Digit Inclusion Rule, precise measurements should be recorded to the hundredths place.
So, the SF is recorded as 7.1 (known dights) plus an extra digit (estimated number) =7.14.
 Significant Figures
Students Value of Measurement
Amanda 7.1 cm
James 7.1283476 cm
Drew 7.14 cm

Drew reports the SF measurement most precisely.

Reminder: Precision means that when a measurement is replicated, others can record near identical
values.
If Amanda measures the crayon a second time and records 7.12 cm and James records 7.14, they will
both be correct; they have both followed the rule in reporting the known digits plus one estimated
digit.
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures

1. All non-zero numbers ARE significant.

 The number 524 has THREE significant figures because all of the digits present are non-
zero.
 The number 123.654 has SIX significant figures because all of the digits present are non-
zero.
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
Zeros may or may not be significant

2. All zeros between two non-zero digits ARE significant.

 4308 has FOUR significant figures. The zero is between 3 and 8.

 40.05 has FOUR significant figures. The zeros are between 4 and 5.
 200.32 has FIVE significant figures. The zeros are between 2 and 3.
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
Leading Zeros
A leading zero is any zero that comes before a non-zero. If zeros precede any other number, they
are not relevant in determining precision.
3. Leading zeros are NOT significant.
 Leading zeros are nothing more than "place holders."
 The number 0.54 has TWO significant figures, 5 and 4; its zero is leading.
 0.0032 has TWO significant figures 3 and 2; all of its zeros are leading.
 0.000012 has TWO significant figures 1 and 2; all of its zeros are leading.
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
Trailing Zeros of Decimals
4. Trailing zeros of decimal numbers (zeros to the right of the decimal) ARE significant
because they identify THE most exact number possible.
 The number 92.00 has FOUR significant figures.
 It is important to understand that zeros after or directly to the right of a decimal do not mean
nothing. Zero denotes actual information, just like any other number. One cannot tag on
zeros at will – they must have meaning.
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
Trailing Zeros of Whole Numbers
5. Trailing zeros of whole numbers ARE NOT significant.

 The number 540 has TWO significant figures.

 The number 23900 has THREE significant figures.
 The number 10 has ONE significant figure.
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
Trailing Zeros of Whole Numbers
Usually, a decimal is not placed at the end of a whole number.
6. Trailing zeros of whole numbers with the decimal shown ARE significant.
 When used, a decimal indicates a significant zero.
 540.* indicates that the trailing zero IS significant; there are THREE significant figures in
this value.
 This rule will be used most often when reporting the answers of calculations to the proper
number of significant figures.

*the decimal placed here implies that 540. is just that – EXACTLY 540 .
 Significant Figures
Scientific Notation
 Scientific notation is a method of truncating numbers for clarity. For example, the
number 0.0000709 can be shortened using scientific notation to 7.09 x .
 7.09 x  has three significant figures: 7, 0, & 9. When a number is written in scientific
notation, only significant figures are placed into the coefficient (the numbers to the left
of the multiplication sign), which is 7.09 in this example.
 3.200 x  has four significant figures. Notice the use of scientific notation to indicate
that there are two zeros which should be significant. If this number were to be written
without scientific notation (3,200,000,000) the significance of those two zeros would
be lost and would - wrongly - say that there were only two significant figures.
 Counting Significant Figures
Examples: How many sigfigs are in the following values?

1. 581 2. 4180
Answer: 3 significant figures Answer: 3 significant figures

3. 0.8219 4. 163.0 x
Answer: 4 significant figures Answer: 4 significant figures

5. 8.001 6. 0.0003
Answer: 4 significant figures Answer: 1 significant figure

7. 1000. 8. 0.50
Answer: 4 significant figures Answer: 2 significant figures
 Significant Figures
Rules for Calculations
Re-cap: Significant Figures in science help scientists honestly reflect the amount of precision present in
original measurements. Scientists want to be as precise as possible without over or under-estimating.
 Once students know how to measure and identify the number of SF in a given value,
they can then begin to perform calculations.
 In mathematical operations involving significant figures, the answer is reported in such
a way that it reflects the reliability of the least precise operation.
 Stated another way: a chain is no stronger than its weakest link.
 An answer is no more precise than the least precise number used to determine the
answer. (see next slide)
 Rules for Calculations
Illustration
“An answer is no more precise than the least precise number. . .”

Imagine participating in a race where you and your team must finish together. Who
dictates the speed of the team? The answer is, of course, the slowest member of the
team.

In calculations, an answer cannot be MORE precise than the least precise measurement used.
 Rules for Rounding Significant Figures
Calculations often contain more significant figures than rules require, so students must learn how to
eliminate superfluous digits from their answers. This process of elimination is called Rounding.
Students may round up or down depending on where a number falls from 0 - 9. The decision is based
on the following factors:

In the last decimal place of a number, one of ten digits can occur: 0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9.

 If the number to the right of the last significant digit is less than 5, (0,1,2,3,4) drop that digit while
leaving the remaining number unchanged; so record 2.694 as 2.69 [assuming 3 SF]. This action is an
example of rounding down. Underestimation is required when rounding numbers less than 5.

 If the number to the right of the last significant digit is greater than or equal to 5 (5.6.7.8.9), drop
that digit while adding 1 to the preceding digit. For example, record 2.347 as 2.35 [assuming 3 SF].
This action is an example of rounding up. Overestimation is required when rounding numbers
greater than 5 (Purdue, n.d.).
 Rules for Rounding Significant Figures

Re-cap:

 Round downby underestimating the answer for five digits (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Ex: 0.032 would be 0.03 .

 Round up by overestimating the answer for the other five digits (5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).
Ex: 0.039 would be 0.04
Rules for Addition and Subtraction
Always complete the math first and then record the final answer using SF

Steps:

1. Line up an equation.
2. Add or subtract as normal.
3. Then round the answer up or down following SF rounding rules.

Round the final answer to the LEAST number of places in the decimal portion of any
dights in the problem.

Important note: Rules for addition and subtraction are different than rules for
multiplication and division
 Rules for Addition and Subtraction
The number of places in the answer is based on the place-number of the figure with the least significant
digits.

For example: Add 160.1 and 0.456.

1. Line up the equation to match the decimal places
2. Next add in normal fashion
160.1 160.1 has only 1 decimal place compared to 0.406 has 3 decimal places.
+ 000.456 This means that 106.1 is the value which has the fewest significant digits.
____________________
= 160.556 (round up to 6)

3. Answer: 160.6

 In addition and subtraction, digits to the left of a decimal are not used to determine the number of
decimal places in the final answer.

 Round the answer to the LEAST number of places after the decimal.
 Rules for Multiplication and Division
 The LEAST number of significant figures of any number in a calculation determines the number of
significant figures the answer contains.
 Unlike when handling addition and subtraction, count the significant figures of the entire numbers in
the calculation, not merely the number of decimal places.

Example: 2.5 x 3.42

 2.5 has two significant figures while 3.42 has three. Two is less than three, so the answer must be
recorded with two significant digits.
 Using a calculator, 2.5 x 3.42 = 8.55 ─ which has THREE significant digits. Therefore, the
answer must be rounded.
 The number to the right of the last significant figure (8.55) is 5, so round up to 8.6 .
 Rules for Multiplication and Division
Example: 2765.2 ÷ 27.6
2765.2 has five significant figures while 27.6 has three. Three is less than five, so the answer
must be recorded with three significant digits.
 Using a calculator, 2765.2 ÷ 27.6 = 100.1884958 ─ which has TEN significant digits.
Therefore, the answer must be rounded.
 The number to the right of the last significant figure (100.1884958) is less than 5, so round
down to 100. .
(This is a case where the decimal after the whole-number answer is important!)
 References

Purdue Online Chemistry Department. (n.d.). Significant Figures. http://chemed.chem.

purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch1/sigfigs.html

swartzje. (2015). Sig Figs and Accuracy. [PowerPoint slides]. https://www.slideshare.net /swartzje

/sig-figs-and-accuracy

Timberlake, Karen C. (2018). Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological

Chemistry (13th ed.). Pearson.

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