Welcome back!

In the first learning material, you have learned how to convert

units, how to write numbers in scientific notation and how to determine the number of
significant figures.
Now, let’s continue to the last topic under Lesson 1 and proceed to Lesson 2
after. Enjoy learning and good luck!

After going through this learning material, you are expected to:
differentiate accuracy from precision
differentiate random errors from systematic errors
estimate errors from multiple measurements of a physical quantity using
variance

Kindly read the description of the following icons used for you to better understand this
learning material.

This icon means to read and study carefully the concepts and principles as well
as the given examples in computations.

This icon indicates an activity to assess your learning about the lesson.

Let’s continue the first lesson by discussing what is dimensional analysis and how to use
it in determining the correctness of an equation.
 Table 3
Dimensions of Fundamental
Quantities Dimensions refer to the type of fundamental

Quantity Dimensions units or quantities that make up that quantity. For

Length [L] example, the dimensions of area are always length
Mass [M]
squared, abbreviated [L2]. The units can be square
Time [T]
Area [L2] meters (m2), square feet (ft2), square centimeter (cm2),
Volume [L3]
etc. See Table 2 for the other dimensions.
Constant
(1,2,3,…,π , c, [1]
etc.)

▪ Density
Density is given as mass over volume. Mass has a dimension [M] and volume
with [L3], since volume is equal to the cube of length.
So that,
Mass [M]
D= = 3
Volume [L ]
The formula for area may be different in different cases but the dimensions stay the
same. For example:
▪ Area of a triangle: A = ½bh
Note: Any constant in the formula is equal to [1]. Base (b) and height (h) are
quantities for length. Thus,
A = ½bh = [1][L][L] = [L2]
▪ Area of a circle: A = π r2
Note: Radius (r) of a circle is a quantity for length and π is a constant.
A = π r2 = [1][L]2 = [L2]
Thus, area will always have a dimension of [L2].

Dimensional analysis is a procedure where dimensions are used in proving or

working out relationships of equations.

▪ Let’s check if the equation for surface area of a cylinder, 2r2 + 2rh, is correct.
Note: The constants 2 and  has a dimension of [1]. Radius (r) and height (h) has a
dimension [L].

▪ Remember to always write square brackets [ ] in writing

dimensions.
 Area (A) has a dimension of [L2]. So that,
A = 2r2 + 2rh
[L2] = [1][1][L]2 + [1][1][L][L]
[L2] = [L2] + [L2]
As you can see, the dimensions are correct. As you can see on the right side of
the equation, the dimensions are the same. Otherwise, if the dimensions are not the
same, it is dimensionally incorrect.

You’ve finished Lesson 1! Good job! Take a deep

breath and relax first and get ready before you take
Lesson 2.

Check the following equations if they are dimensionally correct or not:

a. V = r2h (the volume of a cylinder)
b. A = 4r2 (the surface area of a sphere)
c. v = v0 + ½at2

In this lesson. you will learn about the difference when to say that a measurement is
accurate and precise, when a cause of an error, especially when you conduct experiments, is
random or systematic and writing uncertainties in their absolute and relative form. You’ll also be
able to learn how to calculate uncertainties as well as analyzing errors through variance and
graphs.

Physical measurements are never exact or perfect. It will always have some
degree of uncertainty (a way of expressing the error) due to unavoidable errors (deviation
of the measured value from the true or actual value).
Uncertainty is given by the formula,

Later, you’ll be able to learn how to find for the uncertainty. For now,
let’s differentiate accuracy and precision first.
The best analogy to explain the difference between these two terms
is by playing darts. In the dartboard, you have a “target” which is at the center of the board.
For example, you tried aiming six times. We can say that you aimed accurately if the darts
landed at the center (or near the center) of the board. Whereas, if the darts landed away
from the “target” but were close to each other, it is called precise.
 Figure 1. Visualization of accuracy and precision

▪ Accuracy
You tried to prove the value of gravity and ended up with a measured value of
9.52 m/s2. Your measurement is accurate because it is close to the true value of 9.8
m/s2.
▪ Precision
You were tasked to measure the length (in cm) of your ring finger five times.
The results were: 7.2 cm, 7.0 cm, 7.4 cm, 7.1 cm and 7.2 cm. The measured values
are close to each other that’s why it is precise.

Now, going back to uncertainty. The presence of uncertainty in measurements is

due to random and systematic errors.
Random errors result from unpredictable or unavoidable changes during data
measurement. This error affects precision.

▪ When you measure your height, your posture may not be consistent.
▪ In measuring your weight, your position might differ or the clothes or
accessories you wear may affect the measurements.
Systematic errors, on the other hand, is predictable and is typically caused by
measuring instruments or the design of the experiment itself. It influences the
accuracy of the measurement.

▪ Measuring length with a metal ruler will give a different result at a cold
temperature than at a hot temperature, due to thermal expansion of the
material.
▪ Forgetting to tare or zero a balance produces mass measurements that
are always "off" by the same amount.

In the presence of true or actual value, percentage error (or percent error) is
usually calculated using the formula,

| x - xT |
PE = × 100%
xT

where: x – measured value xT – true value

 Percentage error implies the accuracy of measurements. If the percentage error
computed is very close to zero, it means that the measurement is close to the accepted
or true value whereas percentage difference (or percent difference) given by,

| x1 - x2 |
PD = x + x × 100%
1 2
2

implies precision wherein if its value is small, it means that the measurements do
not differ (very close) to each other.

▪ The symbol ‘||’ in the formula is called the absolute value

which means that the difference is always positive.

You were tasked to give two guesses on the average of the ages of your class,
including your age. According to your instinct, you answered 17.5 and 17.0 but your
teacher revealed that the actual age average is 16.8. Find the percentage error and
percentage difference between the two values you gave.
▪ The values given, x = 17.5 and 17.0 and the actual value, x T = 16.8. Since there
are two measured values given, we have,
|17.5 - 16.8| |17.0 - 16.8|
PE = × 100% = 4.17% PE = × 100% = 1.19%
16.8 16.8
▪ For the percentage difference,
|17.5 - 17| The first measured value, 17.5 differs
PD = × 100% = 2.90% 2.90% from the second, 17.
17.5 + 17
2

In your statistics, you have learned about how to get the variance of a data. In
Physics, variance (σ2) is used to estimate errors from multiple measurements of a
physical quantity. The same formula is used to compute for the variance.

In your physics laboratory class, you and your four groupmates are tasked to
record the time it takes the ball to reach the ground when it is dropped at a certain
height. Each of your measurements are as follows: 1.32 s, 1.51 s, 1.22 s, 1.16 s, and
1.37 s. What is the time it takes for the ball dropped to reach to the ground?
STEPS:
▪ The first thing you need to do is to find the mean of the measurements.
∑ x 1.32 s + 1.51 s + 1.22 s + 1.16 s + 1.37 s 6.58 s
x̅ = = = = 1.32 s
N 5 5
▪ Take the deviation of each measurement from the mean.
1.32 s – 1.32 s = 0.00 s
1.51 s – 1.32 s = 0.19 s
1.22 s – 1.32 s = -0.10 s
1.16 s – 1.32 s = -0.16 s
1.37 s – 1.32 s = 0.05 s
 ▪ Get the square of each deviation and get the sum.
(x - x
̅) ̅ )2
(x - x
0.00 s 0.00 s2
0.19 s 0.0361 s2
-0.10 s 0.01 s2
-0.16 s 0.0256 s2
0.05 s 0.0025 s2
̅ )2
∑(x - x 0.0742 s2

▪ Divide the sum of the squares by the number of measurements in the set
∑(x - x̅ )2 0.0742 s2
σ2 = = = 0.01 s2
N 5
Now that you’ve re-learned how to compute for the variance, I will now discuss
how to use the computed variance in estimating errors of the measurements. You may
already know that standard deviation can also be computed just by the square root of
the variance.
Standard deviation (σ) is used to measure how diverse or spread out are a set
of measurements from their mean.
From our example, we computed a value of 0.01 s2 for the variance. Getting the
square root, you will get, σ = 0.10 s. The measurement x of a physical quantity is
reported as, x = x̅ ± σ.
So that the time it takes for the ball to reach the ground is 1.32 s ± 0.10 s or (1.32
± 0.10) s.

In writing uncertainties, it is given by two components: the numerical value and the
degree of uncertainty.

There are also two types of degree of uncertainty: the absolute and relative
uncertainty.
Absolute uncertainty has the same unit as the numerical/measured quantity
itself and shows how large the error is.

▪ The distance between me and the person beside me is 1.50 m ± 0.03 m or (1.50
± 0.03) m. The absolute uncertainty is given as 0.03 m which means that the
distance between us ranges from 1.47 m to 1.53 m. Observe proper social
distancing!
Relative uncertainty is dimensionless and given by the ratio of absolute
uncertainty (AU) and the measured value (MV)

AU
RU = × 100%
MV

It shows how large the error is in relation to the true value.

 ▪ From our example above, we are given a distance of (1.50 ± 0.03) m wherein
1.50 m is the measured value and 0.03 m is the absolute uncertainty. Computing
for the relative uncertainty,
AU 0.03 m
RU = × 100 = × 100 = 2.00%
MV 1.50 m
Thus, our measurement in terms of relative uncertainty is 1.50 m ± 2.00%.

The measured value and the degree of uncertainty should always have the
same decimal places. And always round off answers to the correct number
of significant figures.

Now, the degree of uncertainty is actually based in what we call the LEAST
COUNT – the smallest value that can be read from any measuring device.
Take a look at your ruler. The upper scale indicated in the ruler is in inches and
the lower scale is in centimeter, right? Where’s the least count?

Count the number of grids between 0 and 1 cm. We have 10 grids. Dividing 1 cm
by 10 results to 0.1 cm or 1 mm. This 1 mm is what we call the least count of the ruler.
The smallest scale a ruler can measure in the lower scale whereas 0.125 in in the upper
scale (since there 8 grids between 0 and 1 in).

Not all measuring tools, such as rulers, have the same scales and
calibrations. To avoid errors, carefully examine the measuring tool before
using it in an experiment.

Using the upper scale (in inches) of the ruler, your teacher asked to measure the
size of your foot accurately. The scale reads between 9.0 in and 9.1 in. But it is closer to
9.1 so your best estimate is 9.08 in. Adding the least count of the ruler, the
measurement of your foot is (9.080 ± 0.125) in which means that your foot size ranges
from 8.955 in to 9.205 in.

There are four ways to calculate uncertainties: addition and subtraction,

multiplication and division, power of an uncertainty and multiplying of constant.
Addition and Subtraction
▪ Add and Subtract: (3.08 ± 0.06) ft and (7.00 ± 0.02) ft.
STEPS:
1) Add/subtract the numbers (measured values)
3.08 ft + 7.00 ft = 10.1 ft 3.08 ft – 7.00 ft = 3.92 ft

2) Add their absolute uncertainties

0.06 ft + 0.02 ft = 0.08 ft

So that we have (10.10 ± 0.08) ft and (3.92 ± 0.08) ft

 3) If you’re not given a measurement in absolute uncertainty form, just convert
to relative uncertainty form.
Multiplication and Division
▪ Multiply and divide: (3.08 ± 0.06) ft and (7.00 ± 0.02) ft.
STEPS:
1) Multiply/divide the numbers (measured values)
3.08 ft × 7.00 ft = 21.6 ft 3.08 ft / 7.00 ft = 0.44 ft

2) Add their relative uncertainty

Since, we’re given the absolute uncertainty, we’re going to convert first.
0.06 ft 0.02 ft
RU = × 100 = 1.95% RU = × 100 = 0.29%
3.08 ft 7.00 ft
Now, add the relative uncertainties.

1.95% + 0.29 % = 2.24%

The product and quotient are, 21.60 ft ± 2.24% and 0.44 ft ± 2.24%,
respectively.
Power
▪ Simplify: (7.00 ft ± 0.02 ft)2
STEPS:
1) If you were given a number in relative uncertainty format, proceed to Step 2,
if not convert the number first.
0.02ft
RU = × 100 = 0.29% → (7.00 ft ± 0.29%)2
7.00 ft

2) Multiply the relative uncertainty by the power.

0.29% × 2 = 0.58% → 7.00 ft ± 0.58%
Constant
▪ Simplify: 3(7.00 ft ± 0.29%) and 5(7.00 ft ± 0.02 ft)
STEPS:
1) If the given is in absolute uncertainty form, multiple the constant to the
number and uncertainty.
5(7.00 ft ± 0.02 ft) = (5 × 7.00 ft) ± (5 × 0.02 ft) = (35.00 ± 0.10) ft
2) If it is in relative uncertainty form, only the number is multiplied by the
constant. The relative uncertainty remains the same.
3(7.00 ft ± 0.29%) = (3 × 7.00 ft) = 21 ft ± 0.29%

Graphs are often characterized by the relationship between two variables especially
in experiments. Those two variables are dependent variable (variable affected by the
change in independent variable) and independent variable (variable that is changed).
In graphing, you are already familiar with 2-dimensional or 2D coordinate system.
It has two axes, the x-axis and the y-axis. Independent variable lies on the x-axis, while
dependent variables lies on the y-axis.
 For you to be able to remember the difference between the two variables
and their location on the graph, here’s an acronym you can use – DRY MIX:
DRY: Dependent Variable – Responding – Y-axis
MIX: Manipulate – Independent Variable – X-axis

For example, you were riding a bike and the

Time (s) Speed (m/s)
5.0 24.1 table below shows changes in your speed every 5
10.0 27.5 seconds. Then, plotting the data, where time is the
15.0 25.3 independent variable and speed being the dependent
20.0 30.7
variable, we have a graph as shown in Figure 2a.
25.0 35.8
Looking at the graph, it doesn’t really give us
the approximate relationship between our two variables. When we have experimental
values like these, it is impossible to draw a straight or curve line where all of the data
points lie and it is not advisable to connect them point to point as shown in Figure 2a.
What to do?

Figure 2a. Speed vs time graph of riding a Figure 2b. Best fit line (orange line) with its
bike equation line

To find the relationship between time and speed, it is better to have a linear
graph because it easier to see deviations (or errors) but our data points doesn’t form a
straight line, isn’t it? Here, we’re going to use the ‘best fit line’ to linearize our data. See
Figure 2b.
You can manually draw the ‘best fit line’ of a graph. Make sure that as much as
possible, the line drawn is close to all the data points and the number of data points on
both sides are the same for best approximation of the relationship.
On the other hand, you can use Microsoft Excel to generate the graph of our data
and give equation of the best fit line. How?
▪ Enter the data in two columns. First column is the independent variable while
second column includes the dependent variable.
▪ Highlight the columns, Click Insert, then on the Charts choose Scatter (X,Y)

or this icon .
▪ To add titles to your graph, go to Chart Tools Design and click on Add Chart
Element then choose Axes or Axis Titles, your choice.
▪ Then to draw the ‘best fit line’, go to Add Chart Element and click on
Trendline. You may choose Linear for this example.
 ▪ To add the equation line, click on Trendline then More Trendline Options.
Check Display Equation and Chart. There you go, you should have the same
output as Figure 2.

Good job! You’ve finished the lesson!

Before you take the self-test,
you may go grab a drink or snack
or listen to your favorite music.

Now, answer the following problems:

1. Briefly differentiate the following:
a. Accuracy versus Precision
b. Random Error versus Systematic Error
c. Absolute Uncertainty and Relative Uncertainty

2. Classify the following if they result to random error or systematic error:

a. One end of a meterstick is worn-out and measurements were taken from that
end.
b. Clouds are present when the ultraviolet intensity from the sun was
determined.
c. The stopwatch runs slow because of low-battery power when the time for a
simple pendulum to complete one back-and-forth motion was taken.
d. The triple beam balance was not properly calibrated before getting the mass
of a beaker.

3. The following are the values obtained in measuring the temperature of a room:
31.0 C, 30.5 C, 30.0 C, 31.3 C, 30.8 C, 30.6 C, and 31,1 C. What is the room
temperature?
4. Calculate the following:
a. (2.70 ± 0.05 cm) − (12.02 ± 0.08 cm)
b. (2.70 ± 0.05 cm) + (3.5 cm ± 10 %)
c. 2 × (2.70 ± 0.05 cm)
d. (12.02 ± 0.08 cm)2
e. (3.5 cm ± 10 %) × (2.70 ± 0.05 cm) ÷ (16 s ± 8 %)

▪ Giancoli, D. C. (2014). Physics: Principles with Applications (7th ed.). Pearson

Education, Inc.
▪ Serway, R. A., & Faughn, J. S. (2006). Physics. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
▪ Serway, R. A., & Jewett, J. W. J. (2010). Physics for Scientists and Engineers with
Modern Physics (8th ed.). Brooks/Cole.