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Topic 2: THE DRAMA

Drama, which is believed to have its origin in the art of dance, is found in some form
in almost every society, primitive and civilized, and has served a variety of functions in the
community. At its best, it is a reflection of many phases of life. We learn that the past, as
shown on the board of the theater, is not concerned only with kings and great personages,
but with peasants and mechanics, saints and sinners, and rich and poor as well; that it is
not the exclusive province of fine writers but also of inspired clowns and strolling mummers.

What Is Drama?
The abridged Oxford Dictionary defines drama as a composition in prose or in verse, adapted
to be acted and is represented with accompanying gesture, costume, and scenery, as in real
life.
Drama does not however, need a stage, nor does it need costume, props and scenery. What
drama does need is an individual or a group of people who use themselves - their bodies and
their minds - through action and offers through speech to tell a story. Drama in ancient
Greek meant something that is acted out, or lived through. It is essentially social and
involves contact, communication and the negotiation of meaning. The group nature of the
work imposes certain pressure on the participant, but also brings considerable rewards
(O'Neill and Lambert, 1982).

In drama, the essential requirement for human beings is being developed such as the ability
to take the role of the other people. Humans recognize the emotional responses of other
people, because they feel what the other person feels. Heathcote, et al. (1984) quoted that
dramatic activity is the direct result of the ability to role-play to want to know how it feels to
be in someone else's shoes. This experience is most obvious in theater. Theatre is a direct
experience that is shared when people imagine and behave as if they were other than
themselves in some other place at another time (Neelands, 1990).

As audience in the theatre, we allow actors to stand in for us, but we still maintain our
separation or distance. When we identify with the characters the actors are playing, we
enlarge the domain of our being. The actors do not become the characters they are playing,
but they bring themselves and their own experience to their interpretations of the roles in the
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text. The actors, too, are experiencing both the subjective and objective reality through the
aesthetic distance of the drama. Drama is a social encounter in a special place and in a
special time. The actors and the spectators move between real time and imaginary time, from
existential reality to dramatic reality.

A World-Wide Show (A Dramatic Entertainment)

Miss Saigon, which was produced by Cameron Mackintosh of England whose company
received a Queen's award for Export Achievement was staged in the Cul tural Center of the
Philippines in March 2001. The title Miss Saigon was e conceived by Alain-Boublil, a lyricist
and Claude-Michel Shonberg who wrote the musical score

As to casting, the producers unanimously felt that they had to tell the very real story
authentically and as the music was resolutely western despite its echoes of the Orient, they
needed Asian voices that could sing Western music. This world-wide search took them to 10
countries including the Philippines where they found the ma jority of their original London
cast. It is here that Miss Lea Salonga of the Philippines became the first star of the show.
Miss Saigon proved to be an overwhelming triumph when it opened at London's
greatest musical theater, Drury Lane. In 1991, a New York production of Miss Saigon opened
at the Broadway Theatre to a huge audience and even bigger headlines. Sub sequently,
similar successful productions have been staged in Tokyo, Los Angeles, Budapest, Chicago,
Toronto, Seattle, Stuttgart, Sydney, Stockholm and Copenhagen Then, in 1999, they thought
of staging Miss Saigon in Concert in Manila. The contract was finalized in 2000, and in
March 2001, the dramatic entertainment was staged at the Cultural Center of the Philippines
(souvenir program, 2001).
Such type of production is recommended to be viewed by students taking up
"Introduction to the Humanities."

Development of Drama
Drama originated probably among the primitive tribes in the dance of religious festivals or in
mimetic actions for purposes of showing how a certain feat was accomplished on a given
occasion, like the hunting exploits of some members of the tribe.
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1. Ancient Drama. Among the Egyptians of about 2000 B.C.E., drama existed in
religious ceremonies for the worship of Osiris. There are some evidences of drama in
the Book of Job and in the song of Solomon, where occasionally there appear to be
parts for two speakers. But the drama, as it is known today, in distinct forms of
tragedy and comedy, originated in Greece in the festivals of Dionysus in the fifth and
sixth centuries B.C.E., where poetry, a dithyrambic ode with song and dance, was
presented by a leader and a chorus. In the dramatic contests under Pisistratus, the
dithyramb developed into drama. The earliest Greek dramatic production on record is
the tragedy won by Thespis of Icaria in about 534 B.C.E., when he unconsciously
separated from the chorus and made a solo and later fol lowed by the choir. Following
Thespis, Greek tragedy reached its highest peak in the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles,
and Euripides. Aeschylus added a second, and Sophocles a third actor to the leader-
chorus drama, and these actors in various masks and costumes took various parts.
Aescyhlus' characters are heroic and super-human; his style lofty and magnificent.
Sophocles' characters are idealized but true to life, though life furnishes no such
models. His plots are models of skill; his language, the perfection of Attic Greek.
2. Medieval Drama. There was gradual development of the three kinds of medieval play.
First, the mystery play was based on the Holy Scriptures. In France, but not in
England, it is to be distinguished from the miracle play, which dealt with the life of a
saint or a miracle of the Virgin. In England, both these forms were termed miracles.
Second was the morality play, where the chief characters represented abstract
qualities, such as vice, humanity, or death, and the tone was generally philosophical.
The moralities contained humor.
As plays were moved into the churchyard, then into the streets and market
places, and finally came under the control of guilds, elements of humor and real ism
began to creep into the drama. One of the first comic characters was the devil. From
this development emerged the third kind of medieval drama, which is the secular
drama dealing with everyday characters such as lawyers, the merchant, the student,
the young wife, and the old foolish husband.
3. Renaissance Drama. With the rediscovery of classical literature during this period,
the Greek and Roman dramatists were imitated first in Italy and later, with the spread
of humanism, in France, Germany, and England. Other state performances,
particularly the sport spectacles, were meaningless, but the commedia dell' arte was
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original and lifelike. It was an unwritten impromptu drama, produced on platforms on

the streets by strolling players. Masks and costumes, conventionalized with time, told
the audience what to expect of the characters, all of whom were popular types, used
again and again. The most brilliant 16th century drama was from the English, chiefly
because, in the reign of Elizabeth I, drama was the source of entertainment for all
classes of people. All of the medieval and renaissance types of drama were produced.
4. Drama of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. In England, the casual charm that
characterized Elizabethan drama died out under the Puritan regime and did not
return until near the end of the 18th century. The theaters, closed during the Civil
War and the Commonwealth period, reopened under Charles I to produce the
sophisticated, witty, and coarse comedies of William Wycherly, George Farguhar, and
others, and the bombastic, spectacular, and heroic tragedies of John Dryden, and as
the Stuart reign ended, English comedy became maudlin and sentimental, and tragedy
became stiff and dull. In the middle of the 18th century, the theater was briefly revived
by the comedy of manners of Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Sheridan
French drama emerged in the 17th century, from its medieval and religious
influences, with the classical tragedies of Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine and the
superb comedies of Moliere. German drama came to maturity much more slowly than
did the Roman and English dramas. Before the middle of the 18th century, the only
playwright of note was Hans Sachs, who wrote formal comedies and tragedies and
popular carnival plays. Although English players introduced Marlowe and
Shakespeare to Germany at the end of the 16th century, theatrical performances soon
degenerated into improvised farce, featuring certain shock characters, without
however, the merits of the commedia dell'arte.
The popular 18th century drama in France was the farcical comedy, in Eng
land, the comedy of manners and the domestic drama. In the 19th century, rom- antic
drama flourished throughout Europe. Idealized historical or sentimental characters
figured in complex plots of adventure and triumphant love. Various types of romantic
drama, melodrama, the historical play, and the fantasy play flourished in Italy and in
Russia.

5. Modern Drama. Credit should be given to Ibsen, a Norwegian dramatist, for the
development of the modern drama. Ibsen's influence on modern drama w immense.
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The production of his work throughout Europe stimulated a great burst of dramatic
activity everywhere. The last two decades of the 19th century and the first half of the
20th century witnessed a great variety of trends. There was a brief revival of romantic
fantasy in France; symbolism was carried to great extremes expressionism appeared in
Germany after World War I; comedy was rejuvenated in England and the United
States. French impressionism made a small showing in the theater; poetic drama
reached new heights in England, Ireland, France Spain, and the United States.

Oriental Drama
Understanding the Oriental drama, the Japanese, the Chinese, and the Filipino drama, in
particular, will help us appreciate Asian heritage, culture, and civilization more. This is a
culture or civilization not far from those established by Rome, Greece or other countries.
Like Western drama, the drama of Asia originated as an elaboration of liturgical practices.
Eastern drama, in general, is based on the concept of sangita (or sammita), the threefold art
of music, dance, and poetry, fused into single artistic entity. The emphasis is on performance
rather than on the intellectual significance of the subject matter. Asian actors long ago
rejected realistic presentation in favor of abstraction and symbolism. In the 19th century,
Western influences began to be felt in the Asian theater, resulting not in the nature of an
assimilation, but in a complete break with native tradition. Thus, in modern times, the
classical theater in Eastern countries subsists as a national heritage side by side with the
developing techniques of a new drama patterned after European practice but strongly colored
by local habit and taste.

Philippine Drama
Before the Spanish period, the early forms of the Philippine drama were the duplo and the
karagatan. The duplo was a poetical debate held by trained men and women in the ninth
night, the last night of the mourning period for the dead. The male participants, bellacos, are
the heads of the game. The karagatan was also a poetical debate like the duplo, but its
participants were amateurs. Both the duplo and the karagatan were held in the homes. The
theme was all about a ring that fell into the sea.
The first recorded drama was staged in Cebu way back in 1598. It was a comedia written by
Vicente Puche and was performed in honor of Msgr. Pedro de Agurto, Cebu's first bishop
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(Marcelo 1972). Eleven years later, in 1609, another stage play portraying the life of Santa
Barbara was staged in Bicol.

Three kinds of plays became popular among the masses during the Spanish era. They were
the Cenakulo, the Moro-moro, and the Zarzuela. The Ati-atihan and the Moriones emerged as
street dramas.
1. Cenakulo. It is a very heavy drama shown in relation to the life sacrifices and death of
Jesus Christ. It is like a passion play presented and celebrated during the month of
March or April, depending upon the exact date of the Holy Week. There are two kinds
of presentations the ablada (oral) and the kantada (song) (Panga niban, 1954). There
are several versions of the Cenakulo. The Tagalog, Iluko, Kapam pangan, Bikol, and
Bisayan versions are some examples. The Cenakulo is divided into several parts, one
part for each night of the Holy Week. Each performance lasts from three to four hours.
In Malibay, Pasay for instance, the entire Cenakulo cycle starts with the creation and
ends with the resurrection

The Cenakulo or Passion Play as seen in Fig. 8.1 is performed before the villagers in
an open space, usually the church patio, at one end of which a platform is usually
erected. The audience provide their own benches, and would come for nine nights to
complete the serial. They come, it appears, for a chance to applaud their favorite Biblical
characters and to boo the Roman centurion. They come to witness the crucifixion or the
resurrection when Christ ascends from the open tomb to be greeted with much cheering,
fireworks, and the vigorous playing of a small town band. The resurrection scene is
reenacted complete with the sound of thunder and lightning and the darkening of the
scene.
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Fig. 3.1. (The Philippine Cenakulo)

In recent years, there has been a decrease in the Cenakulo performances first in the cities
and then in the provinces. This liturgic drama gradually emerged on the professional stages
where the modern technology of lighting, sound, and other special effects add to the
spectacle of its staging. It has also been repeatedly filmed for special showing during the
Lenten season in Manila and in the provinces.

2. Moro-moro. It is a cloak-and-dagger play depicting the wars between the Christians

and the Muslims, with the Christians always on the winning side. The first Moro-moro
was written by Fr. Jeronimo Perez and was staged in Manila in 1637, to commemorate
Governor General Consueras victory over the Muslims of Mindanao. Since then, it has
become the favorite play of the people, especially during the town fiestas.

3. Zarzuela. It is a melodrama with songs and dances that have a three-in-one-act play.
It is intended to make the mass feeling towards love, fear, grief, sorrow or any
emotional reactions sublime. It sometimes shows the political and social conditions of
our country. The musical part of the zarzuela has given much oppor tunity for
creativity and appreciation of the audience until the revolt in Cavite in the year 1872.
It is played by 20 to 25 professional zarzuela artists (actors, actresses, and extras)
The zarzuela is a musical comedy. Rizal wrote a zarzuela entitled Junto Al Pasig
(Beside the Pasig). It was staged at the Ateneo de Manila on December 8, 1880 on the
occasion of the celebration of the Feast Day of the Immaculate Conception, patron
saint of the college.
At the beginning of the American rule, the Moro-moro was replaced by the
zarzuela. The memories of the Philippine revolution were still fresh in the minds of the
Filipinos, so the early zarzuelas were nationalistic in theme and plot. Among them
were Pag-ibig sa Lupang Tinubuan (Love for Native Land) by Pascual Poblete:
Tanikalang Ginto (Gold Chain) by Juan Abad; Malaya (Free) by Tomas Remigie:
Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow) by Aurelio Tolentino;
and Walang Sugat (No Wound) by Severino Reyes. These zarzuelas were popular
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among the masses. They were so nationalistic that the American authorities banned
them. Poblete and Tolentino, two of the most nationalistic zarzuela writers, were put in
jail.
The introduction of the Hollywood "talkies" (talking pictures) in 1930 marked
the eclipse of the Filipino theater. Like the Moro-moro, the zarzuela vanished as a
popular theater art because the people patronized the American movies, but not the
Ati-atihan, Senakulo and Moriones that are still shown up to the present. The period
from 1905 to 1930 was the Golden Age of the zarzuelas in the Philippines (Fernandez,
1978).
Worthy to mention is the organization of the Zarzuela Foundation of the
Philippines by Ms. Imelda R. Marcos and Mr. Teodoro F. Valencia to revive and develop
this particular theater form. The rationale of this "foundation" is "hope- fully to create
a mass base of support for the zarzuelas all over the country."
The foundation successfully revived one of the pre-war zarzuela favorites,
Walang Sugat, 1902 by Severino Reyes in 1977. The revival of the old zarzuelas,
however, according to the organizers of the foundation, "is just a beginning, looking
back into the cultural past in preparation for the next stop which is to produce new
works relevant to the present."

4. Moriones. The Morion festival is a Lenten ritual that is as colorful as it is unique, It is

celebrated every Holy Week in Marinduque, an island at the southern end of Luzon,
particularly in the towns of Boac, Gasan, and Mogpog.
Morion means mask or visor, (Fig. 8.2) which is the top part of the medieval
Roman armor covering the face (Alcantara, C. 1974). It is this mask carved from
dapdap wood that is the focal point of the Moriones celebration.
The climax of the Morion festival is the pugutan ceremony held at noon of
Easter Sunday. This part of the celebration is held on the dried river bed outside Boac.
Here, the local residents chose Longinus, who at the time of Pilate, drove his spear
into the side of Jesus Christ as he hung from the cross. Legend says that Longinus
was blind in his left eye, the sight of which was restored when a drop of blood that
spurted from his thrust fell on it. When Christ resurrected, Longinus was the first to
proclaim his Divinity. He went all over town proclaiming the miraculous recovery of his
sight and professing belief in the Man who called Himself Jesus Christ.
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The Roman authorities could not allow such apostasy, so they sent men after
him and when he was captured, he was put to death by beheading. Men participate in
this ritual and go about the streets of Marinduque as morions. They perform this as
an act of penance or thanksgiving for some favor granted in the past. Long before the
week of celebration, the participating men folk would be hard at work preparing their
masks for the festival.
5. Ati-atihan. The Ati-atihan is a pagan ritual which has become an annual affair that
the natives look forward to with great expectation. Undoubtedly, it is the most
extravagant fiesta in the Philippines celebrated in Kalibo, Aklan, and every third
Sunday of January in honor of the Infant Jesus. Its origin has been lost in antiquity.
One of the charms of the custom, however, is that its practice remains long after the
practical reasons for its performance have been forgotten. However, all agree that the
Ati-atihan derived its name from Atis, the aboriginal Negritos of the area in the
Visayas (Austria, 1981).
"Hala Bira! Hala Bira!" This resonant cry fills the air as the people of Kalibo
gyrate through the streets in a hypnotized mass of dancing and shaking. Feet
stomping, hands clapping, bongos beating, and ears ringing all sound out the
rhythmic beat of the Ati-atihan. The Spaniards tried to do away with this pagan ritual,
but when they found out that the tradition of the festival was very deeply rooted in the
people, they tried to give the celebration some Christian significance and meaning.
Legend says that the festival was later dedicated to the Santo Niño because of
the victories won by the Spaniards in Kalibo against the Muslim attacks, when they
were forced to abandon Mindanao. Fortified stone watchtowers were constructed in
strategic places along the coasts. These citadels were under the protection of patron
saints and that Kalibo is named after the Santo Niño. In one particular raid, it was the
fortress of the Santo Niño that turned the tide of the battle, for all the other coastal
fortresses had either been silenced or taken. The Santo Niño was besieged, and the
defenders prepared themselves for a hand-to-hand combat by daubing their faces and
bodies with soot 'til they looked like the Atis in disguise. As such, they gallantly made
their stand and courageously fought to defend the fort. This ingeniously devised
scheme changed the course of the battle. The Muslims fled in their kumpits and the
people of Kalibo ascribed the victory to the Santo Niño and dedicated the celebration of
the Ati-atihan to the Infant Christ.
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With wild revelry, the people of Aklan celebrate the Ati-atihan dressed in out
landish costumes and get-ups. This native Mardi Gras finds the participants dressed
in improvised attires of feathers, coconut shells, and palm fronds, as they imitate in
their own way the garish tribal costumes of the Atis. The merrymakers throw their
inhibitions to the wind as they prance about in gay abandon for three consecutive
nights.