Sample Study Material: CSIR-NET Mathematical Sciences

Sample Study Material
CSIR-NET Mathematical Sciences
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Unit-1 Real Analysis
1. Set Theory
Definitions
Set
A collection of well defined distinct objects is called set.
By well defined; we mean there is no confusion regarding the inclusion or exclusion of the object
E.g.. : A = Collection of 5 best cricket players.
B = Collection of vowels.
Here A is not a set whereas B is; because there may be a confusion regarding a particular play, as opinion may vary.
In case of B; there is no confusion.
Subset
If x  A then x  B; then we say A is a subset of B; denoted by A  B.
Proper Subset
When A  B and if  x  B such that x  A. Then A is proper subset of B and denoted by A  B or A  B.

/
Power Set
A collection of all the subsets of a set is defined as power set. It is denoted by P(A); where A is any set.
Note :- |P(A)| = 2|A|
Cartesian Product
If A and B are non-empty sets then cartesian product of A and B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) with a  A and
b  B. That is
A × B = {(a, b) : a  A, b  B}
Function
Let A and B be any non-empty sets. Then function from A to B is a rule which assigns every element of A to unique
element of B. And denoted by
f : A  B
Types of Functions
1. One-One : If every element of A has unique image in B; then f is said to be one-one.
or if f(x1) = f(x2)  x1 = x2
2. Onto : If every element of B has pre-image in A then f is said to be onto.
3. Bijection : If f is both one-one and Onto then f is said to be bijection.
Note : With the help of graph; we can check whether given function is 1-1 or onto.
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Real Analysis
For One-One
Every horizontal line y = b with b  B intersects the graph f in at most one point.
For Onto
Every horizontal line y = b with b  B intersects the graph of f in atleast one point.
E.g..: f :   
f(x) = x2
f(x) = x2
(0, 0) X-axis
Y-axis
Here; if we choose y = 1 then it intersects f at two points.
 f is not 1-1.
If we choose y = – 1 then it did not intersect f.
 f is not onto.
Composition of Function
Let f : A  B and g : B  C and if R(f)  D(g) = B, then the composite gof is the function form A to C defined
by
(gof)(x) = g(f(x))  x  A
E.g. : f :   + as f(x) = ex
and g :    as g(x) = x2
As R(f) = +  D(g) = 
 gof is defined from  to .
Hence gof(x) = g(f(x)) = g(ex) = e2x.
Theorem : Suppose f : A  B and g : B  C are function.

(a) If gof is 1–1 then f is 1–1.
(b) If gof is onto then g is onto.
Proof : Suppose gof is 1–1.
Let x1, x2  A
and f(x1) = f(x2)
Then (gof)(x1) = g(f(x1)) = g(f(x2)) = (gof)(x2)
 x1 = x2 ( gof is 1–1)
 f is 1–1.
Further, suppose gof is onto.
Let z  C. Then since gof is onto, there exists x  A such that (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = z
 If we let y = f(x)  B
then g(y) = z
Thus g is onto.

Real Analysis
Inverse Image
Let f : A  B be any function. Let H  B then the inverse image of H under f is the subset f–1(H) of A given by
f–1(H) = {x  A : f(x)  H}  A.
Theorem : Let f : X  Y be any fn, then
(i) f(A1  A2) = f(A1)  f(A2)
(ii) f(A1  A2)  f(A1)  f(A2)
(iii) f–1(B1  B2) = f–1(B1)  f–1(B2)
(iv) f–1(B1  B2) = f-1(B1)  f–1(B2)
where A1, A2 we subsets of X and B1, B2 are subsets of B.
Note : To prove that the sets A and B are equal we must show that A  B and B  A.
Proof : (i) Let y  f(A1  A2)
  x  A1  A2 such that f(x) = y
As x  A1  A2
 x  A1 or x  A2
 f(x)  f(A1) or f(x)  f(A2)
 y = f(x)  f(A1)  f(A2)
Hence, f(A1  A2)  f(A1)  f(A2) ...(a)
Now y  f(A1)  f(A2)
 y  f(A1) or y  f(A2)
 x1  A1 such that
y = f(x1)
similarly,  x2  A2 such that
y = f(x2).
As x1, x2  A1  A2
 f(x1), f(x2)  f(A1  A2)
 y  f(A1  A2)
Hence f(A1)  f(A2)  f(A1  A2) ...(b)
from (a) and (b);
f(A1  A2) = f(A1)  f(A2)
(ii) Let y  f(A1  A2)
  x1  A1  A2 such that
y = f(x1)
As x1  A1  A2
 x1  A1 and x1  A2
 f(x1)  f(A1) and f(x1)  f(A2)
So y = f(x1)  f(A1)  f(A2)
Hence f(A1  A2)  f(A1)  f(A2)
(iii) Let x  f–1 (B1  B2)
  y  B1  B2 such that
f(x) = y

Real Analysis
As y  B1  B2
 y  B1 or y  B2
 f(x)  B1 or f(x)  B2
 x  f (B1)
–1
or x  f–1(B2)
 x  f–1(B1)  f–1(B2)
 f–1 (B1  B2)  f–1 (B1)  f–1 (B2) ...(a)
Let x  f –1
(B1)  f –1
(B2)
 x  f–1 (B1) or x  f–1 (B2)
 f(x)  B1 or f(x)  B2
 f(x)  B1  B2
 x  f–1 (B1  B2)
 f–1 (B1)  f–1 (B2)  f–1 (B1  B2) ...(b)
from (a) and (b);
f–1 (B1  B2) = f–1 (B1)  f–1 (B2)
(iv) Let x  f–1 (B1  B2)
 f(x)  B1  B2
 f(x)  B1 and f(x)  B2
 x  f–1(B1) and x  f–1(B2)
 x  f–1(B1)  f–1(B2)
 f–1 (B1  B2)  f–1 (B1)  f–1 (B2) ...(a)
Let x  f–1 (B1)  f–1 (B2)
 x  f–1 (B1) and x  f–1 (B2)
 f(x)  B1 and f(x)  B2
 f(x)  B1  B2
 x  f–1 (B1  B2)
 f–1 (B1)  f–1 (B2)  f–1 (B1  B2) ...(b)
From (a) and (b)
f–1 (B1  B2) = f–1 (B)  f–1 (B2)
Equivalent Sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent sets if A and B can be put in 1–1 correspondence. i.e. if  a 1–1, onto
function f : A  B.
We denote it as A ~ B.
E.g.. : A = {2, 4, 6, .....} and B = 
f :   A
f(n) = 2n  n  
Clearly f is 1–1; onto.
So  ~ A.

Real Analysis
2. Finite and Infinite Set
Finite Set
A set which is empty or has a 1–1 correspondence with the set {1, 2, 3, .....} for some n   is called a finite set.
E.g.. : A = {2, 4, 6}
Infinite Set
A set is said to be infinite if there is no element in  which can represent its cardinality.
E.g.. : A = {1, 3, 5, 7, .....}; B = {2, 4, 6, .....,}
Note :
(i) For infinite sets, new symbols were developed to denote their cardinality called transfinite number.
E.g.. : |  | = 0 (aleph naught)
(ii) A ~ B  | A | = | B |
Eg. : f :    as
f(0) = 1, f(n) = 2n, f(–n) = 2n + 1
where n is a positive integer.
f is 1 – 1
Let f(x1) = f(x2) where x1, x2  .
We have following three cases :
Case-1
Both f(x1) and f(x2) are even
Here f(x1) = 2x1 and f(x2) = 2x2
 f(x1) = f(x2)
 2x1 = 2x2
 x1 = x2
 f is 1 – 1.
Case-2
Both f(x1) and f(x2) are odd but not equal to 1.
Here f(x1) = –2x1 + 1 and f(x2) = –2x1 + 1.
 f(x1) = f(x2)
 –2x1 + 1 = –2x2 + 1
 x1 = x2
 f is 1 – 1.
Case-3
f(x1) = f(x2) = 1
Here x1 = x2 = 0
 f is 1 – 1.
f is onto : If n is even then n = 2k for some k     and f(k) = n.
If n is odd (1) then n = 2k + 1 for some k     and f(–k) = n
If n is 1 then f(0) = n
Real Analysis
 f is onto
Hence f is 1 – 1 and onto
  ~ 
 || = ||
 || = 0.
Countably Infinite Set

An infinite set A is said to be countably infinite if it is equivalent to .
E.g. : ,  are countably infinite set.
3. Countable and Uncountable Sets
Countable Set
A set which is either finite or countably infinite is called a countable set.
Eg. : A = { 2, 4, 6 }, B = , C = 
All are countable sets.
Uncountable Set
A set which is not countable is called uncountable.
Observation
A = {a, b, c, d} B = {{a}, {a,b}, {b,d}, {a,c}|
Clearly, B  P(A)
Define f : A  B as
f(a) = {a}, f(b) = {a, b}, f(c) = {b, d}
f(d) = {a, c}.
As f(a) = {a} and f(c) = {b, d}
 a  f(a)  c  f(c)
In other words; if a  A
then a  f(a) or a  f(a)
We will use this observation in proving Cantor's theorem.
4. Cantor's Theorem
For any set which is non-empty; to its power set onto map cannot be defined.
Proof : Let A   be any set
Suppose  f : A  P(A) which is onto.
Let r  A  f(r)  P(A)
 f(r)  A
(From above observation)
r  f(r) or r  f(r)

Real Analysis
Define : X = { r  A ; r  f(r) }  A
 X  P(A)
Since f is onto
   A such that f() = X
   f() = X or   f() = X
   X or   X
   f() or   f()
which is a contradiction
 our supposition is wrong
Hence proved.
By cantor's theorem, we can say  and P() cannot be equivalent.
So we adopt new symbol to denote the cardinality of P()
i.e. |P()| = 2|N| = 2X0 = c.

 P() is uncountable.
(Because neither it is finite nor equivalent to ).
Observation
Let f : A  B be any function
(i) If f is 1 – 1 then |A|  |B|
(ii) If f is onto then |A|  |B|
Theorem : A set countably infinite iff it can be put in the form of a sequence {x1, x2, x3, ...} of distinct elements.
Proof : Let A be any countably infinite set.
Then  a 1 – 1 onto function f :   A
  n    xn  A such that
f(x) = xn and f(n1)  f(n2) for n1  n2
 A = {x1, x2, ... } where x1, x2, ... are all distinct.
Conversely
Let A = {x1, x2, ... } where x1, x2, are all distinct.
Define : y :   A
g(n) = xn  n  
Then n1  n2
 x n1  x n 2 as elements of A are distinct.
 g is 1 – 1.
Also  xn  A,  n   such that g(n) = xn
 g is onto
Thus g :   A is 1 – 1 onto function
Hence, A is countably infinite.

Real Analysis
Theorem : Let X be any infinite set then X has countably infinite subset.
Proof : Let x  X be arbitrary
name it x = a1
Define A1 = {a1}
Select x  X \ A1  x  a1
name it x = a2
Define A2 = A1  {a2}
And so on ;
An = An–1 U {an}
 for every n  ; X \ An is infinite.
( suppose X \ An is finite
  on adding 'n' elements to X will make X finite which is a contradiction)
Define
A=  A  a ,a
r 1 2 , a 3 ...
r
 A  X and A is countably infinite Proved
Application
f :   X
f(r) = ar
Clearly, f is 1 – 1
 ||  |X|
 0  |X|
 0 is smallest transfinite number.
Theorem : Every infinite set is equivalent to one of its proper subset.

Proof : Let X be any infinite set
Let A  X; which is countably infinite.
i.e. A = {a1, a2 ...}
Define : Y = X \ {a1}
 Y is a proper subset of X.
Further
Define : f : X  Y
a ; x  a i  A
f (x)   i 1
 x; xA
Clearly f is 1 – 1 and onto
 X ~ Y Proved

Real Analysis
Theorem : Any two open intervals (a, b) and (c, d) are equivalent.
dc
Proof : Define f : (a, b)  (c, d) by f(x) = c + (x – a)
ba
f is well-defined :
If a < x < b, then 0 < x – a < b – a
dc
 0 (x  a)  d  c
ba
dc
 cc (x  a)  d
ba
 f is a well-defined function
f is 1-1 :
Let f(x1) = f(x2) where x1, x2  (a, b)
dc dc
 c (x1  a)  c  (x 2  a)
ba ba
 x1 = x2
 f is 1-1.
f is onto :
Let y  (c, d)
Then c < y < d
 0 < y – c < d – c
ba
 0 < (y – c) < b – a
dc
ba
 a < a + (y – c) < b.
dc
 ba  dc ba 
Also f  a  (y  c)   c   a (y  c)  a   y
 dc  ba  dc 
ba
  y  (c, d),  x = a + (y – c)  (a, b) such that f(x) = y..
dc
 f is onto.
Thus f : (a, b)  (c, d) is 1 – 1 and onto function.
Hence (a, b) ~ (c, d).
Theorem : (0, 1) is uncountable.

Proof : If possible let (0, 1) be countable.
Then (0, 1) can be put in the form of sequence {x1, x2, x3, ...} of distinct elements
Let each xi has decimal expression of the form :
x1 = 0.a11 a12 a13 ...
x2 = 0.a21 a22 a23 ...
x3 = 0.a31 a32 a33 ...
··· ·······················
··· ·······················
where aij  {0, 1, 2, ... 9}  i, j.

Real Analysis
Construct a number 0.b1 b2 b3 ...

 4 if a ii  5
where bi    i.
5 if a ii  5
Then the number 0.b1 b2 b3 ... lies between 0 and 1, and is different than x1, x2, x3, ...
Thus our assumption is wrong.
Hence (0, 1) is uncountable.
Theorem : Let A be the set of all sequences whose elements are the digits 0 and 1. Show that A is uncountable.
Proof : If possible let A be countable.
Then A = { < x1 > < x2 >, < x3 > , ...}.
Let < x1 > = {a11, a12, a13, ...}
< x2 > = {a21, a22, a23, ...}
< x3 > = {a31, a32, a33, ...}
········ ·······················
········ ·······················
where aij  {0, 1}  i, j.
Construct a sequence < x > = {b1, b2, b3, ...}
1 if a ii  0
where bi    i.
0 if a ii  1
Then the sequence < x >  A and is different from < x1 >, < x2 >, < x3 >, ...
Hence A is uncountable.
Theorem : If f : A  B is 1 – 1 and B is countable then A is countable.

Proof : If A is finite then there is nothing to prove.
Let A be infinite.
Since f : A  B is 1-1
 f : A  f(A) is both 1-1 and onto
So, A ~ f(A) and f(A)  B
 B is infinite
Given B is countable
 B is countably infinite
Further f : A  B is 1-1.
 |A|  |B|
As |B| = 0 ( B is countably infinite)
 |A|  0 ...(1)
And we know o is the smallest transfinite number..
 0  |A| ...(2)
from (1) & (2)
|A| = 0
 A is countably infinite. Proved

Real Analysis
Corollary
Example : Every subset of a countable set is countable.
Solution : Let A  B and B be countable
Define : f : A  B as
f(a) = a  a  A
 f is 1-1.
Hence A is countable.
Example :  is uncountable
Solution : If possible suppose  is countable
As (0, 1)  
which is a contradiction
Hence  is uncountable.
  
Remark :   ,  ~ 
 2 2
  
Define : f :   ,   
 2 2
f(x) = tan x
f(x) = tan x
 

2 2
Clearly, f is 1-1 and onto
  
  ,  ~ 
 2 2
and we know (a, b) ~ (c, d)
  
Hence, (0, 1) ~   , 
 2 2
 (0, 1) ~ .
Theorem : Countable union of countable sets is countable.

Proof : Let {Ai : i   } be a countable family of countable sets.
Then each Ai can be put in the form of sequence of distinct elements.
Let Ai = {a1i, a2i, a3i, ...}, i = 1, 2, 3, ...

Thus the elements of A = A i can be listed as
i 1

Real Analysis
a11; a12, a21; a13, a22, a31; a14, a23, a32, a41, ...
(The ordering is such that i + j = k, k = 2, 3, ...; i, j being suffices)

The function f : A i   defined by
i 1
f(a11) = 1, f(a12) = 2, f(a21) = 3, f(a13) = 4, ... is 1–1 and onto.

Hence A is countable.
Theorem : The cartesian product of two countable sets is countable.

Proof : Let A and B be countable sets.
Define a function f : {x} × B  B by f(x, y) = y.
Clearly f is a well-defined function.
f is 1-1 :
Let f(x, y1) = f(x, y2) where (x, y1), (x, y2)  {x} × B.
 y1 = y2 [f(x, y) = y]
 (x, y1) = (x, y2)
 f is 1-1.
f is onto :
 y  B,  (x, y)  {x} × B such that f(x, y) = y.
 f is onto
Thus f : {x} × B  B is 1 – 1 and onto function.
 {x} × B ~ B
 {x} × B is countable. [ B is countable]
  {x}  B is countable
xA
[By previous Theorem ]
 A × B is countable.
Similarly, we can show cartesian product of finite number of countable set is countable.
Application
1.  ×  is countable
2.  ×  ×  is countable.
3.  ×  is countable.
4.  is countable
p 
   : p   , q   , g.c.d. (| p |, q)  1
q 
It can also be represented as
 = {(p, q) : p  , q   : gcd(|p|, q) = 1}   × 
As  ×  is countable and every subset of countable set is countable
Hence,  is countable.
5. A =   (0, 1) is countable.
  (0, 1)  
 A is countable.

Real Analysis
6. C is uncountable.
Suppose C is countable
 =  U C
From above theorem ;  is countable.
Which is a contradiction
 C is uncountable.
7. B = C  (0, 1) is uncountable.
Let A =   (0, 1) and A is countable
Suppose B is countable.
A U B = (0, 1)
From above theorem (0, 1) is countable. [Countable union of countable sets is countable [(0, 1) is uncountable]
 B is uncountable.
Algebraic Number
A real number is said to be algebraic (over ) if it can be a zero of a non-zero polynomial with rational coefficients.
Eg. : 2 is algebraic no. ( 2 is root of x2 – 2)
Transcendental Number
A real number which is not algebraic is called transcendental number.
Theorem : Set of algebraic no. is countable.
Proof : Define
Pk = {a0 + a1x + ... + akxk ; ai  }
Pk can also be represented as ; (for sake of convenience)
Pk = {(a0, a1, ..., ak) ; ai  }
   ..... 
  
(k 1) copies
 Each Pk is countable.
And countable union of countable set is countable
 P = P k
is countable.
k
Hence, set of polynomial with rational coefficient is countably infinite.

So P can be represented as ;
P = {1(x), 2(x), ... }
Define : Ri = {t   : i(t) = 0}, i  
Each Ri is finite because it contains roots of a polynomial.
Let A  R i
i
As countable union of countable set is countable
 A is countable
A = Collection of those real no. which are root of a polynomial whose coefficients are rational.
i.e. A = set of algebraic number. Proved.

Real Analysis
Theorem : Set of transcendental number is uncountable

Proof : Let A = set of algebraic number
B = set of transcendental number
As A U B = 
Suppose B is countable
  is countable
 B is uncountable.
Note : BA = {f | f : A  B}
then |BA| = |B||A|
Eg.: || = cc
|| = oc
Arithmetic of Transfinite Number

Let , ,  be any transfinite number
Then,
(i) () = .
(ii) . = larger of  and 
(iii)  +  = larger of  and 
Application
A = { f | f :   {1, 2}}
B = { f | f :   m}; m > 2
C = { f | f :   }
D = { f | f :   }
As A  B  C  D
 |A|  |B|  |C|  |D|
 20  m0  0 0  c0  (20 )0  20  c
 20  m 0  0 0  c0
Example : Let A be any set. Let P(1) be the power set of A, that is the set of all subsets of A ; P (1) = {B : B  A}.
Then which of the following is/are true about the set P (1) ? (CSIR NET MA June 2016)
(1) P (A) =  for some A. (2) P (A) is a finite set for some A.
(3) P (A) is a countable set for some A (4) P (A) is a uncountable set for some A
Solution : (2,3,4)
For any set P(A)  1 i.e., Power set P(A) is always non empty.
For any finite set A with n elements |P(A)| = 2n .
i.e., for any finite set A, P(A) is also a finite set.
If we consider the definition of a countable set as it is similar the set N then for any countable set A
P  A   2X0  R  c
i.e., for any set A,P(A) is never countably infinite.
For any infinite set A, P(A) is always uncountable as above point.

Real Analysis
5. Point Set Topology
Bounded Set
Let S   we say S is bounded if  ,    such that
 x  S
   x  
Then  and  are called lower bound and upper bound respectively.
Note : Once a lower bound 'say ' exists, then every real number less than  is lower bound. Similarly, once an upper
bound 'say ' exists, then every real no. greater than  is an upper bound.
Example : S1 = (0, 2)
Clearly, 0 < x < 2  x  S1
 0 is lower bound and 2 is upper bound.
1 
S2   : n   
 n 
Clearly; 0 < x  1  x  S2
 0 is lower bound and 1 is upper bound.
Remark : Every real number is upper bound and lower bound for empty set. Hence, empty set is bounded.
Supremum of a Set
Let A  . If m   is an upper bound of A such that m  m' for every upper bound m' of A then m is called
supremum of A and denoted by m = sup A.
i.e. least upper bound if it exists is defined as sup A.
Infimum of a Set
Let A   and if m   is a lower bound of A such that m  m' for every lower bound m' of A then m is called
infimum of A and denoted by m = inf A.
i.e. greatest lower bound if it exists is defined as inf A.
Note :
(i) If A is not bounded above then
sup A = 
(ii) If A is not bounded below then
inf A = – 
(iii) If A = . Then every real no. is lower bound and upper bound.
sup A = least upper bound = – 
inf A = greatest lower bound = 
Theorem : The supremum or infimum of a set A is unique if it exists.

Further, if both exist then inf A  sup A.
Proof : Let M = sup A
and M' = sup A
A  

Real Analysis
Then M  M' ( M' is an upper bound of A and M is least upper bound).

Similarly; M'  M
So M = M'
In same fashion; we can show infimum is always unique; provided it exists.
Further,
Let sup A and inf A exist for any A  .
choose x  A.
then inf A  x  sup A.
Since inf A is a lower bound of A and sup A is an upper bound.
 inf A  sup A
Remark :
(i) If sup A  A then we denote it by max A.
(ii) if inf A  A then we denote it by min A.
1 
Example : A   : n   
 n 
sup A = 1 and 1  A
So max A = 1
whereas inf A = 0
and 0  A
So A has no minimum.
Theorem : If A  . The M = sup A iff

(a) M is an upper bound of A
(b) for every M' < M there exists x  A so that x > M'.
Proof : Suppose M satisfies the condition in the theorem. Then M is an upper bound and (b) implies that if M' <
M then M' is not an upper bound.
So sup A = M
Conversely;
If M = sup A then M is an upper bound and if M' < M then M' is not an upper bound. So there exists x  A such
that x > M'.
Theorem : If A  . Then m = inf A iff

(a) m is a lower bound of A.
(b) for every m' > m there exists x  A such that x < m'.
The proof for the infimum is analogous.
Proposition 1 : If c  0, then
sup cA = c sup A, inf cA = c inf A.
It c < 0, then
sup cA = c inf A, inf cA = c sup A.
Proof : The result is obvious if c = 0. If c > 0, then cx  M if and only if x  M/c, which shows that M is an
upper bound of cA if and only if M/c is an upper bound of A, so sup cA = c sup A. If c < 0, then cx  M if an
only if x  M/c, so M is an upper bound of cA if and only if M/c is a lower bound of A, so sup cA = c inf A. The
remaining results follow similarly.
Real Analysis
Proposition 2 : Suppose that A, B are subsets of  such that A  B. If sup A and sup B exist, then sup A  sup
B, and if inf A, inf B exist, then inf A  inf B.
Proof : Since sup B is an upper bound of B and A  B, it follows that sup B is an upper bound of A, so sup A 
sup B. The proof for the infimum is similar, or apply the result for the supremum to – A  – B.
Proposition 3 : Suppose that A, B are non-empty sets of real numbers such that x  y for all x  A and y  B. Then
sup A  inf B.
Proof : Fix y  B. Since x  y for all x  A, it follows that y is an upper bound of A, so y  sup A. Hence, sup
A is a lower bound of B, so sup A  inf B.
If A, B   are nonempty, we define
A + B = {z : z = x + y for some x  A, y  B},
A – B = {z : z = x – y for some x  A, y  B}
Proposition 4 : If A, B are nonempty sets, then

sup(A + B) = sup A + sup B, inf(A + B) = inf A + inf B,
sup(A – B) = sup A – inf B, inf(A – B) = inf A – sup B.
Proof : The set A + B is bounded from above if and only if A and B are bounded from above, so sup(A + B) exists
if and only if both sup A and sup B exist. In that case, if x  A and y  B, then
x + y  sup A + sup B,
so sup A + sup B is an upper bound of A + B and therefore
sup(A + B)  sup A + sup B.
To get the inequality in the opposite direction, suppose that  > 0. Then there exists x  A and y  B such that
 
x  sup A  , y  sup B  .
2 2
It follows that
x + y > sup A + sup B – 
for every  > 0, which implies that sup(A + B)  sup A + sup B. Thus,
sup(A + B) = sup A + sup B.
It follows from this result and proposition 1 that
sup(A – B) = sup A + sup(– B) = sup A – inf B.
The proof of the results for inf(A + B) and inf(A – B) are similar, or apply the results for the supremum to – A and
– B.
Theorem : Let A and B be two bounded non-empty set of .

Then, sup(A  B) = max {sup (A), sup (B)}
and inf(A  B) = min {inf A, inf B}
Proof : Let x  A
 x  sup A  max {sup A, sup B}
Let y  B
 y  sup B  max {sup A, sup B}
 sup (A  B)  max {sup A, sup B} ...(i)

Real Analysis
Conversely
If M is an upper bound of A  B
 M is upper bound for A.
 M  sup A.
Similarly, M is upper bound for B.
 M  sup B.
 M  max {sup A, sup B}.
In particular, take
M = sup (A  B)
Since sup (A  B) is an upper bound for A  B
So sup (A  B)  max {sup A, sup B} ...(ii)
from equation (i) ad (ii)
sup (A  B) = max {sup A, sup B}
Proof for infimum is analogous.
The Completeness Property of 

Every non-empty subset of  that has an upper bound also has a supremum in .
And every non-empty subset of  that has a lower bound also has an infimum in .
Note : We can establish that these two properties are equivalent in the sense that one of these implies the other.
To prove every non-empty subset of  that has a lower bound also has an infimum in .
Proof : Suppose that S is a non-empty subset of  that is bounded below :
Define S  {s : s  S}  S
Then S   ( S  ) and is bounded above. ( S is bounded below)
We know, every non-empty subset of  that has an upper bound also has a supremum is .
 u = sup S exists in 
i.e. u = sup (– S)
 u = – inf S ( if c < 0 then sup cA = c inf A).
 – u = inf S
Archimedean Property
Let x > 0 and y  . Then  n   such that n x > y.
Proof : Case-I : if y  0.
choose n = 1
then x > y.
Case-II : if y > 0
Suppose for all n  , A = {nx | n  } satisfies nx  y for n  .
 y is an upper bound of A.
and A   ( x  A)
By L.U.B. property; A must have supremum.
Let  = sup A.
 nx    n  

Real Analysis
 (n + 1)x    n   ( if n   then n + 1  )
 nx   – x < 
   – x is an upper bound of A.
which is a contradiction.
As  – x < ; so  – x cannot be an upper bound of A because supremum is the least upper bound.
So, A = {nx | n  } cannot satisfy nx  y  n  .
  n   such that nx > y.
Corollary
1
If  > 0 then  n   such that .
n
Proof : In Archimedean property;
Take x =  and y = 1.
  n   so that
n  > 1
1
 
n
Corollary (Denseness of Rational Number)

Let x, y   such that x < y then there exists a rational number r   such that
x < r < y.
Proof : We need to find m, n   such that
m
x  y.
n
(Assume x, y > 0)
m
So we need to find m, n   such that x   y or nx < m < ny..
n
As x < y
 y – x > 0.
and choose
z = 10  
By Archimedean property; we can find n   so that n(y – x) > z
 n(y – x) > 10
 ny – nx > 10
As ny and nx are real number whose difference is greater than 10; we can easily find a natural no. say 'm' between
them
i.e. nx < m < ny
m
 x y
n
As we have proved this by assuming x and y both are positive; similarly this can be proved for other choices of x
and y.

Real Analysis
Corollary
Let x, y   then  s  c such that
x < s < y.
By above corollary,  s  c so that
x < r < y.
Now, to find an irrational no. 's' such that
r < s < y.
As y – r > 0 and choose z  2  

By Archimedean property;
 n   so that
n(y  r)  2
2
 yr 
n
2
 yr r
n
2
Take s  r 
n
Now we will show s  c.
Suppose s  
As r  
 – r  
 s – r   ( sum of two rational no. is rational)
2
 
n
2
 n  ( Product of two rational no. is rational)
n
 2 
Our supposition is wrong.
 s  c.
Hence x < r < s < y
 x < s < y.
Interval
Let S   and whenever a    S
 t   such that  < t < 
 t  S
Then, S is called an interval.
Example :
(i)  is an interval
(ii) {} is an interval    
Real Analysis
(iii) S = [1, 2]  [2, 3] is not an interval.

Because choose  = 1.5 and  = 2.5, t = 2
As  < t < 
But t  S.
Neighbourhood
Let S   and   . We say S is a neighbourhood of .
if   > 0 such that
( – ,  + )  S.
Note : If S is a neighbourhood of  then S has to be uncountable.
i.e., In other words; countable set cannot be Neighbourhood of any real number.
Example :
(i) , ,  cannot be neighbourhood of any real number because they are countable.
(ii) S = (0, 2) and  = 1.
1
Choose   .
2
 S is a neighbourhood of .
Adherent Point
Let S   and   .
We say  is an adherent point of S if every neighbourhood of  contains atleast one element of S.
i.e.,   > 0; ( – ,  + )  S  .
E.g. :
(i) A1 = {1, 2, 3}
choose  = 1 or 2 or 3.
then   > 0 ( – ,  + )  A1  
 Adherent point of A1 = {1, 2, 3}.
(ii) S = 
Choose   
Then   > 0
( – ,  +  )     ( every interval contains rational no.)
 Adherent point of S = 
Note : If set is non-empty then the collection of adherent point of that set is always non-empty.
i.e. If S   then adherent point of S  . ( S  Adherent point of S)
Limit Point
Let S  ,   .
We say  is limit point of S if every neighbourhood of  must contain an element of S other than .
i.e.,   > 0
( – ,  + )  S\ {}  .
Note : S' denote collection of all limit point of S called derived set of S.
Real Analysis
Observation
If  is limit point of S.
then   > 0, ( – ,  + )  S\{}     0
Suppose ( – ,  + )  S\{} be finite.
i.e., ( – ,  + )  S\{} = {a1, a2, ..., ax}
Let i = |  – ai |
Choose ' = min{1, 2, ..., x}
Then ( – ',  + ')  S\{} = 
 ( – ,  + )  S\{} is infinite.
Hence; infiniteness is necessary condition for set to have limit point.
 If A is finite then A' = .
Remark : Infinite set may fail to have limit point.
Example : S = 
Let p  
1
Let  
2
Then (p – , p + )  \{p} contains at most one natural number.
 p cannot be a limit point of .
Hence, S' = 
S2 = 
Let p  
Then for any  > 0
(p – , p + )  \{p} contains infinite no. of rational points.
 p is limit point of .
Hence, S2' = 
i.e., ' = .
Theorem (Bolzano Weierstrass) : Every bounded infinite subset of  has at least one limit point (in ).
Proof : Let S be a bounded infinite subset of . Since S in a non-empty bounded subset of , sup S and inf S both
exist. Let s = sup S and s = inf S. Then x  S  s  x  s.
Let H be a subset of  defined by H = {x   : x is greater than infinitely many elements of S}.
Let h  H. Then h is greater than infinitely many elements of S and therefore h > s, because no element  s exceeds
infinitely many elements of S.
Thus H is a non-empty subset of , bounded below, s being a lower bound. So inf H exists.
Let inf H = . We now show that  is a limit point of S.
Let us choose  > 0.
Since inf H = , there exists an element y in H such that  y <  + . Since y  H, y exceeds infinitely many elements
of S and consequently  +  exceeds infinitely many element of S.
Since  is the infimum of H,  –  does not belong to  and so  –  can exceed at most a finite number of elements
of S. Thus the neighbourhood ( – ,  + ) constaints infinitely many elements of S.
This holds for each  > 0. Therefore  is a limit point of S.

Real Analysis
Theorem : Let S be a bounded subset of . Then S' (the derived set of S) is bounded.
Case 1 : Let S be a finite subset of . Then S' =  and it is bounded.
Case 2 : Let S be an infinite subset of . By Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, S' is a non-empty subset of .
c  m
Let sup S = m. The x  S  x  m. Let c > m. Let us choose  = . Then m +  = c –  and the
2
 – neighbourhood (c – , c + ) of c contains no point of S. Therefore c cannot be a limit of S, i.e., c  S'.
Thus c > m  c  S'. Contrapositively, c  S'  c  m. This shows that m is an upper bound of S' is bounded
above.
Let inf S = m and let d < m.
By similar arguments, d cannot be a limit point of S, i.e., d  S'.
Thus d < m  d  S'. Contrapositively, d  S'  d  m. This show that m is a lower bound of S', i.e., S' is
bounded below.
Therefore S' is a bounded subset of .
Theorem : Let A, B be subset of  and A  B.

Then A'  B'
Proof : Let   A'
Then for every   0
( – ,  + )  A \ {} has infinite points.
 ( – ,  + )  B \ {} has infinite points.
   B' ( A  B)
 A'  B'
Theorem : Let A  . The (A')'  A'

Proof : Let   (A')'
then for every   0
( – ,  + )  A'\{} has infinite points.
Choose q  ( – ,  + )  A'\{}
 q  A' as well as q  ( – ,  + )
 q is limit point of A.
( – ,  + ) being neighbourhood of q also contains infinite many point of A.
Since ( – ,  + ) contains infinite many points of A.
  is limit point of A.
i.e.,   A'
Hence (A')'  A'.
Theorem : Let A, B  . Then (A  B)'  A'  B'

Proof : (A  B)  A  (A  B)'  A'
(A  B)  B  (A  B)'  B' ( if A  B  A'  B')
 (A  B)'  A'  B'

Real Analysis
Isolated Point
Let S   and   S.
We say  is called as isolated point of S.
If   > 0 such that ( – ,  + )  S = {} and denoted by S\S'.
Example : S = 
Let   
1
Choose  
2
then ( – ,  + )   = {}
 isolated point of  = 
Interior Point
Let S   and   .
We say  is an interior point of S if S is a neighbourhood of .
i.e.,   > 0 such that
( – ,  + )  S.
Note : If a set has an interior point then it is uncountable.
Since if  is an interior point of S.
  > 0 so that ( – ,  + )  S.
and ( – ,  + ) is uncountable.
Exterior Point
Let S   and   . We say    is an exterior point of S if it is interior point of Sc.
Frontier Point
Frontier points are those points which are neither interior point nor exterior points and denoted by Fr(S).
Boundary Point
Let S  
Then Bd.(S) = Fr(S)  S.
Note : If   Fr(S)
then for any   0
( – ,  + )  S  
and ( – ,  + )  Sc  
Example :
Set Frontier Point Bounday Point
N N N
Z Z Z
Q R Q
2 2
Q R Q
[a, b] {a, b} {a, b}

(a, b) {a, b} f

Real Analysis
Open Set
Let S  
We say S is open in  if it is neighbourhood of all of its members.
i.e., every element of the set is interior point.
Example : , , (a, b)
Theorem : If S is open  S  S'

 Let   S
  > 0 such that
( – ,  + )  S
  is a limit point of S
   S'
 S  S'
Theorem : The union of an arbitrary collection of open set in  is an open set.

Proof : Let {G :   },  being the index set be an arbitrary collection of open set in .
Let x  G.
Then x belongs to atleast one open set of the collection, say G (  ).
Since G is an open set and x  G
   > 0 such that
(x – , x + )  G
As G  G
 (x – , x + )  G.
 x is an interior point of G.
Note : Arbitrary intersection of an infinite number of open sets in  is not necessarily an open set.
Example :

 1 1
(i) G n  {0} ; Gn    , 
n 1  n n

(ii) G
n 1
n  (1, 1) ; Gn = (– n, n)
Theorem : Intersection of a finite number of open set in  is an open set.

Proof : Let G = G1  G2 ...  Gn where each Gi is open set in .
Let x  G
 x  Gi  i = 1 to m.
As G1 is open set
  1 > 0 so that (x – 1, x + 1)  G1.
G2 is open set
  2 > 0 so that (x – 2, x + 2)  G2.
Since Gm is open set
 m > 0 so that (x – m, x + m)  Gm.

Real Analysis
Let  = min {1, ....., m} then  > 0

(x – , x + )  (x – 1, x + 1)  G1
(x – , x + )  (x – 2, x + 2)  G2

(x – , x + )  (x – m, x + m)  Gm
 (x – , x + )  G1  G2 ...  Gm
So, x is an interior point of G.
Theorem : Let S  . Then S is an open set if and only if S = int S.

Proof : We prove the theorem for a non-empty set S because if S =  then  = int  holds and also  is an open
set.
Let S be a non-empty open set and let x  S. Then x is an interior point of S.
Thus x  S  x  int S. Therefore S  int S ...(i)
Let y  int S. Then y  S by the definition of an interior point.
Thus y  int S  y  S. Therefore int S  S ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii) we have
S = int S.
Conversely, let S be a non-empty set and S = int S.
Let x  S. Then x  int S, since S = int S.
Thus each point of S is an interior point of S and therefore S in an open set.
Closed Set
Let S  , we say S is closed in 
if Sc is open in .
Example : , , [a, b]
Theorem : S is closed  S'  S.

Proof : Let S be a closed set.
Let   S'
Suppose   S
   Sc
  > 0 so that ( – ,  + )  Sc
As ( – ,  + )  Sc
 ( – ,  + )  S = 
   S'
   S
Conversely
Let S'  S
Let   Sc
   S
   S' ( S'  S)

Real Analysis
  > 0 so that ( – ,  + )  S = 
As ( – ,  + )  S = 
 ( – ,  + )  Sc
 Sc is open
 S is closed.
Note : Every finite set is closed set ( if A is finite then A' = )
 is not a closed set ( ' = )
c
 is not a closed set ( (c)' = )
Theorem : Union of a finite number of closed set in  is a closed set.

Let F1, F2, ..., Fm be m closed sets in .
Let F = F1  F2  ... Fm.
Since each Fi is closed set ; Fi'  Fi  i = 1 to m
F' = (F1  F2  ... Fm)' = F1'  F2'  ... Fm'
F1'  F1  F1'  F
F2'  F2  F2'  F

Fm'  Fm  Fm'  F
 F1'  F2'  ... Fm'  F
i.e. F'  F
Hence, F is closed.
Note : Union of an infinite number of closed set in  necessarily closed set.
Example :

 1 1
(i)  F  [1, 1] ;
i 1
i Fi    , 
 n n

1 1
(ii)  F  [0, 3] ;
i 1
i Fi   , 3  
 n n 
Theorem : The intersection of an arbitrary collection of closed sets in  is a closed set.

Proof : Let {F =   },  being the index set, be a collection of closed sets in . Then (F)'  F for each
  . Let F  F  .

Case-I : F' = . Then obviously F'  F.
Case-II : F'  . Let p  F'. Then p is a limit point of F.
Let us choose  > 0. Then N'(p, ) contains a point, say q, of F.
q  N'(p, )  F  q  N'(p, )  F for each   .
This implies p is a limit point of F for each   .
Since each F is a closed set, p  F for each   .
Hence p   F , i.e., p  F..


Thus, p  F'  p  F and therefore F'  F.
This proves that F is a closed set and the theorem is done.
Real Analysis
Theorem : Let S  . Then S is a closed set  S  S , where S  S  S'

Proof : Let S be a closed set
Then S'  S
S  S' = S
i.e. S  S
Conversely
Let S   such that S  S
Then S  S' = S
 S'  S
 S is closed set.
Theorem : No non-empty proper subset of  is both open and closed in .

Proof : If possible, let S be a non-empty proper subset of  which is both open and closed. Since S is a proper
subset of , there exists an element c in  – S. Therefore S  (– , c)  (c, ).
Since S is non-empty, at least one of S  (– , c) and S  (c, ) is non-empty.
Let A = S  (– , c) . A is bounded above, c being an upper bound. Therefore sup A exists. Let a = sup A. Then
a  c.
For each  > 0, there is an element b in A such that a –  < b  a, b  A  b  S.
Therefore each -neighbourhood of a contains a point of S.
So a  S and since S is closed, a  S. Therefore a < c.
Since S is open and a  S, for some positive (a – , a + )  S.
Let d < min{, c – a}. Then a + d < a +  and a + d < c.
Therefore a + d  S and a + d  (– , c).
Therefore a + d  A and this contradicts the definition of a.
Hence our assumption is wrong and the theorem is established.
Note :  and  are the only subset of  which are both closed as well as open.
Dense Set
Let S  . We say S is dense in  if
S' = 
Example : ' = 
(c)' = 
 , c are dense in .
Perfect Set
Let S  . We say S is a perfect if S = S'
Example : S = [1, 3]
Theorem : A set S   is everywhere dense if and only if S intersects every non-empty open set in .
Proof : Let S be everywhere dense.
Then S' = .
Real Analysis
Let G be a non-empty open set in . If G  S =  then S  Gc and this implies S'  (Gc)', i.e., S'  Gc, since
Gc is a closed set. This means Gc = , i.e., G = , a contradiction. Therefore G  S  .
Conversely, let G  S   for every non-empty open set G. Let p   and let N(p) be a neighbourhood of p.
N(p) as well as N(p) – {p} are open sets in . By hypothesis (N(p) – {p})  S  . So p is a limit point of S.
Thus every point of  is a limit point of S, i.e., S' = . Therefore S is everywhere dense.
Note : When we have to show set is dense in  then either show with any of the following method :
(i) S' = 
(ii) S  R is dense in ; if S intersects every non-empty open set in .
Remark : Let u > 0. Consider S = {ru : r  }
Then S is dense in .
Proof : Let (a, b) be any open interval; a < b ( open interval is an open set)
i.e., (a, b) be any open set.
ba
Choose  = > 0
u
Then by Archimedean property.
 n  N such that
1

n
1 ba
 
n u
bn an
 1 
u u
bn an
As and are two real number and their difference is greater than 1 then there must exist an integer between
u u
them say 'm'.
an bn
m
u u
m
 au  b.
n
 a < u r < b;
m
where r  
n
(a, b)  S  
Hence S is dense in .
So, we can also say S' = .
6. Heine-Borel Theorem
A subset S of  is compact if and only if S is closed and bounded

Proof : First we suppose that S is compact. To see that S is bounded is fairly simple :
Let In = (–n, n). Then

I
n 1
n 

Real Analysis
Therefore S is covered by the collection of {In}. Hence, since S is compact, finitely many will suffice.
S  (In1 U ... UInk) = Im,
where m = max{n1,.....,nk}. Therefore |x|  m for all x  S and S is bounded.
Now we will show that S is closed. Suppose not. Then there is some point p  (cl S)\S. For each n, define the
neighborhood around p of radius 1/n, Nn = N(p, 1/n). Take the complement of the closure of Nn, Un = \cl Nn. Then
Un is open (since its complement is closed), and we have
 
U
n 1
n   \  cl N n   \ {p}  S.
n 1
Therefore, {Un} is an open cover for S. Since S is compact, there is a finite subcover {Un1,....,Unk} for S. Furthermore,
by the way they are constructed, Ui  Uj if i  j. It follow that S  Um where m = max{n1,...,nk}. But then S 
N (p, 1/m) = , which contradicts our choice of p  (cl S) \ S.
Conversely, we want to show that if S is closed and bounded, then S is compact. Let f be an open cover for S.
For each x  , define the set
Sx  S   , x  ,
and let
B = {x : Sx is covered by a finite subcover of f}.
Since S is closed and bounded, our lemma tells us that S has both a maximum and a minimum. Let d = min S. Then
Sd = {d} and this is certainly covered by a finite subcover of f. Therefore d  B and B is nonempty. If we can show
that B is not bounded above, then it will contain a number p greater than max S. But then Sp = S so we can conclude
that S is covered by a finite subcover, and is therefore compact.
Toward this end, suppose that B is bounded above and let m = sup B. We shall show that
m  S and m  S both lead to contradictions.
If m  S, then since f is an open cover of S, there exists F0 in f such that m  F0. Since F0 is open, there exists
an interval [x1, x2] in F0 such that
x1 < m < x2.
Since x1 < m and m = supB, there exists F1,....,Fk in f that cover Sx1. But then F0, F1,...,Fk cover Sx2, so that x2 
B. But this contradicts m = sup B.
If m  S, then since S is closed there exists  > 0 such that N(m, )  S = . But then
Sm–= sm+.
Since m –   B we have m +   B, which again contradicts m = sup B.
Therefore, either way, if B is bounded above, we get a contradiction. We conclude that B is not bounded above, and
S must be compact.
7. Sequence of Real Numbers
7.1 Definition
It is a function whose domain is the set of natural number whereas range may be any set.
Real Sequence
It is a function whose domain is the set of natural no. whereas range is subset of set of real no. And denoted by
f :    or x :   
Example :
(i) xn = (–1)n

Real Analysis
1 1
(ii) xn = 1 +  ... 
2 n
(iii) xn = log n
(iv) xn = the last digit of 7n.
Range of Sequence
The set of all distinct terms of a sequence is called its range.
Example : if xn = (–1)n
Range of Sequence {xn} = {–1, 1}
Constant Sequence
A sequence is called a constant sequence if the range contains only one element.
Null Sequence
A sequence {xn} is a null sequence if for every open interval containing 0, the sequence is ultimately in that interval.
In symbols:  > 0  N such that |xn| <  when n  N
Bounded Sequence
A sequence {xn} is said to be bounded if  m, M   such that
m  an  M  n  .
Example :
(i) xn = sin n
as –1  sin n  1  n  
 –1  xn  1
Hence, {xn} is bdd.
1
(ii) xn = 1 +
n
1
As 0 <  1  n  
n
1
 1 < 1 +  2  n  
n
 1 < xn  2  n  
Hence, {xn} is bdd.
Unbounded Sequence
A sequence is said to be unbounded if it is not bounded.
Example : xn = (–1)n×n   n  .
Monotonic Sequence
A sequence is said to be monotonic if any of the following conditions are satisfied.
(i) an  an+1  n   (monotonically increasing)
(ii) an  an+1  n   (monotonically decreasing)

Real Analysis
Note : In order to show given sequence is monotonic choose either of following method.
(i) Consider an+1 – an = (n)
Then show (n) > 0 or (n) < 0
(ii) With the help of mathematical induction.
Example :
1 1
(i) an = 1 + +...+ n .
3 3
1 1 1
As an+1 = 1 + +...+ n  n 1
3 3 3
1
Consider an+1 – an = n 1 > 0
3
 {an} is monotonically increasing.
(ii) a1 = 1 and an = 2  a n 1 ; n  2
As a1 = 1
a2 = 2  a 1  3 > 1 = a1
 a2  a1
Now suppose an+1 > an–1
 2 + an > 2 + an–1
 2  a n  2  a n 1
 an+1 > an
 By mathematical induction, an+1 > an  n.
{an} is monotonically increasing.
7.2 Subsequence
Let {an} be any sequence. If {nk} is a strictly increasing sequence of natural number (i.e. n1 < n2 < n3... ) then {ank}
is called a subsequence of {an}.
Example : {a2n}, {a2n–1}, {a n 2 } are all subsequence of {an}.
Theorem : If sequence bounded., then every subsequence is bdd and conversely.

Proof : Let {an} be any bounded sequence
then  m, M   such that
m  an  M  n   ...(1)
Let a n k
  be any subsequence of {an}
 m  a n k  M (from (1))  nk  
 a nk   is also bounded subsequence
Conversely
Let every subsequence of {an} be bounded
As every sequence is a subsequence of itself.
 {an} is bdd.
Note : If we have to show {an} is unbounded.
Then show  a subsequence of {an} which is unbounded.

Real Analysis
1 1
Example : an = 1 + +...+
2 n
Consider
1 1 1
a 2n  1    ...  n
2 3 2
1 1 1  1 1 1 1  1 1 
1            ...   n 1  ...  n 
2 3 4 5 6 7 8  2 1 2 
1 1 1 1 1  1 1 
1        ...    ...   n  ...  n 
2  4 4 8 8 2 2 
1 1 1 1
1  2· 2  22 · 3  ...  2 n n
2 2 2 2
n
1
2
n
 a 2n  1  n2
2
So, a 2n  is unbounded
Hence, {an} is unbounded.
Observation
(i) A sequence has a constant subsequence iff  a real no. which appears in the sequence infinite many times.
(ii) If range of a sequence is a finite set then there exist a real no. which appears in the sequence infinite many times.
7.3 Limit Point of a Sequence

Let {an} be any sequence and    we say  is limit point of {an} if every neighbourhood of  contains infinite
members of the sequence {an}.
i.e. for any  > 0
an  ( – ,  + ) for infinite values of n.
Example :
(i) an = (–1)n
 = –1
for any  > 0
an  (–1 – , –1 + )  n = 2k – 1, k = 1, 2, ...
 –1 is a limit point.
2 = 1.
for any  > 0
an  (1 – , 1 + )  n = 2k, k = 1, 2, ...
 1 is a limit point.
{an} has two limit points {–1, 1}.
 2 ; n  1 or prime.
(ii) an =  p ; p / n and p is the least prime doing so.

 = 2
for any  > 0

Real Analysis
an  (2 – , 2 + )  n = 1 or prime
 2 is a limit point.
Let p be any prime.
for any  > 0
an  (p – , p + )  n = pk, k = 1, 2, ...
 p is the limit point of an.
Hence, every prime no. is a limit point of {an}.
As set of prime no. are infinite
 {an} has infinite no. of limit points.
Theorem : Every limit point of the range set of a sequence is limit point of a sequence.
Proof : Let S be range set of the sequence {an}.
i.e., S = range of {an}
Let   S'
for  > 0
( – ,  + )  S\{} has infinite no. of points
Let q  ( – ,   )  S\{}
 q  ( – ,  + ) and q  S
As q  S
 q = ak for some k  
So ak  ( – ,  + )
Hence, ( – ,  + ) contains infinite no. of terms of sequence
  is limit point of sequence {an} Proved
Remark : A real no. is a limit point of sequence  it appears in the sequence infinite many times or it is the limit
point of the range set.
Theorem : Every bounded sequence has a limit point.

Proof : Let S be range set of {an}.
Case I : If S is finite.
i.e. Range set of {an} is finite.
then     such that
ak =  for infinitely many values of k.
So ( – ,  + ) contains infinitely many terms of sequence {an}
 {an} has a limit point.
Case II : If S is finite.
and it is given that {an} is bounded.
So, S is also bounded.
By Bolzano weierstrass theorem :
Every infinite bounded set has a limit point.
 S has a limit point.
By above theorem, {an} has a limit point Proved

Real Analysis
7.4 Limit of a Sequence

Let {an} be any sequence and l  .
We say 'l' is the limit of {an} if for any  > 0,  m   such that
|an – l| <   n  m
And it is denoted by lim a n  l

n 
Note : If lim a n  l
n 
for  > 0 ;  m   such that

 |an – l| <   n  m
 l –  < an < l +   n  m
 an  (l – , l + )  n  m
i.e. except the first m – 1 terms of the sequence, all the terms of the sequence lie in the interval (l – , l + ).
Theorem : if a sequence {an} is convergent then it is bounded.

Proof : Let {an} be any convergent sequence
i.e., nlim

an  l
for any  > 0 ;  m   such that

|an – l| <   n  m
 l –  < an < l +   n  m
Set M = max. {a1, a2, ..., am–1, l + }
m = min. {a1, a2, ..., am–1, l – }
 m  an < M  n  
 an is bounded.
But not conversely
Example : an = (–1)n
Sequence is bounded but it is not convergent
Theorem : Every convergent sequence has a unique limit

Or
A sequence cannot converge to more than one limit.
Proof : If possible, let a sequence {an} converge to two distinct real numbers l and l'.
1
Let  = |l – l'|. Since l  l', |l – l'| > 0 so that  > 0.
2
Now the sequence {an} converges to l

 Given  > 0 ,  a positive integer m1 such that |an – l| <  n  m1
2
Also the sequence {an} converges to l'

 Given  > 0,  a positive integer m2 such that |an – l'| <  n  m2
2
Let m = max. {m1, m2}

Real Analysis

Then |an – l| <
2

and |an – l'| <  n  m ...(1)
2
Now | l – l' | = | (l – an) + (an – l') |  | l – an | + | an – l' |
= | an – l | + | an – l' | [ | –x | = | x | ]
 
<  =   n  m [Using (1)]
2 2
| l – l' | <   n  m
1
which contradicts the assumption that  = | l – l' |
2
 Our supposition is wrong. Hence l = l'.
Example : an = (–1)n
Sequence is bounded but it is not convergent
Since {an} has two limit points {1, –1}.
Theorem : A bounded sequence is convergent  it has unique limit point.

Proof : Let {an} be convergent
 {an} has unique limit point; namely limit itself Proved
Conversely
Let {an} be bounded and has unique limit point say 'l'  .
We have to prove an  l
Let  > 0
Suppose outside of the interval (l – , l + ) have infinite number of terms of sequence an.
If infinite number of terms are outside and sequence {an} is bounded, So collection of those elements which are outside
is also bounded.
By Bolzano Weierstrass Theorem
Every infinite bounded set has a limit point.
 an has limit point l' ; l'  l.
Which is a contradiction ( {an} has unique limit point).
for any   0 ; outside the internal (l – , l + ) will have only finite many terms of sequence an.
Hence, an  l.
Theorem : If a sequence {an} converges to l, then every subsequence of {an} also converges to l.
Proof : Let a n k
  be a subsequence of {an}.
Since {an} converges to l.
 Given  > 0,  a positive integer m such that |an – l| <   n  m ...(1)
We can find a natural number n k 0  m
If nk  n k 0 , then nk  m

Real Analysis
 From (1), we have

| a n k  l |    nk  m
 { a n k } converges to l.
Theorem : If the subsequences {a2n–1} and {a2n} of a sequence {an} converge to the same limit l, then the sequence
{an} converges to l.
Proof : Let  > 0 be given
{a2n–1} converges to l
 For  > 0,  a positive integer m1 such that
|a2n–1 – l| <   n  m1
{a2n–1} converges to l
 For  > 0,  a positive integer m2 such that
|a2n – l| <   n  m2
Let m = max. {m1, m2}, then |a2n–1 – l| <  and |a2n – l| <   n  m
 |an – l| <   n  m
 {an} converges to l.
Theorem :
(i) Every monotonically increasing sequence which is bounded above converge to its least upper bound.
(ii) Every monotonically decreasing sequence which is bounded below converge to its greatest lower bound.
Proof :
(i) Let {an} be monotonically increasing sequence which is bounded above.
Let u be the least upper bound of sequence {an}
Let  > 0
Since u –  < u
 u –  is not an upper bound of {an}
  m   scuh that am > u – .
Since an is monotonically increasing
an  am > u –  n  m
 an > u –   n  m ...(1)
Also, u is least upper bound of {an}
an  u  n  
 an  u +   n  m ...(2)
From (1) & (2)
u –  < an < u +   n  m
 |an – u| <   n  m
 an  u.
Similarly, we can prove (2).

Real Analysis
Theorem : A monotonic sequence is convergent  it is bounded.

Proof : Let {an} be monotonic convergent sequence
 {an} is bounded
Conversely : Let {an} be monotonic and bounded sequence.
Case I : {an} is monotonically increasing
As {an} is bounded sequence
 {an} is monotonically increasing sequence which is bounded above
By above theorem; {an} converges to least upper bound.
Case II : {an} is monotonically decreasing
As {an} is bounded sequence
 {an} is monotonically decreasing sequence which is bounded below
By above theorem; {an} converges to greatest lower bound. Proved
Example :
1
(i) Consider, an+2 = (a + an+1) ; a1 < a2.
2 n
We observe that; an+2 is mean of an and an+1; so it must lie in the between of them
So, a1 < a3 < a2
Further a3 < a4 < a2
 a1 < a3 < a4 < a2
Proceeding in the same fashion ;
a1 < a3 < a5 < ... a6 < a4 < a2
a1  an  a2  n  
 {an} is bounded.
Consider, {a2k} = {a2, a4, a6, ... }
a2 > a4 > a6 > ...
As {a2k} is monotonically decreasing sequence and bounded below by a1.
 {a2k} convergent (say to l1)
Similarly, {a2k–1} = {a1, a3, a5, ... }
a1 < a3 < a5 < ...
As {a2k–1} is monotonically increasing sequence and bounded above by a1
 {a2k–1} is convergent (say to l2)
It a 2n  l1 and It a 2n 1  l2
n  n 
1
Further : a2n+2 = (a + a2n+1)
2 2n
1
 lt a 2n  2   lt a 2n  lt a 2n 1 
n  2 n  n 
1
 l2 = (l + l 2 )
2 1
 l1 = l2
 {an} is convergent

Real Analysis
(ii) Consider u1 = 7 , un+1 = 7  un

 u1 = 7
u2 = 7  u1  7  7  7  u 1
 u2 > u1
Suppose un > un–1
 7 + un > 7 + un–1
 7  u n  7  u n 1
 un+1 > un
By induction
 un is monotonically increasing.
Now u1  7  7
Suppose un < 7
7 + un < 7 + 7
 7  u n  14  49  7
 un+1 < 7
By Induction
un < 7  n  .
 {un} is bounded above
Hence; {un} is convergent
7.5 Algebra of Limits
Theorem : If lim an = a and lim bn = b, then

n  n 
(i) lim kan = ka where k is any constant (ii) lim |an| = |a|
n  n 
(iii) lim (an + bn) = a + b (iv) lim (an – bn) = a – b

n  n 
1 1
(v) lim (anbn) = ab (vi) nlim
 a
 provided a  0
a
n  n
an a
(vii) lim  provided b  0
n  bn b
Proof :
(i) Let  > 0 be given
|kan – ka| = |k(an – a)| = |k| |an – a|

Since lim an = a,  a +ve integer m s.t. |an – a| < | k | 1  n  m
n 
 |kan – ka| = |k| |an – a|
|k|
   n  m
| k | 1
 |kan – ka| <   n  m
 lim kan = ka.

n 

Real Analysis
(ii) Let  > 0 be given.

We know that for any two real numbers x and y, | |x| – |y| |  | x – y |
 | | an | – | a | |  | an – a |
Since lim an = a,  +ve integer m s.t. |an – a| <    n > m

n 
 | | an | – | a | |  | an – a | <   n  m
 | | an | – | a | |    n  m
 nlim

| an |  | a |
(iii) Let  > 0 be given.
Since lim an = a and lim bn = b,  positive integers m1 and m2 such that

n  n 

|an – a| <  n  m1
2

and |bn – b| <  n  m2
2
Let m = max. {m1, m2},

then |an – a| <
2

and |bn – b| <  n  m
2
 |(an + bn) – (a + b)| = |(an – a) + (bn – b)|
 
 |an – a| + |bn – b| <  =   n  m
2 2
 |(an + bn) – (a + b)| <   n  m
 lim (an + bn) = a + b

n 
(iv) Let  > 0 be given

n  n 

|an – a| <  n  m1
2

and |bn – b| <  n  m2
2
Let m = max. {m1, m2},

then |an – a| <
2

and |bn – b| <  n  m
2
|(an – bn) – (a – b)| = |(an – a) – (bn – b)|
 |an – a| + |bn – b| [ |x – y|  |x| + |y|]
 
<  =    n  m
2 2
|(an – bn) – (a – b)| <    n  m
lim  a n  b n   a  b.
n 

Real Analysis
(v) Let  > 0 be given

|anbn – ab| = |anbn – abn + abn – ab| = |bn(an – a) + a(bn – b)|
 |bn(an – a)| + |a(bn – b)| = |bn| |an – a| + |a| |bn – b| ...(1)
The sequence {bn} being convergent is bounded
 a +ve real number k s.t. |bn| < k  n ...(2)

n  n 
 
|an – a| <  n  m1 and |bn – b| <  n  m2
2k 2(| a | 1)

Let m = max {m1, m2} then |an – a| <
2k

| b n  b | nm
2(| a | 1)
From (1), (2) and (3), we have
|anbn – ab|  |bn| |an – a| + |a| |bn – b|  n
 
 k. |a|.
2k 2(| a | 1)  n  m
 |a|   
  .     n  m
2 | a | 1 2 2 2
 |anbn – ab| <   n  m
 nlim

a n bn  ab
(vi) Let  > 0 be given
1 1 a  an a  an a a
    n
an a ana ana an a
Since lim a n  a,  lim | a n |  | a |

n  n 
|a|
Taking   0
2
|a|
 a +ve integer m1 s.t. ||an| – |a|| <  n  m1
2
|a| |a|
 |a|  | an |  | a |   n  m1
2 2
|a|
 | a n |  n  m1
2
1 2
 |a |  |a|  n  m1
n
Also, lim an = a, therefore, there exists a positive integer m2, such that
n 
| a |2 
| an  a |   n  m2
2
1 2
Let m = max. {m1, m2}, then | a |  | a |
n
| a |2 
| an  a |   n  m ...(2)
2
Real Analysis
1 1 a a
 From (1) and (2), we have   n
an a an a
2 1 | a |2 
 . .   n  m
|a| |a| 2
1 1
   nm
an a
1 1
 nlim
 a

a
n
(vii) Let  > 0 be given

an a a b  abn a b  ab  ab  abn
  n  n
bn b bn b bn b
| b(a n  a)  a(b  b n ) | | b(a n  a) |  | a(b  b n ) |
 
| bn b | | b n || b |
| b || a n  a |  | a || b n  b | | a n  a | | a || b n  b |
   ...(1)
| b n || b | | bn | | b n || b |
Since lim b n  b,  lim | b n |  | b |

n n
|b|
Taking   0 ( b  0)
2
|b|
 a +ve integer m1 s.t. ||bn| – |b|| <  n  m1
2
|b| |b|
 |b| – < |bn| < |b| +  n  m1
2 2
|b|
 |bn| >  n  m1
2
1 2
   n  m1 ...(2)
| bn | | b |
Also lim a n  a and lim b n  b

n n
|b|
  positive integers m2 and m3 such that |an – a| <  n  m2
4
| b |2 
| bn  b |   n  m3 ...(3)
4(| a | 1)
Let m = max. {m1, m2, m3}, then from (1), (2) and (3), we have
a n a | a n  a | | a | | bn  b |
  
bn b | bn | | b n || b |
2 |b| |a| 2 | b |2 
 .  . . nm
|b| 4 | b | | b | 4(| a | 1)
 |a| 
  .
2 | a | 1 2
 
   nm
2 2
an a
   nm
bn b
an a
 lim b  b
n

Real Analysis
7.6 Some Important Theorems

Theorem : If a sequence {an} converges to a and an  0  n, then a  0.
Proof. If possible, let a < 0.
Since the sequence {an} converges to a,  a +ve integer m s.t.
|an – a| <  for n  m  a –  < an < a +  for n  m
a
Taking  = – > 0 ( a < 0)
2
We have
a a
a + < an < a – for n  m
2 2
a
 an < < 0 for n  m
2
But this contradicts the fact that an  0  n.
Hence a  0.
Theorem : If an  a, bn  b and an  bn  n, then a  b

Proof : Let cn = bn – an  n
Then cn  0  n  b n  an  n
Also Lt cn  Lt b n  Lt a n  b  a
n n n
cn  b – a and cn  0  n
 b – a  0  a  b
Corollary : If an  k  n and lim an = a, then a  k

n 
Let bn = k – an, then bn  0  n
Also lim b n  lim (k  a n )  k  a

n n
 k – a  0  a  k
Theorem : (Squeeze Principle)

If {an}, {bn} and {cn} are three sequences such that
(i) nlim

a n  lim b n  1
n
(ii) for some positive integer p, an  cn  bn  n  p
then lim cn  1
n
Proof. Let  > 0, be given

Since an  l and bn  l,
 positive integers m1 and m2 s.t.
|an – l| <   n  m1
and |bn – l| <   n  m2
 l –  < an < l +   n  m1
and l –  < bn < l +   n  m2
Also an  cn  bn  n  p
Real Analysis
Let m = max. {m1, m2, p},

then l –  < an < l +   n  m
l –  < bn < l +   n  m
and an  cn  bn  n  m
 l –  < an  cn  b n < l +   n  m
 l –  < cn < l +   n  m
 |cn – l| <   n  m
 nlim

cn  l
 1 1 1 
Example : Show that lim    ...   1
2
n
 n 1 n2  2 n2  n 
1 1 1
Solution : Let un =   ... 
2 2 2
n 1 n 2 n n
1 1
We have 
n2  2 n2  1
1 1

2
n 3 n2  1
··· ···
1 1

2
n n n2  1
n
Therefore un < for all n  2.
n2  1
1 1 2
Again,  
2 2 2
n 1 n 2 n 2
1 1 1 3
  
2 2 2 2
n 1 n 2 n 3 n 3
··· ··· ··· ···
n
Therefore un > 2 for all n  2
n n
n n
Thus 2 < un < for all n  2.
n n n2  1
n n
But nlim 2 = 1 and nlim = 1

n n 
n2  1
By Sandwich theorem, lim un = 1.
Theorem : A sequence {an} is a null sequence if and only if the sequence {|an|} is a null sequence.
Proof : Suppose {an} is a null sequence, then lim a n  0

n
 Given  > 0,  a +ve integer m s.t. |an – 0| <   n  m

 |an| <   n  m
 || an | –0 | = || cn || = | an | <   n  m

Real Analysis
 lim | a n |  0
n
 { |an| } is a null sequence

  {an} is null sequence  {|an|} is also null sequence
Now, suppose {|an|} is a null sequence, then lim | a n |  0

n 
 Given  > 0,  a +ve integer m s.t. ||an| – 0| <   n  m

 ||an|| <   n  m
|an| <   n  m
|an – 0| <   n  m
lim a n  0
n
 {an} is a null sequence.

 {an} is a null sequence  {|an|} is also a null sequence.
Hence {an} is a null sequence iff {|an|} is a null sequence.
Theorem : Let {an} be any bounded sequence and {bn}  0 then {an bn}  0.
Proof : As {an} is bounded sequence
 m, M   such that
m  an  M ...(1)
Choose k = Max. {|m|, |M|}
|m|  k, |M|  k
–k  m  k and –k  M  k ...(2)
From (1) and (2)
–k  m  an  M  k
 –k  an  k
 |an|  k
And {bn}  0
As |an|  k
0  |an bn|  k|bn| ( bn  0  |bn|  0)
i.e. {|anbn|} is squeezed between the constant sequence 0 and k|bn|.
Both of them converge to zero.
 By squeeze theorem
{|an bn|}  0
 {an bn}  0 ( bn  0  |bn|  0)
(1) n sin n
Example : {xn} =
n
(1) n
= sin n
n
(1) n
= an bn ; where an = , bn = sin n
n
As an  0 and bn is bounded.
 xn  0

Real Analysis
a n 1
Theorem : If {an} is a sequence such that an  0 for any n and  l where |l| < 1, then an  0
an
Proof : Since | l | < 1, therefore, we can choose 0 > 0 s.t. | l | + 0 = h < 1 ...(1)
a n 1
Since  l, therefore, there exists a positive integer m such that
an
a n 1
 l  0  n  m
an
a n 1  a n 1  a
Now   l   l  n 1  l  | l |
an  an  an
< 0 + | l |  n  m
a n 1
 h  n  m [By (1)]
an
Replacing n by m, m + 1, m + 2, ..., n – 1 and multiplying the corresponding sides of the resulting (n – m) inequalities,
we have
a m 1 a m  2 a m  3 a
. . .... n  h n  m
am a m 1 a m  2 a n 1
a m 1 a m  2 a m  3 a
 . . ... n  h n  m
a m a m 1 a m  2 a n 1
an
  h n m
am
n  | am | 
 an  h  m   n  m ...(2)
 h 
Also, since 0 < h < 1, therefore, hn  0.
Thus, given  > 0,  a positive integer p such that
hm
| hn |  np ...(3)
| am |
m
 | a |  h  | am |
Let q = max. {m, p}, then |an| < hn  mm   . m   n  q [By (2) and (3)]
 h  | am | h
 |an| <   n  q
 an  0
Example : xn = n2 an, where 0 < a < 1

Solution : xn  0  n
x n 1 (n  1) 2 a n 1
Lt  Lt
n xn n n2 a n
2
 1
 Lt  1   a
n
 n
= a
 Lt x n  0
n

Real Analysis
Theorem (Cauchy's First Theorem on Limits) : If {an} converges to l, then the sequence {xn} where
a1  a 2  ...  a n
xn  also converges to l
n
a1  a 2  ...  a n
Lt a n  l  Lt l
n n n
Proof : Let bn = an – l, then Lt b n  Lt a n – l = l – l = 0

n n
 bn  0 ...(i)
Also  an = bn + l
(b1  l )  (b 2  l )  ...  (b n  l )
xn 
n
(b1  b 2  ...  b n )  nl b1  b 2  ...  b n
  l
n n
 In order to prove that xn  l, it is enough to prove that
b1  b 2  ...  b n
0 ...(ii)
n
From (i),  bn  0
 Given  > 0,  a +ve integer m s.t. |bn| < /2 for n  m ...(iii)
Again bn  0  the sequence {bn} is convergent
 {bn} is bounded
  a real number M > 0 s.t. |bn| < M  n ...(iv)
Now let us prove (ii),
b1  b 2  ...  b n b  b 2  ...  b n b  b 2  ...  b n
0  1  1
n n |n|
1
 | b1  b 2  ... b m  b m 1  ... b n | [ n  N  | n | = n]
n
1
 | b1 |  | b 2 | ... | b m |  | b m 1 | ... | ... | b n |  
n
1  
   M  M...m times      ...  n  m  times  [Using (iv) and (iii)]
n 2 2 
b1  b 2  ...  b n 1 
  0   mM   n  m  
n n 2
b1  b 2  ...  b n mM (n  m) mM   nm m 
 0      n  1  n  1
n n 2n n 2  
mM  n 2 2mM
Now  if  i.e. if n 
n 2 mM  
2mM
If p is a natural number > and q = max. {m, p}, then

b1  b 2  ...  b n  
0     n  q
n 2 2
b1  b 2  ...  b n
 0
n
a1  a 2  ...  a n
 From (ii) xn  l i.e.,  l.
n
Real Analysis
1 1 1
Example : xn =  1   ...  
n 2 n
1
Solution : Let xn = , then Lt xn = 0
n n 
 By Cauchy's first theorem on limits

x1  x 2  ...  x n
Lt 0
n  n
1 1 1
 nLt  1   ....    0
 n 2 n
Example : If an > 0  n and Lt an = l > 0

n 
1/n
then Lt (a1, a2 ... an) = l
n 
Solution : As Lt an = l
n 
 Lt log an = log l
n 
By Cauchy's first theorem on limits

log a1  log a 2  ...  log a n
Lt  log l
n  n
1
 nLt log  a1 ...a n   log l
 n
1/ n
 nLt

log  a1 ...a n   log l
1/ n
 nLt

 a1 ...a n  l
Cauchy's Second Theorem on Limits.

1/ n a n 1
If {an} is a sequence of positive terms, then Lt an   Lt provided the limit on the right hand side exists,
n n an
whether finite or infinite.
a n 1
Proof. Case I. Let Lt = l where l is limits. Then given  > 0, a +ve integer m s.t.
n an
a n 1 
l   n  m
an 2
 a n 1 
 l 2  a l 2  n  m
n
Putting n = m, m + 1, m + 2, ..., n – 1, we have

 a m 1 
l  l
2 am 2
 a m2 
l  l
2 a m 1 2
 a m 3 
l  l
2 a m2 2
·························
·························
 an 
l  l
2 a n 1 2
Real Analysis
Multiplying the above (n – m) inequalities, we have

n m nm
  a  
l    n  l  
 2 am  2 
m 1 m
1 1
  n  a n   n
 l     n   l  
 2  am   2
m m
1 1
1/ n   n 1/ n 1/ n   n
 a m  l    an   am  l  
 2  2
m
1
  n 
Now as n  , (am)1/n l    l –
 2  2
m
1
1/ n   n 
and  a m  l   l
 2 2
 For above  > 0,  +ve integers m1 and m2 s.t.
m
1
1/ n   n   
am  l    l   
 2  2  2  n  m1
m
1
1/ n   n   
and am  l    l     n  m2
 2  2 2
m
1
   1/ n   n   
  l     am   l    l     n  m1
 2 2  2  2 2
m
1
   1/ n   n   
and  l      a m   l     l     n  m2
 2 2  2  2 2
m
1
1/ n   n
 l    am  l   l  n  m1 ...(ii)
 2 
m
1
1/ n   n
and l   a m  l   l  n  m2 ...(iii)
 2
If p = max. {m1, m2}, then combining (i), (ii) and (iii), we have
m m
1 1
  n   n
1/n
l  
1/n 1/n
l –  < (am) < (an) < (am) l   < 1 +   n  p
 2  2
 l –  < (an)1/n < l +    n  p
1/ n
 Lt an  1
n
a n 1
Case II. Let Lt  
n an
1
an a n 1
 Lt 0  Lt  0 (finite)
n a
n 1
n 1
an
1/ n
 1 
 n Lt   0 [by Case I]

 an 
 Lt a1/n n  
n

Real Analysis
Example : Lt xn ; where xn = (n!)1/n

n
Solution : Let an = n! then an+1 = (n + 1)!

a n 1 (n  1)!
  n 1
an n!
a n 1
Lt 
n  an
By Cauchy's Second theorem on limits,
1/ n
Lt  a n  
n 
1/ n
 nLt

 n! 
7.7 Cauchy Sequence

Let {an} be any sequence. Then {an} is said to be cauchy sequence if for any  > 0,  m  N such that |an – am|
<   n  m.
Or
If for any  > 0,  m   such that |am+p – am| <   p > 0 and p  .
Theorem : Every Cauchy sequence is bounded
Proof : Let {an} be any cauchy sequence
Take  = 1, by definition
 m   such that
|an – am| < 1  n  m
 am – 1 < an < am + 1  n  m
Let k = min {a1, a2, ..., am–1, am – 1}
K = max {a1, a2, ..., am–1, am + 1}
then k  an  K  n  
 {an} is bounded.
Note : Converse is not true
Take {an} = (–1)n.
Theorem : (Cauchy's General Principle of Convergence) A sequence is convergent  it is a cauchy sequence.

Proof : Let {an} be convergent sequence and converging to 'l'.
We shall show that it is a Cauchy sequence.
Let  > 0 be given. Then there exists a positive integer m such that

|an – l| <  n  m ...(1)
2

In particular, for n = m, we have |am – l| < ...(2)
2
Now, |an – am| = |(an – l) – (am – l)|  |an – l| + |am – l|
 
<  =   n  m [Using (1) and (2)]
2 2
Thus |an – am| <    n  m
 {an} is a Cauchy sequence.

Real Analysis
Conversely, let {an} be a Cauchy sequence.

Since every Cauchy sequence is bounded, therefore, {an} is bounded.
Since every bounded sequence has a cluster point (Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem), {an} has a cluster point l (say).
We shall show that {an} converges to l.
Let  > 0 be given. Since {an} is a Cauchy sequence,  a positive integer m such that

|an – am| <  n  m ...(3)
2
Since l is a cluster point of {an}, every nbd of l contains infinitely many terms of {an}
  
 an   l  , l   for infinitely many values of n.
 3 3
In particular, we can find a positive integer k > m such that
  
an  l  , l   ...(3)
 3 3 

i.e., | a n  l |  ...(4)
3

Also, since k > m, therefore, from (3), we have |ak – am| < ...(5)
3
Now |an – l| = |(an – am) + (am – ak) + (ak – l)|
 |an – am| + |am – ak| + |ak – l| = |an – am| + |ak – am| + |ak – l|
  
<   =  [Using (3), (4), (5)]
3 3 3
Thus |an – l| <   n  m
 {an} converges to l.
Note : 1. The importance of Cauchy's General principle of convergence lies in the fact that it decides the convergence
of a sequence without any idea of the limit of the sequence.
2. Cauchy's General Principle of Convergence can be stated as follows :
A sequence {an} is convergent  for each  > 0,  m   such that
|an – am| <   n > m
x n 1  x n  2
Example : Let x1 = 0, x2 = 1, and for n  3, define x n  . Which of the following is/are true ?
2
(CSIR NET MA June 2016)
1
(1) {xn} is a monotone sequence. (2) lim n  x n 
2
2
(3) {xn} is a cauchy sequence. (4) lim n  x n 
3
Solution : (3,4)
x n 1  x n  2 1 3 5
x1 = 0, x2 = 1, x n   0,1, , , ,....
2 2 4 8
1 1 1 1
Clearly is not a monotone sequence of differences is 1,  , ,  , ,.... which is G.P. with common ratio
xn
2 4 8 16
–1/2 and given sequence is sequence of partial sum of this G.P.

Real Analysis
n 1
 1
   1 2  1
n 1

2
 xn    1     
 1  3   2 
   1 
 2 
2
Therefore xn is cauchy sequence and convergent to .
3
7.8 Peak Point of a Sequence

A natural number m is called a peak point of the sequence {an} if an < am  n > m.
Example :
(i) an = (–1)n has no peak point.
1
 ; n5
(ii) an   n
 n; n  5
then 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are peak points
 1, n  1, 2,..., m
(iii) an  
 1, nm
Then m is the only peak point.
Theorem : Every sequence contains a monotonic subsequence.

Proof : Let {an} be any sequence. Then three cases arise according as it has no peak point, finitely any peak point
or infinitely many peak points.
Case (i) : The sequence has no peak point.
Since 1 is not a peak point,  a natural number n2 > 1 such that a n 2 > a1.
Again, since n2 is not a peak point  a natural number n3 > n such that a n3  a n 2 .
Repeating the above argument, we get a subsequence
{a n k } so that a n1  a n 2  a n3  ... where n1  1
Thus the sequence {an} contains a monotonically increasing sequence {a n k } .
Case (ii) : The sequence has a finite number of peak points.
Let m be the largest peak point. Let n1 be a natural number such that n1 > m, then n1 is not a peak point.
  a natural number n2 > n1 such that a n 2  a n1
Again n2 is not a peak point.
  a natural number n3 > n2 such that a n3  a n 2
Repeating the above argument, we get a subsequence {a n k } so that a n1  a n 2  a n3  ...
Thus the sequence {an} contains a monotonically increasing sequence {a n k } .

Case (iii) : The sequence has an infinite number of peak points.
Let the peak points be n1, n2, n3, ... such that n1 < n2 < n3 < ...
 n1 is a peak point and n2 > n1 therefore, a n  a n 2 1
 n2 is a peak point and n3 > n2, therefore, a n  a n . 3 2
Repeating the above argument, we get a subsequence {a n k } so that a n1  a n 2  a n3 > ...
Thus the sequence {an} contains a monotonically decreasing sequence {a n k } .

Real Analysis
Theorem : Every bounded sequence in  contains a convergent subsequence.

Proof. Let {an} be a bounded sequence.
Since every sequence has a monotonic subsequence, therefore, {an} has a monotonic subsequence, say {a n k } .
Since {an} is bounded, therefore, the subsequence {a n k } is also bounded.
Now {a n k } is a bounded monotonic sequence, therefore, {a n k } is convergent.

Hence {an} has a convergent subsequence.
7.9 Limit Superior and Limit Inferior of Sequence

Let {an} be a bounded sequence then the sequence has the least and the greatest limit point.
The least limit point of {an} is called limit infinite of {an} and is denoted by Lt inf a n .
n 
The greatest limit point {an} is called limit superior of {an} and is denoted by Lt sup a n .
n 
Note :
1. If {an} is unbounded above the Lt sup a n = 

n 
If {an} is unbounded below then Lt inf a n = –.

n 
2. Since the greatest limit point of sequence {an}  the least limit point of sequence {an}
Lt sup a n  Lt inf a n .
n  n 
Example :
(i) an = (–1)n.
Set of limit point = {–1, 1}
 Lt sup a n  1 and Lt inf a n  1.

n  n 
1
(ii) an =
n
Set of limit point = {0}
 Lt sup a n  0  Lt inf a n .
n  n 
n
(iii) an = (–1)
As sequence is neither bounded above nor bounded below.
Lt sup a n   and Lt inf a n  
n  n 
Note :
(i) If sequence is bounded below then Lt inf a n = infimum of set of limit point of sequence an.
n 
(ii) If sequence is bounded above then Lt sup a n = supremum of set of limit point of sequence an.
n 
(iii) If sequence is bounded then Lt sup a n = supremum of set of limit point of sequence an.
n 
Lt inf a n = infinum of set of limit points of sequence an.

n 

Real Analysis
7.10 Classification of Sequence

1. A sequence is said to be convergent  nLt

sup a n  Lt inf a n (finitely)
n 
2. A sequence is said to be divergent  nLt


sup a n  Lt inf a n (inf initely)
n 
3. A sequence is said to be oscillatory  nLt


sup a n  Lt inf a n .
n 
Important
A sequence of purely irrational number can converge to a rational number
And, a sequence of purely rational number can converge to a irrational number.
Let   C
for any n  
 1 1
xn     ,      \ 
 n n
1
then |xn – | < ...(1)
n
Any By Archimedian property ; for any  > 0
 m   such that
1
 nm ...(2)
n
From (1) & (2);
1
|xn – | < <   n  m
n
i.e. |xn – | <   n  m
x 
 nLt xn   ; n for n  
 xn  
Hence, sequence of purely rational number can converge to irrational number.
Similarly, we can prove the other statement.
8. Series of Real Numbers
8.1 Definition
Let {an} be a sequence of real numbers, then a n  a1  a 2  a 3 ...; is defined as a series of real numbers.
8.2 Sequence of Partial Sum

Let a n be any series.
n
Define Sn   a r
r 1
i.e., S1 = a1
S2 = a1 + a2

Sn = a1 + ... + an
Then {Sn} is called sequence of partial sum of a n .

Real Analysis
8.3 Behaviour of Series
a n is convergent /divergent/oscillatory
 its sequence of partial sum does so.
Example :
1
(i) n
1 1
Here Sn  1  ... 
2 n
and we know Sn is divergent.
1
 n is divergent.
1
(ii)  n(n  1)
Here Sn = a1 + a2 + ... + an
1
where a n  n(n  1)
Now, Sn = a1 + ... + an
1 1 1
As a n   
n(n  1) n n  1
 Sn = a1 + a2 + ... + an
1 1   1 1  1 1 
         ...    
1 2   2 3   n n 1
1
1
n 1
and nlim

Sn  1
 a n is convergent.
(iii) a n
where an = (– 1)n.
 Sn = a1 + a2 + ... + an
0; n  even

1; n  odd
Here, Sn oscillates finitely.
 a n oscillates.
8.4 Theorem (Necessary condition for Convergence of Series)
If a n is convergent then lim a n  0

n 
Proof : Let Sn denotes sequence of partial sum.

As a n is convergent
 Sn is convergent.
 lim Sn  s (say)
n 

Real Analysis
 nlim

Sn 1  s
Now, Sn = a1 + ... + an
Sn–1 = a1 + ... + an-1
Sn – Sn–1 = an
 nlim(S

n  Sn 1 )  lim a n
n 
 nlim

a n  lim Sn  lim Sn 1  s  s  0
n  n 
 nlim

an  0
But converse is not true

1 1
n is divergent but nlim 0
 n
Note : If lim a n  0  a n is not convergent.

n 
Theorem : A positive term series either converges or diverges to + .

Proof : Let a n be a positive term series
Let {Sn} denote sequence of partial sum.
Consider
Sn+1 – Sn = (a1 + ... an+1) – (a1 + ... + an)
= an+1 > 0 ( an > 0 n)
 Sn+1 > Sn
{Sn} is monotonically increasing sequence.
Case-I : If {Sn} is bounded above.
Since {Sn} is monotonically increasing and bounded above
 {Sn} is convergent.
 a n is convergent.
Case-II : If {Sn} is not bounded above.
Since {Sn} is monotonically increasing and not bounded above.
 {Sn} diverges to .
 a n is divergent.
Theorem : Let an > 0  n  , then a n is convergent  sequence of its partial sum is bounded above.
Proof : Let {Sn} denotes sequence of partial sum of a n .

Let {Sn} be bounded above. ...(i)
Consider
Sn+1 – Sn = an > 0
 {Sn} is monotonically increasing. ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
{Sn} is convergent.
 a n is convergent.

Real Analysis
Conversely
Let a n be convergent series.

 {Sn} is convergent sequence.
 {Sn} is bounded. ( Every convergent sequence is bounded)
 {Sn} is bounded above.
8.5 Cauchy's General Principle of Convergence of Series
a n is convergent  for any   0  m   such that

|am+1 + am+2 + ... an| <   n > m
Proof : a n is convergent  sequence {Sn} of it's partial sum is convergent.

By Cauchy's General Principle of convergence for sequence {Sn} is convergent  for any   0  m   such that
|Sn – Sm| <   n > m.
As, |Sn – Sm| <   n > m.
 |am+1 + am+2 + ... + an| <   n > m.
Theorem : If u n and v n converge to u and v respectively, then  (u n  vn ) converges to u + v..

Proof : Let Un = u1 + ... + un
Vn = v1 + ... + vn
Sn = (u1 + v1) + (u2 + v2) + ... + (un + vn)
= (u1 + ... + un) + (v1 + v2 + ... + vn) = Un + Vn
Since u n converges to u,
lim U n  u
n 
v n converges to v,,
lim Vn  v
n 
 nlim

Sn  lim(U n  Vn )  lim U n  lim Vn
n  n  n 
= u + v
Hence  (u n  vn ) converges to u + v..
n 1
Example : Let Sn   k 1 . Which of the following is true ? [CSIR NET MA Dec. 2015]
k
n
(1) S2n  for every n  1 (2) Sn is bounded sequence.
2
Sn
(3) S2n  S2n1  0 as n   (4)  1 as n  
n
Solution : (1)
n
1 1 1 1
Sn    1    .... 
k 1 k 2 3 n

Real Analysis
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 1  ...  n 1
 ...  n
2 3 4 5 8 2  1 2
 S2n  1   
  2.
1
.
4 2n 1
 n
2 4 8 2
n
on R.H.S. there are n block each of which sums to a value greater than 1/2. So, S2n  for every n  1.
2
Some Important Test of Convergence

A. Comparison Test
Let u n and v n be two series of positive real numbers and there is a natural number m such that un  kvn for
all n  m, k being a fixed positive number.
Then (i) u n is convergent if v n is convergent,
(ii) v n is divergent if u n is divergent.

Proof : Let sn = u1 + u2 + ... + un,
tn = v1 + v2 + ... + vn
Then sn – sm = um+1 + um+2 + ... + un
  k(vm+1 + vm+2 + ... + vn)
= k(tn – tm)
or sn  ktn + h where h = sm – ktm, a finite number.
(i) Let v n be convergent. Then the sequence {tn} is bounded.

Let B be an upper bound. Then tn < B for all n  .
Therefore sn < kB + h for all n  m.
This shows that the sequence {sn} is bounded above. {sn} being a monotone increasing sequence bounded above, is
convergent.
Therefore u n is convergent.
(ii) Let u n is divergent. Then the sequence {sn} is not bounded above. Since sn  ktn + h, the sequence {tn} is
not bounded above. Therefore the series v n is divergent.
Example : Let {xn} be an arbitrary sequence of real numbers. Then [CSIR NET MA June 2016]
(1)  n 1 | x n |p   for some 1 < p   implies n 1 | x n |q   for any q > p.
(2) n 1 | x n |p   for some 1 < p <  implies n 1 | x n |q   for any 1  q < p
(3) Given any 1 < p < q < , there is a real sequence {xn} such that  n 1 | x n |p   but n 1 | x n |q  
(4) Given any 1 < q < p < , there is a real sequence {xn} such that  n 1 | x n |p   but n 1 | x n |q  
Solution : (1,4)
p p
(i)  x n    x n  0
p
 x n    0,    1  n  m
q p
 x n  x n  n  m,q  p
q
  xn is convergent by comparison tests.

Real Analysis
2
1 1
(ii)  is convergent but  is not convergent.
n n
(iii) Not true by first option.
1 3 3 3/ 2
(iv)  x n   then  x n is convergent  x n is convergent by  x n is divergent.
n 2/3
B. Limit Form
un
Let u n and v n be two series of positive real numbers and lim  l where l is non-zero finite number..
vn
Then the two series u n and v n converge or diverge together..
Proof : l > 0
un
Let us choose a positive  such that l –  > 0. There is a natural number m such that l     l   for all n  m.
vn
Therefore un < kvn for all n  m where k = l +  > 0 ...(i)
1
and vn < k'un for all n  m where k '  0 ...(ii)
l 
By comparison test A, it follows from (i) that u n is convergent if v n is convergent and v n is divergent
if u n is divergent.
By comparison test A, if follows from (ii) v n is convergent if u n is convergent and u n is divergent if v n
is divergent.
Therefore the two series u n and v n converge or diverge together..
un u
Note : If lim  0 , then for a pre-assigned positive number  there exists a natural number m such that 0  n  
vn vn
for all n  m.
Therefore u n is convergent if v n is convergent.
un u
If lim   , then for a pre-assigned positive number G there exists a natural number m such that n  G for all
vn vn
n  m.
Therefore, u n is divergent if v n is divergent.
D'Alembert's Ratio Test
u n 1
Let u n be a series of positive real number and let lim  l. Then u n is convergent if l < 1, u n is
un
divergent if l > 1.
Proof : Case-I : l < 1.
Let us choose a positive  such that l +  < 1.
u n 1
Since lim  l , there exists a natural number m such that
un
u n 1
l    l   for all n  m.
un
Let l +  = r.
Real Analysis
Then 0 < r < 1.
u m 1 u u
We have  r, m  2  r, ..., n  r , where n > m.
um u m 1 u n 1
un
Consequently,  r n  m for all n > m
um
um n
or u n   r for all n > m.
rm
um n n
is a positive number and r is a geometric series of common ratio r where 0 < r < 1 and therefore r
rm
is convergent. Therefore u n is convergent by Comparison test.
Case-II : l > 1.
Let us choose a positive  such that l –  > 1.
u n 1
Since lim  l , there exists a natural number k such that
un
u n 1
l  l   for all n  k.
un
Let l –  = p. Then p > 1.
u k 1 u u
We have  p, k  2  p, ..., n  p, where n > k.
uk u k 1 u n 1
un u n
Consequently,  p n  k for all n > k or un > kk  p for all n > k.
uk p
uk n n
is a positive number p is a geometric series of common ratio p > 1 and therefore p is divergent.
pk
Therefore u n is divergent by Comparison test.
Cauchy's Root Test
Let u n be a series of positive real numbers and let lim u1/n

n l
. Then u n is convergent if l < 1, u n is
divergent if l > 1.
Proof : Case-I : l < 1.
Let us choose a positive  such that l +  < 1.
Since lim u1/n
n  l,
there exists a natural number m such that
l    u1/n
n  l   for all n  m
or (l – )n < un < (l + )n for all n  m.

Let l +  = r.
Then 0 < r < 1 and un < rn for all n  m.
n n
But r is a geometric series of common ratio r where 0 < r < 1. So r is convergent.
Therefore u n is convergent by Comparison test.

Real Analysis
Case-II : l > 1.
Let us choose a positive  such that l –  < 1.
1/n
Since lim u n  l , there exists a natural number k such that
l    u1/n
n  l   for all n  k
or (l – )n < un < (l + )n for all n  k.
Let l +  = p.
Then p > 1 and un > pn for all n  k.
n n
But p is a geometric series of common ratio p > 1. So p is divergent.
Therefore u n is divergent by Comparison test.
Cauchy's Condensation Test

Let {f(n)} be a monotone decreasing sequence of positive real numbers and a be a positive integer > 1.
 
n
Then the series  f (n) and a f (a n ) converge or diverge together..
1 1
Proof : Grouping the terms of  f (n) as {f(1)} + {f(2) + ... + f(a)} + {f(a + 1) + ... + f(a2)} + ... and ignoring
the first term, let v n be the new series.
Then vn = f(an–1 + 1) + f(an–1 + 2) + ... + f(an) for all n  1. The number of terms in vn is an – an–1. Since {f(n)}
is a monotone decreasing sequence, each term of vn  f(an–1 + 1) and  f(an).
Therefore (an – an–1) f(an)  vn for all n  1
a 1 n
or a f (a n )  u n for all n  1.
a
Let wn = an f(an).
a
Then w n  v n for all n  1.
a 1
a
is positive. By Comparison test, w n is convergent if v n is convergent and v n is divergent if w n
a 1
is divergent. ...(A)
n n–1 n–1 n n–1 n–1
Again, vn  (a – a ) f(a + 1)  (a – a ) f(a ) for all n  2.
That is, vn  (a – 1)wn–1 for all n  2.
a – 1 is positive. By comparison test, v n is convergent if w n is convergent and w n is divergent if v n
is divergent. ...(B)
From (A) and (B), v n and w n converge or diverge together. But v n and  f (n) converge or diverge
ge
together.
n
Therefore  f (n) and w n i.e.,  f (n) and a f (a n ) converge or diverge together..

1
Example : Discuss the convergence of the series n p
,p0
n 1
1
Solution : Let f (n) 
np
As, p > 0, the sequence {f(n)} is a monotone decreasing sequence of positive real number.

Real Analysis
By Cauchy's condensation test

n
 f (n) and a f (a n ) converge or diverge together..
1
2 n f (2n ) 
2 n (p 1)
n
 1 
  2p 1  is a geometric series and it converges if p > 1 and diverges if p  1.
1
  p is convergent when p > 1 and is divergent when 0 < p  1.
n
1 1 1
Example : Discuss the convergence of series 2
 2
  ...
1 2 23 3  42

1 1 1
Solution : Let u
n 1
n 
1 2 2
 
2  3 3  42
2
 ...
1
Then u n 
n(n  1) 2
1
Let v n 
n3
un
lim 1
n  vn
 By limit test, both the series behave like
1
As n 3 is convergent.
 u n is convergent.
x 2 x3
Example : Discuss the convergence of the series x    ..., x  0
2 3

x2 x3
Solution : Let u n x   ...
n 1 2 3
n
x
un 
n
u n 1
lim x
n  un
 By D'Alembert's Ratio test,
u n is convergent if x < 1 and divergent when x > 1.
1 1
when x = 1, series becomes 1    ... and this is divergent.
2 3
Abel's Theorem or Pringsheim Theorem

If u n be a convergent series of positive real numbers and {un} is a monotone decreasing sequence them
lim nun = 0.
Proof : Since u n is convergent, for a pre-assigned positive  there exists a natural number m such that

| u n 1  u n  2  ...  u n  p |  for all n  m and for every natural number p.
2
Let n = m.

Real Analysis

Then um+1 + um+2 + ... + um+p < for every natural number p.
2
But um+1 + um+2 + ... + um+p  pum+p, since {un} is a monotone decreasing sequence.

Consequently, pu m  p  for every natural number p.
2
Let p = m
Then 2mu2m <  ...(i)
Let p = m + 1

Then (m  1)u 2m 1 .
2
Therefore, (2m + 1)u2m+1 < (2m + 2)u2m+1 <  ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii) it follows that nun <  for all n  2m.
This shows that lim nun = 0.
8.6 Alternating Series

It is a series of the form

n
  1 u
n 1
n
where un  0, n = 1,2,3,4, ...

For example:

n 1
  1
n 1
 1  1  1  1  1  1......

n 1 n 1 2 3 4
  1
n 1
     ....
n 1 2 3 4 5
Theorem : Leibnitz's Test

If {un} be a monotone decreasing sequence of positive real numbers and lim un = 0 then the alternating series
u1 – u2 + u3 – u4 + ... is convergent.
Proof : Let sn = u1 – u2 + u3 – ... + (– 1)n+1un.
Then s2n+2 – s2n = u2n+1 – u2n+2  0 for all n  .
The sequence {s2n} is a monotone increasing sequence.
s2n+2 – s2n–1 = – u2n + u2n+1  0 for all n  .
The sequence {s2n+1} is a monotone decreasing sequence.
Again s2n = u1 – u2 + u3 – u4 + ... – u2n
= u1 – (u2 – u3) – (u4 – u5) – ... – u2n < u1
The sequence {s2n} is bounded above.
s2n+1 = u1 – u2 + u3 – u4 + ... + u2n+1
= (u1 – u2) + (u3 – u4) + ... + u2n+1 > u1 – u2
The sequence {s2n+1} is bounded below.
Therefore both the sequence {s2n} and {s2n+1} are convergent. Because lim(s2n+1 – s2n) = lim u2n+1 = 0, both the
sequences {s2n+1} and {s2n} converge to the same limit.
n 1
Hence the sequence {sn} is convergent and consequently the series  (1) u n is convergent.

Real Analysis

(1) n 1
Example :  u n where u n 
n 1 n
The series is monotonic and limit |un| = 0
So by Leibnitz test; u n is convergent.
Absolute and Conditional Convergence

Absolutely Convergent
A series u n is absolutely convergent if the series | u n | is convergent.
Conditionally Convergent
A series which is convergent but is not absolutely convergent is called conditionally convergent.
Theorem : Every absolutely convergent series is convergent.
Proof : Let u n be absolutely convergent, so that | u n | is convergent.

Hence, for any  > 0, by Cauchy's General Principle of convergence,  a positive integer m such that
| un+1 | + | un+2 | + ... + | un+p | < ,  n  m and p  1
Also for all n and p > 1,
| un+1 + un+2 + ... + un+p |  | un+1 | + | un+2 | + ... + | un+p | < ,  n  m and p  1
Hence, by Cauchy's General Principle of convergence the series u n converges.
(1)n
Example : Check the convergence of the series  u n where u n  n2
(1) n
Solution : Given u n 
n2
1
 | u n |
n2
1
As n 2 is convergent.
 | u n | is absolutely convergent.
 u n is convergent.
sin nx
Example : For a fixed value of x,  is absolutely convergent.
n2
sin nx
Solution : Given  n2
sin nx 1
  2
 2
n n
sin nx
  n2
is convergent series.
sin nx
  is absolutely convergent.
n2

Real Analysis
Theorem : If the series u n be absolutely convergent and {vn} be a bounded sequence, then the series u n vn
is absolutely convergent.
Proof : Since the sequence {vn} is a bounded sequence, there exists a positive real number k such that | vn | < k
for all n  .
|un+1 vn+1| + |un+2 vn+2| + ... + |un+p vn+p| < k{|un+1| + |un+2| + ... + |un+p|}
Since u n is absolutely convergent, the series | u n | is convergent. Therefore for a chosen positive  there exists

a natural number m such that |un+1| + |un+2| + ... + |un+p| < for all n  m and for every natural number p.
k
Therefore |un+1 vn+1| + |un+2 vn+2| + ... + |un+p vn+p| <  for all n  m and for every natural number p.
By Cauchy's principle of convergence, the series | u n v n | is convergent and consequently, the series u n v n is
absolutely convergent.

1  1 
Example : Check the absolute convergence of the series u n where u n   2 
n2 log n  n 
1 1
Solution : Let a n  and b n  2
log n n
b n is absolutely convergent and an is a bounded sequence.
 By above result;

u
n2
n is absolutely convergent.
Theorem : Abel's Test
If the sequence {bn} is a monotone bounded sequence and a n is convergent series then the series a n b n is
convergent.
Proof : Let sn = a1 + a2 + ... + an, tn = a1b1 + a2b2 + ... + anbn.
Then tn = s1b1 + (s2 – s1)b2 + (s3 – s2)b3 + ... + (sn – sn–1)bn
= s1(b1 – b2) + s2(b2 – b3) + ... + sn(bn – bn+1) + snbn+1.
Since a n is convergent, the sequence {sn} is convergent. Since the sequence {bn} is monotonic and bounded, {bn}
is convergent.
Therefore snbn+1 tends to a limit ...(i)
Let dn = bn – bn+1. Then either dn  0 for all n, or  0 for all n; and d1 + d2 + ... dn = b1 – bn+1 tends to a definite
limit since {bn} is convergent. Therefore d n is absolutely convergent.
Since the sequence {sn} is bounded and the series d n is absolutely convergent, the series s d n n is absolutely
convergent.
n
Therefore the sequence { s n d n } is convergent ...(ii)
1
From (i) and (ii) it follows that the sequence {tn} is convergent and this proves that the series a n b n is convergent.

Real Analysis

(1) n 1
Ex. Check the convergence of the series  n log n
n2
(1) n 1  1 
Sol. Since  n is convergent series and  log n  is a bounded sequence

(1) n 1
 By Abel's test,  n log n
n2
is convergent.
Theorem : Dirichlet's Test

If the sequence {bn} is a monotone sequence converging to 0 and the sequence of partial sums {sn} of the series a n
is bounded, then the series a n b n is convergent.

Proof : sn = a1 + a2 + ... + an
Let tn = a1b1 + a2b2 + ... + anbn
Then tn = s1b1 + (s2 – s1)b2 + (s3 – s2)b3 + ... + (sn – sn–1)bn
= s1(b1 – b2) + s2(b2 – b3) + ... + sn(bn – bn–1) + snbn+1
Since the sequence {sn} is bounded and lim bn = 0, lim snbn+1 = 0
Let dn = bn – bn+1. Then either dn  0 for all n, or  0 for all n; and d1 + d2 + ... dn (= b1 – bn+1) tends to a definite
limit since lim bn = 0. Therefore d n is absolutely convergent.
Since the sequence {sn} is bounded and the series d n is absolutely convergent, the series s d n n is absolutely
convergent by Theorem.
Hence the series s d n n is convergent and therefore the sequence {tn} is convergent.
This proves that the series a n b n is convergent.
Example : Check the convergence of the series u

n 1
n
( 1)n 1
where u n 
log  n  1
n 1
Solution : As sequence of partial sum  (1) is bounded
 1 
and   is decreasing sequence converging to 0.
 log(n  1) 

 By Dirichlet's Test, u
n 1
n is convergent.
un  | un | u  | un |
Theorem : Let u n be a series of arbitrary terms and p n  , qn  n .
2 2
(i) If u n is absolutely convergent then both  p and  q are convergent. n n
(ii) If  u n is conditionally convergent then both  p and  q are divergent. n n
Proof :
un  | un | u  | un |
(i) Since  u is absolutely convergent, both  u
n n and | u n | are convergent. But p n  , qn  n .
2 2
Hence  p and  q are both convergent.
n n

Real Analysis
(ii) Since u n is conditionally convergent, u n is convergent but | u n | is divergent.

Now |un| = 2pn – un ...(A)
If we assume that p n is convergent then if follows from (A) that | u n | is convergent, a contradiction. Therefore
p n is divergent.
Again |un| = un – 2qn ...(B)
If we assume that q n is convergent then if follows from (B) that | u n | is convergent, a contradiction. Therefore
q n is divergent.
Re-Arrangement of Terms
Theorem : If the terms of an absolutely convergent series be rearranged the series remains convergent and its sum
remains unaltered.
Proof : Let u n be an absolutely convergent series and let the terms be re-arranged in any manner..
Let the new series be  v . Then every u is a v and every v is a u.

n
Let  | u |  s . Then  | u |  u is a series of positive real numbers and u + |u |  2|u |.

n n n n n n
By Comparison test,  (| u |  u ) is convergent. n n
Let  (| u |  u )  s ' .
n n
Then  u  s ' s .
n
Since  | u | and  (| u |  u ) are convergent series of positive real numbers their sums
n n n are not altered by
rearrangement of terms.
Therefore | v |  s and  (| v |  v )  s ' .
n n n
Consequently,  v  s ' s . This shows that  v

n n is convergent and v  u n n . This proves the theorem.
Theorem : Riemann's Theorem

By appropriate re-arrangement of terms, a conditionally convergent series u n can be made
(i) to converge to any number l,
(ii) to diverge to + ,
(iii) to diverge to – ,
(iv) to oscillate finitely.
(v) to oscillate infinitely.

Mathematical Sciences (MSP)
Mathematical Sciences
Model Solved Paper
Duration : 180 minutes Maximum Marks : 200
Read the following instructions carefully.
The question paper is divided in three parts :
Part ‘A’ : This part contains twenty (20) objective type questions. The candidates shall be required to answer
any 15 questions. Each question shall be of two marks. The total marks allocated to this section shall
be 30 out of 200.
Part ‘B’ : This part contains twenty five (25) objective type questions. Each question shall be of three marks.
The total marks allocated to this section shall be 75 out of 200.
Part ‘C’ : This part contains twenty (20) objective type questions. Each question shall be of 4.75 marks. The
total marks allocated to this section shall be 95 out of 200.
» There will be negative marking for PART-A @ 0.5 marks and PART-B @ 0.75 marks and for PART-
C no negative marking for each wrong answer.
Contact Us : Website : www.eduncle.com | Email : support@eduncle.com | Call Us : 7665435300 1

PART-‘A’
1. A two digit number is six times the sum of its digits. If that number is represented as ab, then what will be the
value of ab?
(A) 625 (B) 1024
(C) 256 (D) 150
2. A gardener was asked to plant flowers in a row containing equal number of plants. He tried to plant 6, 8, 10 and
12 in each row, but 5 plants left in each case but when he planted 13 in a row, no plant was left. Find the least number
of plants with him.
(A) 120 (B) 125
(C) 845 (D) 245
3. The average of five consecutive odd numbers is 47. What is the product of first and fourth number?
(A) 1940 (B) 2008
(C) 2021 (D) 2107
4. The boys and girls in a collegiate school are in the ratio 3 : 2. If 20% of the boys and 25% of the girls are adults,
then what is the percentage of students who are minor?
(A) 78% (B) 58%
(C) 88% (D) 68%
5. A reduction of 10% in the price of rice enables a person to obtain 22 kg more for Rs.250. What is the original
price of rice per kilogram?
(A) Rs.1.35 (B) Rs.1.50
(C) Rs.1.20 (D) Rs.1.24
6. The salary of Nitin increases every year in April by 15%. If his salary in July 2007 was Rs.20000, what was his
salary in September 2009?
(A) Rs.26540 (B) Rs.26450
(C) Rs.24650 (D) Rs.25640
7. If the rate of interest be 4% per annum for the first year, 5% per annum for second year and 6% per annum for
a third year, then what will be the compound interest of Rs.10000 for 3 years?
(A) Rs.1650.80 (B) Rs.1575.20
(C) Rs.1765.20 (D) Rs.2000
8. Two alloys containing copper and iron in the ratio 5 : 8 and 5 : 3 are melted in equal quantities. What is the ratio
of iron and copper in the resulting mixture?
(A) 103 : 105 (B) 15 : 24
(C) 105 : 103 (D) 24 : 15

9. Sanjay bought 40 kilograms of wheat at Rs.12.50 per kilogram and 25 kilograms at Rs.15.10 per kilogram. He mixed
them together. At what rate should he sell the mixture to earn 10% profit?
(A) Rs.13.50 (B) Rs.14.85
(C) Rs.14.75 (D) Rs.13.75
10. A float is drifting in a river, 10 m downstream of a boat that can be rowed at a speed of 10 m minute in still
water. If the boat is rowed downstream, the time taken to catch up with the float
(A) Will be 1 minute
(B) Will be more than 1 minute
(C) Will be less than 1 minute
(D) Can be determined only if the speed of the river is known
11. Ankur, Bindu and Chandu completed a piece of work costing Rs.1800. Ankur worked for 6 days, Bindu for 4 days
and Chandu for 9 days. If their daily wages are in the ratio 5 : 6 : 4, how much amount will be received by Amit?
(A) Rs.800 (B) Rs.600
(C) Rs.900 (D) Rs.750
12. Mamta rolls an ordinary six-sided die repeatedly, keeping track of each number as she rolls, and stopping as soon
as any number is rolled for the fifth time. If Mamta stops after her ninth roll, and the sum of these numbers she has
rolled is 20, then how many combinations of numbers could she have rolled?
(A) 10 (B) 12
(C) 14 (D) 15
13. There is a botanical garden near your pond with a walkway around it. The figure shows the dimensions of the
pond and the walkway. Find the area of the walkway.
7 ft 15 ft
13 ft
35 ft
2
(A) 525 ft (B) 455 ft2
(C) 91 ft2 (D) 662.5 ft2
14. It requires 12 litres of paint to paint the 6 sides of a cube with dimensions 2 m × 2 m × 2 m. The number of
litres of paint required to paint the outside of a rectangular box with dimensions 4 m × 1 m × 8 m is
(A) 40 (B) 44
(C) 45 (D) 47
15. If the height of a pole is 2 3 meters and the length of its shadow is 2 meters, find the angle of elevation of
the sun.
(A) 45° (B) 60°
(C) 30° (D) 90°

16. Select a figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix.
(1) (2) (3) (4)

(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) 4
17. The ratio of a two–digit natural number to a number formed by reversing its digits is 4 : 7. Which of the following
is the sum of all the numbers of all such pairs?
(A) 220 (B) 332
(C) 330 (D) 132
18. Sides of a triangle are 6, 10 and x for what value of x is the area of the triangle will be maximum?
(A) 8 cms (B) 9 cms
(C) 12 cms (D) None of these
19. In this question, there is a certain relationship between two given numbers on one side of : : and one number is
given on another side of : : while another number is to be found from the given alternatives, having the same
relationship with this number as the numbers of the given pair bear. Choose the best alternative.
583 : 293 : : 488 : ?
(A) 291 (B) 288
(C) 487 (D) 281
20. Ms. Deepti Jain invests 11% of her monthly salary, i.e. Rs. 5,236 in Fixed Deposits. Later she invests 19% of
her monthly salary of Life Insurance Policies, also she invests another 7% of her monthly salary on Mutual Funds.
What is the total annual amount invested by Ms. Deepti Jain?
(A) Rs. 2,11,344 (B) Rs. 17,612
(C) Rs. 1,05,672 (D) Rs. 35,324
PART-‘B’
21. Let I = {1}  {2}   for x  . Let (x) = dist(x, l) = inf{|x – y| : y  l}. Then
(A)  is discontinuous somewhere on .
(B)  is continuous on  but not differentiable only at x = 1.
(C)  is continuous on  but not differentiable only at x = 1 and 2.
(D)  is continuous on  but not differentiable only at x = 1, 3/2 and 2.

22. Let {an} be the sequence of consecutive positive solutions of the equation tan x = x and let {bn} be the sequence
of consecutive positive solutions of the equation tan x = x. Then
 1  1  1  1
(A)  n 1
converge but  n 1
diverges (B)  n 1
diverges but  n 1
converges
an bn an bn
 1  1  1  1
(C) Both  n 1
and  n 1
converge (D) Both  n 1
and  n 1
diverge
an bn an bn

23. Which of the following sequence of function f n n 1 not converges uniformly?
(A) fn(x) = xn on [0, 1] (B) fn(x) = xn-1 (1x) on [0, 1]
1  1 1 1 
(C) fn(x) = 2
on  0,  (D) fn(x) = 2
on  ,1
1  nx  2 1  nx 2 
24. Let fn(x) = x1/n for x  [0, 1]. Then,

(A) lim fn(x) exists for all x  [0, 1]. (B) lim fn(x) defines a continuous functions on [0, 1].
n  n 
(C) {fn} converges uniformly on [0, 1]. (D) lim fn(x) = 0 for all x  [0, 1].
n 
 d4f d2f 
25. Let V denote the vector space C5[a, b] over  and W = f  V : 4  2 2  f  0  . Then
 dt dt 
(A) dim(V) =  and dim(W) =  (B) dim(V) =  and dim(W) = 4
(C) dim(V) = 6 and dim(W) = 5 (D) dim(V) = 5 and dim(W) = 4
26. The dimension of the vector space of all symmetric matrices of order n × n (n  2) with real entries and trace
equal to zero is
(A) {(n2 – n)/2} – 1 (B) {(n2 + n)/2} – 1
(C) {(n2 – 2n)2} – 1 (D) {(n2 + 2n)/2} – 1
27. Let S be the set of 3 × 3 matrices. A with integer entries such that the product AAt is the identity matrix. Here
At denotes the transpose of A. Then |S| = ?
(A) 12 (B) 24
(C) 48 (D) 60
z3 dz
28. The value of the integral C  z 2  5z  6  , where C is a closed contour defined by the equation 2|z| – 5 = 0, traversed
in the anti-clockwise direction, is
(A) –16 i (B) 16 i
(C) 8 i (D) 2 i
cot(z)
29. Let I =  (z  i) 2
dz , where C is the contour 4x2 + y2 = 2 (counter clock-wise). Then I is equal to
c
(A) 0 (B) – 2i
  1 22 i
(C) 2 i  2
  (D) 
 sinh    sin h 2 
2
 1 a  2   1  i 
30. Let C   z  2 4   4  dz = 4, where the close curve C is the triangle having vertices at i,   and
z   2 
 
1 i 
  , the integral being taken in anti-clockwise direction. Then one value of a is
 2
(A) 1 + i (B) 2 + i
(C) 3 + i (D) 4 + i
31. Let R be a commutative ring with unity, such that R[X] is a UFD. Denote the ideal (X) of R[X] by 1. Pick each
correct statement from below.
(A) I is prime. (B) If I is maximal, then R[X] is a PID
(C) If R[x] is a Euclidean domain, then I is maximal. (D) If R[X] is a PID, then it is a Euclidean domain.
32. The degree of extension Q( 2  3 2) over the field Q( 2) is

(A) 1 (B) 13
(C) 3 (D) 6
 
33. Let S = A : A  [a ij ]55 , a ij  0 or 1, i, j,  a ij  1, i and  a ij  1, j . Then, the number of elements in S is
 j i 
2 5
(A) 5 (B) 5
(C) 5! (D) 55
34. Consider an n × n(n > 1) matrix A, in which Aij is the product of the indices i and j (namely Aij = ij). The matrix A
(A) has one degenerate eigenvalue with degeneracy (n – 1)
(B) has two degenerate eigenvalues with degeneracies 2 and (n – 2)
(C) has one degenerate eigenvalue with degeneracy n
(D) does not have any degenerate eigenvalue
35. A general solution of the second order equation 4uxx – uyy = 0 is of the form u(x, y) =
(A) f(x) + g(y) (B) f(x + 2y) + g(x – 2y)
(C) f(x + 4y) + g(x – 4y) (D) f(4x + y) + g(4x – y)
36. Let W be the vector space of all real polynomials of degree at most 3. Define T : W  W by (Tp)(x) = p’(x),
where p’ is the derivatives of p. The matrix of T in the basis {1, x, x2, x3} considered as column vectors, is given
by
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
(A)  0 0 2 0 (B)  0 2 0 0
   
0 0 0 3 0 0 3 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 2 3
   
0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0
(C)  0 0 0 3 (D)  0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

37. For V = (V1, V2)  2 and W = (W1, W2)  2, Consider the determinant map.
det : 2 × 2   defined by
det(V, W) = V1W2 – V2W1
Then, the derivative of the determinant map it (V, W)  2 × 2 evaluated on (H, K)  2 × 2 is
(A) det(H, W) + det(V, K) (B) det(H, K)
(C) det(H, V) + det(W, K) (D) det(V, H) + det(K, W)
38. Using the Gauss-Seidel iteration method with the initial guess {x1(0) = 3.5, x2(0) = 2.25, x3(0) = 1.625}, the second
approximation {x1(2), x2(2), x3(2)} for the solution to the system of equations
2x1 – x2 = 7
–x1 + 2x2 – x3 = 1
–x2 + 2x3 = 1
is
(A) x1(2) = 5.3125, x2(2) = 4.4491, x3(2) = 2.1563 (B) x1(2) = 5.3125, x2(2) = 4.3125, x3(2) = 2.6563
(C) x1(2) = 5.3125, x2(2) = 4.4491, x3(2) = 2.6563 (D) x1(2) = 5.4991, x2(2) = 4.4491, x3(2) = 2.1563
39. Let {xn; n  0} be a markov chain with states 0, 1, 2 and with transition probability matrix and initial distribution
1 1 1
=  , , 
3 3 3
 0.75 0.25 0 
P   0.25 0.5 0.25

 0 0.75 0.25
Find P(x2 = 2, x1 = 1, x0 = 2)
(A) 0.625 (B) 0.25
(C) 0.75 (D) 0.5
40. Consider the following Linear Programming Poblem (LPP) :

Maximize Z = 3x1 + 2x2
Subject to x1  4
x2  6
3x1 + 2x2  18
x1  0, x2  0
(A) The LPP has a unique optimal solution (B) The LPP is infeasible
(C) The LPP is unbounded (D) The LPP has multiple optimal solutions.
41. A system of 5 identical units consists of two parts A and B which are connected in series. Part A has 2 units
connected in parallel and part B has 3 units connected in parallel. All the units function independently with probability
1
of failure . Then, the reliability of the system is
2
31 11
(A) (B)
32 32
1 21
(C) (D)
32 32

z
42. The function of a complex variable z has
sin z 2
(A) a simple pole at 0 and poles of order 2 at  n for n = 1, 2, 3, ...
(B) a simple pole at 0 and poles of order 2 at  n and  i n for n = 1, 2, 3, ...
(C) poles of order 2 at  n , n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ...
(D) poles of order 2 at ±n, n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ...
43. Consider an aperiodic Markov chain with state space S and with stationary transition probability matrix P = ((Pij)),
i, j  S. Let the n step transition probability matrix be denoted by pn = ((pnij), i, j  S. Then which of the following
statement is true ?
(A) nlim pini = 0 only if i is transient.


(B) nlim pini > 0 if and only if i is recurrent.


(C) nlim pinj  lim p nj j if i and j are in the same communicating class
 n 
(D) nlim Pinj  lim Piin , if i and j are in the same communicating class.
 n 
44. Let X be a random variable with probability density function f  {f0, f1}, where
 2x, if 0  x  1
f0  x   
 0, otherwise
3x 2 , if 0  x  1
and f1  x   
 0xn , otherwise
For testing the null hypothesis H0 : f  f0 against the alternative hypothesis H1 : f  f1 at level of significance  =
0.19, the power of the most powerful test is
(A) 0.729 (B) 0.271
(C) 0.615 (D) 0.385
45. Let x1, x2, x3, ..., xn n  2 be i.i.d observations from N(0, 2) distribution where 0 < 2 <  is an unknown
parameter. Then, the uniformly minimum variance unbiased estimate for 2 is.
1 n 2 1 n 2
(A) n  x i (B) n  1  x i
i 1 i 1
1 n 2 1 2
(C) n  1  (x i  x) (D)  xi  x 
i 1 n 1
PART - ‘C’

46. Let X denote the two point set (0, 1) and write Xj = {0, 1} for every j = 1, 2, 3 ... Let Y = X j . Which of
j1
the following is/are true ?
(A) Y is a countable set. (B) cardinality Y = cardinality [0, 1].
 n
 
(C)  X j  is uncountable. (D) Y is uncountable.
n 1  j1 

47. Which of the following statements are true for the sequence of functions
1 1 
f n (x)  ; x   , 1 ?
n  x2
2
2 
(A) The sequence is monotonic
(B) Function is pointwise convergent
(C) Function is pointwise convergent but not uniformly
(D) Function is uniformly convergent to 0
1 1
48. Let a n  1   ...   log n; n  1. Then
2 n
(A) an is not monotonic (B) an is monotonically decreasing sequence.
(C) an is convergent. (D) an is bounded but not convergent.
49. Let f :    be a continuous function. Which of the following is always true ?

(A) f–1(U) is open for all open sets U  . (B) f–1(C) is open for all closed set C  .
(C) f–1(K) is open for all compact sets K  . (D) f–1(G) is open for all connected sets G  .
1/ P
 
P
50. For x = (x1, x2, ..., xd)   and p > 1 define ||x||P =   | x j | 
d
and ||x|| = max{|xj| = j = 1, 2, ... d}. Which
 j  1 
of the following inequalities holds for all x  d} ?
(A) ||x||1  ||x||2  ||x|| (B) ||x||1  d ||x||
(C) ||x||1  d ||x|| (D) ||x||1  d ||x||2
51. Let W = {P(B) : P is a polynomial with real coefficients},
0 1 0
 
Where, B =  0 0 1
1 0 0 

The dimension d of the vector space W satisfies
(A) 4  d  6 (B) 6  d  9
(C) 3  d  8 (D) 3  d  4
52. Let aij = aiaj, 1  i, j  b, where a1, ..., an are real numbers. Let A = ((aij)) be the n × n matrix ((aij)). Then choose
the incorrect options.
(A) It is possible to choose a1, ..., an so as to make the matrix A non-singular.
(B) The matrix A is positive definite, If (a1, ..., an) as a non zero vector.
(C) The matrix A is positive semi-definite for all (a1, ..., an).
(D) For all (a1, ..., an) zero is an eigen value of A.
53. Let R be a commutative ring and R[x] be the polynomial ring in over variable over R.
(A) If R is a UFD, then R[x] is a UFD.
(B) If R is a PID, then R[x] is a PID.
(C) If R is an Euclidean domain, then R[x] is an Euclidean domain.
(D) If R is a field, then R[x] is an Euclidean domain.
54. Which of the following is/are not correct ?
(A) If the function f(z) has a simple pole at z = a then res f(a) = lim [(z – a)f(z)]
z a
F(z) F(a)
(B) If the function f(z) = G(z) has a simple pole at z = a then res f(a) = G(a)
(C) The function f(z) = tan(1/z) has a removable singularity at z = 0

(D) None of these
55. Let I1 be the ideal generated by x2 + 1 and I2 be the ideal generated by x3 – x2 + x – 1 in Q[x]. If R1 = Q[x]/
I1 and R2 = Q[x]/I2. Then
(A) R1 and R2 are fields.
(B) R1 is a field and R2 is not a field.
(C) R1 is an Integral domain but R2 is not an integral domain.
(D) R1 and R2 are not integral domains.
a
56. Let * be a binary operation on G = R \ {–1}; defined by a * b =  a, b  R \ {–1}. Then
b 1
(A) (G, *) forms an abelian group. (B) (G, *) does not form group
(C) * is commutative. (D) * is not associative.
57. Let H = {e, (1, 2), (3, 4)} and k = {e1, (1, 2), (3, 4), (1, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4), (2, 3)} be subgroup of S4, where
e denotes the Identify element of S4.
(A) H and K are normal subgroups of S4. (B) H is normal in K and K is normal in A4
(C) H is Normal in A4 but not normal in S4 (D) K is Normal in S4 but H is not.
x2
58. A particle of mass m slides down without friction along a curve z = 1 + in the xz-plane under the action of
2
dx d2 x
constant gravity. Suppose the z-axis points vertically upwards. Let x and x denote and , respectively. The
dt dt 2
Lagrangian of the motion is
1  x2  1  x2 
(A) mx 2 1  x 2   mg  1   (B) mx 2 1  x 2   mg  1  
2  2  2  2 
1 2 2  x2  1 2 2  x2 
(C) mx
 x  mg  1   (D) mx
 1  x   mg  1  
2  2  2  2 
59. Consider the system of equations

 5 1 1   x  10 
 2 4 0   y   12 
    
1 1 5   z   1
Using Jacobi's method with the initial guess [x(0) y(0) z(0)]T = [2.0 3.0 0.0]T, the approximate solution [x(2) y(2) z(2)]T
after two iterations, is
(A) [2.64 –1.70 –1.12]T (B) [2.64 –1.70 –1.12]T
(C) [2.64 1.70 –1.12]T (D) [2.64 1.70 1.12]T

x2 (1  y2 )1/2
60. Consider the functional v[y(x)] =  dx . Then following is/are valid;
x1 x
(1  y2 )1/ 2
If F 
x
F F
(A) = constant (B) F – y’ = constant
y y
(C) extremal of the given functional is a circle. (D) extremal is a straight line.
n
61. Let X1, X2, ... be i.i.d N(0, 1) and let Sn = X
i 1
i be the partial sums. Which of the following is are true ?
Sn  Sn 
(A)  0 almost surely (B) E  0
n  n 
 Sn   S2n 
(C) var  0 (D) var  0
 n   n 
62. Let (X, Y) be a pair of independent random variables with X having exponential distribution with mean 1 and y
having uniform distribution on {1, 2, ..., m} Define Z = X + Y. Then
m 1 m 1
(A) E(Z | X) = X + (B) E(Z | Y) = 1 +
2 2
m2  1
(C) Var(Z | X) = (D) Var(Z | Y) = 1
2
10 10 2
 S
63. Let X1, X2, ..., X10 be a random sample from N(80, 32) distribution. Define S   U i and T    U i  
i 1 i  1 10 
X i  80
where Ui = , i = 1, 2, ..., 10. Then the value of E(ST) is equal to
3
(A) 0 (B) 1
80
(C) 10 (D)
3
64. Let X ~ U( – 1,  + 1). Let –0.71, 0.3, –0.4, –0.63, –0.81, –0.7, 0.1, –0.01, 0.02, –0.96, –0.92. Which of the
following or MLE of ,
(A) –0.96 (B) 0.02
(C) 0.3 (D) –0.54
65. Let X be a binomial random variable with parameter (11, 1/3). At which value(s) of K is P(X = K) maximized?
(A) K = 2 (B) K = 3
(C) K = 4 (D) K = 5

Answer Key
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A C D A D B B C B A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A D B B C C D B B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D B A,C A B B C A D C
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A,B,C,D C C A B C A B A D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
D B C B C B A,B,D B,C A,B,C,D A,B,D
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
C,D A,B,C A,D B,C B,C B,D B,D A C A,C
61 62 63 64 65
D A,C,D A B,D B,C

Solution
PART-‘A’
1. (A) According to the question,

10a + b = 6(a + b); where a represent ten’s place and b unit’s place.
or, 10a + b = 6a + 6b
or, 4a = 5b. Hence, a/b = 5/4.
This shows that ratio of ten’s place digit to unit’s place digit is 5 : 4.
So, the number is 54.
Therefore, ab = 54 = 625.
2. (C) Minimum number of plants with gardener = L.C.M. of (6, 8, 10, 12) + 5 = 120 + 5 = 125.
This number will be repeated at the interval of L.C.M.
Hence the next number will be 125 + 120 = 245 and next number will be 245 + 120 = 365 and so on.
Least number of plants = 120 × 7 + 5 = 845, which is divisible by 13.
3. (D) Let the number be x, x + 2, x + 4, x + 6 and x + 8.

According to the question,
x  x  2 x  4 x 6 x 8
  47
5
5x + 20 = 235
215
x = = 43
5
First number = 43 and fourth number = 43 + 6 = 49.
So, product of first and fourth numbers = 43 × 49 = 2107.
4. (A) Let the boys be 3x and girls 2x.

Number of minors
= 80% of 3x + 75% of 2x
80 75
  3x   2x
100 100
24x  15x 39x
 
10 10
Hence, required percentage
39x 1
=  × 100 = 78%.
10 5x
5. (D) Reduction in 10% corresponds to 22 kg.

 10% corresponds to 22 kilograms.
 100% corresponds to 220 kilograms.
Hence, at new price he can buy 220 kilograms.
Thus, at old price he can buy = 220 – 22 = 198 kilogram
250
Hence, original price = = Rs.1.24 per kilogram.
198

6. (B) According to question,

During the given period of July 2007 to September 2009, the salary of Nitin increased twice.
Thus, the overall increase in the salary
15  15
= 15 × 15 + = 32.25%
100
Hence, the salary in September 2009
20000  132.25
= = Rs.26450
100
  4   5   6 
7. (B) Amount = Rs. 10000   1    1    1  
  100   100   100 
 26 21 53  57876
= Rs. 10000      Rs.  Rs.11575.20
 25 20 50  5
Compound interest
= Rs.(11575.20 – 10000) = Rs.1575.20.
8. (C) Assume the quantity of one alloy = x

5 5 5x 5x
x  x 
Copper 13 8  13 8  105 .

Iron 8 3 8x 3x 103
x  x 
13 8 13 8
9. (B) Cost price of wheat

= (40 × 12.50) + (25 × 15.10) = Rs.877.50
Selling price
110
= 877.50 × = Rs.965.25
100
 Price per kilogram
965.25
= = Rs.14.85.
65
10. (A) The float is 10 m downstream of the boat.

Since there is no external force on the float, then speed of the float = speed of the river.
As we know that, speed of the boat = rowing speed of the boat + speed of the river.
Distance to be covered by the boat = 10 m.
Relative speed of the boat
= speed of the boat – speed of the float.
= (rowing speed of the boat + speed of the river) – speed of the river
= rowing speed of the boat = 10 m/minute.
Hence, time by the boat to catch up with the float
Dis tan ce to be cov ered by the boat 10

=  = 1 minute.
Re lative speed of the boat 10
11. (B) Ratio of wages of Ankur, Bindu and Chandu
= (6 × 5) : (4 : 6) : (9 : 4) = 30 : 24 : 36 = 5 : 4 : 6
Ankur’s share
 5
= Rs.  1800   = Rs.600.
 15 
12. (A) Consider number as: x = 1, then a + b + c + d = 15

Combinations are : (2, 2, 5, 6)
(2, 3, 4, 6)
(2, 3, 5, 5)
(3, 3, 3, 6)
(3, 3, 4, 5)
(4, 4, 4, 3)
(4, 4, 2, 5)
Consider number as : x = 2, then a + b + c + d = 10 (1, 1, 3, 5)
(1, 1, 4, 4)
(3, 3, 3, 1)
Possible number of combinations is 10.
13. (D)
A C
L K
O 7 ft 15 ft M Y
13 ft
13 ft
N X
B D
35 ft
Total area of botanical garden is
(AB / 2) 2 (CD / 2)2
  15  35 
2 2
2
 15 
     525  176.78  525  701 ft 2
 2
The area of the walkway = total area of garden – area of pond = 701 – 38.5 = 662.5 ft2.
14. (B) Total surface area of cube = 6(2 × 2) m2 = 24 m2

Total surface area of rectangular box
= [2(8 × 1) + 2(4 × 1) + 2(8 × 4)]m2
= [16 + 8 + 64]m2 = 88 m2
If 24 m2 needs 12 litre of paint, i.e. 1 litre for every 2 m2, 88 m2 needs 44 litre of paint.
15. (B) Let AB be the pole and AC be its shadow.

B
2 3m

C
2m A
Then, ACB = .
Then, AB = 2 3 m, AC = 2m,
AB 2 3
tan     3
AC 2
So,  = 60°.
16. (C) The third figure in each row comprises of objects common to the first two figures.

17. (C) Let the two digit number be 10a + b and the number formed by reversing its digits be 10b + a.
(10a + b)/(10b + a) = 4/7
70a + 7b = 40b + 4a
66a = 33b
Therefore, a/b = 1/2
So, let us list down all possible values for a and b.
a b Number Reversed Number
1 2 12 21
2 4 24 42
3 6 36 63
4 8 48 84
Hence, the sum of all the numbers would be,
12 + 21 + 24 + 42 + 36 + 63 + 48 + 84 = 330.
The question is "Which of the following is the sum of all the numbers of all such pairs?"
Hence, the answer is "330".
18. (D) Side of a triangle are. 6, 10, x.

Area = 1/2 × 6 × 10 × sinBAC.
Area is maximum, when BAC = 90o
x  (100  36)  136
There is a more algebraic method using hero's formula. Try that also.
The question is "Sides of a triangle are 6, 10 and x for what value of x is the area of the  the maximum?"
Hence, the answer is None of these.
19. (B) Sum of digits of the first number is 2 more than the sum of digits of the second number.
20. (B) Total Investment

 (11% + 19% + 7%) of Monthly salary
= 37 % of Monthly salary
11 % of monthly salary = 5236
37 % of monthly salary
= 476 × 37 = Rs. 17612
PART-‘B’
21. (D) Let I = {1} U {2}  .

For x  .
Let, (x) = dist(x, I) = inf {|x – y| : y  I}
Then the graph of (x) is as follows
y
(x)
x’ x
x=1 x=3/2 x=2
y’

3
Clearly (x) is continuous on  but not differentiable only at x = 1, and 2.
2
Hence, option (D) is correct.
22. (B) Looking at the graphs of the functions x  x and x  tan x for x > 0 we see that the nth positive solution
an of the equation tan x = x satisfies
 1
n  c n   n   .
 2
 1
This immediately implies that  n 1
converges.
bn
The bn however are in bijective correspondence with their square roots cn : b n and the cn > 0 satisfy the equation
 1
tan x = x2. Looking at the graphs of x  x2 and x  tan x for x > 0 we see that in each interval ] n,  n   
 2
[there is exactly one solution cn of this equation, so that
 1
n  c n   n   .
 2
From this we conclude that
1 1 1
  ,
b n c2n n 2 n 2

1
Which then implies that b converges.
n 1 n
23. (A,C)
(A) The function fn(x) = xn on [0, 1] converges pointwise to the function
0, if 0  x  1
f  x   lim x n  
n 
1, if x  1
All of the functions fn are continuous but f is discontinuous.
The convergence is not uniform.
(B) Here, f(x) = lim x n 1 (1  x)  0  x  [0, 1]

n 
Let, y = | f n (x)  f (x) | x n 1 (1  x)
Now y is maximum or minimum when

dy
 (n  1)x n  2 (1  x)  x n 1  0
dx
x n  2 [(n  1)(1  x)  x]  0
n 1
or x = 0 or .
n
d2 y n
A so 2
  ve when x 
dx n
n 1
 1  n 1 1
 M n  max y   1   1     0  0 as n  
 n  n  e
Hence the sequence is uniformly convergent on [0, 1] by Mn-test.

1
(C) f  x   lim f n  x   lim  0  xR
n  n  1  nx 2
1 1
f n (x)  f (x)  2
0  t
1  nx 1  nx 2
1 1 1
  t  1  nx 2   nx 2   1
1  nx 2  
1 1 
 n   1  0 as   0
x2   
1
 fn(x) = is not uniformly convergent.
1  nx 2
1  1  is convergent in any interval not containing zero

(D) fn(x) = on  2 ,1
1  nx 2  
Hence (D) is correct.
24. (A) Let, fn(x) = x1/n  x  [0, 1]

Case I : Let  = 0, then
lim f n ()  lim 0  0
n  n 
Case II : Let  = 1, then
lim f n ()  lim 11/ n  1

n  n 
Case III : Let 0 <  < 1, then
lim f n ()  lim 1/ n  0 ( 0 <  < 1)

n  n 
Therefore,
lim f n  x   f  x 
n 
0, 0    1
where f(x) = 1,  1

Here, f(x) is a discontinuous function. Hence, fn(x) converges f(x) but not uniformly.
Hence, option (A) is correct.
25. (B) Given, V be the vector space C5[a, b] over .

i.e., V be the set of all real valued, n times continuously differentiable functions on the real interval [a, b]
 dim (V) = 
Let any finite set S = {f1(t), f2(t) ... fm(t)} of polynomials in V and let m denote the largest degree of polynomials.
Then any polynomial g(t) of degree exceeding m cannot be expressed as linear combination of elements of S. Thus
S cannot be basis of V. It means dimension of V is infinite.
 d 4f d2f 
and W   f  V : 4
 2 2
 f  0
 dt dt 
i.e., collection of all functions which satisfies 4th order homogeneous differential equation.
So, dim (W) = 4.
26. (B) The dimension of the vector space of all symmetric matrices of order n × n(n  2) with real entries and trace
equal to zero.

n2  n n 2  n  2n  2
  (n  1) 
2 2
n2  n  2 n2  n
  1
2 2
Hence, option (B) is correct.
27. (C) Note that S consist of all matrices having orthogonal rows. A row of length on has one non-zero entry which
is equal to –1 and 1. This gives you 6 choice for the first row. The second has to perpendicular to the first. This
leaves you 4 choices. For the last row you have only one choice left to fill in a non zero-entry. Which gives 2 choices
 Total = 6 × 4 × 2 = 48
28. (A) z2 – 5z + 6 = 0  z2 – 2z – 3z + 6 = 0
 z(z – 2) – 3(z – 2) = 0  z = 3, 2
2|z| = 5  |z| = 2.5
only 2 will be inside.
z3 8
Residue = (z – 2)   8
(z  3)(z  2) z  2 2  3
z 3 dz
   2 i(8)  16 i
C z 2  5z  6
d
29. (D) Residue = lim cot z
z i dt


sin h 2 
From Cauchy residue theorem,
I = 2i(R)

 2i 
sin h 2 
22 i

sin h 2 
2
 1  a  2   4
30. (C) 
C   z  2 4   dz = 4 ...(1)
 z 
where C is triangle having vertices at i,
1  i 1 i
and
2 2
Imagin ary axis
Real axis
 1  i 
  1  i 
 2   
 2

By Cauchy's integral formula.

1
 (z  2) 4
dz  0
C
(a  z) 2 2
C a dz  2i  a  2 
and  4dz  0
C
Hence from Eqn (1), we get

0 – 2i(a – 2)2 + 0 = 4
(a – 2)2 = 2i
Put, a = 3 + i
L.H.S. (a – 2)2 = (3 + i – 2)2
= (1 + i)2
= 1 + i2 + 2i
= 2i = R.H.S.
Hence a = 3 + i
31. (A,B,C,D)
We know, if ring R has unity then
R x
R
x
As R[x] is I.D. ( every U.F.D. is I.D.)
 R is I.D.
 I = <x> is prime ideal.
 Option (A) is correct.
R x
If I is maximal then is field
x
 R is field
 R[x] is P.I.D. ( If F is field then F(x) is P.I.D.)
 Option (B) is correct
If R[x] is E.D.
 R[x] is P.I.D. ( Every E.D. is f P.I.D.)
 R is field (R[x] is P.I.D.  R is field)
 I is maximal.
 Option (C) is correct
If R[x] is P.I.D.
 R[x] is E.D.
 Option (D) is correct.
32. (C) The degree of the extension Q( 2  3 2) over the field Q( 2) is
  Q( 2  3 2) : Q 
  Q( 2  3 2) : Q( 2)   Q( 2) : Q 

Implies 6 =  Q( 2  3 2) : Q( 2)   2
3 6
Implies  Q( 2  2) : Q( 2)    3
2
Hence, option (C) is correct.
 
33. (C) Let, S  A : A  [a ij ]55 , a ij  0 or 1 i,  a ij  1, i and a ij  1, j
 j i 
Then,
1 0 0 0 0 5
1 0 0 0 4
1 0 0 3 Number of ways to filling the bubble
1 0 2
1 1
5×5
Therefore, the total Number of elements in S
= 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5!
1 2
34. (A) If matrix is 2 × 2 let  2 4  then eigen value is given by
 
1   2 
   0  1    4     4  0    0, 5
 2 4  
1 2 3
 
If matrix is 3 × 3 let  2 4 6  then eigen value is given by
3 6 9
 
1   2 3 
 
 2 4 6 0
 3 6 9   

(1 – )[(4 – )(9 – ) – 36] + 2[18 – 2(9 – )] + 3[12 – 3(4 – )] = 0
(1 – )[2 – 13 + 36 – 36] + 2[18 – 18 + 2] + 3[12 – 12 + 3] = 0
2 – 13 – 3 + 132 + 13 = 0  3 – 142 = 0   = 0, 0,  = 14
i.e., has one degenerate eigenvalue with degeneracy 2.
Thus one can generalized that for n dimensional matrix has one degenerate eigenvalue with degeneracy (n – 1).
35. (B) The given partial differential equation is

4uxx – uyy = 0
or equivalently
4D2 – D’2 = 0 ...(i)
The auxiliary eq. of (i) is
4m2 – 1 = 0
1
Implies m2 =
4
1
Implies, m = ±
2

Therefore,
 1   1 
u(x, y) = f  y  x   g  y  x 
 2   2 
= f(x + 2y) + g(x – 2y)
36. (C) Let W be the vector space of all real polynomials of degree at most 3. Defined T : W  W by (TP)(x) =
p’(x), where p’ is the derivative of p.
Let B = {1, x, x2, x3} be an ordered basis of W
Then, T(1) = 0 = 0.1 + 0.x + 0.x2 + 0.x3
T(x) = 1 = 1.1 + 0.x + 0.x2 + 0.x3
T(x2) = 2x = 0.1 + 2.x + 0.x2 + 0.x3
T(x3) = 3x2 = 0.1 + 0.x + 3.x2 + 0.x3
Therefore the required Matrix is
0 1 0 0
0 0 2 0

0 0 0 3
 
0 0 0 0 4 4
37. (A) For, V = (V1, V2)  2 and

W = (W1, W2)  2
Consider the determinant map.
det : 2 × 2   defined by
det(V, W) = V1W2 – V2W1
V1 V2

W1 W2
Then derivative of det(V, W)
V1 V2 V1 V2
 
W1 W2 W1 W2
= V1’W2 – W1V2’ + V1W2’ – V2W1’
= H1W2 – W2H2 + V1K2 – V2K1
= det(H, W) + det(V, K)
38. (B) Given, {x1(0) = 3.5, x2(0) = 2.25, x3(0) = 1.625}

and equation are
2x1 – x2 = 7
–x1 + 2x2 – x3 = 1
–x2 + 2x3 = 1
We can write these equation as
7  x2
x1 =
2

1  x1  x 3
x2 =
2
1  x2
x3 =
2
7  x (0)
2 7  2.25
Now, x1(1) = 
2 2
9.25
= = 4.625
2
(1)
1  x1(1)  x 3
x2 =
2
1  4.625  1.625
=
2
7.25
= = 3.625
2
1  x (1)
2
x3(1) =
2
1  3.625 4.625
=  = 2.3125
2 2
7  x (1)
2
Now, x1(2) =
2
7  3.625 10.625
=  = 5.3125
2 2
1  x1(2)  x 3(1)
x2(2) =
2
1  5.3125  2.3125
=
2
8.625
= = 4.3125
2
1  x (2)
2
x3(2) =
2
1  4.3125
= = 2.6563
2
Hence, x1(2) = 5.315, x2(2)
= 4.3125, x3(2) = 2.6563
39. (A) We need to find P(x2 = 2, x1 = 1, x0 = 2)

i.e. transition from state x2  x1  x0
1
P(x2 = 2, x1 = 1, x0 = 2) =  0.75  0.25  0.25  0.25  0.0625
3
40. (D) Given objective function Zmax = 3x1 + 2x2 and constraints are
x1  4 ...(i)
x2  6 ...(ii)
3x1 + 2x2  18 ...(iii)
x1  0
x2  0

Plot the graph from the given constraints and find the common area.
x2
1
D(0, 9)
E(2, 6)
C(0, 6) 2
F(4, 3)
3
0 x1
A(4, 0) B(6, 0)
Now, we fine the point of intersection E & F.
For E, 3x1 + 2x2 = 18
E is the intersection point of eqution (ii) and (iii)
x2 = 16
So, 3x1 + 12 = 18
x1 = 2
For F, 3x1 + 2x2 = 18
x1 = 4
3 × 4 + 2x2 = 18
x2 = 3
Hence, E(2, 6) or F (4, 3)
Now at point E(2, 6)
Z = 3 × 2 + 2 × 6 = 18
At point F(4, 3) Z = 3 × 4 + 2 × 3 = 18
The objective function and the constraint (represent by equation (iii)) are equal.
Hence, the objective function will have the multiple solutions as at point E & F, the value of objective function
(Z = 3x1 + 2x2) is same.
41. (D) A system of 5 Identical units consists of two Parts A and B which are connected in series. Part A has 2 units
connected in parallel and Part B has units connected in parallel. All the 5 units function independently with probability
1
of failure .
2
x1 y1
y2
L O
x2 y3
According to the figure, system will work if at least one unit of A and atleast one unit of B will works simultaneously.
P (system is in working).
= {1 – P (A failed)} × {1 – P (B failed)}
= 1  P(x1x 2 )1  P(y1 y2 y3 )
 1 1   1 1 1  21
= 1    1     
 2 2  2 2 2  32

z z
42. (B) f  z   
sin z 2 sin z 2
z 2
z 2
sin z 2
at z = 0, it is a simple pole since, lim = 1
z 0 z 2
Also, sin pz2 = sin np  pz2 = ±np, z =  n ,  i n
 · sinzz
2
lim z  n
 2 , exists. So its pole of order 2.
z n
43. (C) Consider an aperiodic markov chain with state space S and with stationary transition probability matrix.
p((p)), i, j  S
Let the n step transition probability matrix be denoted by pn = ((pijn)), i, j  S. Then the result holds from equivalence
class property of community class, and by part Independence, of Markov process.
44. (B) According to Neyman Pearson's lemma most powerful critical region for testing the said hypothesis is
f0 2x
c  c  xk
f1 3x 2
where k is given by
 H 
P  reject 0   0.19
 H0 
1
i.e.,  2xdx  0.19

k
 k  0.9
 H 
therefore power P  reject 0 
 H1 
1
2
i.e.,  3x
0.9
dx  0.271
45. (C) Let x1, x2, ..., xn, n  2 be i.i.d observations from (0, 2) distribution, where 0 < 2 <  is an unknown
parameter.
If mean is unknown, then (A) is the correct option. The results holds form lehmann-scheffe Theorem.
1
For unknown mean
n 1
 (x i  x)2 will be UMUE estimate for 2.
PART - ‘C’

46. (B) Let X denote the two point set {0, 1} and write Xj = {0, 1} for every j = 1, 2, 3 .. and Y = X
j1
j . Then
Xj for every j = 1, 2, 3 ... is countable as every finite set is countable.


(a) Y = X j is countable as product of countable set of countable.
j1
Hence, option (A) is incorrect.

(b) Cardinality Y  cardinality [0, 1] as Y is countable set while [0, 1] is uncountable set.

 n 
(c)    X j  is countable as union by countable set is countable.
n  1 j  1 
Hence, option (C) is incorrect.
(d) Y is countable
Hence, option (D) is incorrect.
47. (A,B,D)
1 1 
fn(x) = 2 2 ; x  
,1
n x 2 
1 1
f n 1 (x)  f n (x)  2 2
 2
(n  1)  x n  x2
n 2  x 2  n 2  1  2n  x 2

(n 2  x 2 )((n  1) 2  x 2 )
(2n  1)
 0
(n 2  x 2 )((n  1) 2  x 2 )
 fn(x) is monotonically decreasing
1
f (x)  Lt f n (x) 
n  x2
1 
As fn(x) has pointwise limit and fn(x) is monotonic on  ,1 .
2 
By Dini's theorem;
fn(x) is uniformly convergent.
1 1 1
48. (B,C) an = 1 +   ...  – log n
2 3 n
1
an+1 – an = – log(n + 1) + log n
n 1
1  1
  log  1  
n 1  n
 1
As sequence  1   is strictly decreasing sequence converging to e
 n
 1
 1    e  n  
 n
 1 1
 log  1   
 n  n 1
 an+1 < an  n  .
 <an> is monotonically decreasing sequence.
1  n 1
As  log   = log (n + 1) – log n
n  n 
 1 > log 2 – log 1
1
> log 3 – log 2
2
1
 log  n  1  log n
n
1 1
 1 +  ...  > log (n + 1) > log n
2 n
 an > 0  n  
 an is bounded below and monotonically decreasing sequence.
Hence, an is convergent.
49. (A,B,C,D)
Let f :    is continuous and U   is open set.
Then, f–1(U) = {x   : f(x)  }
Now, If f–1(U) = , then it is open set.
If, f–1(U)  
Let, x  f–1(U)
Implies f(x)  U
Implies   > 0 such that
f(x)  S(f(x))  U
Now, Since f is continuous  > 0 such that
f((x))  (f(x))  U
Implies x  (x)  f–1(U)
Implies f–1(U) is open set.
Similarly, if f :    is continuous map, then f–1(C) is closed for all closed sets C  .
Also, If f is continuous map. Then f–1(k) is compact for all compact. Subset sets K  .
Also, If f is continuous map. Then f–1(G) is connected for all connected sets G  .
50. (A,B,D)
For x = (x1, x2, ...., xd)  Rd and P  1. Define
1/ P
 
|| x ||P   | x j |P 
 j1 
and ||x|| = max {|xj| : j = 1, 2, ... d}
Let, d = 5 and
Consider x = (1, –1, 1, –1, 1). Then
||x||1 = |1| + |–1| + |1| + |–1|| + |1| = S
||x|| = max {1, –1, 1, –1, 1} = 1
 5 || x ||  5·1  5  5  || x ||
Hence, option (C) is incorrect
Hence, option (A,B,D) are correct.

51. (C,D)
Let W = {P(B) : P is a polynomial with real coefficients}
0 1 0 
where, B   0 0 1 
 
1 0 0  33
1 0 0 
Then B   0 1 0   I
 
 0 0 1  33
Consider the polynomial
P(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + a4x4 + a5x5 + a6x6 + ... + anxn
Then, P(B) = a0 + a1B + a2B2 + a3B3 + a4B4 + a5B5 + ... + anBn
= c0 + c1B + c2B2
Where, c0 = a0 + a3 + a6 + ... + an–2
c1 = a1 + a4 + a7 + ... + an–1
c2 = a2 + a5 + a8 + ... + an
 W is a vector space of polynomial of degree less than or equal to 2.
Hence, dim(W) = 3.
Hence, option (C) and (D) are correct.
52. (A,B,C)
Let aij = ai·aj 1  i, j  b where a1, a2, ..., an are real numbers.
Let A = ((aij)) be the n × n matrix.
a a12 
Then, A   11
 a 21 a 22  2 2
a a a 1a 2 
 1 1
 a 2 a1 a 2 a 2 
= a1 a1 a2 a2 – a2 a1 a1 a2 = 0
This Implies matrix A is singular.
So one of it’s eigen values is zero.
And a singular matrix is not positive definite and semipositive definite.
53. (A,D)
Let R be a commutative ring and R[x] be the polynomial ring in one variable over R.
(a) According to Gauss theorem. If R is unique factorization domain, then R[x] is also a unique factorization domain.
(b) Since, Z is principle Ideal domain but Z[x] is not principle Ideal domain because z is not field. Hence, option (B)
is incorrect.
(c) (Z, | |) where | | is the absolute value map, is an Euclidean domain but Z[x] is not Euclidean domain as Z[x] is
not principle Ideal domain. Hence, option (C) is incorrect.
(d) Every field R is an Euclidean domain with respect to a  defined by (a) = 1,  a  0. Hence R[x] is also Euclidean
domain.

54. (B,C)
(a) We know that f(z) has a simple pole at z = a then residue of f(z) at z = a
R  lim (z  a) f (z)
za
So, (A) is correct.

F(z)
(b) f(z) = G(z) has a simple ple at z = a then residue of f(z) at z = a
F(a)
R  lim f (z) 
z a G (a)
So, Option (B) is not correct.
1
(c) f (z)  tan
z
1
lim f (z)  lim tan
z 0 z 0 z
= does not exist 
 z = 0 is not a removable singularity
Hence Option (B) & (C) are correct.
55. (B,C)
Let I1 be the Ideal generated by x2 + 1 and I2 be the Ideal generated by x3 – x2 + x – 1 in Q[x].
Let, f(x) = x2 + 1
Implies f(x + 1) = (x + 1)2 + 1 = x2 + 2x + 2
Then, by Eisenstein's criterion f(x + 1) is irreducible over Q Implies f(x) = x2 + 1 is irreducible over Q.
Q(x)
Hence, R1 = I1 is a field. Since every field is an integral domain. Hence, R1 is an Integral domain.
Again, Consider
g(x) = x3 – x2 + x – 1
Implies g(1) = 13 – 12 + 1 – 1 = 0
Q(x)
Implies g(x) = x3 – x2 + x – 1 is Irreducible over Q Therefore, R2 = is not field. Hence, R2 is not an Integral
I2
domain. Therefore, option (B), (C) are correct.
56. (B,D)
2 2 1 3 3
2 * 3 =   and 3 * 2 =  1
 3  1 4 2  2  1 3
 2 * 3  3 * 2 and hence * is not commutative.
So it does not form Abelian group
2 2 1 ½  1
(2 * 3) * 4 = *4  *4  *4  
 3  1 4 2  4  1 10
3 3 2 10 5
2 * (3 * 4) = 2 *  2*   
 4  1 5  3  8 4
  1
5 
 (2 * 3) * 4  2 * (3 * 4) and hence * is not associative.
So (G, *) does not form group.

57. (B,D)
Let, H = {e, (1, 2), (3, 4)} and
K = {e, (1, 2), (3, 4), (1, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4), (2, 3)}
be subgroup of S4 where e denotes the identity element of S4.
Then Index of H on K is
[H : K] = 2
Implies H is normal in K.
Also K is normal in S4.
Also, H is not normal in S4
58. (A)
Given that the particle of mass m slides down without friction along a curve
Z
P(x, Z)
O X
Fig.
Let p(x, y) be the position of the particle at any instant, then, kinetic energy of the particle is
1
T = m  x 2  z 2 
2
1
= m  x 2  x 2 x 2   z  x x 
2
1
= m x 2 1  x 2 
2
and the potential energy of the particle is
 x2 
v = mgz = mg  1  
 2 
Hence the Lagrangian of the motion is
L=T – V
1  x2 
 m x 2 1  x 2   mg  1  
2  2 
59. (C)
Given system of equation is
 5 1 1   x  10 
 2 4 0   y   12 
    
1 1 5   z   1
5x – y + z = 10

2x + 4y = 12
x + y + 5z = –1
1 1
x = 2 + y – z
5 5
1
y = 3 – x
2
1 1 1
z = –  x y
5 5 5
Now the initial Guess is
[x(0).y(0) z(0)]T = [2.0, 3.0, 0.0]T
3
x(1) = 2 + – 0 = 2 + 0.6 = 2.6
5
2
y(1) = 3 – = 3 – 1 = 2.0
2
1 2 2
z(1) = –   = –1.2
5 5 5
2 1.2
Now x(2) = 2 + 
5 5
= 2.64
1
y(2) = 3 – × 2.6
2
= 1.70
1 1 1
z(2) = –  x  y
5 5 5
1 1 1
= –  × 2.6 – × 2
5 5 5
= –1.12
[x(2) y(2) z(2)]T = [2.64 1.70 –1.12]T
60. (A,C)
1  y '2
F =
x
F is independent of y
F
So  cons tan t
y
F is function of x. So
F
F = y' y '  constant
F
Also y '  C
y'
C
1  y '2  x
y'
 Cx
1  y '2

y'2 = C2x2(1 + y'2)
C2 x 2 Cx
y'2 = 2
y' =
1  C2 x 2 1  C2 x 2
 
1  C2 x 2  t
1 2C2 xdx
 dt
2 1  C2 x 2
Cx
C dx  dt
1  C2 x 2
1
dy = dt
C
1
y = – t  C1
C
1
(y – C1) = – t
C
1 2
(y – C1)2 = t
C2
1
   1  C 2 x 2 
C
1
(y – C1)2 =  x2
C2
2 1
x 2   y  C1  
C2
Option (A) and (C) are correct.
61. (D)
n
Let x1, x2, ..., be i.i.d N(0, 1) and let Sn = X
i 1
i be the partial sums. Then,
The option (D) follows from the results that fourth moment is constant in normal distribution which appears in the
term of Sn2.
62. (A,C,D)
Let (x, y) be a pair of independent random variables with X having exponential distribution with mean 1 and Y having
uniform distribution on {1, 2, ..., m}.
Define Z = X + Y. Then,
E(Z | X) = E(X + Y/X) = E(X | X + Y | X)
= E(X | X) + E(Y | X) = X + E(Y)
(Since X, Y are Independent)
m 1
= X +
2
and V(Z | X) = V(X + Y | X)
= E(X + Y | X)2 + {E(X + Y | X)}2
2
 M 1
= E(X2 | X + Y2 | X + 2XY | X) –  X  
 2 

2
 M 1
= X2 + E(Y2) + 2XE(Y) –  X  
 2 
2
1  M 1 2
(M  1) 2 2X(M  1) m 2  1
= X + (m + 1)(2M + 1) + 2 ×   – X –  
6  2  4 2 12
In a similar way, V(Z | Y) = 1.
63. (A)
S = 10, sample mean, while T = 10
sample variance and E(S) = 0
therefore cov(S, T) = 0 implies E(ST) = 0
64. (B,D)
Here X ~ U    1,   1 uniform distribution
 
a b
then for MLE of ,
a  Xmin   – 1  Xmin    Xmin + 1
and, Xmax  b  Xmax   + 1    Xmax–1
 Xmax – 1    Xmin + 1
 –0.7    0.04
So,  satisfying 0.02, –0.54 in this interval.
65. (B,C)
We know that Binomial distribution X ~ B(n, p)
 n C p x (1  p) n  x ; n  0, 1, 2 ...
P X  x  px   x
 0 otherwise
2 9
1 2 1 11  10 9 
P  X  2   11C 2      11  2 
 3  3 3  2 
3 8
1  2 1 11  10  9 8 
P  X  3  11C3      11  2 
3 3
    3  6 
4 7
1 2 1 11  10  9  8 7 
P  X  4   11C4      11  2 
3 3
    3  64 
5 6
1  2 1 11  10  9  8  7 6 
P  X  5   11C3      11  2 
 3  3 3  645 
11  10 8
P  X  2 
311
2   A 28  A28
11  10
where, A =
311
11  10  27  3A 7 3
P  X  3  11   2  2  A  28
3 3 2 2
11  10  24  9 3  23  3A 7 3
P  X  4  11   2  2  A 28
3  3  2 2
11  10  9  2  7  26  7  27  2 21
P  X  5     3A   A 28
311  2  3  5  5  2  2 20

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When A  B and if  x  B such that x  A. Then A is proper subset of B and denoted by A  B or A  B.

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Theorem : Suppose f : A  B and g : B  C are function.

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2. Finite and Infinite Set

Countably Infinite Set

3. Countable and Uncountable Sets

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i.e. |P()| = 2|N| = 2X0 = c.

 x n1  x n 2 as elements of A are distinct.

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 A  X and A is countably infinite Proved

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Theorem : (0, 1) is uncountable.

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Construct a number 0.b1 b2 b3 ...

Theorem : If f : A  B is 1 – 1 and B is countable then A is countable.

And we know o is the smallest transfinite number..

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Theorem : Countable union of countable sets is countable.

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f(a11) = 1, f(a12) = 2, f(a21) = 3, f(a13) = 4, ... is 1–1 and onto.

Theorem : The cartesian product of two countable sets is countable.

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Hence, set of polynomial with rational coefficient is countably infinite.

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Theorem : Set of transcendental number is uncountable

Arithmetic of Transfinite Number

 20  m 0  0 0  c0

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Then M  M' ( M' is an upper bound of A and M is least upper bound).

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Proposition 4 : If A, B are nonempty sets, then

Theorem : Let A and B be two bounded non-empty set of .

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The Completeness Property of 

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Corollary (Denseness of Rational Number)

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As y – r > 0 and choose z  2  

(iii) S = [1, 2]  [2, 3] is not an interval.

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Theorem : Let A, B be subset of  and A  B.

Theorem : Let A  . The (A')'  A'

Theorem : Let A, B  . Then (A  B)'  A'  B'

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[a, b] {a, b} {a, b}

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Theorem : If S is open  S  S'

Theorem : The union of an arbitrary collection of open set in  is an open set.

Theorem : Intersection of a finite number of open set in  is an open set.

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