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Construction and interpretation of equal-tempered scales using frequency

ratios, maximally even sets, and P-cycles

Article  in  The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · June 2000

DOI: 10.1121/1.428658 · Source: PubMed

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Construction and interpretation of equal-tempered scales
using frequency ratios, maximally even sets, and P-cycles
Richard J. Krantza)
Department of Physics, Metropolitan State College of Denver, Denver, Colorado 80217-3362

Jack Douthett
Department of Arts and Sciences, Albuquerque Community College and Technical-Vocational Institute,
Albuquerque, New Mexico 87106

共Received 15 January 1999; revised 31 January 2000; accepted 1 February 2000兲

Using recent developments in music theory, which are generalizations of the well-known properties
of the familiar 12-tone, equal-tempered musical scale, an approach is described for constructing
equal-tempered musical scales 共with ‘‘diatonic’’ scales and the associated chord structure兲 based on
good-fitting intervals and a generalization of the modulation properties of the circle of fifths. An
analysis of the usual 12-tone equal-tempered system is provided as a vehicle to introduce the
mathematical details of these recent music-theoretic developments and to articulate the approach for
constructing musical scales. The formalism is extended to describe equal-tempered musical scales
with nonoctave closure. Application of the formalism to a system with closure at an octave plus a
perfect fifth generates the Bohlen–Pierce scale originally developed for harmonic properties similar
to traditional chords but without the perceptual biases of these familiar chords. Subsequently, the
formalism is applied to the group-theory-based 20-fold microtonal system of Balzano. It is shown
that with an appropriate choice of nonoctave closure 共6:1 in this case兲, determined by the formalism
combined with continued fraction analysis, that this group-theoretic-generated system may be
interpreted in terms of the frequency ratios 21:56:88:126. Although contrary to the spirit of the
group-theoretic approach to generating scales, this analysis may be applicable for discovering the
ratio basis of unusual tunings common in non-Western music. © 2000 Acoustical Society of
America. 关S0001-4966共00兲01305-9兴
PACS numbers: 43.75.Bc 关WJS兴

INTRODUCTION
Musical scales, of necessity, are built on compromise
among three competing expectations. First and foremost, we
have come to expect music to be based on harmonious
sounds. With this in mind, historically, musical scales were
constructed of intervals generated by the ratios of partial
frequencies.1,2 This expectation was formally established
when, in the 19th century, Helmholtz3 showed that our per-
ception of consonance is strongly influenced by the presence
of these ratios. Second, we expect music to have variety and
versatility. This is usually accomplished in Western music by
modulation to closely related keys.4 Third, we expect a cer-
tain amount of convenience regarding modulation and trans-
position. Equal-tempered scales, that preserve 共or close兲 the
octave, in which all half-steps are equally spaced logarithmi-
cally, make modulation and transposition straightforward.5 It
is well-known that the expectations of a harmonious scale
and the ease of modulation and transposition afforded by
equal-tempered scales are incompatible.1,2,5–11 As a result,
many authors6,12–15 have discussed various mathematical ap-
proaches for approximating harmonious scales in the context
of equal temperament.
Contemporary music is usually written with 12 equal-
tempered semitones to the octave. The reasons for this sys-
tem is directly related to the musical expectations referred to
a兲
Electronic mail: krantzr@mscd.edu
above. First, the octave, which is considered the most har-
monious interval,5 is preserved. Second, 12 equal-tempered
notes to the octave are used because the just 共harmonious兲
intervals of the perfect fifth 共frequency ratio 3/2兲, the major
third 共frequency ratio 5/4兲, and the minor third 共frequency
ratio 6/5兲 are reasonably approximated by their closest equal-
tempered interval.6 Therefore, our expectation of harmonious
sounds is met for the octave and approximately so for the
other three most important musical intervals. Third, 12 is the
first relatively small number of notes to the octave that al-
lows for a reasonable approximation of these just intervals
and allows for enough variety by modulation through 12
different keys. Fourth, because it is an equal-tempered sys-
tem transposition is relatively easy.
In the first three subsections 共I A, I B, and I C兲 of Sec. I
we analyze the 12-tone equal-tempered system in use today
in light of recent developments in music theory.6,16,17 We do
this in order to introduce these mathematical developments
in the context of a familiar example. In Sec. I D the chord
structure of our usual 12-tone system is discussed in the con-
text of the mathematical notation developed in the first three
subsections. In Secs. I E and I F we articulate and summarize
our approach for constructing equal-tempered musical scales
based on these recent developments.
In Sec. II A we extend our formalism to describe nonoc-
tave musical systems and then apply the extended formalism
to the Bohlen–Pierce scale in Sec. II B. As another example,
the formalism is shown to generate all the details of the

2725 J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 107 (5), Pt. 1, May 2000 0001-4966/2000/107(5)/2725/10/$17.00 © 2000 Acoustical Society of America 2725

group-theoretic 20-fold system of Balzano in Secs. II C 1 and
2. The interpretive power of the formalism is shown in Sec.
II C 3, where we show that Balzano’s 20-fold scale may be
analyzed in terms of frequency ratios in the appropriate non-
octave system.
I. A MATHEMATICAL INTERPRETATION OF 12-TONE
EQUAL-TEMPERED MUSIC
A. Equal-temperament, approximation of just
intervals, and the desirability function6
Recently, Krantz and Douthett6 developed a single inter-
val ten-point desirability function, based on the concept of
octave closure, to assess the ability of c-tone equal-tempered
2726 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 107, No. 5, Pt. 1, May 2000
FIG. 1. Ten-point desirability function
共closure of the octave by the pure
fourth兲.
musical scales to best approximate just 共harmonious兲 musical
intervals. In this notation, c refers to the chromatic cardinal-
ity 共number of notes兲 of the scale. A generalization of this
desirability function, based on the concept of a generalized
comma, was developed to assess the ability of c-tone equal-
tempered scales to best approximate multiple just intervals
simultaneously. Furthermore, an extension of this general-
ized desirability function was developed in which individual
single intervals could be weighted according to the relative
preference of one interval over another. The weighted,
multiple-interval, ten-point desirability function is
N
D 共 c,N 兲 ⫽10⫺20 兺
i⫽1
p i 兩 兵 c log2 共 R i 兲 ⫹ 21 其 ⫺ 21 兩 , 共1兲
FIG. 2. Generalized ten-point desir-
ability function 共closure of the octave
by the pure fourth, major third, and
minor third, simultaneously, with
equal weighting兲.
R. J. Krantz and J. Douthett: Construction of equal-tempered scales 2726
 FIG. 3. Circle of fifths.
where 兵x其 is the fractional part of x, N is the number of
intervals to be approximated, and c, the chromatic cardinal-
ity, is the number of equal-tempered intervals 共i.e., number
of notes兲 per octave. The R i ’s are the frequency ratios of the
individual intervals, and the p i ’s are the respective normal-
ized weights of the R i ’s. If the intervals are weighted equally
共i.e., p i ⫽1/N for all i兲, then the desirability of the intervals
collectively is the same as the average of the desirability of
the individual intervals.
Shown in Fig. 1 are the results of applying Eq. 共1兲 to the
single interval of the pure fourth (R⫽4/3), or equivalently,
the inversion of the pure fourth—the perfect fifth (R⫽3/2),
for chromatic cardinalities up through 55. A value near 10 on
the vertical axis indicates that the pure fourth is well ap-
proximated by the chromatic cardinality on the horizontal
axis. As shown in the figure, for relatively small chromatic
cardinalities, 12 is the best equal-tempered system which
best approximates the just interval of the pure fourth. Shown
in Fig. 2 are the results of applying Eq. 共1兲 to the just inter-
vals of the pure fourth (R 1 ⫽4/3), major third (R 2 ⫽5/4),
and minor third (R 3 ⫽6/5) simultaneously with equal
weighting (p 1 ⫽p 2 ⫽p 3 ⫽1/3). As shown, 12 notes is the
best choice for an equal-tempered scale with relatively few
notes to the octave which provides enough variety and ver-
satility, as discussed above. Historically, 12 notes to the oc-
tave was the preferred choice due, in part, to the well-
approximated perfect fifth 共or, equivalently, the pure fourth兲.
Other examples are discussed in Ref. 6.
B. Modulation
1. Circle of fifths and unidirectional P-cycles
As pointed out in the New Harvard Dictionary of
Music,4 modulation is ‘‘the process of changing from one
key to another, or the result of such a change.’’ The impor-
2727 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 107, No. 5, Pt. 1, May 2000 R. J. Krantz and J. Douthett: Construction of equal-tempered scales
FIG. 4. Progression through a portion of the circle of fifths 共see the text for
details兲.
tance of modulation in Western music is stated thus, ‘‘The
capability for modulation, even more than the establishment
of key, is the most distinctive and powerful property of the
tonal system in Western music, especially since the commu-
nity of twelve major and twelve minor keys was made into-
nationally practical by equal temperment.’’ As pointed out in
Ref. 4, the most common modulations are between closely
related keys which are those keys adjacent to each other on
the circle of fifths.
A diagram of the circle of fifths is shown in Fig. 3. The
keys on the outside represent major keys and keys on the
inside represent minor keys. Starting on any key 共major or
minor兲, the next key clockwise 共or counterclockwise兲 repre-
sents an interval of a fifth. For example, starting on F] ma-
jor, C] major is a fifth above and these two keys are so-
called closely related keys. Again, from the New Harvard
Dictionary of Music; ‘‘Because of the way in which sharps
and flats are added to key signatures along the circle, the
number of pitches in common between the starting key and
each successive key outward in either direction decreases by
one.’’
This property is most easily seen by reference to Fig. 4.
We progress through a portion of the circle of fifths starting
with the key of C major. The filled circles represent the 7
notes, out of the 12, used in the major scale. The heavy
arrows show the progression through the circle of fifths. The
dotted arrows indicate which note is moved going to the next
key in the circle of fifths. As seen in the figure, each succes-
2727
sive change of key has six of seven notes in common with
the previous key. As we progress further and further from the
starting key, each successive key has one less note in com-
mon with the starting key.
In recent works in music theory, microtonal versions of
the circle of fifths have become known as unidirectional
P-cycles 共P for proximity兲.18 More technically, a P-cycle is a
cycle of three or more pairwise distinct sets 共scales or
chords兲 from the same set class 共sets equivalent under trans-
position and inversion兲 such that there is a map between each
pair of adjacent sets that leaves all but one of its notes fixed.
Moreover, the note that moves is changed by precisely a
half-step. If the sets in the cycle exhaust the set class then the
cycle is said to be unidirectional, otherwise it is a toggling
P-cycle 共these names came about as a result of particular
properties inherent in these two types of cycles兲. Thus, the
circle of fifths is a unidirectional P-cycle, while the 6-cycle
of consonant triads e, E, g], G], c, C, and back to e is a
toggling P-cycle. Since we will restrict our attention to uni-
directional P-cycles, in what follows it will be understood
that all P-cycles are unidirectional for our purposes.
2. Mathematical generalization of unidirectional
P-cycles
Over the last 65 years other scale structures that have the
properties of or related to unidirectional P-cycles have been
constructed by Yasser,19 Mendalbaum,12 Chalmers,20–22
Wilson,23 Gamer,24 Balzano,25 Clough and Myerson,26,27
Mathews, Pierce, Reeves, and Roberts,28 Agmon,29
Clampitt,16 Clough and Douthett,17 Clough, Cuciurean, and
Douthett,30 and Zweifel.31 In this discussion we adopt much
of the terminology from the seminal works of Clough and
Myerson.26,27 These terms arise as a result of musical inter-
vals being associated with two somewhat incompatible
lengths as described below.
In the usual diatonic 共major兲 scale, the musical third
comes in one of two sizes; three half-steps 共the minor third兲
and four half-steps 共the major third兲, whereas six half-steps
共the tritone兲 can either be a fourth 共augmented兲 or a fifth
共diminished兲. To generalize and relate these measures, let c
be the size of the chromatic universe or the chromatic cardi-
nality, as before. Similarly, for a given scale, let d be the
diatonic cardinality which is the number of pitch classes
共e.g., all C s belong to the same pitch class兲 that define the
scale. We may denote a given scale by the set
S c,d ⫽ 兵 s 0 ,s 1 ,s 2 ,...,s d⫺1 其 , 共2兲
where the elements are organized so that s 0 ⬍s 1 ⬍s 2 ⬍...,
⬍s d⫺1 . In our usual 12-tone chromatic universe, if we make
the assignments C⫽0, C] /D[ ⫽1, D⫽2, etc. the C major
scale may be represented by S 12,7⫽ 兵 0,2,4,5,7,9,11其 . Then
the chromatic length from s i to s j is (s j ⫺s i ) expressed as the
smallest non-negative integer modulo c, and the diatonic
length from s i to s j is ( j⫺i) expressed as the smallest non-
negative integer modulo d. For the diatonic scale the chro-
matic length from one note to another 共reduced to within the
octave兲 is the length of the interval in half-steps, and the
diatonic length is one less 共for mathematical convenience兲
than the usual musical interval 共unison, second, third, etc.兲.
2728 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 107, No. 5, Pt. 1, May 2000 R. J. Krantz and J. Douthett: Construction of equal-tempered scales
For example, the chromatic length from the note B to E is 5,
and since this interval is a fourth, the diatonic length is 3.
Although their investigation was primarily to generalize
other properties of the diatonic scale, Clough and
Myerson26,27 were the first to construct an algorithm that
generates, up to transposition, the complete family of sets
that induces P-cycles. Also, Clough and Douthett17 extended
and generalized this algorithm now known as the maximally
even 共ME兲 algorithm. This algorithm is discussed in the next
subsection.
C. Maximally even „ME… sets
1. Diatonic scales
All of the seven note diatonic scales shown in the circle
of fifths may be generated by the maximally even 共ME兲 al-
gorithm developed by Clough and Douthett:
Let c and d be the chromatic and diatonic cardinali-
ties, respectively, and let n be any fixed integer such
that 0⭐n⭐c⫺1. Then, a ME set with these parameters
is
再 b c冎
k⫽0
ck⫹n
n
J c,d ⫽ , 共3兲
d
d⫺1
where b x c is the smallest integer greater than or equal
to x.17,30,32
For our usual 12-tone system with a 7-note diatonic
scale, c⫽12 and d⫽7. If we let the notes C, C] /D[ , D,
D] /E[ etc., in Fig. 4 be represented by the numbers 0, 1, 2,
3, etc., respectively, Eq. 共3兲 generates all the scales of the
circle of fifths. For example, the C major scale is represented
by the ME set
再b c冎
6
12k⫹5
5
J 12,7⫽ ⫽ 兵 0,2,4,5,7,9,11其 . 共4兲
7
k⫽0
Note that the index of the C major scale is n⫽5. As the
index increases incrementally 共mod 12兲 the associated scales
rotate clockwise around the cycle of fifths in Fig. 3. Because
the ME algorithm reproduces the scales in the circle of fifths,
in order, it preserves the properties of the unidirectional
P-cycles referred to in the previous subsection.
2. Maximally even sets and P-cycles
Clampitt16 has shown that a set can induce a P-cycle if
and only if the set is maximally even and the chromatic
cardinality, c, and the diatonic cardinality, d, are coprime, or
(c,d)⫽1 in mathematical parlance. Clough and Douthett17
have shown that such sets are also generated sets with two
distinct generators 共e.g., the fourth and fifth generate the ma-
jor scales in our familiar 12-tone system兲. Moreover, the
chromatic and diatonic lengths of the generators can be de-
termined by the linear Diophantine equation
cI g ⫺dg⫽⫾1, 共5兲
where g is the chromatic length of a generator and I g is the
corresponding diatonic length.33
For example, consider the usual diatonic scale 共c⫽12
and d⫽7兲. Then, Eq. 共5兲 becomes
12I g ⫺7g⫽⫾1. 共6兲
2728
The only chromatic and diatonic lengths that satisfy Eq. 共6兲
are g⫽5, I g ⫽3 共the fourth兲 and g⫽7, I g ⫽4 共the fifth兲. It is
left to the reader to show that the fourth or the fifth also
generates the pentatonic scale 共c⫽12 and d⫽5兲.
Although the diatonic length of a generator plays an
important role in the theory of scales, our subsequent analy-
sis will consider only chromatic lengths of generators. There-
fore, Eq. 共5兲 simplifies to
dg⬅⫾1 共 mod c 兲 .
We will have occasion to use these generalizations in Sec. II.
D. Intervals and chords
In our usual 12-tone system the intervals of the fourth
with a frequency ratio of 4/3, the major third with a fre-
quency ratio of 5/4, and the minor third with a frequency
ratio of 6/5 are of prime importance. The sequence of these
ratios is 3:4:5:6, and the chromatic lengths of these intervals
are 5, 4, and 3, respectively. 关Note that the ratio of the first
element in the sequence of ratios 共3兲 to the last element 共6兲
produces the frequency ratio 6:3 or 2:1, which is the ratio of
the octave. More on this later.兴 The major and minor triad
structure can now be determined from the chromatic lengths.
The sequence of these lengths arranged from largest to
smallest is the step-interval sequence of the major triads. In
this case the sequence is 共5,4,3兲 and the class of major triads
共equivalent under transposition兲 is
M ⫽ 兵兵 0,5,9 其 , 兵 1,6,10其 , 兵 2,7,11其 , 兵 0,3,8 其 ,... 其 .
The sequence is cyclic; therefore 共4,3,5兲 and 共3,5,4兲 are in
the same class. These sequences just generate chord inver-
sions that belong to the same class. Thus, this family consists
of major triads F, F] ,G,G] ,...,E. Similarly, the minor triads
are the triads whose step-interval sequence is the sequence of
the chromatic lengths arranged from smallest to largest. The
sequence is 共3,4,5兲 and the class of minor triads is
m⫽ 兵兵 0,3,7 其 , 兵 1,4,8 其 , 兵 2,5,9 其 ,... 其 .
The union of M and m constitutes the set class of consonant
triads.
In each diatonic scale there are six major/minor triads
共three of each兲. For example, the triads G, C, D, a, b, and e
are all embedded in the G major scale. The only embedded
共third-generated兲 triad not of major or minor quality is the F]
dim triad. Therefore, using the chromatic lengths of the fre-
quency ratios, 3:4:5:6 which are best approximated by our
usual 12-tone equal-tempered system, we have determined
the chord structure of the system.
E. An approach to constructing musical scales
We may now formalize an approach for constructing
equal-tempered musical scales. Given a sequence of fre-
quency ratios, which may be chosen for a variety of reasons
共e.g., because they are ‘‘harmonious,’’ they convey some
‘‘mood,’’ or they meet some other mathematical, acoustical,
or perceptual criteria兲, an equal-tempered system based on
the desirability function, Eq. 共1兲, that best approximates
these ratios may be determined. The chromatic lengths of
2729 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 107, No. 5, Pt. 1, May 2000
TABLE I. Individual desirabilities for the frequency ratios 4/3, 5/4, and 6/5
for a 53-note equal-tempered system with octave closure. Also shown are
the chromatic generators and diatonic cardinalities for each ratio. For com-
parison, the equal-weight ten-point desirability for all three ratios is shown.
c⫽53
Desirability
function Chromatic Diatonic
Ratios base 2 generator cardinalities
4/3 9.940 22, 31 12, 41
共7兲 5/4 8.756 17, 36 25, 28
6/5 8.816 14, 39 19, 34
All 9.171 ¯ ¯
these ratios can then be determined and used as generators to
identify scales that induce P-cycles; Eqs. 共7兲 and 共3兲. These
scales then have the modulation properties associated with
the familiar circle of fifths. Once the chromatic lengths of the
chosen frequency ratios are known, the triad structure of the
scale can be determined from the step-interval sequence;
e.g., Eqs. 共8兲 and 共9兲 for the usual diatonic scale.
We invite the reader to apply the formalism, using the
fourth 共or fifth兲 as the ‘‘chosen’’ interval and verify that the
usual pentatonic scale (c⫽12,d⫽5) is generated. The results
should be the complement of the diatonic set and produce the
open circles shown in Fig. 4. It is also left to the reader to
verify that the ME algorithm 关Eq. 共3兲兴 generates the P-cycle
of pentatonic scales.
For another example, it is well-known that the 53-tone,
共8兲 equal-tempered system closely approximates the ratios of the
fourth, major third, and minor third. The desirability function
shown in Fig. 2 reflects this result and shows that the 53-
note-to-the-octave, equal-tempered scale is considerably bet-
ter at approximating these intervals simultaneously. In Table
I we summarize some results, using Eqs. 共1兲 and 共7兲, for a
chromatic cardinality of c⫽53.
Since we are weighting the intervals equally, the overall
desirability is the same as the average of the desirabilities of
共9兲 the individual intervals. It is left to the interested reader to
construct all the scales that induce P-cycles 共There are six set
classes, two for each ratio, whose sets induce P-cycles.兲 and
determine the embedded major and minor triads in each.
F. Summary
In light of recent developments in music theory we have
articulated an approach for constructing equal-tempered mu-
sical scales that: 共1兲 closes the octave, 共2兲 approximates mul-
tiple chosen intervals simultaneously, 共3兲 preserves modula-
tion properties generalized from those of the circle of fifths,
and 共4兲 determines the scale and chord structure for the sys-
tem. For historical and pedagogical reasons we have shown
that the mathematical patterns inherent in the familiar 12-
tone, equal-tempered system may be generalized. Alterna-
tively, we could have taken an axiomatic approach by de-
scribing the formalism, applying it to the sequence of
harmonious ratios 共3:4:5:6兲, and generating our usual 12-
tone, equal-tempered system.
In the next section, we extend the formalism to account
for nonoctave closure and show that some unusual scales
R. J. Krantz and J. Douthett: Construction of equal-tempered scales 2729
 FIG. 5. GDF for the ratios 5/3, 7/5,
and 9/7 共closure at the tritave; b⫽3兲.

generated by other workers25,28,31 based on very different until c⫽271 with a GDF of 9.90. This desirability exceeds
criteria, that range from group-theoretic arguments to acous- even that of the sequence of ratios 3:4:5:6 at 53 divisions to
tical and perceptual reasons, are described by our approach. the octave 共compare with Table I兲.
The desirability function, chromatic lengths, and dia-
II. ANALYSIS OF OTHER EQUAL-TEMPERED tonic cardinalities associated with this sequence of ratios are
SYSTEMS given in Table II. There are six scales 共up to transposition兲,
with diatonic cardinalities of 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, and 11, that
A. Extension to nonoctave systems
induce P-cycles. Diatonic cardinalities d⫽2, 3, and 4 are too
1. Nonoctave desirability function small to be of much interest 共i.e., the scales would have too
The ten-point desirability function need not be restricted few pitch classes for much variation or variety兲. Therefore,
to octave 共base 2兲 closure. A straightforward generalization the diatonic cardinalities d⫽9, 10, or 11 are better choices.
of the weighted, multiple-interval desirability function yields Bohlen,35 based on combination tones, and somewhat later
the following: Mathews, Pierce, Reeves, and Roberts,28 based on the into-
N nation sensitivity measure of Roberts and Mathews,36 chose
D b 共 c,N 兲 ⫽10⫺20 兺
i⫽1
p i 兩 兵 c logb 共 R i 兲 ⫹ 21 其 ⫺ 21 兩 , 共10兲 a diatonic cardinality d⫽9. This scale has become known as
the Bohlen–Pierce scale. With this in mind we will use d
⫽9 for our example and discuss these results in the next
where c, N, p i , and R i are defined as above. In the following,
subsection.
we refer to D b (c,N) as the generalized desirability function
共GDF兲. The base, b, of the logarithm represents the interval
of closure. For octave closure, the usual case, the base is 2; B. The Bohlen–Pierce scale28
D(c,N)⫽D 2 (c,N). Having chosen a chromatic cardinality of c⫽13 共accord-
ing to our generalized desirability function兲 and a diatonic
2. Nonoctave example
In general, if the sequence of chosen ratios is TABLE II. Individual generalized desirabilities for the frequency ratios 5/3,
r 1 :r 2 :r 3 :r 4 the base for the desirability function is just b 7/5, and 9/7 for a 13-note equal-tempered system with tritave 共base 3兲 clo-
sure. Also shown are the chromatic generators and diatonic cardinalities for
⫽r 4 /r 1 , as was the case for the pure fourth, major third, and
each ratio. For comparison, the equal-weight generalized desirability for all
minor third described above where the sequence of ratios three ratios is shown.
was 3:4:5:6. In anticipation of the next section we chose the
sequence of ratios 3:5:7:9 for our example. In this case, the c⫽13
base of the desirability function is 3 共⫽9/3兲, which means Desirability
function Chromatic Diatonic
that our equal-tempered scale will close 共repeat兲 every octave Ratios base 3 generators cardinalities
plus a fifth. Shown in Fig. 5 is the GDF with equal weighting
for these ratios. It is clear from the figure that the best, rea- 5/3 9.107 6, 7 2, 11
7/5 9.630 4, 9 3, 10
sonably small, chromatic cardinality is c⫽13 with a GDF of
9/7 9.477 3, 10 4, 9
9.40.34 In fact, a better chromatic cardinality does not occur All 9.405 ¯ ¯
for these three ratios simultaneously, with equal weighting,

2730 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 107, No. 5, Pt. 1, May 2000 R. J. Krantz and J. Douthett: Construction of equal-tempered scales 2730

FIG. 6. A 13-note chromatic scale with 9-note embedded diatonic scale
generated by the ME algorithm compatible with unidirectional P-cycles. The
Bohlen–Pierce scale is superimposed on the first diagram. Progression
through a few closely related keys is also shown.
cardinality of d⫽9 共in accordance with the modulation prop-
erties of unidirectional P-cycles兲 for the sequence of ratios
3:5:7:9 共chosen by previous workers28,35,36 for acoustic and
perceptual reasons兲, with chromatic generators of 6 共or 7兲, 4
共or 9兲, and 3 共or 10兲, for an equal-tempered system with base
3 closure, we are ready to construct the ‘‘diatonic’’ scale and
chord structure for the system. The ME algorithm for c
⫽13, d⫽9, and n⫽4 yields the following for a typical scale:
再b c冎
8
13k⫹4
4
J 13,9⫽ ⫽ 兵 0,1,3,4,6,7,9,10,12其 . 共11兲
9
k⫽0
This scale is shown by the filled circles in the first diagram
of Fig. 6. Superimposed on that diagram are the nine tones of
the Bohlen–Pierce scale, denoted as I, II, III, etc. Also,
shown in Fig. 6 are the first few closely related keys gener-
ated by the ME algorithm, with indices; n⫽4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and
9. Because the chromatic cardinality and the diatonic cardi-
nality are coprime these sets induce P-cycles, and therefore
have the modulation properties of the generalized circle of
fifths. Also shown in Fig. 6, as a dotted arrow, is the note
that moves to generate the next closely related key. As be-
fore, the heavy arrows indicate the progression through the
generalized circle of fifths.
The classes of major and minor triads are generated by
arranging the step-interval sequence for the chosen ratios
2731 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 107, No. 5, Pt. 1, May 2000 R. J. Krantz and J. Douthett: Construction of equal-tempered scales
from largest to smallest 共6, 4, 3兲 and smallest to largest 共3, 4,
6兲, respectively, as before. The class of Bohlen–Pierce major
triads is
M BP⫽ 兵兵 0,6,10其 , 兵 1,7,11其 , 兵 2,8,12其 , 兵 0,3,9 其 ,... 其 . 共12兲
The class of Bohlen–Pierce minor triads is
m BP⫽ 兵兵 0,3,7 其 , 兵 1,4,8 其 , 兵 2,5,9 其 ,... 其 . 共13兲
For this scale, the set class of ‘‘consonant triads’’ is
M BP艛m BP . Although Bohlen35 and Mathews, Pierce,
Reeves, and Roberts28 did not have the GDF, the ME algo-
rithm, or the P-cycle algorithm, they constructed a scale con-
sistent with our application of these tools for constructing
scales given a chosen sequence of ratios.
C. A ratio interpretation of Balzano’s c-fold
microtonal system25
1. Introduction
Our next example of a nontraditional system is based on
Balzano’s well-known c-fold microtonal system where c
⫽n(n⫹1) and n is an integer greater than or equal to 3.
Balzano points out that ‘‘With the advent of the computer,
the possibilities of exploring microtonal systems of octave
division broadens considerably.’’ As an alternative, he bases
his octave division constructs on mathematical group-
theoretic properties rather than constructing microtonal sys-
tems based on good fits to frequency ratios.
The chromatic cardinalities considered by Balzano are
the products of two consecutive integers 共a generalization of
12⫽3•4 in our familiar 12-tone system兲 and the diatonic
cardinalities are the sum of those two integers 共a generaliza-
tion of 7⫽3⫹4兲. His ‘‘F to F] property’’ is equivalent to
requiring scales that induce P-cycles and his ‘‘major’’ and
‘‘minor’’ triads have the interval sequence (n 2 ⫺n⫺1,n
⫹1,n) and (n,n⫹1,n 2 ⫺n⫺1), respectively. Again, these
sequences are the generalization of the usual n⫽3 case for
the familiar 12-tone system. As a specific example, we will
use Balzano’s 20-fold system for comparison.
2. P-cycles, ME sets, and triads
Balzano’s 20-fold system requires that d⫽4⫹5⫽9.
With a diatonic cardinality of 9, the two generator lengths
that satisfy Eq. 共7兲, and hence generate scales that induce
P-cycles are g⫽9 and g⫽11. 共The length g⫽11 will also be
important in the construction of the major and minor triads.兲
Since Balzano’s scale will induce a P-cycle, it can be deter-
mined via the ME algorithm
再b c冎
8
20k⫹6
6
J 20,9⫽ ⫽ 兵 0,2,5,7,9,11,14,16,18其 . 共14兲
9
k⫽0
This scale represents what Clough and Douthett17 call a hy-
perpentatonic scale, which is a ME set whose diatonic car-
dinality is 1 less than half the chromatic cardinality and the
chromatic cardinality is divisible by 4. Note that if c⫽12 the
hyperpentatonic scale reduces to the familiar pentatonic
scale.
Balzano uses the diatonic length of 2 共the ‘‘third’’兲 to
generate triads. As seen in Eq. 共14兲 the chromatic lengths of
2731
TABLE III. For a small number of bases 共that define closure兲, the principal- TABLE IV. Analysis of Balzano’s 20-fold system using candidate se-
convergents-continued-fraction approximations for the step intervals 共11, 5, quences compatible with principal-convergent-continued fractions 共see the
and 4兲 in Balzano’s 20-fold system are calculated. text for details兲.

c⫽20 and d⫽9 c⫽20 and d⫽9

Base b 11/20 b 5/20 b 4/20 D b (20,3)
b 11/20 b 5/20 b 4/20 Equal-weight
2 3/2, 19/13, 41/28 6/5, 19/16, 25/21 7/6, 8/7, 23/20 Base Sequence Fractions Fractions Fractions GDF
3 2/1, 9/5, 11/6 4/3, 25/19, 229/174 5/4, 71/57, 147/118
4 2/1, 13/6, 15/7, 433/202 3/2, 7/5, 17/12 4/3, 29/22, 33/25 3 30:55:72:90 11Õ6 72/55 5Õ4 8.71
5 2/1, 5/2, 12/5, 17/7 3/2, 160/107, 643/430 3/2, 4/3, 7/5 4 7:15:21:28 15Õ7 7Õ5 4Õ3 8.00
6 2/1, 3/1, 8/3, 67/25 2/1, 3/2, 11/7, 25/16 3/2, 10/7, 83/58 5 5:12:18:25 12Õ5 3Õ2 25/18 8.39
5 14:34:51:70 17Õ7 3Õ2 70/51 9.13
6 21:56:88:126 8Õ3 11Õ7 63/44 9.31
6 15:40:63:90 8Õ3 63/40 10Õ7 9.06
the thirds are 4 and 5. Therefore, along with the chromatic
length of the generator g⫽11, the step-interval size for the
third is 5. Along with a step interval of 11 for the generator, example, for base 2 we chose the ratios 10:15:18:共20兲 be-
the step-interval sequences for major and minor triads be- cause 15:10⫽3:2, 18:15⫽6/5, and 20:18⫽10/9 because
come 共11, 5, 4兲 and 共4, 5, 11兲, respectively. The classes of 20:10⫽2 共the base兲. In general, we cannot choose a base and
Balzano 20-fold major and minor triads are a sequence of ratios in which all these ratios are consistent
M B 20⫽ 兵兵 0,11,16其 , 兵 1,12,17其 , 兵 2,13,18其 ,... 其 , 共15兲 with the continued fraction convergents simultaneously. We
chose the base for closure. The first ratio was chosen because
m B 20⫽ 兵兵 0,4,9 其 , 兵 1,5,10其 , 兵 2,6,11其 ,... 其 . 共16兲 it was the generator of the diatonic scale that induces
P-cycles. In the cases examined, we chose either the second
It is left to the reader to verify that there are four major triads
or third ratio to be compatible with a 共relatively small inte-
and four minor triads embedded in Balzano’s scale.
ger兲 principal-convergent-continued-fraction approximation
For a 20-fold system, sets with diatonic cardinality 11
for that ratio. We allowed the remaining ratio to be compro-
and generators g⫽9 or g⫽11 also induce P-cycles. Re-
mised, i.e., it was not necessarily a continued-fraction con-
cently, Zweifel31 has investigated the properties of these 11-
vergent. For base 3, it turned out that the candidate sequence
note scales. These scales are the complements of Balzano’s
5:9:12:15 yields the principal-convergent-continued fractions
nine-note scales and belong to a larger class of scales first
9/5, 4/3, and 5/4. The ratio 15:5 yields the base. Similar
isolated by Agmon29 and later studied in depth by Clough
results are obtained for other bases.
and Douthett17 and Clough, Cuciurean, and Douthett.30
Each of these candidate ratio sequences was then used to
Scales from this class are embedded in chromatic universes
calculate the equal-weight GDF. The candidate sequences,
where c⫽0 共mod 4兲, and the diatonic cardinality is 1 more
for bases through b⫽6, leading to a GDF greater than or
than half the chromatic cardinality. It is left to the reader to
equal to 8.00 are shown in Table IV. Fractions shown in bold
generate this class of scales and the resulting chord structure.
are the resulting principal-convergent-continued fraction ap-
In the next subsection, we take an alternative, nonoctave
proximation to the given step-interval ratio. The fractions
approach to analyzing Balzano’s 20-fold system.
given in normal type are the resulting compromised ratios.
For example, for the base 3 ratio sequence 30:55:72:90 we
3. Ratios and continued fractions get a ratio of 11/6 共⫽55/30兲 for the generator of the diatonic
Schechter37 and Douthett, Entringer, and Mullhaupt38 scale, 5/4 共⫽90/72兲 is the continued fraction approximation
have shown the utility of using continued-fraction-principal for 3 4/20, and the middle ratio 共72/55兲 is compromised. These
convergents39 for generating equal-tempered musical scales ratios result in an equal-weight GDF of 8.71. As shown,
with octave closures. We have taken a somewhat different based on the GDF, the best choice for closure that yields
approach in analyzing Balzano’s 20-fold system. The step small-integer-principal-convergent-continued fraction ratios
intervals of 11, 5, and 4 correspond to ‘‘frequency ratios’’ of is base 6. This represents closure at two octaves plus a fifth.
the form: b 11/20, b 5/20, and b 4/20; where b is the base of the Alternatively, the ratio sequence that would generate Balza-
logarithm that defines closure. For example, b⫽2 defines the no’s 20-fold system with a 9-note scale that induces P-cycles
usual case of octave closure and b⫽3 defines closure at an and yields a reasonable desirability function value is
octave plus a fifth, which was the case for the Bohlen–Pierce 共21:56:88:126兲.
scale. We proceeded to choose a number of bases, b⫽2, 3, 4, For comparison, Fig. 7 shows the equal-weight,
5, and 6 and calculated the three frequency ratios given multiple-interval desirability function, base 6, for these ra-
above, in each base. We then generated the first few tios. In the sequence of chromatic cardinalities c⫽20 is the
principal-convergents-continued-fraction approximations for best small number chromatic cardinality. Note that although
each frequency ratio in each base. The results of these cal- c⫽4 has a relatively good value, it may be neglected as too
culations are summarized in Table III. For convenience, in small to be interesting.
Table III, we have excluded the musically trivial 1/1 ratio.
We then chose a candidate sequence of ratios in each 4. Summary
base consistent with the principal-convergents-continued- We have extended Balzano’s approach somewhat by
fraction approximations and compatible with that base. For suggesting, based on continued fractions and the GDF, a

2732 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 107, No. 5, Pt. 1, May 2000 R. J. Krantz and J. Douthett: Construction of equal-tempered scales 2732

sequence of ratios 共21:56:88:126兲 in a nonoctave system that
may be used to generate his 20-fold, 9-note system. The
ratios found to generate Balzano’s system do not necessarily
define ‘‘consonant’’ intervals. This is in the spirit of Balza-
no’s approach that justified the system solely on group-
theoretic grounds. If an a priori reason for choosing the
above interval sequence could be justified, our formalism
could be used to generate this system. Otherwise, the formal-
ism can be used to interpret the system in terms of frequency
ratios including nonoctave closure.
III. DISCUSSION
Based on good-fitting intervals, consistent with the
multiple-interval desirability function6 and the modulation
properties of unidirectional P-cycles,18 along with the appli-
cation of maximally even set theory,17 we have developed a
formalism for constructing equal-tempered scales, of any
chromatic cardinality, with ‘‘diatonic’’ scales, and the asso-
ciated chord structure, that have the modulation properties of
the closely related keys in the usual 12-tone system. We have
applied the formalism to the 12-tone, equal-tempered system
to show that this approach describes the details of this tradi-
tional system, as well as to introduce the mathematical de-
tails of these recent music-theoretic developments in the con-
text of a familiar example.
Also, the formalism has been extended to describe non-
traditional scales that include nonoctave closure. As an ex-
ample, the formalism was applied to the frequency ratios
3:5:7:9 of the Bohlen–Pierce scale. This scale was chosen
originally for its similarity to the structural and acoustic
properties of the usual diatonic scale. It is shown that our
approach reproduces all the details of the Bohlen–Pierce
scale. More generally, given a sequence of frequency ratios
determined for their acoustical, structural, mathematical, or
perceptual properties, our formalism can generate an equal-
tempered system that: 共1兲 has closure, 共2兲 reasonably ap-
proximates the ‘‘chosen’’ frequency ratios simultaneously,
2733 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 107, No. 5, Pt. 1, May 2000 R. J. Krantz and J. Douthett: Construction of equal-tempered scales
FIG. 7. GDF for the ratios 56/21, 88/
56, and 126/88 共closure at the sextave;
b⫽6兲.
and 共3兲 can yield a scale and chord structure that has the
modulation properties of closely related keys.
As an example of the applicability of our approach, we
show that the nontraditional 20-fold microtonal system of
Balzano25 can: 共1兲 be generated by our formalism, and 共2兲
can be interpreted in terms of the ratio sequence
21:56:88:126 in a 6:1 nonoctave system when the formalism
is coupled with continued fraction analysis.
The above examples show the power of this approach
for generating nonstandard musical systems. First, one can
choose an interval for closure and assess the ability of vari-
ous equal-tempered systems to approximate chosen intervals
by application of the GDF, thereby determining an appropri-
ate chromatic cardinality for the scale. Second, to ensure
musical variety and variation, a diatonic cardinality that in-
duces P-cycles, and therefore retains the modulation proper-
ties of closely related keys, can be chosen. Third, the ME
algorithm can then be used to generate all the appropriate
diatonic scales of the system. Fourth, the step-interval se-
quence, based on the chosen intervals, can be used to gener-
ate the chord structure for the system.
Alternatively, our approach can be used as an analysis
tool in which a given scale may be interpreted in terms of
ratios in an appropriate nonoctave system. Used in this way,
we hope to discover a ratio basis of unusual tunings common
in non-Western music.
1
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2733
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17
J. Clough and J. Douthett, ‘‘Maximally Even Sets,’’ J. Music Theory 35,
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18
In July of 1993 Clough 共SUNY at Buffalo兲 assembled a group—known as
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forth by Richard Cohn 共University of Chicago兲 on late 19th century voice
leading. The term P-cycles was introduced by Cohn and was among the
topics explored at the meeting. This group met again in July of 1997 to
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2734 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 107, No. 5, Pt. 1, May 2000 R. J. Krantz and J. Douthett: Construction of equal-tempered scales
View publication stats
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32
To get a sense of why these sets are called maximally even, S. Block and
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33
J. Douthett, ‘‘The Theory of Maximally and Minimally Even Sets, the
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34
When c is a denominator of a continued fraction convergent of the logb of
a ratio, then the ratio’s desirability at c is better than at any smaller
chromatic cardinality 共Ref. 6兲. Remarkably, for the sequence of ratios
3:5:7:9, c⫽13 is a denominator of continued fraction convergents to log3
of all three ratios: log3(5/3)⬇6/13, log3(7/5)⬇4/13, and log3(9/7)⬇3/13.
This coincidence explains why this small chromatic cardinality has such
an extraordinarily good desirability.
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39
A. Ya Khinchin, Continued Fractions 共The University of Chicago Press,
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2734