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from 'Omnino - Volume 10'

Empowering Ceramicists: Explor...

By Nestle N. Butler Faculty Mentor: Dr. Mark Whatley, Department

of Psychology

Article Abstract
In a student’s academic career, few subjects generate as much
anxiety as math (e.g., Carey et al., 2019). This anxiety can result in
emotional reactions, such as fear of failure, and behavioral
reactions, such as procrastination (Onwuegbuzie, 2004). This study
examined whether different colors of printing paper might
facilitate better math performance in students and their perception
of difficulty. Participants’ math performance was measured by the
number of correctly answered questions on a test of mathematical
ability. Participants, 20 males and 20 females, answered 10
moderately challenging math questions on either blue or yellow
colored paper. Participants then rated the difficulty of the questions
overall. Contrary to prediction, participants who took the test on
blue paper scored higher than those who took the test on yellow
paper, but the differences were not significant. In the blue paper
condition, both males and females rated the tests less difficult than
those in the yellow paper condition, but the differences were not
significant.

The recent growth in the study of color choice for exams has led
many researchers to examine the role that paper color has on
performance. One result of this trend has been that red colored
paper negatively affects performance (Sinclair, Soldat, & Mark,
1998). A great deal of research suggests that colored paper, such as
cream or other pastel colors, should only be used for students with
certain disabilities, like dyslexia (e.g., Gabrieli, 2009; Meyer &
Bagwell, 2012). AL-Ayash, Kane, Smith, and Green (2016) found that
changing the colors and hues of study spaces affected college
students in many ways with variables including emotions, heart
rate, and reading performance. Researchers first found that pale
and vivid colors produced different effects, with the latter
producing higher reading scores. Additionally, it was found that
both red and yellow colored walls increased heart rate. Lastly,
researchers saw that when compared to all colors, blue (and all of
its shades) positively affected students’ emotions; both calmness
and relaxation levels increased (AL-Ayash et al., 2016). Due to the
observed impact of the color blue, several implications could be
made. For example, because the color blue seems to be calming,
anxiety levels should not be high at this time. If anxiety levels are
not high, students and test takers, in general, should manage to
concentrate better. Therefore, the calmer a person is, the better
they are able to perform. With further research on specific colors
and their physiological effects, the use of colored paper during
assignments and exams may be the next step in ensuring
maximum performance in all individuals. With certain tests
becoming more difficult and stressful than others, this change in
paper color would truly be worth considering, if not implementing.
However, there has been a large debate regarding whether paper
color has any impact on performance, and white paper continues
to be the best option to use when administering tests and exams
(Skinner, 2004). A study by Tal, Akers, and Hodge (2008)
investigated the effects of both primary and pastel colors on
student performance. Researchers wanted to determine if primary
and pastel colored exams produced the same effect regarding
performance. The first
group of participants were given exams on white or primary (i.e.,
red, yellow, green, or blue) colored paper. The second group’s
exams were on either white or pastel (i.e., pink, light yellow, light
green, or light blue) colored paper. Both exams contained the same
content and number of multiple-choice questions. The results
showed that performance was only affected in the group who
tested with primary colored sheets of paper; exams using blue
paper had the lowest scores and white paper resulted in the best
outcomes. Additionally, pastel colors had no effect; therefore,
researchers concluded that teachers can use any pastel color for
exams without increasing or decreasing grades. Clary, Wandersee,
and Elias (2007) also investigated the differences in performance
between colored paper, specifically in pastel colors. While
attempting to alleviate cheating with colorcoded tests, researchers
also wanted to determine if colored paper would affect students’
scores. Participants received exams in pastel colors, either yellow,
pink, blue, or green. Results showed that there were minimal
differences in student scores as a function of paper color but the
highest performance was achieved on both yellow and green
paper, and worse on pink paper (Clary et al., 2007). Due to the small
differences in student scores, Clary et al. concluded that colored
paper can be used for tests without influencing student
performance. An additional finding related to this topic was a study
by Fordham and Hayes (2009) that investigated students’ quiz
scores printed on four different pastel colors. Students were
administered quizzes on either yellow, pink, green, or blue paper.
The results showed that quizzes answered on white, yellow, and
green colored paper produced the best scores, with yellow and
green quizzes having very close scores. Quizzes printed on blue
and pink paper scored lower than other quizzes, concluding that
both pink and blue colored paper negatively affects overall
performance (Fordham & Hayes, 2009). After reviewing these
results, the researchers concluded that paper color does in fact
have an influence on performance. Lastly, because each color
influences performance on different levels, researchers also
concluded that tests and quizzes should be printed only on white
paper.

Other important factors that may affect students’ performance

include motivation, knowledge of material, and content being
tested. However, paper color is an important mediator that may
affect student performance. A study by Arthur, Cho, and Muñoz
(2016) investigated whether exam color affected performance
when tests were administered at different times and when the
grade had little to no influence. Participants were given a test
either at the very beginning of a course, where the score did not
count toward their overall grade or a cumulative test at the end of
the semester where the grade was a certain percentage of their
overall grade. For both conditions, half of the exams were printed
on either green or red. The results showed that taking exams at
different time periods had no effect on performance (Arthur et al.,
2016). Additionally, Arthur et al. concluded that, when testing on
knowledge-based information, the color of paper has no effect on
performance compared to testing on ability-based information,
which fluctuated depending on paper color but was not
significantly different. The purpose of this study was to examine
further the relationship between paper color and how different
colors affect performance, specifically in the subject of math and
perceptions of difficulty. College students answered 10 math
questions printed on either yellow or blue colored paper. After
answering the questions, participants completed a questionnaire in
which they rated the difficulty of the prior test questions. The
purpose of my study was to examine whether color of paper would
impact student performance on ability-based information.
However, studies finding no differences included assessments that
were more knowledge based. A main effect for the color of paper
was predicted based on the findings of Clary et al. (2007), which
found that tests printed on yellow-colored paper produced slightly
higher scores than tests printed on blue paper. That is, I predicted
that participants who took the test on yellow paper would get more
answers correct than those who took the test on blue paper. Based
on the findings of AL-Ayash et al. (2016) that the color blue
increases calmness, I predicted that both males and females would
rate tests less difficult when taken on blue paper compared to on
yellow paper.

Method

Research Design
This experiment was based on a 2 x 2 between-subjects design with
independent variables being paper color (blue or yellow) and
participant sex (male or female). The participants’ number of
correct answers on a math test and perception of test difficulty
were the dependent variables.

Participants
The participants were 20 male and 20 female undergraduate
students haphazardly selected from Valdosta State University. They
received no compensation for their participation. Participants
ranged in age from 18 to 34 (M = 20.75, SD = 2.76). The ethnic
background of the sample was 17.5% White, 62.5% African
American, 7.5% Hispanic, and 12.5% from other ethnic
backgrounds. Male participants were randomly assigned to take a
math test on blue paper (n = 10) or yellow paper (n = 10). Female
participants were randomly assigned to take a math test on blue
paper (n = 10) or yellow paper (n = 10).
Procedure
I approached a student and asked if he or she would participate in
an experiment attempting to investigate the math performance
skills of college students. All students who were approached were
told that the study was for an experimental psychology class. If the
student refused, then he or she was thanked and not bothered
further. If the student agreed, then he or she was given a math test
and a five-item scale. The participant was then asked to follow the
instructions on the cover page. Each participant completed the
experiment individually.

Instructions to participants. Each participant read the instructions

typed on the front cover page of the booklet. The participants read
about an attempt to examine the math performance skills of college
students. They also read that they would be asked to answer 10
math questions and answer a five-item scale. Participants then read
that their answers would be anonymous. The instructions also
stated that the questions should be read carefully, and that no
calculator was allowed.

Description of math questions. The second page of the booklet

contained 10 math questions. All participants received the same set
of questions. Questions were comprised of college level problems,
including mathematical and statistical concepts ranging from
correlations to the Pythagorean Theorem. An example is given
below:

What is the square root of 64 multiplied by 10 minus 7? a) 88 b) 72

c) 65 d) 73

Manipulation of paper color. The independent variable, paper

color, was manipulated by varying the color of the printed exam.
The paper used was Xerox® Vitality Colors™ Multi-Use Printer
Paper, Letter Size (8-1/2” x 11”), 20 pounds, in pastel yellow and
blue.

Dependent measures. After answering the math questions,

participants were then asked to specify how difficult they believed
the questions were. Difficulty was rated on a 5-point scale from 1
(not at all) to 5 (very much). The questionnaire also contained
demographic questions (i.e., age, sex, and ethnicity).

Debriefing. Upon completion of the experiment, the participants

were told more about the purpose of the study and allowed to ask
questions. Also, participants were instructed on how to obtain the
results of the study.

Results

Ratings of Math Performance

A 2 (paper color) x 2 (participant sex) analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was calculated on participants’ ratings of math performance (see
Figure 1). There was no significant main effect for paper color, F(1,
36) = 1.44, p = .239 (ƞp 2 = .04). However, the pattern of means
showed those completing the test on blue paper scored higher than
those completing the test on yellow paper. There was no significant
main effect for participant sex, F(1, 36) = 1.44, p = .239 (ƞp 2 = .04).
There was no significant interaction for Paper Color x Participant
Sex, F(1, 36) = 0.01, p = .927 (ƞp 2 < .01).

Ratings of Difficulty Level

A 2 x 2 ANOVA was calculated on participants’ ratings of test
difficulty. There was no significant main effect for paper color, F(1,
36) = 2.02, p = .164 (ƞp 2 = .05). There was a significant main effect
for participant sex, F(1, 36) = 6.54, p = .015 (ƞp 2 = .15). In general,
males rated the questions less difficult (M = 2.65, SD = 0.99) than
females (M = 3.55, SD = 1.23). There was no significant interaction
for Paper Color x Participant Sex, F(1, 36) = .32, p = .573 (ƞp 2 = .00).
The means and standard deviations are presented in Table 1.

Discussion
The results from the present study did not support the prediction
that participants who took the test on yellow paper would get more
answers correct than those who took it on blue paper. In general,
the pattern of means was in the predicted direction with students
completing the test on blue paper answering more questions
correct compared to those completing the test on yellow paper,
although these differences were not significant. These results are
consistent with research finding that no specific color is better at
facilitating student performance compared to others (e.g., Meyer &
Bagwell, 2012). These results are inconsistent with a study in the
literature, which reported that tests on yellow paper scored much
higher than those who tested on blue paper (e.g., Fordham & Hayes,
2009). The results did not support the prediction that both males
and females would rate the tests less difficult when answering
questions on blue paper compared to yellow paper. Although the
prediction was not supported, the pattern of means was in the
predicted direction with participants rating the tests as being less
difficult when printed on blue paper compared to yellow paper.
These results are consistent with those found in literature that
conclude blue as being a color that positively effects mood, leading
one to interpret things as less stressful and difficult (ALAyash et al.,
2016; see also Gabrieli, 2009; Meyer & Bagwell, 2012). The results of
this study are inconsistent with past research indicating that blue
does not evoke feelings of calmness, the color pink does, therefore
assignments on blue paper should not be seen as the least difficult
even in regard to the color yellow (Weller & Livingston, 1988).
Although paper color has been thought to increase overall student
performance, the present results reveal that printing tests on
colored paper is not the most effective method to achieve this. In
contrast, many studies do suggest that teachers and other educators
can utilize different colors of paper for reasons other than
performance levels. For example, researchers supported

color-coding exams when attempting to decrease cheating and the

“looking of eyes” in students during an exam, but only if using
pastel colors (Clary et al., 2007; Tal et al., 2008). One plausible
explanation for these findings is that when given exams on
different sheets of colored paper, students perceive cheating to be
easily detected, causing their “roving eyes” to wander less often
than when taking exams on white paper (Clary et al., 2007). The
effects of paper color on performance may be useful for students or
individuals in general who struggle with performing assignments
or tests on white paper. For example, students with specific
disabilities or impairments, for example, dyslexia, struggle with the
glare of white paper that can decrease the ability to perform as
well as intended (Meyer & Bagwell, 2012). Currently, cream is the
only color of paper found to not influence student performance
among dyslexics (Meyer & Bagwell, 2012). With additional
research, more colors and hues can be found to address this
problem and increase academic performance in these individuals.
A limitation for my study may be centered around the sample size
used and its specifics. For example, if my sample consisted of only
students who were in grade school, it is plausible that the outcome
might be different. Additionally, if this study included all students
who live in Valdosta as well as the college students included in the
sample, results would more than likely vary drastically. Results
might have also turned out differently if my sample included more
students on campus. Due to time constraints and availability, my
sample size was relatively small. Having such a small sample size
led to a lack of experimental power, which made it even more
difficult to find significant differences between conditions. Because
college students made up the entire sample, one could raise the
question that the influence of age and/or generational differences
had a powerful impact on the results. This is plausible due to the
fact that many college students are taking similar math courses and
are approximately at the same skill level. Thus, it may be that the
effects of the color of paper on student performance only

emerges over exams longer than the 10 questions used in this

study. Additionally, because entry-level math questions were used,
the color of paper may only influence performance on more
challenging material. For all of these reasons, caution should be
used while interpreting these findings. Future research may want
to examine more precisely the type of information being tested
when printing exams or quizzes on colored paper. For example,
some studies only look at knowledge-based information tested at
the end of the year instead of exploring prior information learned
or ability-based knowledge (Arthur et al., 2016). Additionally, the
type of exam given should also be more closely investigated. Not
only should researchers assess paper color differences on final
exams, but also with quizzes, as well as daily assignments or
assessments. With the growing search for enhancing student
performance, understanding the effects of color-coding exams may
soon be extremely helpful. In the midst of a society that learns
more and more each day, researching and discovering the
capabilities of altering how exams are printed and perceived is
essential. Educators must fully take into account the variety of
differences within individuals and populations when studying such
a topic. The debate on whether paper color influences student
performance is far from being resolved and further research in this
area is warranted. Further investigations are needed to delve
deeper to examine all possible outcomes of this method of
improving student performance.
References
AL-Ayash, A., Kane, R. T., Smith, D., & Green, A. P. (2016). The
influence of color on student emotion, heart rate, and performance
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Arthur, W., Cho, I., & Muñoz, G. (2016). Red vs. green: Does the
exam booklet color matter in higher education summative
evaluations? Not likely. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(5),
1596.

Carey, E., Devine, A., Hill, F., Dowker, A., McLellan, R., & Szucs, D.
(2019). Understanding mathematics anxiety: Investigating the
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Clary, R., Wandersee, J., & Elias, J. S. (2007). Research and teaching:
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students’ test performance? Countering claims of bias. Journal of
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Table 1
Participants Mean Ratings of Difficulty Level as a Function of

Paper Color and Participant Sex

Participant sex

Male

SD
Female

SD Paper color

Blue Yellow

10

2.50

0.97

10

3.20

1.23 10

2.80

1.03

10

3.90

1.20

Figure 1
Participants’ Mean Ratings of Math Performance as a

Function of Paper Color and Participant Sex

Blue
Yellow