Control Fundamentals

HVAC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

General

An HVAC system is designed according to capacity requirements, an acceptable combination of first cost
and operating costs, system reliability, and available equipment space.

Figure 2 shows how an HVAC system may be distributed in a small commercial building. The system
control panel, boilers, motors, pumps, and chillers are often located on the lower level. The cooling tower
is typically located on the roof. Throughout the building are ductwork, fans, dampers, coils, air filters,
heating units, and variable air volume (VAV) units and diffusers. Larger buildings often have separate
systems for groups of floors or areas of the building.

Fig. 2. Typical HVAC System in a Small Building.

The control system for a commercial building comprises many control loops and can be divided into
central system and local- or zone-control loops. For maximum comfort and efficiency, all control loops
should be tied together to share information and system commands using a building management
system. Refer to the Building Management System Fundamentals section of this manual.

The basic control loops in a central air handling system can be classified as shown in Table 1.

Depending on the system, other controls may be required for optimum performance. Local or zone
controls depend on the type of terminal units used.

Table 1. Functions of Central HVAC Control Loops.

  

Heating

General

Building heat loss occurs mainly through transmission, infiltration/exfiltration, and ventilation (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Heat Loss from a Building.

The heating capacity required for a building depends on the design temperature, the quantity of outdoor
air used, and the physical activity of the occupants. Prevailing winds affect the rate of heat loss and the
degree of infiltration. The heating system must be sized to heat the building at the coldest outdoor
temperature the building is likely to experience (outdoor design temperature).

Transmission is the process by which energy enters or leaves a space through exterior surfaces. The rate
of energy transmission is calculated by subtracting the outdoor temperature from the indoor temperature
and multiplying the result by the heat transfer coefficient of the surface materials. The rate of transmission
varies with the thickness and construction of the exterior surfaces but is calculated the same way for all
exterior surfaces:

Energy Transmission per Unit Area and Unit Time = (TIN - TOUT) x HTC

Where:

TIN = indoor temperature

TOUT = outdoor temperature
HTC = heat transfer coefficient

Infiltration is the process by which outdoor air enters a building through walls, cracks around doors and
windows, and open doors due to the difference between indoor and outdoor air pressures. The pressure
differential is the result of temperature difference and air intake or exhaust caused by fan operation. Heat
loss due to infiltration is a function of temperature difference and volume of air moved. Exfiltration is the
process by which air leaves a building (e.g., through walls and cracks around doors and windows) and
carries heat with it. Infiltration and exfiltration can occur at the same time.

Ventilation brings in fresh outdoor air that may require heating. As with heat loss from infiltration and
exfiltration, heat loss from ventilation is a function of the temperature difference and the volume of air
brought into the building or exhausted.

Heating Equipment

Selecting the proper heating equipment depends on many factors, including cost and availability of fuels,
building size and use, climate, and initial and operating cost trade-offs. Primary sources of heat include
gas, oil, wood, coal, electrical, and solar energy. Sometimes a combination of sources is most
economical. Boilers are typically fueled by gas and may have the option of switching to oil during periods
of high demand. Solar heat can be used as an alternate or supplementary source with any type of fuel.

Figure 4 shows an air handling system with a hot water coil. A similar control scheme would apply to a
steam coil. If steam or hot water is chosen to distribute the heat energy, high-efficiency boilers may be
used to reduce life-cycle cost. Water generally is used more often than steam to transmit heat energy
from the boiler to the coils or terminal units, because water requires fewer safety measures and is
typically more efficient, especially in mild climates.
 Fig. 4. System Using Heating Coil.

An air handling system provides heat by moving an air stream across a coil containing a heating medium,
across an electric heating coil, or through a furnace. Unit heaters (Fig. 5) are typically used in shops,
storage areas, stairwells, and docks. Panel heaters (Fig. 6) are typically used for heating floors and are
usually installed in a slab or floor structure, but may be installed in a wall or ceiling.

Fig. 5. Typical Unit Heater.

 
 Fig. 6. Panel Heaters.

Unit ventilators (Fig. 7) are used in classrooms and may include both a heating and a cooling coil.
Convection heaters (Fig. 8) are used for perimeter heating and in entries and corridors. Infrared heaters
(Fig. 9) are typically used for spot heating in large areas (e.g., aircraft hangers, stadiums).
 Fig. 7. Unit Ventilator.

Fig. 8. Convection Heater.

  

Fig. 9. Infrared Heater.

In mild climates, heat can be provided by a coil in the central air handling system or by a heat pump. Heat
pumps have the advantage of switching between heating and cooling modes as required. Rooftop units
provide packaged heating and cooling. Heating in a rooftop unit is usually by a gas- or oil-fired furnace or
an electric heat coil. Steam and hot water coils are available as well. Perimeter heat is often required in
colder climates, particularly under large windows.

A heat pump uses standard refrigeration components and a reversing valve to provide both heating and
cooling within the same unit. In the heating mode, the flow of refrigerant through the coils is reversed to
deliver heat from a heat source to the conditioned space. When a heat pump is used to exchange heat
from the interior of a building to the perimeter, no additional heat source is needed.

A heat-recovery system is often used in buildings where a significant quantity of outdoor air is used.
Several types of heat-recovery systems are available including heat pumps, runaround systems, rotary
heat exchangers, and heat pipes.

In a runaround system, coils are installed in the outdoor air supply duct and the exhaust air duct. A pump
circulates the medium (water or glycol) between the coils so that medium heated by the exhaust air
preheats the outdoor air entering the system.

A rotary heat exchanger is a large wheel filled with metal mesh. One half of the wheel is in the outdoor air
intake and the other half, in the exhaust air duct. As the wheel rotates, the metal mesh absorbs heat from
the exhaust air and dissipates it in the intake air.

A heat pipe is a long, sealed, finned tube charged with a refrigerant. The tube is tilted slightly with one
end in the outdoor air intake and the other end in the exhaust air. In a heating application, the refrigerant
vaporizes at the lower end in the warm exhaust air, and the vapor rises toward the higher end in the cool
outdoor air, where it gives up the heat of vaporization and condenses. A wick carries the liquid refrigerant
back to the warm end, where the cycle repeats. A heat pipe requires no energy input. For cooling, the
process is reversed by tilting the pipe the other way.

Controls may be pneumatic, electric, electronic, digital, or a combination. Satisfactory control can be
achieved using independent control loops on each system. Maximum operating efficiency and comfort
levels can be achieved with a control system which adjusts the central system operation to the demands
of the zones. Such a system can save enough in operating costs to pay for itself in a short time.
Controls for the air handling system and zones are specifically designed for a building by the architect,
engineer, or team who designs the building. The controls are usually installed at the job site. Terminal unit
controls are typically factory installed. Boilers, heat pumps, and rooftop units are usually sold with a
factory-installed control package specifically designed for that unit.

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Cooling

General

Both sensible and latent heat contribute to the cooling load of a building. Heat gain is sensible when heat
is added to the conditioned space. Heat gain is latent when moisture is added to the space (e.g., by vapor
emitted by occupants and other sources). To maintain a constant humidity ratio in the space, water vapor
must be removed at a rate equal to its rate of addition into the space.

Convection is the process by which heat moves between adjoining spaces with unequal space
temperatures. Conduction is the process by which heat moves through exterior walls and the roof, or
through floors, walls, or ceilings. Solar radiation heats surfaces which then transfer the heat to the
surrounding air. Internal heat gain is generated by occupants, lighting, and equipment. Warm air entering
a building by infiltration and through ventilation also contributes to heat gain.

Building orientation, interior and exterior shading, the angle of the sun, and prevailing winds affect the
amount of solar heat gain, which can be a major source of heat. Solar heat received through windows
causes immediate heat gain. Areas with large windows may experience more solar gain in winter than in
summer. Building surfaces absorb solar energy, become heated, and transfer the heat to interior air. The
amount of change in temperature through each layer of a composite surface depends on the resistance to
heat flow and thickness of each material.

Occupants, lighting, equipment, and outdoor air ventilation and infiltration requirements contribute to
internal heat gain. For example, an adult sitting at a desk produces about 400 Btu per hour. Incandescent
lighting produces more heat than fluorescent lighting. Copiers, computers, and other office machines also
contribute significantly to internal heat gain.

Cooling Equipment

An air handling system cools by moving air across a coil containing a cooling medium (e.g., chilled water
or a refrigerant). Figures 10 and 11 show air handling systems that use a chilled water coil and a
refrigeration evaporator (direct expansion) coil, respectively. Chilled water control is usually proportional,
whereas control of an evaporator coil is two-position. In direct expansion systems having more than one
coil, a thermostat controls a solenoid valve for each coil and the compressor is cycled by a refrigerant
pressure control. This type of system is called a "pump down" system. Pump down may be used for
systems having only one coil, but more often the compressor is controlled directly by the thermostat.
 Fig. 10. System Using Cooling Coil.

Fig. 11. System Using Evaporator (Direct Expansion) Coil.

Two basic types of cooling systems are available: chillers, typically used in larger systems, and direct
expansion (DX) coils, typically used in smaller systems. In a chiller, the refrigeration system cools water
which is then pumped to coils in the central air handling system or to the coils of fan coil units, a zone
system, or other type of cooling system. In a DX system, the DX coil of the refrigeration system is located
in the duct of the air handling system. Condenser cooling for chillers may be air or water (using a cooling
tower), while DX systems are typically air cooled. Because water cooling is more efficient than air cooling,
large chillers are always water cooled.
Compressors for chilled water systems are usually centrifugal, reciprocating, or screw type. The
capacities of centrifugal and screw-type compressors can be controlled by varying the volume of
refrigerant or controlling the compressor speed. DX system compressors are usually reciprocating and, in
some systems, capacity can be controlled by unloading cylinders. Absorption refrigeration systems, which
use heat energy directly to produce chilled water, are sometimes used for large chilled water systems.

While heat pumps are usually direct expansion, a large heat pump may be in the form of a chiller. Air is
typically the heat source and heat sink unless a large water reservoir (e.g., ground water) is available.

Initial and operating costs are prime factors in selecting cooling equipment. DX systems can be less
expensive than chillers. However, because a DX system is inherently two-position (on/off), it cannot
control temperature with the accuracy of a chilled water system. Low-temperature control is essential in a
DX system used with a variable air volume system.

For more information control of various system equipment, refer to the following sections of this manual:
- Chiller, Boiler, and Distribution System Control Applications
- Air Handling System Control Applications
- Individual Room Control Applications

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Dehumidification

Air that is too humid can cause problems such as condensation and physical discomfort. Dehumidification
methods circulate moist air through cooling coils or sorption units. Dehumidification is required only during
the cooling season. In those applications, the cooling system can be designed to provide dehumidification
as well as cooling.

For dehumidification, a cooling coil must have a capacity and surface temperature sufficient to cool the air
below its dew point. Cooling the air condenses water, which is then collected and drained away. When
humidity is critical and the cooling system is used for dehumidification, the dehumidified air may be
reheated to maintain the desired space temperature.

When cooling coils cannot reduce moisture content sufficiently, sorption units are installed. A sorption unit
uses either a rotating granular bed of silica gel, activated alumina or hygroscopic salts (Fig. 12), or a
spray of lithium chloride brine or glycol solution. In both types, the sorbent material absorbs moisture from
the air and then the saturated sorbent material passes through a separate section of the unit that applies
heat to remove moisture. The sorbent material gives up moisture to a stream of "scavenger" air, which is
then exhausted. Scavenger air is often exhaust air or could be outdoor air.
 Fig. 12. Granular Bed Sorption Unit.

Sprayed cooling coils (Fig. 13) are often used for space humidity control to increase the dehumidifier
efficiency and to provide year-round humidity control (winter humidification also).

Fig. 13. Sprayed Coil Dehumidifier.

For more information on dehumidification, refer to the following sections of this manual:
- Psychrometric Chart Fundamentals
- Air Handling System Control Applications

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Humidification

Low humidity can cause problems such as respiratory discomfort and static electricity. Humidifiers can
humidify a space either directly or through an air handling system. For satisfactory environmental
conditions, the relative humidity of the air should be 30 to 60 percent. In critical areas where explosive
gases are present, 50 percent minimum is recommended. Humidification is usually required only during
the heating season except in extremely dry climates.
Humidifiers in air handling systems typically inject steam directly into the air stream (steam injection),
spray atomized water into the air stream (atomizing), or evaporate heated water from a pan in the duct
into the air stream passing through the duct (pan humidification). Other types of humidifiers are a water
spray and sprayed coil. In spray systems, the water can be heated for better vaporization or cooled for
dehumidification.

For more information on humidification, refer to the following sections of this manual:
- Psychrometric Chart Fundamentals
- Air Handling System Control Applications

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Ventilation

Ventilation introduces outdoor air to replenish the oxygen supply and rid building spaces of odors and
toxic gases. Ventilation can also be used to pressurize a building to reduce infiltration. While ventilation is
required in nearly all buildings, the design of a ventilation system must consider the cost of heating and
cooling the ventilation air. Ventilation air must be kept at the minimum required level except when used for
free cooling (refer to ASHRAE Standard 62, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality).

To ensure high-quality ventilation air and minimize the amount required, the outdoor air intakes must be
located to avoid building exhausts, vehicle emissions, and other sources of pollutants. Indoor exhaust
systems should collect odors or contaminants at their source. The amount of ventilation a building
requires may be reduced with air washers, high efficiency filters, absorption chemicals (e.g., activated
charcoal), or odor modification systems.

Ventilation requirements vary according to the number of occupants and the intended use of the space.
For a breakdown of types of spaces, occupancy levels, and required ventilation, refer to ASHRAE
Standard 62.

Figure 14 shows a ventilation system that supplies 100 percent outdoor air. This type of ventilation
system is typically used where odors or contaminants originate in the conditioned space (e.g., a
laboratory where exhaust hoods and fans remove fumes). Such applications require make-up air that is
conditioned to provide an acceptable environment.
 Fig. 14. Ventilation System Using 100 Percent Outdoor Air.

In many applications, energy costs make 100 percent outdoor air constant volume systems
uneconomical. For that reason, other means of controlling internal contaminants are available, such as
variable volume fume hood controls, space pressurization controls, and air cleaning systems.

A ventilation system that uses return air (Fig. 15) is more common than the 100 percent outdoor air
system. The return-air ventilation system recirculates most of the return air from the system and adds
outdoor air for ventilation. The return-air system may have a separate fan to overcome duct pressure
losses. The exhaust-air system may be incorporated into the air conditioning unit, or it may be a separate
remote exhaust. Supply air is heated or cooled, humidified or dehumidified, and discharged into the
space.

Fig. 15. Ventilation System Using Return Air.

Ventilation systems as shown in Figures 14 and 15 should provide an acceptable indoor air quality, utilize
outdoor air for cooling (or to supplement cooling) when possible, and maintain proper building
pressurization.

For more information on ventilation, refer to the following sections of this manual:
- Indoor Air Quality Fundamentals
- Air Handling System Control Applications
- Building Airflow System Control Applications

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Filtration

Air filtration is an important part of the central air handling system and is usually considered part of the
ventilation system. Two basic types of filters are available: mechanical filters and electrostatic
precipitation filters (also called electronic air cleaners). Mechanical filters are subdivided into standard and
high efficiency.

Filters are selected according to the degree of cleanliness required, the amount and size of particles to be
removed, and acceptable maintenance requirements. High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) mechanical
filters (Fig. 16) do not release the collected particles and therefore can be used for clean rooms and areas
where toxic particles are released. HEPA filters significantly increase system pressure drop, which must
be considered when selecting the fan. Figure 17 shows other mechanical filters.

Fig. 16. HEPA Filter.

 Fig. 17. Mechanical Filters.

Other types of mechanical filters include strainers, viscous coated filters, and diffusion filters. Straining
removes particles that are larger than the spaces in the mesh of a metal filter and are often used as
prefilters for electrostatic filters. In viscous coated filters, the particles passing through the filter fibers
collide with the fibers and are held on the fiber surface. Diffusion removes fine particles by using the
turbulence present in the air stream to drive particles to the fibers of the filter surface.

An electrostatic filter (Fig. 18) provides a low pressure drop but often requires a mechanical prefilter to
collect large particles and a mechanical after-filter to collect agglomerated particles that may be blown off
the electrostatic filter. An electrostatic filter electrically charges particles passing through an ionizing field
and collects the charged particles on plates with an opposite electrical charge. The plates may be coated
with an adhesive.

Fig. 18. Electrostatic Filter.

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