THE ROLE OF ENGINEERING IN A CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY: NIGERIA AS A CASE STUDY

Engineering is one of the key influences that shapes our society. Engineers don’t just work with
machines, designs and electronics, they use maths and science to provide innovation and inventions that
shape our society and improve the way we live and work. This means that engineers have a
responsibility and also a great opportunity to ensure that the have a positive influence in society.

Engineers link communities together through transport infrastructure. ... Engineers also provide the
logistics and infrastructure to collate, sort and distribute food, medicines and other consumables
reliably. Such a contribution is invaluable to the smooth functioning of society and the well-being of its
members.

THE ROLES OF ENGINEERING IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIA

1.0 Introduction

Engineering and economic development are like Siamese twins, as the former is the enabler of the
latter. There’s usually no meaningful economic growth without engineering inputs, which explains why
engineering has a proportional relationship with development; and national development is measured
largely by the quality of engineering activities. It’s imperative therefore that in discussing national
development, the role of the engineering is prime and fundamental. Let’s now look at the definition of
the key elements.

1.1 What is Engineering?

The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development defines Engineering as: "The creative
application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or
manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate
the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating
conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and
property.“1

Engineering is the branch of science which deals with the application of scientific and mathematical
principles to practical ends such as the design, manufacture, operation and servicing of efficient and
economic structures, machines, processes and systems. Today, these end results are seen in the likes of
constructed bridges, dams, roads, railways, buildings, factory machines, automobiles, ships, aircrafts,
computer and electronic systems, electrical fittings, their maintenance and repairs. Engineering is a
professional course which has been proven to be a recognized tool for every nation’s economic growth
and development. It has been and still is the forerunner for the development and progress of any
country.
1.2 Who are Engineers?

Engineers are professionals rigorously trained in practical and theoretical knowledge in engineering,
graduated successfully, gone through professional training, certified and licensed to practice by the
Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN).

COREN is a statutory Regulation body established by law with the core mandate to regulate and control
the practice of Engineering in all its aspects and ramification in Nigeria. Pursuant to this, the Council
carries out accreditation of engineering programs in all institutions and registers Engineering Personnel
(i.e. Engineers, Engineering Technologists, Engineering Technicians, and Engineering Craftsmen) and
Firms to ensure that Engineering is practiced in line with best acceptable standards as prescribed by the
codes and ethics of the profession.

To give effect to its practice regulation mandate, COREN inaugurated the Engineering Regulation
Monitoring (ERM)Inspectorates in 1997 to ensure Engineering is practiced in Nigeria in accordance with
relevant codes of practice, enforcement of discipline and compliance with standards and ethics,
considering the fact that over 90% of the nation’s appropriation is in engineering projects.

2.0 Economic Development

Economic Development is the sustainable increase in living standards of inhabitants of a geographical

location which implies increased per capita income, better Education and Health, Provision of Basic
Social Amenities, as well as, Environmental Protection, Energy Maximization, Food Transportation,
Shelter and effective Waste Management. Natural resources are to be fully harnessed in order to create
jobs and generate income for the Government for the purpose of transformation of the society and
development of the economy.

Nigeria, a developing country located in the Western part of Africa with a current population of over
190,790,734 inhabitants, is a middle-income, mixed economy and emerging market, with expanding
manufacturing, financial, service, communications, technology and entertainment sectors. Undoubtedly,
Engineering, Engineering services and products belong to the sector classified as ‘Services’ in the
national economy, which accounts for about 53 percent (53%) of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The
revival of physical infrastructures is quite important because infrastructure is central to sustainable
development and economic competitiveness of Nigeria.

First, let us have an analysis of how Nigeria has fared so far by considering achievements, challenges and
prospects of engineering-related sectors of the economy.
In Nigeria today, the areas of the economy in which engineering is expected to play dominant role are
numerous, but for the purpose of this presentation, three (3) sectors will be highlighted:

• Power Sector

• Highway Sector

• Telecommunications and ICT Sector

2.1 Power Sector

In spite of the privatization of the Power Sector, power generation and distribution remain a challenge.
A significant proof is the high ratio of darkness versus light at several locations in Nigeria, sadly,
especially in semi urban and rural areas. It is common knowledge that the highest electricity generation
recorded in recent times is 5,074.7 Megawatts (MW) that was on February 2, 2016, while the highest
maximum daily energy wheeled nationwide was 109,372MW on the same day. Unfortunately, that
5,074.7 MW achievement meant nothing till date as the generation level has continued to hover
between 3,730.5 MW as at February 9, 2017 and 2,662MW (the amount recorded on January 2, 2017).
Besides, the nation’s power generation capacity experienced a huge drop from 3,959 Megawatts on
January 4, 2017 to 2,662 Megawatts on January 22, 2017. Realistically, for a country with over 180
million inhabitants whose energy demand is over 30,000 Megawatts, generation and distribution of
2,662 Megawatts is just a mere fraction.

Presently, out of the 26 power plants (including the AES Plant in Egbin) which Nigeria owns, three (3) are
hydro-powered; the hydro power plants in Jebba, Kainji, and Shiroro. Unfortunately, this provision is far
below the Energy Infrastructure Nigeria requires.

In terms of funding, Nigeria has expended N5 trillion ($31.45 billion) from 1999 till date with only 2,000+
Megawatts to show for it. The Nigerian electricity transmission network was said to have recorded over
26 system collapses in 2016 and in 2017, this has continued. An expedient action must be taken as
electricity is becoming a scarce commodity in Nigeria.Employing a nip-in-the-bud approach, the major
solution to the current crisis which our Nigerian power sector is facing is for the government to declare a
state of emergency in the sector in which all tiers of governments will be provided with the powers
necessary to coordinate and implement plans aimed at sustainable electricity supply in Nigeria. It will
also help to secure the necessary funds and financial aids that would be required for this purpose
without legal bottlenecks and restrictions. The envisaged emergency should take the form of opening
our power sector doors for foreign investors. Recently, foreign investors from United States, China,
Korea, United Kingdom, Germany and other countries from Europe, shunned investments in the power
sector, citing Nigeria as an investment risk. This fear was also expressed by the International Finance
Corporation (IFC), which said it was ready to assist Nigeria develop its power sector if necessary
challenges in the sector were settled. The Federal Government must evolve workable measures at
ensuring energy access and energy efficiency in Nigeria if we must attract foreign investors and drive our
country forward economically. The government must explore alternative power source options such as:
coal, solar, water, and fuel flexible technology to power the manufacturing sector. All the stakeholders
in the power sector must therefore, come together to rescue Nigeria from this economic quagmire we
have found ourselves because of inertia and arrested development in the power sector.

2.2 Highway Sector

In Nigeria, socio-economic development includes road infrastructure development and improvement.

This is simply because to connect means to grow. In order to catalyze the present rate of growth and
development of the Nigerian economy, the requisite road infrastructure must be put in place. According
to a report (“Reforming Road Transport in Nigeria”, 2009), Nigeria ranks tops compared with other
countries in Sub-Saharan Africa in terms of road network. Nigeria has the largest road network in West
Africa and the second largest in Africa, South of the Sahara with an estimated 200,000 kilometers of
road network connecting villages to cities.

Today, 95% of both passengers and freight movements are by road in Nigeria largely due to inadequacy
of other forms of transportation in the country. The Federal roads account for only about 17% of the
total national road network but accommodate more than 80% of national vehicular and freight traffic,
bearing in mind a 2.533% population growth rate per annum. In addition, new vehicle importation in the
country increased by the 45% in 2011 and the first half of 2012 recorded an increase by 15% compared
with the same period in 2011. Apparently, Nigeria is getting more cars on the road making reformation
and maintenance of the roads very essential. All these indices clearly justify the need to enhance road
infrastructure delivery to support this expanding populace. However, the task is enormous and requires
huge investment for a country of its size, an assessment of the current state of road infrastructure is
indicative of the fact that the country has fallen short of international benchmarks.

Against this background, the Federal Government of Nigeria has recognized the challenges and
opportunities inherent within the nation’s road infrastructure sector. More so, the government of
Nigeria has also identified a workable approach to tackling the challenges facing the sector, while
harnessing the economic gains of an enhanced road network. As a proactive approach, the Federal
Government has embarked on road sector reforms which basically seek to improve service delivery,
enhance management capacity and create a conducive institutional legal and regulatory framework
through joint participation with the private sector both in financing and management of the road sector.
In addition, the Federal Government has been able to secure concession loans from multi-lateral and bi-
lateral agencies for road sector development. Furthermore, it is the view of the government that with
the involvement of the private sector, growth and development will be facilitated. Typically, good roads
imply reduced travel time and vehicle operating costs and provide the necessary fund for the
development and maintenance of other forms of transportation, like the railways, which is a present
laudable project by the Government. In addition, economic, commercial and business activities will also
thrive along these routes, by virtue of increased traffic flow and hence, profitability and general
economic development of our nation.

But then, it is important to reiterate that Nigeria is an emerging economy with exploding road
infrastructure requirement. Typically, there is a growing funding gap between public spending on road
infrastructure and capital needed to build new roads infrastructure, upgrade and maintain existing ones.
The projected estimate of funding requirements of about NGN 500 billion on the average annually must
be spent over the next ten (10) years to fix, build and reconstruct Nigeria’s ailing and dilapidated roads
and bring them to sync with road infrastructure development in other thriving nations. Hence, the need
for the Federal Government of Nigeria to turn to private investors to share the costs, risks, rewards of
building, financing, constructing and operating infrastructure.

2.3 Telecommunications and ICT Sector

In 2015 and the first half of 2016 mobile data moved to the front and centre of Nigeria’s telecoms
sector. In recent years the country’s four established mobile operators – namely the local firm
Globacom, the UAE’s Etisalat, South Africa’s MTN and India’s Airtel – have ramped up investment in the
development of high-bandwidth mobile data networks in response to steadily increasing smartphone
uptake. The rise of mobile data in Nigeria has been a long time coming. Since the introduction of GSM
mobile services in 2001, the Nigerian Communications Commission (NCC), the federal telecoms
regulator, has worked with mobile operators to ensure that services of all kinds are affordable and
accessible to most Nigerians. Regulatory pressures plus price competition have resulted in declining
sector-wide average revenue per user (ARPU) in recent years, to around N1452 ($4.58) as of mid-2015.
The nation’s four major mobile operators have invested heavily in new, high-speed mobile data
infrastructure in recent years. As of mid-2016 Nigeria’s mobile telecoms sector had attracted some
$32bn in total investment, according to the NCC. This included spending by local operators and foreign
players since the early 2000s. This figure is expected to expand rapidly over the coming years. In late
2015, Barr. Adebayo Shittu, the Minister of Communications, forecast a total investment in the mobile
telecoms industry would reach $166bn by 2020. Much of this expenditure will be aimed at facilitating
increased mobile data speeds. In recent years, the bulk of mobile telecoms spending has gone towards
3G and, since 2014, 4G LTE network installation and expansion.
Macroeconomic context for engineeringas a source of economic development.

Engineering plays a key role in ensuring the growth and development of a country’s economy as well as
in improving the quality of life for citizens within the country. Its remit is far wider than just buildings
and bridges, spanning improvements in renewable energy technologies and solutions through to global
health challenges. As such, there is an important link between a country’s engineering capacity and its
economic development.

Ways in which engineering contributes to economic development.

Economic literature has highlighted a number of ‘waves of innovation’, or so called ‘Kondratieff waves’,
that have acted as game-changers in the history of economic development. The current fifth wave is
associated with the development and uptake of information and digital technologies. However,
according to some literature there are indications that the sixth wave of innovation has already begun,
with this wave associated with the development of sustainable technologies.18 19 In contrast to the
other technological waves, the sixth wave moves away from resource dependency and towards resource
efficiency and sustainability. This has been attributed to the fact that natural resources are under threat
as a result of over-use by humans, thereby encouraging people to come up with sustainable solutions.

Empirical literature supports the position that infrastructure acts to promote growth, such as Easterly
and Rebelo (1993)21. In 1994, The World Bank22 considered the importance of infrastructure on
productivity and deemed that it could impact economic development through economic growth,
alleviating poverty and the enabling environmental sustainability. In 1998, Canning found that
telephones and paved roads had a significant impact on growth.

Engineering is a broad field that can contribute to economic development through many different
channels. By investing in infrastructure, such as transport, bridges, dams, communication, waste
management, water supply and sanitation, energy and6digital infrastructure, countries can raise their
productivity and enhance other economic variables. Through having a well-developed transport and
communications infrastructure for example, countries are better able to get goods and services to
market and move workers to jobs. A strong communications network allows a rapid and free flow of
information, helping to ensure businesses can communicate and make timely decisions.

This view was supported by Professor Calestous Juma HonFREng FRS of the Harvard Kennedy School,24
who contributed to our interview programme. He highlighted that “you cannot have an economy
without engineering. This is because engineering plays a crucial role in the production of goods and
services, through creating new knowledge and ensuring there is the capacity in place to produce and
move goods and services – infrastructure, transportation networks and logistical arrangements.”

Engineering can also help address challenges that will help countries to meet the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as listed in Table 1. The set of 17 SDGs are aimed at ending
poverty, fighting inequality and injustice, and tackling climate change by 2030. They are the successors
to the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that were agreed by governments in 2001 and
expired in 2015.
President of the World Council of Civil Engineers, Tomas Sancho, told delegates at the UNESCO Africa
Engineering Week in 2016 that, “as engineers we have a big role in helping Africa to attain its 17
development pillars under the Sustainable Development Goals…We want better infrastructure to
improve the life of people.”

Engineers help countries by developing infrastructure that provides basic services such as energy; water
and food security; transport and infrastructure; communication; and access to education and
healthcare. Linked to these goals, engineering should also have a positive impact on factors such as life
expectancy that over time can be expected to aid economic development through improvements to
productivity, which in turn results in increased GDP. However, the extent to which engineers can aid
development is also dependent upon governments committing finance and resources to infrastructure
projects, as well as developing a favourable business environment with good regulation and without
corruption.

Macroeconomic variables

When we consider macroeconomic measures other than GDP per capita26, developing countries27
invariably lag behind the average across the OECD. In 2014, life expectancy at birth in the OECD
countries was 80 years. This compared to 61 years in low-income countries. The OECD countries also
had a higher literacy rate, which in 2010 was 98%.

Meanwhile, in low-income countries in the same year, the literacy rate was 57%, increasing to 61% in
2011. Low-income countries also fared poorly relative to the OECD countries in terms of access to
electricity, with just 25% of the population having access, compared to 100% across the OECD.

Engineering is crucial in helping these countries to ‘catch up’ with the high-income countries through the
channel of improved infrastructure. This in turn can lead to more households with electricity, improved
life expectancy, and higher literacy rates, which impact upon economic growth and the quality of life.
Engineering has been instrumental in the technological development that has helped create modern
society. It has helped to create infrastructure and transportation systems, enabled industrial production,
and played a key role in technological innovations such as computers and communication systems, as
well as the internet. Economic literature has highlighted a number of ‘waves of innovation’, or so called
Kondratieff waves, which have acted as game-changers in the history of economic development, each of
which has clear links to engineering. To date, five initial major economic cycles have been identified as:

• The Industrial Revolution (1771)

•The Age of Steam and Railways (1829)

•The Age of Steel and Heavy Engineering (1875)

•The Age of Oil, Electricity, the Automobile and Mass Production (1908)

•The Age of Information and Telecommunications (1971)

As part of this move towards sustainability there is predicted to be development of new forms of
technology, such as green chemistry28, renewable energy and nanotechnology.29 30

Large-scale engineering projects

Empirical literature, such as Easterly and Rebelo (1993)31, supports the position that infrastructure acts
to promote growth. In 1994, The World Bank32 considered the importance of infrastructure on
productivity and deemed that it could affect economic development through economic growth,
alleviating poverty and improving environmental conditions and sustainability. In 1998, Canning33 found
that telephones and paved roads had a significant impact on growth.8In developing economies, the
completion of large-scale engineering projects plays an important role in ensuring the countries’
development. For example, in Africa, the Lamu Port Southern Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET)
Corridor project is a significant transport infrastructure project underway in Kenya that when finished
will be the country’s second transport corridor. The rationale behind this project is to strengthen
Kenya’s position as a gateway and transport and logistics hub. This project is expected to facilitate trade
as well as strengthen regional integration and connectivity, which in turn should help to encourage
economic growth within the region. Feasibility statistics estimate that it will add at least 2-3% to Kenyan
GDP.34

Other large-scale engineering projects were highlighted by our interview respondents, such as the Dubai
Metro, which was the first underground railway in the Gulf countries. Tim Askew FREng, Managing
Director of ATS Management,35 stressed that this engineering project has been transformational as now
“all the other major cities [in the area] are building their own”. He gave the example of people now
being able to get to the office in 20 minutes instead of taking the one hour fifteen minute journey that
they would have had to take in the past. Therefore, the metro allowed people to live in cheaper areas
and travel into work more easily. The ability of new infrastructure to enable people to partake in
economic activity was also emphasised by Vice President of World Federation of Engineering
Organisations (WFEO) Martin Manuhwa.36 He pointed out that “energy efficient buildings around the
world are a great example of how engineers contribute to the economy”. These buildings not only allow
people to come together to partake in economic activity, but also make the world more sustainable and
improve people’s quality of life into the future.8

3.0 Expectations of Engineers

In order to actualise all these and create growth in the sectors and comfort for the citizenry, engineers
have to put their thinking caps to plan, design, construct,/fabricate/install, commission and maintain
these infrastructure.
How ready are the engineers? The answer to this question depends on who’s involved. Over the years,
there has been an orchestrated campaign of calumny on Nigerian engineers largely by some vocal public
officials seeking to patronise foreign experts for in most cases, reasons that are not noble.

The truth however is that Nigerian Engineers have to a large extent paid their bills. How many people
remember that the Rail track from Jos to Nguru was planned, designed and constructed by Nigerian
engineers; how many remember that the structural elements for NET building, the tallest building so far
in Nigeria, was design by a Nigerian. I can go on and on but that will take all the time allocated for this
programme, because so many iconic engineering master pieces have been and are being developed by
Nigerian engineers like the Faith Tabernacle in Otta with one of the largest beam structures, mini hydro
plant turbines and solar power panels by NASENI, etc.

What unfortunately make news are building collapses irrespective of who built them. Let me put on
record, that of all the building collapses in Nigeria it’s only in 2 nr cases that engineers have been
remotely connected.

The roles of engineers is quite critical to national development as explained earlier, and if the nation
must derive the best out of them, they certainly don’t need vilification but encouragement and
appreciation through appropriate remuneration and welfare requires. Nations that we consider
developed today threaded this path and we cannot escape it because it is the right thing to do.

As we demand for commensurate rewards, it’s necessary to remind ourselves that for whom much is
demanded, much more is expected. We must stand for ‘value for money’ in engineering projects and
distance ourselves from corruptive tendencies. Whoever decides to fall foul however has the COREN
Investigation Panel and the Disciplinary Tribunal to contend with.

4.0 Conclusion

With engineering being a multi-disciplinary profession, we can no longer remain narrowly confined to a
single discipline and hope to be good practicing engineers or good professionals. We must therefore
venture out and have our core values revolving around conscience, ethics and accountability in the work
undertaken by us for the social, economic, cultural and political development of our country. I call on all
engineers to demonstrate their professional and social responsibilities in all matters related to the
nation building process. Suffice it to say that all engineers are saddled with the responsibility of making
sure our positive impact is in the sands of time and felt even long after we are gone for the benefit of
the upcoming generation. Engineers indeed have a legacy to leave behind. It’s up to you and I. We pray
that with the government’s recognition of the potentials and capabilities of the professional engineer
and our doubled efforts, the sky will be our stepping stone in seeing to the exploration of our country’s
economic potentials for national growth and development.

5.0 Recommendations

 On the Power Sector development, my sincere recommendation is that the Federal Government of
Nigeria must evolve workable measures at ensuring energy access and energy efficiency in Nigeria if we
must attract foreign investors and drive our country forward economically. The government must
explore alternative power source options such as: coal, solar, water, and fuel flexible technology to
power the manufacturing sector. All the stakeholders in the power sector must therefore, come
together to rescue Nigeria from this economic quagmire we have found ourselves because of inertia and
arrested development in the power sector

 Due to the dire need of huge capital for Nigerian highway construction, operation, maintenance and
repair, I strongly recommend that the Federal Government of Nigeria turns to private investors to share
the costs, risks, rewards of building, financing, constructing and operating infrastructure.

 In all sectors of the economy, a big challenge has remained the mismanagement and
looting/embezzlement of public fund meant for national development. With measures of transparency
and strong punitive systems in place for culprits, this menace must be hitched for the overall growth and
development of the Nigerian economy.

6.0 REFERENCES

ANTONELLI C (2003) THE ECONOMICS OF INNOVATION, NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND STRUCTURAL CHANGE,
LONDON ; ROUTLEDGEINNOVATION ECONOMICS
• STEIL B, VICTOR DG, NELSON RR (2002) TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE, A
COUNCIL OF FOREIGN RELATIONS BOOK ; PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS.
• FARREL CJ (IN PRESS) ECONOMICS, R & D AND GROWTH.
• HTTP://WWW.ME.UTEXAS.EDU/~SRDESIGN/PAPER/
• HTTPS://WWW.BIS.ORG/REVIEW/R110617F.PDF
• THE ROLE OF ENGINEERS IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT BY TOCHUKWU FRANCIS OKOYE
.THE ROLES OF ENGINEERS IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIA: BY ENGR. KASHIM ABDUL
ALI, FNSE, NPOM, MNI.
17 MIKE MCWILLIAMS, GLOBAL HEAD OF HYDROPOWER, MOTT MCDONALD

18 SILVA, G., AND DI SERIO, L., 2016. THE SIXTH WAVE OF INNOVATION: ARE WE READY?
19 HARGROVES, K., AND SMITH, M.H, 2005. THE NATURAL ADVANTAGE OF NATIONS: BUSINESS
OPPORTUNITIES, INNOVATION

AND GOVERNANCE IN THE 21ST CENTURY. EARTHSCAN, LONDON.

20 MOODY, J. AND NOGRADY, B., 2010. THE SIXTH WAVE: HOW TO SUCCEED IN A RESOURCE LIMITED WORLD.

21 EASTERLY, W., AND S REBELO, 1993. FISCAL POLICY AND ECONOMIC GROWTH: AN EMPIRICAL
INVESTIGATION. JOURNAL OF MONETARY ECONOMICS 32: 417: 45811
24 PROFESSOR CALESTOUS JUMA HONFRENG FRS IS PROFESSOR OF THE PRACTICE OF INTERNATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT AT HARVARD

KENNEDY SCHOOL AND DIRECTOR OF THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND GLOBALISATION PROJECT AT THE BELFER
CENTER FOR SCIENCE

AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

25 HTTP://SOUTHERNAFRICAN.NEWS/2016/06/15/AFRICAN-ENGINEERS-MUST-PROMOTE-SDGS/11

MONETARY ECONOMICS 32: 417: 458.

22 WORLD BANK, 1994. WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT: INFRASTRUCTURE FOR DEVELOPMENT. WASHINGTON,
DC.

CANNING, D., 1999. A DATABASE OF WORLD INFRASTRUCTURE STOCKS, 1950- 1955. WORLD BANK
ECONOMIC REVIEW
26 GDP STANDS FOR GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT, WHICH IS A MEASURE OF THE TOTAL OUTPUT OF A COUNTRY.
GDP PER CAPITA

TAKES GDP AND DIVIDES IT BY THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN THE COUNTRY. IT IS PARTICULARLY USEFUL IN
ILLUSTRATING THE RELATIVE

PERFORMANCE OF COUNTRIES.

27 THE UN CLASSIFIES ALL COUNTRIES INTO ONE OF THREE BROAD CATEGORIES: DEVELOPED ECONOMIES,
ECONOMIES IN

TRANSITION AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. THE GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ARE AFRICA,
EAST ASIA, SOUTH

ASIA, WESTERN ASIA, LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN. AN EXHAUSTIVE LIST IS AVAILABLE THROUGH THE
UN:
HTTP://WWW.UN.ORG/EN/DEVELOPMENT/DESA/POLICY/WESP/WESP_CURRENT/2012COUNTRY_CLASS.PDF

28 GREEN CHEMISTRY IS THE DESIGN OF CHEMICAL PRODUCTS AND PROCESSES THAT REDUCE THE GENERATION OF

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES.

29 MARINOVA, D., 2009. GLOBAL GREEN SYSTEM OF INNOVATION: TECHNOLOGICAL WAVE OR POLICY?

30 NANOTECHNOLOGY IS THE BRANCH OF TECHNOLOGY THAT DEALS WITH DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCES OF LESS
THAN 100

NANOMETRES, ESPECIALLY THE MANIPULATION OF INDIVIDUAL ATOMS AND MOLECULES.

31 EASTERLY, W., AND S REBELO, 1993. FISCAL POLICY AND ECONOMIC GROWTH: AN EMPIRICAL
INVESTIGATION. JOURNAL OF

MONETARY ECONOMICS 32: 417: 458.

32 WORLD BANK, 1994. WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT: INFRASTRUCTURE FOR DEVELOPMENT. WASHINGTON,
DC.

33 CANNING, D., 1999. A DATABASE OF WORLD INFRASTRUCTURE STOCKS, 1950- 1955. WORLD BANK
ECONOMIC REVIEW

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