Practical Design of a 1000 W/cmz Cooling System

Dan Faukner, Mehdy Khotan, and Reza Shekarriz

MicroEnergy Technologies, Inc.
2007 E. Fourth Plain Blvd., Vancouver WA 98661
dan@microet.com;360-694-3704

fluxes of several thousand Wlcm’. While there are many

Abstract
In this paper, the results of an experimental study have
been reported of a high heat flux cooling system for thermal
management of high power electronics. The objective of this
study is to investigate whether or not a practical design
solution exists for easily achieving lo00 Wlcm’ cooling of
microwave electronics. A laboratory test module was
designed, built, and tested to verify its performance. The
experimental system employed sub-cooled as well as
saturated forced convection boiling heat transfer in a parallel
microchannel heat sink. The working fluids tested were water
and a selection of ceramic-based nanoparticle suspensions
(nanofluids). The system was observed to dissipate heat
fluxes in excess of 275 Wlcm’ of substrate, while maintaining
the substrate at or below 125°C. For optimized tin geometry,
the current conditions would result in greater than 500
Wlcm‘. While the use of nanofluids was intended for boiling
enhancement with reduced flow maldistribution in the
microchannels, we discerned limited improvement in the
overall heat transfer rate. Future studies are planned for
further investigation of nucleate boiling of nanoparticles.
Keywords
Electronics cooling, ultra-high heat flux, microchannel,
boiling, two-phase flow, nanofluid.
Background
Continuous advances in semiconductor miniaturization
and manufacturing are driving power densities to
increasingly higher levels. While semiconductor devices are
shrinking, they are at the same time producing greater levels
of waste heat. These two trends, then, have conspired to bring
electronics cooling to the forefront, to deal with the increased
heat fluxes [I]. At the upper limit of future applications,
high-end military and aerospace band-gap amplifier will
produce waste heat fluxes on the order of 1000 Wlcm‘. While
heat transfers in excess of 25,000 Wlcm’ have k e n
demonstrated in the laboratory [2], these experiments are far
removed from the day-to-day needs of electronics cooling
systems. The focus of our current work is on the design of a
robust, practical cooling system capable of dissipating heat
fluxes in excess of loo0 Wlcm’ from a semiconductor device,
while maintaining junction temperatures below 125°C.
Under these ultra-high heat flux conditions, the obvious
choice is liquid cooling. Air cooled systems cannot dissipate
more than 10-20 Wlcm2, even under the best of conditions.
Single-phase liquid cooling is limited to a few hundred
W/cm’ for practical systems. Two-phase (boiling) liquid
systems, however, have been known to provide cooling heat
0-7803-7793-1/02/$17.00 0 2003 IEEE
engineering challenges associated with two-phase systems,
they provide the only clear path to achieving ultra-high heat
fluxes.
To meet the manufacturers’ miniaturization challenges,
compaction of the heat dissipation systems is required.
Fortunately, with an appropriate design strategy, compaction
of heat sinks can lead to higher heat transfer coefficients and
improved heat exchanger performance [3]. As shown in
Figure 1, under single-phase laminar flow conditions in high
aspect ratio channels, as the channels are made smaller the
heat transfer coefficient within the channels continues to
increase [4,5]. For example, with water flowing in 100
micron channels, approximately 2.5 Wlcm2-K can be
expected, translating to 100 Wlcm’ heat removal rate (with a
25°C substrate to bulk fluid temperature difference). Until
recently, fabrication difficulties have prevented development
of ultra compact heat sinks where the flow passages are
smaller than 1 mm [6]. Additionally, excessive pressure
drops due to high mass flow rate requirements in single-
phase conditions may be too restrictive.
: . .. .‘... .. . ,
--C Water
dRefrigerants - .:
-Air
. ... ... ..,
0.001 J
I 10 100 io00 10000
Scale of Channels, micron
Figure 1. Heat Transfer CoefficientEnhancement with Reduction
in Channel Size.
Several investigators have explored whether boiling
within small channels is feasible, and how nucleate boiling is
different from boiling in macroscale channels and systems.
Scientists at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
(PNNL)have achieved heat transfer coefficients on the order
of 20,000 W1m’-K for forced convection nucleate boiling of
refrigerant R-124 within 1 2 5 p channels [7,8,9].
Experiments performed by Bowers and Mudawar [10,1I ] on
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 forced convection nucleate boiling of R-113 within a single ,MICROCHMINEL,
mesc-channel (0.51 mm) and mini-channel (2.5 mm)
revealed that heat transfer coefficients range between 20,000
W/m2-K and 32,000 W/m2-K, respectively, at the critical heat
flux ( C m conditions. While these are strictly laboratory
results, they give a strong indication of the feasibility of our
approach. For aspect ratios of greater than 10 (which are
easily achievable) and surface superheats of higher than 20 K
(required for nucleate boiling), heat fluxes in excess of 1000
W/cm2 are considered achievable with convective boiling
flow within microchannels. COLDTHERMALBUS ’
System Design Figure 2. Schematic of Cooling System. The working fluid boils
In previous studies, investigators at PNNL found flow in the micrcchannel heatsink on the left. and condenses
maldistribution to be a critical issue when using a parallel in the heatsink on the right
microchannel arrangement, which is a common
configuration in heat exchangers and heat sinks [8,9]. Flow Experimental Apparatus
maldistribution is the result of bubble coalescence and non- For preliminary testing, we constructed a simple parallel-
uniform nucleation and boiling within different channels. channel heatsink to simulate a proprietary design currently
The resulting flow becomes rather unstable with parts of the being patented. The test module contained ten parallel
heat exchanger being inactive due to “dry out” and channel channels, each approximately 0.5mm in width. The baseplate
blockage. was heated from the back with an electric resistance heater to
To overcome these problems and achieve higher boiling simulate the heat load from a semiconductor device. The
heat transfer rates, we are using cooling fluids that contain a meso-scale channels in this heatsink are somewhat larger
suspension of ceramic nanoparticles, which are stabilized than the envisioned microchannels of the final device.
into a network. Two major advantages can be conjectured However, these larger channels can be manufactured with
when using these fluids: conventional machining methods, which make them
I ) The suspension in contact with the heat transfer wall attractive for exploratory work.
at superheated condition provides an abundance of nucleation TmatrKu;
sites for efficient nucleate boiling [12].
2) The stable networked suspension will have a non-
Newtonian rheology, with z pseudoplastic or yield-
pseudoplastic behavior. The complex rheology of the mixture
will help diminish the relative velocity of the bubbles with
respect to the fluid, thus hindering hubhle coalescence and
channel blockage or flow maldistribution.
While this study was targeting observation and
measurement of the impact of nanofluids on the overall
boiling heat transfer rate, the details of the above conjectures
have not yet been verified. More rigorous studies are planned
to cover some of these details in the future.
In its final form, in a particular application of interest to
us, the cooling system will consist of two microchannel heat
exchangers connected by a pumped, closed-loop fluid path
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.
(Figure 2). The small, highly optimized microchannel heat
exchanger at the hot end of the system will remove heat from A schematic of the experimental apparatus is shown in
the semiconductor device and dump it into the cooling fluid Figure 3. The operation of the system is quite simple: fluid is
in the form of sensible heat and liquid-to-vapor phase pumped from a reservoir through a series of parallel
change. This two-phase flow will then be pumped to a larger microchannels, which are heated from below by a thin-film
microchannel heat exchanger, which has been optimized for electric heater. Thermocouples were used to monitor the
condensation. This larger heat exchanger can take many temperature of the heatsink baseplate (immediately below the
forms, depending on the application and the availability of microchannels) and the fluid temperature at three locations.
large-scale cooling. In aerospace and military applications, The fluid reservoir (a beaker) was maintained in one of two
the condenser might be coupled with a large forced-air states. In some experiments, the beaker was kept on a hot
system, or in the case of shipboard applications, to a cold- plate which maintained the fluid at or near the saturation
water “thermal bus”. In essence, the system functions as an temperature (100 “C). In other experiments, the beaker was
actively pumped heat pipe, with a highly efficient thermal placed in an ice water bath to keep the fluid in a subcooled
interface at each end.
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 state (typically 10-50 "C). Liquid flow rates were monitored
with a rotameter placed between the pump and the heatsink.
We conducted a number of experiments to characterize
the performance of the heatsink, and to explore the impact.of
adding nanoparticles on boiling heat transfer rates and flow
distribution. In the following sections, we will provide some
of the details of our experiments and the results that we
gathered from each set of experiments to systematically
understand the behavior of the fluid during these tests.
The first set of experiments explored some variations in
the dimensions of the microchannels. Three different
heatsinks were precision machined using wire EDM, with
different fin spacings, fin thicknesses, and fin counts. Each
of these heatsinks was supplied with a flow of tap water,
maintained near saturation temperature (100°C). The electric
heater power was slowly increased, until the measured
heatsink temperature reached 115°C. Visual observations of
the fluid confirmed that significant boiling was occurring
within the microchannels. Based on the measured heatsink
temperature, the fluid temperature, and the applied heater
power, we can calculate a simple thermal resistance for each
heatsink:
Re =
Thmtsin k - Tflwid
(1)
Qheater
A summary of the microchannel dimensions and the
measured thermal resistances is given in Table I . In all three
cases, the height of the fins and the heatsink baseplate area
remained constant. Note that Version B offered the best
performance of nearly 30% better than the worst heatsink
(Version C). Thus, Version B was selected for all subsequent
tests.
Table 1. Measured Thermal Resistance of Heatsinks
Version A Version E Version C
Channel width lmml
. . 0.5 0.5 1.o
Channel height (mm) 6.0 6.0 6.0
Channel length (mm) 10.0 10.0 10.0
Fin thickness (mm) 0.3 0.5 0.3
Numberoffins 12 10 8 and to prevent particle agglomeration. The impact of flow
Thermal resistance (QWl 0.278 0.239 0.352
Saturated Boiling Experiments
The core of our experimental work explored saturated
boiling heat transfer in small channels. The experimental
procedure was similar to that described above. At the start of
the test, 200mL of fluid was heated to saturation, and
maintained at that temperature by the hot plate. The
saturated liquid was pumped through the heated
microchannels, and then returned to the reservoir. The
microchannel heater power was adjusted in several steps
from zero up to 125W. At each step, the system was allowed
to reach equilibrium before recording the heatsink
temperature, the fluid temperatures, and the applied heater
power. Critical heat flux (Cw) could not be determined in
these experiments because it would require a more elaborate
setup with controlled surface temperature apparatus taking
advantage of a controlled system to avoid burn out of the
heater.
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Figure 4 shows the experimental results for water, and for
several different nanofluids. This graph shows the measured
heatsink temperature excess (measured relative to the fluid
temperature) as a function of the heat input kom the electric
heater. The nanoparticle concentrations are given as a
percentage of the total weight. The nanoparticles were
purchased from Materials Modification, Inc. (MMI) in
Fairfax, Virginia. No attempts were made in characterizing
these particles. Some of these results show improved
performance with the nanopasticles present while other
conditions show no enhancement over pure water. Further,
visual observations consistently showed improved
distribution and uniformity of bubbles within the channels by
addition of the nanoparticles.
30 -----
tAI-N - 0.25%
d A 1 - N - 0.50%
AI203 - 0.25%
-Al203-( 1.50%
1 L SE - 0.2!5%
0 i"
K . . . . . , . , . ,
0 ~ NC9Vs%i?s8$EgE
0 0 0
Heat flux Through Baseplate (W/cmP)
Figure 4. Saturated Boiling Test Results for Several Nanofluids
(Flow rate = loo0 ml/min).
Surfactants were used in these solutions as a dispersant
rate on the heat transfer rate was of interest since it is
desirable to run the flow as low as possible, thus minimizing
the pumping requirements. To isolate these effects. several
tests were initially performed to evaluate the impact of
surfactants and flow rate on heat transfer rate in pure water
as baseline.
The experiment of Figure 5, below, was performed to
separate out any possible effects created by the surfactant
mentioned above. As the graph shows, the surfactant had
little effect on the overall boiling heat transfer.
To test the impact of flow rate, we performed a series of
experiments to explore how the heat transfer is affected by
the fluid flow rate. Two flow rates were tested over the
normal range of heat inputs, with AI-N nanofluid as the
cooling fluid. As Figure 6 shows, the flow rate had little
effect on the overall heat transfer rate.
19th IEEE SEMI-THERM Symposium
 Subcooled Boiling Experiments
In the final set of experiments, we explored the subcooled
boiling regime. Instead of the hot plate, the fluid reservoir
was placed in an ice water bath. The experimental procedure
was the same as in the saturated boiling tests. The subcooled
water was pumped through the heated microchannels and re-
circulated back into the reservoir. Steady-state temperatures
were recorded for a variety of heat fluxes. The results of these
experiments are shown in Figure 7.
(125°C) with an applied heat flux of only 100 W/cm‘, while
in the subcooled case, the heatsink was able to dissipate 280
W/cm2 without exceeding the 125°C limit. This is attributed
to dozens of degrees lower inlet fluid temperature than in the
saturated tests. The slope of the lines in the above graph,
which is an indicator ofthe thermal resistance, reveal a lower
heat transfer coefficient in the subcooled boiling than in
saturated boiling (i.e., saturated boiling IS less efficient at
removing heat). Unlike in saturated boiling, the fluid flow
rate does have an effect on the overall heat transfer rate in the
subcooled regime, as shown in Figure 8. Roughly 25% more
heat was rejected at 1000 mllmin than it did at 500 mumin.

Figure 5. Impact of Surfactant on Heat Transfer Rate --

oZ3k?83~~E?~S2~
Heat flux Through Baseplate (W/cm2)

Figure 7. Comparison of Saturated and Subcooled Boiling of

Various Fluids.

-a- Water, 1000 n V m n

t0.25% AL-N 725 nVmn

0
O -O ~O mD - Ot lO nO a Or O
. m % $ p g q +Water 500 nVmn
+AI203 1000 nUmn
#at FluxThrough Baseplate (Wk”)
-e- A12G3 5M) ni/mn
04 I , I , ’, , , , , , , ‘I
Figure 6. Saturated Boiling Performance at Two Different Fluid
Flow Rates.
-
o l n o m o l n o l n o m o l n o
N Q h O N m S ON NN mN rN. O0
Heat Flux Through Baseplate (Wlcm2)
The most noticeable result from this data is that we were
able to remove nearly three times more heat from the fins by Figure 8. Subcooled Boiling Performance at Two Different Flow
using subcooled fluids. That is, in saturated boiling the Rates.
heatsink surface reached its maximum allowable temperature

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 Discussion
Figure 9 shows how our measured data compared with
some standard heat transfer correlations. For the subcooled
case, the flow was laminar and fully developed. Under these
flow conditions, the Nusselt number (Nu) is expected to be
constant, and the data indicate that this is true. The exact
value of the Nusselt number is highly dependent on the
thermal boundary conditions placed on the channel. In a
rectangular channel with an aspect ratio of 1 2 1 (as in our
experiments), Kays [I31 and Sparrow & Siege1 [I41 predict
the following:
Nu = 7 for constant heat input per unit axial length, and
constant peripheral wall temperature at a given
axial position
Nu = 3 for constant heat input per unit length and per unit
peripheral distance
Since the actual boundary conditions of our system lie
somewhere in between these two extremes, it is expected that
3 < Nu < 7. As Figure 9 shows, the data suggest that for our
setup, Nu = 5 .
A Subcooled
Heat Rux Through Baseplate (W/cm*)
Figure 9. Comparison and Measured Data with Predicted Results
Using Existing Correlations for Saturated and
Subcooled Boiling.
It is more difficult to find adequate heat transfer
correlations for saturated flow boiling. One commonly used
correlation comes from Chen [I51 who split the problem into
two superimposed regimes, one for single-phase forced
convection, and one for nucleate boiling. For the forced
convection regime, Chen suggests:
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where Re, Pr, and thermal conductivity, k, are evaluated at
the bulk liquid temperature. De is the hydraulic diameter, and
F is an empirical forced convection factor,
For the nucleate boiling regime:
where AT,, and Urn, are the temperature of the channel
wall and the fluid pressure, relative to saturated conditions.
The subscripts L and G indicate that the fluid properties
should be evaluated for the liquid phase and gas phase
respectively. S is an empirical boiling suppression factor.
Chen's model supposes that both forced convection and
nucleate boiling effects co-exist in the flow. Superimposing
these two effects gives:
This correlation, as shown in Figure 9 above, matches
reasonably well with the measured data.
To better assess the correlations, we must look at heat
transfer coefficient rather than just the measured
temperatures. For the experimental data, we can calculate the
average heat transfer coefficient at the microchannel walls, as
a function of the Nusselt number (Nu):
where kn is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and d, is the
hydraulic diameter of the channels. For convective heat
transfer in fully developed laminar flow, the Nusselt number
reaches an asymptotic limit of Nu=8.2. We can use.this as an
initial estimate, although it is expected that Nu will be
somewhat higher for the boiling heat transfer in our
experiments.
Armed with this initial estimate of h, we can then
estimate the fin efficiency, 7, :
tanh(mLc)
'I, =
mLc
where
f
L<= L+-
2
A,, = L, . t
and k, is the thermal conductivity of the microchannel tins,
Lis the height of the fins, and t i s the thickness of the fins.
19th IEEE SEMI-THERM Symposium
 Finally, we can compare the estimates of h and 9, with As these figures show, the experimental data match quite
well for the subcooled regime. In the saturated regime, the
the actual heats and temperatures recorded in the Chen correlation predicts somewhat higher heat transfer rates
experiments: than those actually measured in the experiments. A likely
explanation of this is that, as in the subcooled case, the
Q~wseplote = S , - T/luid ) [Wl
J ~(TWU (7) asymmetric thermal boundary conditions on the channel tend
to reduce the heat transfer. At very low heat fluxes, the
where Ar is the total surface area of all of the microchannels. measured data deviate noticeably from the prediction. This is
in part because the iterative equations used for the
Through iterative calculations of the above equations, we
experimental data are very sensitive to errors when the
arrive at final values of h, Nu and 9,. Plots of these measured temperature differences are small.
calculated values, based on the measured temperatures, are The Nusselt number analysis sheds light on another
shown in Figures 10 and 11. Also shown are the same three interesting question: Why is the forced convection heat
parameters, as predicted by the correlations described above. transfer worse when the flow rate is lower? The standard
14
7 argument is that the forced convection heat transfer is a

I
10000 function of the Reynolds number, and thus is affected by the

10
l2 I+ 8ooo
flow rate. But in our experiments at 1000 mYmin the
Reynolds number was not constant. As the fluid temperature
increases, its viscosity decreases, so the Reynolds number
increases with increasing temperature. However, the 1000
mVmin data show no clear change in Nusselt number as
temperature increases, which implies that the heat transfer is
not a function of Reynolds number. And, in fact, this makes
sense: when the flow is laminar and fully developed, the
Reynolds number dependence disappears. This effect is
shown in Figure 12:

CO
0 0
“
0
Z ‘
0
O 8N 8N 8
m m8
Heat RuxThrough Baseplate (W/cm*)

0.6
A
A
- A A A
- A

0.5
0 1
0 0 0 0
8 0 0
N 8
P z f n P

Figure 12. Nusselt number (Nu) vs. Reynold number (Re) for
0 Saturated Experiments Saturated Boiling of Water at Two Different Row
men Boiling Correlation Rates. At the higher flow rate, Nu has little or no
0.1 A Subcooled Experiments dependence on Re.
So what, then, causes the reduction in heat transfer at the
0.0
0 -
8 8 ~ ~ lower flow rate? Clearly from the figure above, the Nusselt
~ H Q
number does vary with the Reynolds number, but only below
Heat FluxThrough Baseplate (W/cm*) a threshold of R-300. But generally, the flow is expected to
be more fully developed at low Reynolds numbers. Since it is
Figure 11. Overall Fin Efficiency from Experiments, Compared clear that the flow is fully developed at 1000 mllmin, it
with Prediction Using Existing Correlations. follows that it should also be fully developed at 500 mllmin.
The answer lies in the fact that the tiny dimensions of the
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 microchannels are close to the size of the boundary layer in
the fluid. Some rough calculations of boundary layer size
indicate that at 500 mYmin (Re = 200), the fully-developed
boundary layer thickness is more than twice the width of the
channel. This means that the boundary layers will merge
within the channels, creating a flow condition that is
different than the classical fully-developed velocity profile.
On the other hand, at loo0 mumin (Re = 500), the boundary
layers are thinner, which allows the fully-developed profile to
occur without merging. This difference in boundary layer
behavior, then, is a probable cause of the reduced heat
transfer at very low Reynolds numbers.
In electronics cooling applications, thermal resistance is a
critical design parameter. Designers need to know, for a
particular cooling system, how much temperature rise to
expect when a given heat flux is applied. The thermal
resistance R, is simply the slope of the temperature vs. heat
flux curves of Figure 7. Applying a linear curve fit to the
data, we find the following:
Table 2. Comparison of Thermal Resistances at Various Test
Conditions.
FluidICondition Re [‘CW
Water - Saturated 0.247
AI-N - Saturated 0.270
Water - Subcooled 0.390
AI-N Subcooled 0.427
The baseplate area was 1.0 cm2 in all cases. Note that the
data for saturated boiling do not really fall on a linear curve.
In fact, the slope of the curve (Re) decreases with increasing
heat flux. So, for saturated boiling, the table above gives the
average thermal resistance. At higher heat fluxes, the actual
Ro will be somewhat lower than the reported number. Note
that by using a more efficient fin design, the fin efficiency
can be nearly doubled, rendering the thermal resistances
much smaller than what is presented in Table 2. Note that
the design in the current study was limited by fabrication
process, and we were not able to test the optimal geometries,
using smaller channels for higher performance.
As mentioned previously, it is worth noting that while
saturated boiling provides lower effective thermal resistances,
the subcooled regime is more practical for electronics
cooling. This is because, for water, the inlet fluid temperature
must be at or near 100°C to achieve saturated boiling in the
microchannels. Since the cooled electronic device is to be
maintained at 125”C, the already hot fluid cannot absorb
much heat without exceeding this temperature limit. In the
subcooled regime, the inlet fluid is much cooler, which
allows it to absorb substantially more heat, even though the
heat transfer is less efficient.
The current research effort was targeted at the cooling of
shipboard electronics, where the most practical fluid inlet
temperature is that of the surrounding ocean. Global Ocean
temperatures can range from 0°C at the poles to around 30°C
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near the equator. If we assume a maximum allowable device
temperature of 125”C, and a thermal resistance
R , = 0.390for subcooled water, our current microchannel
design can be expected to dissipate heat fluxes of 243 to 320
Wlcm’, depending on geographic location.
Cnnclusinns
Based on the analysis and experiments performed during
the project, the following conclusions may be drawn:
Up to 125 W/cm* for saturated boiling and 280 Wlcm2 for
subcooled (25°C) boiling were measured with water as the
base coolant. While this is still well below the ultimate target
of 1000 W/cm2, it can nonetheless be viewed as a validation
of the basic approach. In this preliminary design, no attempt
was made to optimize the channel dimensions. It is expected
that with further miniaturization and optimization, the target
cooling level can be easily achieved.
Significant improvements are achieved by going to
smaller channel sizes. It was demonstrated that 30%
improvement was achieved by reducing the channel sizes
from lmm to 0.5mm.
The experiments were performed using 725mllmin and
1OOOmUmin with no significant difference between the two,
confirming the minimal flow requirements for the system.
The small required fluid flow allows the use of alternative
pumping methods such a piezoelectric or EHD pumping for
distributed/modular cooling, low cost and size.
There is a lower limit on the fin thickness below which
thermal resistance is increased. We observed this
phenomenon below 0.3mm fin thickness for 6mm high fins.
Using more optimal fin geometry, which was limited in the
current study by the fabrication process, the thermal
resistance of the heatsink can be reduced significantly,
providing much higher base heat transfer rates.
We did not encounter any significant issues associated
with nanoparticle suspensions and flow in the microchannels.
Further testing of nanoparticle suspensions are needed to
show conclusive evidence of improvements in heat flux for
nanofluids.
Acknowledgments
This work was performed for the U.S. Office of Naval
Research, under contract N00014-02-M-0114. The authors
would like to acknowledge the support provided by Dr. Kristl
Hathaway at the Electronics Division of ONR.
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19th IEEE SEMI-THEM Symposium
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230 19th IEEE SEMI-THEM Symposium

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