Disaster Management in India: A Concise Guide

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RAHAAR
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PREFACE
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OnlyIAS PRAHAAR: DISASTER MANAGEMENT
DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

TABLE OF CONTENT:
DISASTER............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
HAZARD .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS, NATURAL HAZARDS, THEIR MANAGEMENT .......................................................................................... 3
EARTHQUAKE .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
TSUNAMI ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
TROPICAL CYCLONE .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
HEAT WAVES: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
FLOODS ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
URBAN FLOODS .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
FLASH FLOODS ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
DROUGHTS ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
LANDSLIDES .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
MAN MADE DISASTERS IN INDIA .................................................................................................................................................................. 15
DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA .............................................................................................................................................................. 23
DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND PLANNING.............................................................................................................................................. 25
10 POINTS AGENDA OF THE PM FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION .......................................................................................................... 25
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT FOR MANAGEMENT OF DISASTERS ..................................................................................................... 25
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT AT STATE LEVEL ................................................................................................................................... 28
FINANCIAL SETUP .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
15 FINANCE COMMISSION AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 29
LEGISLATIONS DEALING WITH DISASTERS ................................................................................................................................................. 30
SECOND ARC ON NDM ACT 2005................................................................................................................................................................. 30
NDMA ACT AND COVID-19 PANDEMIC ........................................................................................................................................................ 31
EPIDEMIC ACT-1897 .................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
EPIDEMIC DISEASES (AMENDMENT) BILL, 2020 ..................................................................................................................................... 32
NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT PLAN 2016 .................................................................................................................................... 32
INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT .......................................................................................................................... 32
COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT .......................................................................................................................................... 35
ROLE OF MEDIA IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................................................ 36
NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT, 2009 .......................................................................................................................... 37
DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 38
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS: DISASTERS ...................................................................................................................................................... 40
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PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India 2020
departing from the earlier reactive approach.
2. Disaster preparedness is the first step in any disaster management process. Explain how hazard 2019
zonation mapping will help in disaster mitigation in the case of landslides.
3. Vulnerability is an essential element for defining disaster impacts and its threat to people. How and 2019
in what ways can vulnerability to disasters be characterized? Discuss different types of
vulnerability with reference to disasters.
4. Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after 2018
signing ‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from ‘Hyogo
Framework for Action, 2005?
5. On December 2004, tsunami brought havoc on 14 countries including India. Discuss the factors 2017
responsible for occurrence of Tsunami and its effects on life and economy. In the light of guidelines
of NDMA (2010) describe the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such events.
6. The frequency of urban floods due to high intensity rainfall is increasing over the years. Discussing 2016
the reasons for urban floods. highlight the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during
such events.
7. With reference to National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) guidelines, discuss the 2016
measures to be adopted to mitigate the impact of the recent incidents of cloudbursts in many places
of Uttarakhand.
8. The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent. However, 2015
India’s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects.
9. Drought has been recognised as a disaster in view of its party expense, temporal duration, slow 2014
onset and lasting effect on various vulnerable sections. With a focus on the September 2010
guidelines from the National disaster management authority, discuss the mechanism for
preparedness to deal with the El Nino and La Nina fallouts in India.
10. How important are vulnerability and risk assessment for pre-disaster management? As an 2013
administrator, what are key areas that you would focus in a disaster management
DISASTER
• As per the Disaster Management Act 2005: Disaster means a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave
occurrence in any area, arising from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which results
in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, or
degradation of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the
community of the affected area.
Lack of
Hazard Vulnerabilities DISASTER
capacity
• United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR): defines disaster as “a serious disruption of
the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to hazardous events interacting with conditions
of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or more of the following: human, material, economic
and environmental losses and impacts.” (UNISDR 2016).
• Disasters are natural or manmade, in the past few years there has been a significant increase in the
frequency and magnitude of such disasters. The situation in India is especially vulnerable as it is prone to
disasters of various types. India is one of the top ten countries most vulnerable to natural disasters.
According to Forbes, India has the highest number of people exposed to natural hazards (1 billion), followed
by China (677 million).

HAZARD
• It may be defined as ‘’a dangerous condition or event, that actually or potentially causes injuries to life or
damage to assets or the environment. ‘’
• A hazard is “a risky condition or event that threatens or has the potential to cause injury to life,
property damage, or environmental damage.”
ELEMENT OF RISK,
HAZARD DISASTERS
VULNERABILITIES AND CAPACITIES
• When hazards involve elements of risks, vulnerabilities and capacities, they can turn into disasters. For
example, in the case of a cyclone striking an isolated island, it cannot be considered a disaster, irrespective
of the strength of the cyclone, it can be considered a disaster only when it affects people, their assets and the
way they live.
CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARD
1. Natural Hazards: Natural Hazards are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused by either rapid or
slow onset events which can be geophysical such as earthquakes or climatological for example Cyclones
2. Quasi Natural Hazards: A Quasi Natural Hazard is a hazard which is caused by a bi-product of human
activities especially while using natural resources. For example Smog
3. Man-Made Hazards: Man Made hazards are events that are caused by humans and occur in or close to
human settlements. For example industrial disasters
Risk is a measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a given area over a specific time
period. Disaster risk arises when hazards interact with physical, social, economic and environmental
vulnerabilities. As per the Second ARC: Risk = Probability of Hazard x Degree of Vulnerability.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HAZARDS AND DISASTERS
DISASTER HAZARD
Disaster is an event that occurs suddenly/unexpectedly Hazard is an event that has potential for causing
in most cases and disrupts the normal course of life in injury/ loss of life or damage to
the affected area. It results in loss or damage to life, property/environment.
property or environment. This Loss is beyond the
coping capacity of the local affected population/society.
And therefore, requires external help.
CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS, NATURAL HAZARDS, THEIR MANAGEMENT

• Disasters are classified as per origin, into natural and man-made disasters. As per severity, disasters are
classified as minor or major (in impact).
• Natural disasters are sudden ecological disruptions or threats that exceed the adjustment capacity of the
affected community and require external assistance.
• Anthropogenic disasters are those that arise as a result of human error or negligence. Explosions,
hazardous waste leaks, pollution, dam failure, wars or civil unrest are all examples of these events that are
linked to industry or energy producing facilities.
EARTHQUAKE
• Of all the natural disasters, earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable and destructive. Tectonic
earthquakes have proven to be the most deadly, and their region of influence is also extremely large.
• About 59% of India’s territory is vulnerable to earthquakes.
• The earthquakes are the consequence of a succession of earth movements caused by a burst of energy
released during tectonic activity in the earth's crust.

• The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), in collaboration with the Indian Meteorological Department
(IMD), has classified the country into four seismic zones based on a modified Mercalli scale, in which
shaking occurs as a result of seismic energy released by an earthquake; earthquakes differ in how much of
their energy is released as seismic waves.
• Zone V, which includes the entire Northeast India, the northern portion of Bihar, Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh, J&K, Gujarat, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, is the most active.
Seismic Zone II • Area with minor damage earthquakes corresponding to intensities V to VI of MM scale
(MM-Modified Mercalli Intensity scale).
Seismic Zone III • Moderate damage corresponding to intensity VII of MM scale.
Seismic Zone IV • Major damage corresponding to intensity VII and higher of MM scale.
• Area determined by pro seismicity of certain major fault systems and is seismically the
most active region.
Seismic Zone V • Earthquake zone V is the most vulnerable to earthquakes, where historically some of
the country’s most powerful shocks have occurred.
• Earthquakes with magnitudes in excess of 7.0 have occurred in these areas, and have
had intensities higher than IX.
REASONS FOR LOSS OF PROPERTY AND DAMAGE DUE TO EARTHQUAKES:

• Unprecedented growth of population resulting in unplanned
urbanization.
• Mushrooming of unsustainable and weak building structures due to
lack of policy implementation ensuring construction standards.
• Lack of awareness regarding what to do and what not to do during
disaster among the common masses. Example: 35% of the deaths during
earthquakes is due to blasting of cylinders in the kitchen.
• The increase in use of high-technology equipment and tools in
manufacturing and service industries has also made them susceptible to
disruption due to relatively moderate ground shaking.
• Mushrooming of buildings along the inter-late boundaries and fault lines.
Example: Bhuj Earthquake.
• Development of large hydro-electricity projects nearby settlements. Example: Koyna Earthquake.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE:
• Natural Causes:
o Movements along the plate boundaries cause earthquakes. Stress is created in the crust when these plates
collide.
o The energy release produces waves that travel in all directions.
o Volcano earthquakes are caused by stress changes in solid rock caused by the injection or withdrawal of
magma (molten rock).
• Anthropogenic Causes:
o Underground mine ceilings may collapse in places of high mining activity, creating mild tremors. These
earthquakes are known as collapse earthquakes.
o The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as reservoir induced
earthquakes.
NDMA’S 6 PILLARS OF EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA:

• Earthquake-Resistant Design and Construction of New Structures: Past earthquakes show that over 95%
of the lives lost were due to the collapse of buildings that were not earthquake-resistant. Though there are
building codes and other regulations which make it mandatory that all structures in earthquake-prone areas
in the country must be built in accordance with earthquake-resistant construction techniques, new
constructions often overlook strict compliance to such regulations and building codes.

• Seismic Strengthening and retrofitting of Lifeline and Priority Structures: There are approximately 12
crore buildings in seismic Zones III, IV and V. Most of these buildings are not earthquake-resistant and are
potentially vulnerable to collapse in the event of a high intensity earthquake. As it is not practically feasible
or financially viable to retrofit all the existing buildings, these Guidelines recommend the structural safety
audit and retrofitting of select critical lifelines structures and high priority buildings.
• Regulation and Enforcement: A periodic revision of the codes and standards relating to earthquake-
resistant construction will be undertaken by drafting groups within a fixed time-frame of five years or even
earlier on priority basis, in keeping with international practices.
• Awareness and Preparedness: A comprehensive awareness campaign will be developed and implemented
on the safe practices to be followed before, during and after an earthquake.
• Creation of Public Awareness on Seismic Safety and Risk Reduction: The guidelines say that a handbook
on earthquake safety will be prepared for the general public highlighting the safety of persons (i.e., indoors,
outdoors, and driving), buildings and structures and non-structural contents of buildings.
• Capacity Development Including Education, Training, R&D and Documentation Response: The
developments of high-quality education materials, textbooks, field training and the improvement of the
quality of teaching at all levels will be given due emphasis.
EARTHQUAKE HAZARD MITIGATION:

• Establishing earthquake monitoring centres for regular monitoring and dissemination of information
among the people in vulnerable areas. Use of GPS can be of great help in monitoring the movement of tectonic
plates. India Quake App- Ministry of Earth Sciences launched ‘India Quake’ app to enable users to receive
information about natural hazards on land and water.
• Preparing a vulnerability map of the country and dissemination of vulnerability risk information
among the people and educating them about the ways and means minimising the adverse impacts of
disasters.
• Modifying the house types and building designs in the vulnerable areas and discouraging construction of
high-rise buildings, large industrial establishments and big urban centres in such areas.
• Making it mandatory to adopt earthquake resistant designs and use light materials in major construction
activities in the vulnerable areas.
INITIATIVES:
• National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project: The project aims at strengthening the structural and non-
structural earthquake mitigation efforts and reducing the vulnerability in the high-risk districts prone to
earthquakes.
• National Building Code: The salient features of the National Building Code 2005 include meeting the
challenges posed by natural calamities and reflecting the state-of-the-art and contemporary applicable
international practices.
• Seismic retrofitting: It is the modification of existing structures to make them more resistant to seismic
activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes.
TSUNAMI
• A tsunami is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water,
usually an ocean. Tsunamis are gravity waves that propagate near the ocean surface.
• Tsunamis belong to the same family as common sea waves that we enjoy at the beach; however, tsunamis
are distinct in their mode of generation and in their characteristic period, wavelength, and velocity.
• The earthquake and resulting tsunami in the Indian Ocean on 26 Dec 2004 had devastating effects on
India. Many people died and millions were displaced. The hardest hit areas were on the Southern coast and
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Tsunamis have the potential of causing significant casualties, widespread property damage, massive
infrastructure loss and long-term negative economic impacts.
• India has volunteered to join the International Tsunami Warning System (ITWS) after the December 2004
tsunami disaster.

THE EFFECTS OF A TSUNAMI DEPEND ON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS:

• Characteristics of the seismic event that generated the tsunami.
• Distance from its point of origin, its size (magnitude)
• Configuration of the bathymetry (that is the depth of water in oceans).
CAUSES OF TSUNAMI
• Tsunamis are caused by a huge, abrupt change in the level of the seabed. Tsunamis are caused by the vertical
movement of the sea floor during earthquakes.
• Landslides into or beneath the water surface, volcanic activity, and meteorite strikes can all cause tsunamis.
Due to the massive silt deposition by the Ganges and Indus Rivers, landslide-triggered tsunamis in the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea may be a possibility.
INDIA’S PROFILE
• Tsunami waves pose a threat to both East and West Indian shorelines. India has a 2200-kilometer shoreline
that is densely populated. In order for a tsunami to impact the Indian coastline, a tsunamigenic earthquake
with a magnitude larger than 6.5 must occur.
TSUNAMI MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: NDMA GUIDELINES:

• Tsunami Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Analysis: Based on coastal land use maps and coastal
bathymetry, the NDMA suggests assessing vulnerability and risk mapping in the tsunami hazard.
o In India, the Indian Naval Hydrographic Department (INHD) reports to the Government of India's Chief
Hydrographer. It delivers bathymetry data to approved entities on a regular basis so that inundation
maps can be generated.
• Tsunami Preparedness: IMD plans to develop a 17-station Real Time Seismic Monitoring Network
(RTSMN), with Bottom Pressure Recorders (BPRs) being utilised to monitor the propagation of Tsunami
waves in the open ocean.
o For the preservation of surface buoys, the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) has created the
National Data Buoy Program. Tsunami warning systems and bulletins are critical components of tsunami
preparedness. In coastal locations, "Tsunami Escape" direction sign boards must be installed.
• Structural Mitigation Measures:
o Along the coast, mangroves and coastal woods are being planted.
o Development of a network of local knowledge centres (rural/urban) along the coast lines to provide
needed training and emergency communication during times of crisis (e.g., the M.S. Swaminathan
Foundation's centres in Pondicherry)
o In conjunction with specialists, construct location-specific sea walls and coral reefs.
o Breakwaters are being built along the shore to offer the essential protection against tsunamis.
o Tsunami detection, forecasting, and warning facilities are being built.
o The creation of a "Bio-Shield," a limited strip of land near the coast.
• Techno-Legal Regime Regulation and Enforcement:
o Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations (within 500 m of the high tide line with elevation
of less than 15 m above mean sea level.
o Mapping the coastal area for multiple hazards, vulnerability and risk analysis up to taluka /village level.
• Tsunami Emergency Response: Because the community is the first responder, a series of public awareness
campaigns can be launched throughout the coastal area using various methods. SHGs, NGOs, and CBOs can
all help with search and rescue missions.
SAGAR VANI APP:

• Sagar Vani app has been developed by ESSO Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS)
under Ministry of Earth Sciences.
• It is a software platform which uses state of art technology for dissemination of ocean related information
and advisory services such as Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) advisories, Ocean State Forecast (OSF), High Wave
Alerts and Tsunami early warnings.

Tsunami Warning and Communication System

• The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) has been established at Indian National Centre for
Ocean Information Sciences, (INCOIS - ESSO) Hyderabad.
• It has the responsibility to provide tsunami advisories to Indian Mainland and the Island regions.
TROPICAL CYCLONE
• Cyclone is a swirling atmospheric disturbance accompanied by violent winds
caused by a zone of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high
atmospheric pressure. They are mostly found in tropical and temperate climates
around the world.
• Strong winds sweep anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere around the low pressure centre within
the cyclone field, though the wind at the centre (known as the eye of the cyclone)
is relatively light and generally free of cloud and rain. Winds rapidly surge to a
peak (sometimes reaching 150 km/h) at around 20 to 30 kilometres from the
centre, then gradually decrease.
CAUSES OF CYCLONE FORMATION:

• Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low-pressure area distinguished by swift and
often destructive air circulation. Cyclones are usually accompanied by violent storms and bad weather.
• There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis:
o Sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures,
o Atmospheric instability,
o High humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere,
o Enough Coriolis force to sustain a low pressure center,
o A pre-existing low level focus or disturbance, and
o Low vertical wind shear.
CYCLONE RISKS IN INDIA:

• About 10 percent of the World's tropical cyclones affect the Indian coast.
• 12 districts, all along the east coast, are “very highly prone” and 41 districts are “highly prone” to cyclones
in the country, a paper by the India Meteorological Department scientist has revealed.
• 13 coastal states and Union Territories in the country are affected by tropical cyclones (TCs). Four states—
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and one UT Puducherry on the east coast, and
Gujarat on the west coast are more vulnerable to the TCs, the study said.
GROWING FREQUENCY OF CYCLONES IN ARABIAN SEA:

• A 52% increase was noticed in the frequency of cyclones over the Arabian Sea between 2001 and 2019,
and an 8% decrease over the Bay of Bengal, compared to the 19-year period between 1982 and 2002,
according to a new study by scientists of the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) under the Union
ministry of earth sciences.
• Climate change is one of the prime causes behind this as the Arabian Sea temperatures, the ocean's surface
temperatures are warming rapidly.
• Rising sea levels could also boost storm surges from cyclones, making them even more deadly and
destructive.
NDMA GUIDELINES ON CYCLONE:

• The structural measures: include construction of cyclone shelters, construction of cyclone resistant
buildings, road links, culverts, bridges, canals, drains, saline embankments, surface water tanks,
communication and power transmission networks etc.
• Non-structural measures: like early warning dissemination systems, management of coastal zones,
awareness generation and disaster risk management and capacity building of all stakeholders involved.

These measures are being adopted and tackled on a State to State basis under National Cyclone Risk
Mitigation Project (NCRMP) being implemented through World Bank Assistance.
• Zoning or mapping: Support the preparation of detailed maps to delineate coastal wetlands, mangroves and
shelterbelts and tracts for coastal bio-shields using best tools, field studies, and satellite data.
• National Disaster Communication Infrastructure: The guidelines recommend the commissioning of the
National Disaster Communication Infrastructure (NDCI) at the NDMA/MHA, State Disaster Management
Authorities (SDMAs) of coastal states/UTs.
INITIATIVES:
1. National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP):
o Upgrade cyclone forecasting, tracking and warning systems.
o Build capacity in multi-hazard risk management.
o Construct major infrastructures including multi-purpose cyclone shelters and embankments.
2. Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (ICZMP):
o Launched to assist the Government in building the national capacity for implementation of a
comprehensive coastal management approach in the country and piloting the integrated coastal zone
management approach in states of Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal.
3. India Meteorological Department announced the launch of a dynamic, impact based cyclone warning
system.
HEAT WAVES:
• Heat wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures that leads to physiological stress, which
sometimes can claim human life.
• The World Meteorological Organization defines a heat wave as five or more consecutive days during
which the daily maximum temperature exceeds the average maximum temperature by five degrees Celsius.
• Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even extend until July. Heat
waves are more frequent over the Indo-Gangetic plains of India.
• On an average, 5-6 heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of the country. In the
northern plains of the country, dust in suspension occurs in many years for several days, bringing minimum
temperature much higher than normal and keeping the maximum temperature around or slightly above
normal.
• According to IMD, in India, it will be considered as heat wave if the maximum temperature of a met-sub-
station reaches at least 40°C or more in the plains, 37°C or more in coastal areas and at least 30°C or
more for hilly regions.
• Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becoming increasingly frequent
globally due to climate change. India too is feeling the impact of climate change in terms of increased
instances of heat waves that are more intense in nature with each passing year and have a devastating impact
on human health thereby increasing the number of heat wave casualties.
• The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or
heat stroke.
THE SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS ARE AS FOLLOWS:

• Heat Cramps: Edema (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied by fever below 39°C
• Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps and sweating
• Heat Stroke: Body temperatures of 40°C or more along with delirium, seizures or coma, which is a
potentially fatal.
HEAT WAVES: CAPACITY BUILDING

• Observation Networks, Information Systems, Monitoring, Research, Forecasting, Early Warning and
Zoning/ Mapping: Vulnerability Assessment and Establishing Heat-Health Threshold Temperatures.
Establish and maintain community-based network for sharing alerts.
• Dissemination of warnings, data, and information: Create awareness preventive measures. Extensive IEC
campaigns to create awareness through print, electronic and social media.

• Inter-Agency coordination: Ensure the local administration (city/district) can understand and
meaningfully use all the heatwave-related information from various agencies and health authorities – central
and state.
• Warnings, information, data: Coordinating the dissemination of warnings to all, down to the last mile –
remote, rural or urban; Regular updates to people in areas at risk.
• Heat waves shelters and other measures: Strengthening/mainstreaming the network medical assistance
facilities. Temperature forecasts and heat alerts will be sent as bulk messages on mobile phones, local
electronic media
• Awareness Generation: Promoting awareness, alertness and preparedness. Training programs for public,
PRIs/ ULBs and Carry out mass media campaigns in heat-wave prone areas.
• Empowering women, marginalised communities, SC/ST, and persons with disabilities: Incorporating
gender sensitive and equitable approaches in capacity development for coping with heat wave emergencies.
FLOODS
• Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that leads to inundation of land.
India is highly vulnerable to floods. Out of the total geographical area, the Rashtriya Barh Ayog (RBA) has
assessed that more than 40 million hectare area is flood prone.
• Assam, West Bengal and Bihar are among the high flood prone states.
CAUSES OF FLOODS:
• Natural causes:
o Rainfall in torrents: Heavy rain in a river's catchment area causes water to overflow its banks, resulting
in flooding in the surrounding area.
o Sediment deposition: Sedimentation causes river beds to become shallow. The capacity of such a river
to convey water is reduced. As a result, the river banks are overflowing with heavy precipitation.
o Cyclone: The water in the adjacent coastal areas is stretched out by cyclone-generated sea waves of
unusual height. The Orissa storm of October 1994 wreaked havoc on the state, causing catastrophic
loss of life and property.
o Changes in river courses: caused by meanders, erosion of river beds and banks, and landslide-induced
flow restriction.
o Tsunami: hits the coast, large coastal areas are swamped by rising sea levels.
• Anthropogenic Causes:
o Deforestation: Vegetation allows water to percolate through the earth. As a result of deforestation, the
ground becomes less obstructed, allowing water to flow more quickly into rivers, causing flooding.
o Drainage congestion created by poorly designed construction of bridges, roads, railway tracks, canals,
and other structures obstructs the flow of water, resulting in floods.
o Population pressure: Due to the large number of people, more materials, such as wood, land, and food,
are required. Overgrazing, land encroachment, overcultivation, and soil erosion are all exacerbated,
increasing the risk of flooding.
o Poor Water and Sewage Management: In urban areas, old drainage and sewerage systems have not
been replaced. Every year during the rainy season, the drainage and sewer systems fail, causing urban
floods.
NDMA GUIDELINES ON FLOOD MANAGEMENT:

Structural Measures:
• Reservoirs, Dams, Other Water Storages: By constructing reservoirs in the course of rivers could store
extra water at the time of flood. Such measures adopted till now however, have not been successful. Dams
built to control floods of Damodar could not control the flood.
• Embankments/Flood Levees/Flood Walls: By building flood protection embankments, flood water can be
controlled from overflowing the banks and spreading in nearby areas. Building of embankments on Yamuna,
near Delhi, has been successful in controlling the Flood.
• Drainage improvement: Drainage system is generally choked by the construction of roads, canals, railway
tracks etc. Floods could be checked if the original form of drainage system is restored.

• Diversion of Flood Water: Diverting all or a part of the discharge into a natural or artificially constructed
channel, lying within or in some cases outside the flood plains is a useful means of lowering water levels in
the river. The flood spill channel skirting Srinagar city and the supplementary drain in Delhi are examples of
diverting excess water to prevent flooding of the urbanised areas.
• Catchment Area Treatment/Afforestation: Watershed management measures such as developing the
vegetative cover i.e. afforestation and conservation of soil cover in conjunction with structural works like
check dams, detention basins etc. serve as an effective measure in reducing flood peaks and controlling the
suddenness of the runoff.
Non-Structural Measures:
• Flood Plain Zoning: It is to regulate land use in the flood plains in order to restrict the damage due to floods,
while deriving maximum benefits from the same. The vulnerable areas in the districts can be identified and
mapped as per past analysis of floods into extremely (red) and partially (blue) affected zones.
• Flood Proofing: It helps in the mitigation of distress and provides immediate relief to the population in flood
prone areas.
• Flood Management Plans: All government departments and agencies must prepare their own FMPs.
• Integrated Water Resources Management: aiming at integrating management of water resources at the
basin or watershed scale must be undertaken.
• Flood Forecasting and Warning in India: Real time discharge and rainfall data is the basic requirements
for the formulation of a flood forecast. Most of the hydro-meteorological data are observed and collected by
the field formations of the Central Water Commission; IMD supplies the daily rainfall data.
AAPADA MITRA SCHEME:

• The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has authorised a Centrally Sponsored Scheme aimed
at training community volunteers in disaster response in India's 30 most flood-prone districts across 25
states. Its goal is to equip community volunteers with the skills they'll need to respond to their community's
immediate needs and perform basic relief and rescue chores in disaster scenarios like floods, flash floods,
and urban flooding when emergency services are unavailable.
URBAN FLOODS
• The term "urban flooding" refers to flooding that occurs in a city or urban centres. Excessive runoff in
urban areas is a result of overcrowded drainage systems and unregulated buildings.
• There has been an increasing trend of urban flood disasters in India over the past several years. Floods of
Chennai (2015), the Kashmir Floods (2014), the Surat Floods (2006) and the Mumbai Floods (2005 & 2017)
reflect the vulnerability of our Cities.
CAUSES OF URBAN FLOOD:

• Meteorological condition: Rainfall, cyclonic storms, small-scale storms, snowfall, and snow melt are all
examples of meteorological conditions that lead to urban flooding. The following meteorological systems are
responsible for excessive rainfall in India.
• Change in Land use pattern: Due to the geography of the urban canyon, changes in land use (e.g. surface
sealing due to urbanisation, deforestation) enhance runoff and sedimentation.
• Reducing Seepage: Indian cities are becoming increasingly impervious to water, not just because of
increasing built up but also because of the nature of materials used (hard, non-porous construction material
that makes the soil impervious).
• Lax Implementation: Even with provisions of rainwater harvesting, sustainable urban drainage systems,
etc, in regulatory mechanisms like the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), adoption at user end as well
as enforcement agencies remains weak.
• Obstruction in Drainage system: The flood peak is increased by the sudden release of water from dams
located upstream of cities/towns and the efficient drainage system in upstream areas. Because of
uncontrolled infrastructure growth, encroachment on flood plains obstructs flow.
• Improper solid waste disposal: Including domestic, commercial, and industrial trash, as well as the
dumping of construction debris into drains, drastically reduces their capacity.

• Urban heat Island effect: Over the years, it has been noticed that many urban areas have experienced much
heavier rainfall.
o The temperature in metropolitan areas is greater than in surrounding areas due to the urban heat island
effect.
o The heated air pushes the rain-bearing clouds up whenever they pass over these places, resulting in
extremely localised rainfall that can be rather intense at times.
WHAT DISTINGUISHES URBAN FLOODING FROM RIVERINE FLOODS?

• Urban flooding differs from rural flooding in that urbanisation leads to developed catchments, which
increases flood peaks by 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times, respectively. As a result of
the faster flow times, flooding occurs extremely quickly (in a matter of minutes).
• Because urban areas are densely inhabited, people are more exposed to flooding and the secondary effect of
virus exposure;
• Urban regions, as economic hubs, contain critical infrastructure that affects the national and global economy.
NDMA GUIDELINES ON URBAN FLOOD:

• Early Warning System and Communication: National Hydro-meteorological Network and Doppler
Weather Radars should be integrated with the urban area planning. They provide and a lead time of 3 to 6
hours for monitoring rainfall
• Design and Management of Urban Drainage: Rapid urbanisation has resulted in increased impermeable
surfaces in the form of pavements, roads and built-up areas, thereby reducing the infiltration and natural
storage.
o Drainage System: A proper inventory of water supply systems with details of all pumping, storage etc.
must be maintained, particularly of the minor drainage systems.
o Catchment as a basis of design: As runoff processes are independent of states and city administrative
boundaries, outlines of drainage divides must be dependent on watershed delineation.
o Removal of Solid Waste: Most towns and cities have open surface drains besides the road, into which
there is unauthorized public disposal of waste. Solid waste increases hydraulic roughness, causes
blockage and generally reduces flow capacity.
o Drain Inlet Connectivity: It is seen that the inlets to drain the water from the roads into the roadside
drains are either not properly aligned or non-existent leading to severe waterlogging on the roads.
• Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Assessment: Identification of areas at risk, classification of structures
according to function and estimation of risk for each structure and function using Hazard Risk Zoning.
• Urban Flooding Cells: A separate Urban Flooding Cell (UFC) will be constituted within MoUD which will
coordinate all UFDM activities at the national level. ULBs will be responsible for the management of urban
flooding at the local level.
• Response: Emergency Operation Centres, Incident Response System, flood shelters, search and rescue
operations, emergency logistics are some key action areas of flood response mechanism.
• Sanitation: Diseases like malaria, dengue and cholera can spread if adequate sanitation and disinfection are
not carried out.
• Capacity Development, Awareness Generation and Documentation: Participatory urban flood planning
and management involving both local government and the community.
INITIATIVES:
1. National Flood Risk Mitigation Project (NFRMP):
o NFRMP has been envisaged for mitigation or reduction in risk, severity or consequences of floods.
o It aims at ensuring that arrangements are in place to mobilise the resources and capability for relief,
rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery from disasters besides creating awareness among vulnerable
communities.
2. Recently the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) in coordination with Municipal Corporation of Greater
Mumbai developed an Integrated Flood Warning System for Mumbai called ‘IFLOWS-Mumbai.
o Mumbai is the second city after Chennai to get this system. Similar systems are being developed for
Bengaluru and Kolkata.

o It enables proactive solutions to weather and climate disasters and revolutionises reaction times. It gives
information on the level of risk posed by a danger in a certain area.
o It gives the data necessary to respond in advance of disasters in order to reduce the socio-economic
consequences of weather and climate risks.
FLASH FLOODS
• These are sudden surges in water levels generally during or following an intense spell of rain.
• These are highly localised events of short duration with a very high peak and usually have less than six
hours between the occurrence of the rainfall and peak flood.
• The flood situation worsens in the presence of choked drainage lines or encroachments obstructing the
natural flow of water.
CAUSES:
• It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane, tropical storm, or
meltwater from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields.
• Flash Floods can also occur due to Dam or Levee Breaks, and/or Mudslides (Debris Flow).
• In areas on or near volcanoes, flash floods have also occurred after eruptions, when glaciers have been
melted by the intense heat.
• The intensity of the rainfall, the location and distribution of the rainfall, the land use and topography,
vegetation types and growth/density, soil type, and soil water content all determine just how quickly the
Flash Flooding may occur, and influence where it may occur.
MITIGATION:
• Instead of valleys, people should live in areas on slopes with firm ground for safety reasons.
• In areas where ground fissures have developed, appropriate steps should be taken to check the infiltration
of rainwater and surface water.
• Banning "indiscriminate" and "unscientific" construction works.
DROUGHTS
• Drought is defined as a period of time without significant rainfall that
lasts from year to year. Drought is a common occurrence in almost all
climate zones, including those with both high and low average rainfall.
• Drought is the result of a decline in expected natural precipitation over a long
period of time, usually a season or more.
• Wildfire is a secondary hazard of drought, as dying vegetation acts as a
primary ignition source.
• Drought affects over 68 percent of India, with different degrees of severity.
Drought prone areas are those that receive rainfall between 750 and 1125
mm, whereas chronic drought prone areas are those that receive less than
750 mm.
• There are four types of droughts: meteorological, hydrologic, agricultural,
and socioeconomic.
• According to the NITI Aayog's Composite Water Management Index study, around two lakh people die in
India each year owing to a lack of clean water and sanitation. According to the report, the water shortage
will cost the economy 6% of GDP by 2050.
• Global Assessment Report (GAR) 2015 notes that agricultural drought is probably the most “socially
constructed” of all disaster risks (UNISDR 2015) and warns that due to global climate change, its frequency
is expected to vary much.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF DROUGHT AS PER IMD:

1. Meteorological Drought: The degree of dryness or departure of actual precipitation from an expected
average or normal amount based on monthly, seasonal, or annual time scales.

2. Hydrological Drought: The effects of precipitation shortfalls on stream flows and reservoir, lake, and
groundwater levels.
3. Agricultural Drought: Soil moisture deficiencies relative to water demands of plant life, usually crops.
4. Socioeconomic Drought: The effect of demands for water exceeding the supply as a result of a weather-
related supply shortfall.
THE IMD RECOGNIZES FIVE DROUGHT SITUATIONS:

1. ‘Drought Week’ when the weekly rainfall is less than half of the normal.
2. ‘Agricultural Drought’ is when four drought weeks occur consecutively during mid-June to September.
3. ‘Seasonal Drought’ when seasonal rainfall is deficient by more than the standard deviation from the normal.
4. ‘Drought Year’ is when annual rainfall is deficient by 20 percent of normal or more.
5. ‘Severe Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is deficient by 25 to 40 percent of normal or more.
CAUSES OF DROUGHTS:
1. Meteorological Drought:
o Lean monsoon and below-average rainfall.
o Late-onset or early withdrawal of monsoons.
o Prolonged breaks in Monsoon.
2. Hydrological Drought: It has something to do with the drop in water levels. Hydrological Droughts are
divided into two categories.
o Drought of surface water: This refers to the drying up of surface water resources such as rivers,
streams, lakes, ponds, tanks, and reservoirs, among other things.
o Drought caused by a drop in groundwater level is known as groundwater drought.
o Droughts are caused by a variety of factors: Deforestation on a large scale, Mining is damaging to the
environment, Excessive groundwater pumping.
3. Agricultural Drought: It occurs when soil moisture goes below the level needed to sustain plant growth. It
is also called the Soil Moisture Drought. The erratic rainfall conditions and inadequate soil moisture result in
crop failures. Causes of Agricultural Droughts are:
o Excessive use of High Yielding Seeds (HYV) as these seeds requires more water and proper irrigation.
o Change in cropping pattern. E.g. With the introduction of the green revolution, we increased our
production of wheat and rice.
o Rice is a water-intensive crop and growing them in an area where less water is available made the area
prone to agricultural drought.
NDMA GUIDELINES:
• Vulnerability mapping: Block-wise rainfall deficit maps in the relevant regions – at crucial stages of
monsoon (e.g., early, middle, and end), separately for SW and NE monsoon. Comprehensive assessment of
water deficit in dry-land farming, rain-fed, and drought-prone areas every year, at the end of the SW and NE
monsoons (stream flow, surface and groundwater)
• Assessment, Monitoring, Forecasting, Early Warning: Improve the drought forecast, and assessment of
water deficit (likely mismatch between estimates of requirements and availability) in the arid/semi-arid,
drought-prone, and dry-land farming areas. Monitoring key drought indices at National and State levels as
per latest national manual for drought management
• Drought declaration: Apply the latest (most updated) criteria and methods for assessment of drought
conditions and key indicators for declaring drought, as per latest recommendations of the appropriate
agency. Collaborate with the State Government and its agencies for monitoring/ declaration of drought.
• Inter-agency coordination: Effective coordination and seamless communication among central and state
agencies to ensure quick, clear, effective dissemination of warnings, information and data.
• Structural Measures: Ensure rainwater harvesting and storage in drought-prone areas, water conservation
structures, integrated water resources management and drinking water storage and distribution facilities.
• Non-structural measures:
o Promote water efficient irrigation systems (sprinklers, drip, etc.)
o Promote protective irrigation through micro irrigation systems

o Provide advice to farmers to cope with drought, crop management under drought conditions, and
efficient water management
o Training in water and soil moisture conservation
o Promote village-level information systems for natural resource management.
• Drought management plan: Support the preparation of drought management plans based on detailed
projections of water deficit in the drought-prone areas taking into account agro-climatic zones. Provide
advisory to the states having large areas that may face drought/ acute water deficit.
LANDSLIDES
• Recently, The landslide and shooting of stones occurred at Chaura village in
Himachal pradesh. Landslides occur in the hilly regions of India such as the
Himalaya, North-East India, the Nilgiris, Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats.
• It is estimated that 30 percent of the World’s landslides occur in the
Himalayan ranges.
• In the Nilgiris, in 1978 alone, unprecedented rains in the region triggered
about one hundred landslides which caused severe damage to
communication lines, tea gardens and other cultivated crops.
• The Landslide Susceptibility Mapping (LSM) published showed that about
29% of the area falls in the moderate landslide susceptible zone and 56% in
low to very low landslide susceptible zone.
• In India, about 0.42 million sq. km or 12.6% of land area, excluding snow
covered area, is prone to landslide hazard.
TYPES OF LANDSLIDES:
• Falls: It happens due to the abrupt movements of masses of geologic
materials, such as rocks and boulders that become detached from steep
slopes or cliffs.
• Topples: It happens due to the forward rotation of a unit or units about some
pivotal point, below or low in the unit, under the actions of gravity and forces
exerted by adjacent units or by fluids in cracks
• Slides: In this type, rocks, debris or soil slide through slope forming material.
• Spread: It usually occurs on very gentle slopes or flat terrain.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA AS A NODAL AGENCY IS RESPONSIBLE FOR:

• Coordinating and undertaking geological studies for landslide hazard mitigation
• Carrying out landslide hazard zonation
• Monitoring landslides and avalanches
• Studying the factors responsible for sliding and suggesting precautionary as well as preventive measures,
National Core Group has finalized the action plan for landslide studies with inputs of GSI and other
organizations.
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES:
• Rainfall and Snowfall: Major or persistent rainfall in regions with steep slopes where National Highways
and roads have been built may result in heavy landslides.
• Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions: In folded mountainous terrain, earthquakes are the most common
source of landslides. Landslides are more common in India's Tertiary Period folded mountains, such as the
Himalayas.
• Mining, quarrying, and road construction: The constant extraction of coal, minerals, and stones from
mines and quarries, as well as the development of highways by cutting steep slopes in folded mountains,
create ideal circumstances for landslides to occur. Landslides of this type can be seen all across the Himalayas,
as well as in the Eastern and Western Ghats.

• Landslides are also caused by deforestation and other human activity. The majority of the landslides
are minor, with a few blocks measuring a few metres large. However, some are large enough to cause a
disaster. Roads, buildings, and other structures may be buried.
• Loading caused by house construction: The unplanned growth of towns and cities in hilly locations
without assessing the soil and rocks is another major source of landslides.
NDMA NATIONAL LANDSLIDE RISK MANAGEMENT STRATEGY:

• Evaluation of slope stability and landslide threat is crucial during development and assessments which
could help in implementation of timely and effective remedial measures.
• Slump and slide risks can be reduced through suitable profile modifications such as that of soil and/or rock.
• Improved drainage for runoff of accumulated water to avoid saturation of water Stabilization of soils by
vegetation could substantially increase the cohesiveness of subsurface material, preventing surface erosion
and shallow mass failures.
• Construction of restraining structures, and permeable walls could help impede rock and soil movement
and increase the shear strength.
• Stabilizing the mobile parts of the affected parts through piles could help minimize the damage.
• Ground anchors supporting mobile mass could help in preventing further movement.
• Preparing landslide hazard/susceptibility zonation and management maps on 1:25,000 scale based
on integration of geological, geo-structural, slope, geomorphological, land use/land cover and other terrain
characteristics derived from satellite, topographic and other collateral data.
• Capacity Building and Training of Stakeholders: Creation of Centre for Landslide Research Studies and
Management (CLRSM) to create a techno-scientific pool of expertise in the country.
WHY ARE LANDSLIDES MORE FREQUENT IN THE HIMALAYAS THAN IN THE WESTERN GHATS?
• Heavy snowfall in winter and melting in summer induces debris flow, which is carried in large quantity
by numerous streams and rivers – which results in increases chances of Landslides.
• Himalayas are made of sedimentary rocks which can easily be eroded – hence, erosions contribute to more
landslides.
• Drifting of Indian plate causes frequent earthquakes and resultant instability in the region.
• Man-made activities like grazing, construction and cultivation abet soil erosion and risks of landslides.
• Himalayas not yet reached its isostatic equilibrium which destabilizes the slopes causing landslides.
• Diurnal changes of temperature are much more in northern India than in southern slopes – weakening the
rocks and increasing mass wasting and erosion.
NATIONAL LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY MAPPING (NLSM) PROGRAMME:

• Geological Survey of India has launched and undertook a national programme on landslide susceptibility
mapping – Macro scale (1:50,000) National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping (NLSM) with an aim to cover
the 0.42 million sq. km landslide prone areas of the country. This national programme was formally
launched in 2014. Aims and Objectives of NLSM programme are:
o To create a dynamic National Landslide Susceptibility Geo-database for India
o To prepare GIS – based seamless Landslide Susceptibility Maps of India on 1:50,000 scale
o To prepare a nation-wide repository on GIS-based Landslide Inventory
MAN MADE DISASTERS IN INDIA
1. STAMPEDE AND CROWD MANAGEMENT

• On 29 September 2017, a stampede broke out at the sub-urban Elphinstone Road railway station in Mumbai,
India.
• The phrase "stampede" refers to a sudden stampede of people, which frequently results in numerous
injuries and deaths due to suffocation and trampling. Stampedes occur when a large number of people in a
crowd react violently to a perceived threat or a lack of physical space.

• It frequently disturbs the ordered movement of people, leading to impulsive and deadly self-defence
movements, resulting in injuries and fatalities. In India, there are stampedes.
• In view of the recurring stampedes at places of mass gathering, including religious places, and typically ad-
hoc responses to those, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) had prepared ‘Suggestive
Framework for Preparation of Crowd Management Plan for Events/Venues of Mass Gathering’.
o The basic element for event planning and crowd management is understanding the venue, visitors and
different stakeholders.
o It requires understanding of type of event (such as religious, schools/ university, sports event, music
event, political event, product promotion etc.); Expected Crowd (age, gender, economic strata),
o Crowd Motives (such as social, academic, religious, entertainment, economic etc.); Venue (location,
topography of area, temporal or permanent, open or closed), and role of other stakeholders (such as
NGOs, neighbours of event venue, local administrators etc.)
• Crowd Handling:
o Traffic around the mass gatherings should be properly regulated.
o There should be a route map for venues along with emergency exit route maps.
o There should Barricade facility to control the movement of crowd queues.
o Snake line approach should be followed in large crowd queues
o The organizers of crowded events/venue managers should discourage general admissions and have
plans to handle VIP visitors or, alternatively, refuse entry to VIPs where it adds to safety concerns.
• Safety and Security:
o The venue organisers should ensure authorised use of electricity, fire safety extinguishers and other
arrangements as per the safety guidelines.
o It suggests use of CCTV cameras to monitor crowds and use of mini UAV in case crowd spread is too big.
• Communication: A public address system, with loudspeakers installed at all crowded points, to
communicate with the crowds.
• Medical and Emergency care: Medical first-aid rooms and emergency operations centres to handle post-
disaster emergencies should be set up.
• Role of Event Managers: The event organizers and venue managers should develop, implement, review and
revise the disaster management plan in coordination with others including local administration and police.
• Role of Civil society: Event/venue managers can involve NGOs and civil defence in traffic control, people
flow control, medical assistance, sanitation and mobilization of local resources in case of disaster.
2. FOREST FIRES
• Forest fires are not unnatural, and they are generally thought
to be beneficial to natural forest development and
regeneration. A wildfire is basically an uncontrolled
combustion that spreads across enormous regions of land.
• Forest fires are both widespread and concentrated in India,
according to a research jointly released by the MoEF&CC and the
World Bank titled "Strengthening Forest Fire Management in
India."
• Forest fires erupt every year in over half of the country's 647
districts and nearly all of the states. Despite the fact that fires
occur throughout the country, they are far more common in some parts and have a greater impact on the
forest than in others. From 2003 to 2016, only 20 districts, accounting for 3% of India's geographical area,
accounted for 44% of all forest fire detections.
DATA AND FIGURES:

• Area affected by forest fires annually is nearly 35 million hectares.
• In just five days of April 2021, Uttarakhand has recorded 361 incidents of forest fire that have damaged
567 hectares, including 380 hectares of reserve forest areas.
• In 2020, 18.626 million hectares (46.03 million acres) was burnt across all Australian states and territories.

• As per Forest Survey of India (FSI), which has been conducting field investigation since 1965, human
activities trigger nearly 95 per cent of the forest fires in India.
• According to India State of Forest Report 2019, over 30,000 incidents of forest fires were reported in 2019.
• According to the Forest Survey of India, forest fires cost $1.5 billion of GDP.
NATURAL CAUSES OF FOREST FIRES:

• Global warming: It has wreaked havoc on forests as a result of increased global temperatures caused by
extensive industrialisation and the resulting dryness. In India, forest fires have increased by 125 percent
since 2017.
• Heat waves and solar flares: are caused by the periodic solar cycle of solar minimum and maximum, which
causes a rapid spike in the earth's temperature. Forest fires are caused by such situations.
• Forest monoculture growth: Forest fires are more prone to single strands of forest tree species. Pine forests
in Uttarakhand are an example of this. According to the Forest Survey of India, 50 percent of Uttarakhand's
forest is at risk of fire.
• Bulk of India's forest cover is deciduous: It creates distinct seasons for forest fires during dry years.
• Climate change is a natural phenomenon, albeit it has been heavily influenced by human activity in recent
years, resulting in variations in temperature and humidity. Forest fires are caused by changes in the
microclimate.
ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES OF FOREST FIRES:

• Human interventions in the forest: Forests have suffered as a result of urbanisation and industry over the
years. Human settlements, mineral exploration, industrial establishments, and other uses necessitated the
clearing of forests.
• Human settlements, multipurpose projects such as major dams, and mine development all necessitated
forest removal. Generally, such clearing was done by setting forests on fires as it is the cheapest and easiest
way to clear the forest.
• Deliberate act of arson: Timber mafias indulge into illegal exploitation of timber resources of forests. As
they were unable to accomplish so lawfully, they tended to turn on deliberate forest fires.
• Migration: People are relocating to cities in search of better living possibilities. Because of the increased
frequency of forest fires, villages have become desolate. As a result, community participation in forest
management is low.
• Shifting Agriculture: Small portions of forest land are removed by lighting trees on fire, resulting in a shift
in agriculture. Although it boosts soil fertility for a shorter length of time, it raises the risk of forest fires over
time.
• The impact of the fire is diverse on the forest ecosystem. Besides directly damaging the forest, the fire
also adversely affects forest regeneration, microclimate, soil erosion, and wildlife etc. In most of the cases,
the forest fire causes retrogression of forest vegetation.
• Forest fire is one of the major degenerating factors, which extensively damages the growing stock and its
generations and makes the area vulnerable to erosion. It has wide-ranging adverse ecological, economic and
social implications.
Forest fires can also be classified by what part of the forest they burn in:
• Ground fires occur on the ground, often below the leaves.
• Surface Fires occur on the surface of the forest up to 1.3 meters high.
• Crown fires are the most dangerous fires and can spread the fastest. They occur in the tops of the trees.
NDMA GUIDELINES TO DEAL WITH FOREST FIRES:

• To develop a strong scientific programme, ‘‘Forest Fire—Climate Change Interface Programme’’ aimed
at building baseline information about forest fire–climate change interaction
• To coordinate international transfer of technology and training in the field of forest fire management

• Observation Networks, Information Systems, Monitoring, Research, Forecasting, Early Warning and Zoning/
Mapping: Employ a system of fire risk classification based on best available methods such as those using
satellites.
• Operationalise a system of real-time monitoring of forest fires using best technologies available such as
low flying aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and drones.
• Conduct a detailed fire history to determine the frequency, distribution, and severity of wildfire.
• Dissemination of warnings, data, and information: Create awareness for forest fire prevention as most
fires are caused by humans, deliberately or inadvertently. Establishing a reliable system to pass on the
correct information on fire situations to communities and responders.
• Inter-agency coordination: Preparation and implementation of DM plans and ensure the functioning of
agencies with DM tasks
• Structural Measures: Strengthening forest-fire fighting systems by deploying aircrafts, helicopters, UAV,
drones and equipment.
o Strengthening various forest fire prevention measures
o Communication network of wireless system
o Hazard resistant construction, strengthening, and retrofitting of all lifeline structures and critical
infrastructure near forest areas and in forest villages.
• Techno-legal measures: Strengthen the laws and regulations for forest fire prevention and control. Promote
use of insurance/ risk transfer.
• Human Resource: Training and orientation programs for state govt. staff, and other stakeholders such as
civil society, volunteers, elected representatives.
• Awareness Generation: Promoting awareness, alertness and preparedness, Training programs for public,
PRIs/ ULBs, Strengthening network of community involvement in forest fire reporting, prevention and
assistance to controlling, Empowering women, marginalised communities and persons with disabilities.
INITIATIVES:
• Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme: It is a programme that aims to reduce the number of
forest fires. It is centrally funded programme that aims to concentrate completely on forest fire prevention,
management, and related operations. Its goal is to avoid forest fires through public awareness campaigns,
improvements to traditional practises, community participation, and training. In the long run, it aims to
formalise collaboration with forest communities and develop a forest fire forecasting system.
• Large Forest Fire Monitoring Programme:
o It aims to improve tactical as well as strategic response to large forest fires by disseminating specific
Large Fire alerts with the objective to identify, track and report serious forest fire incidents.
o It is part of the Fire Alert System (FAST) Version 3.0, where the FSI will monitor forest fire events using
real time data from the satellite sensors.
3. CLIMATE REFUGEE
• A “refugee” is defined as a person who has crossed an international border “owing to well-founded fear of
being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political
opinion” (Convention relating to the Status of Refugees 1951).
• In some contexts, the definition extends to persons fleeing “events seriously disturbing public order”
(Cartagena Declaration 1984). Climate change affects people inside their own countries, and typically
creates internal displacement before it reaches a level where it displaces people across borders.
• The ‘State of India's Environment 2020 in Figures’ report was published by the Centre for Science and
Environment (CSE). It states that India had around 50 lakh internal displacements caused by disasters and
extreme weather conditions like floods, cyclones and drought in 2019.
• According to the Global Report on Internal Displacement 2020, nearly five million people were displaced
in India in 2019 because of disasters related to Southwest Monsoon and Cyclones.
• In 2018, the World Bank projected that there will be more than 143 million internal climate migrants by
2050, in just three regions of the world (Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Latin America), if no climate action
is taken.

CAUSES OF CLIMATE REFUGEE:

• Rising Sea level: People are already being displaced due to rising sea levels in the Sundarbans, drought in
central India, and catastrophic floods in the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins.
• Poor living conditions of Migrants: Migrants are also likely to end up living in overcrowded temporary
shelters with limited access to drinking water, sanitation, and health care due to a lack of suitable
infrastructure in towns.
• Climate change might lead to increased flow of migrants from neighbouring countries. As many as 120
million people could be rendered homeless by 2100 both in India and Bangladesh due to sea level rise.
• Disaster related displacement: Most disaster displacement linked to natural hazards and the impacts of
climate change is internal, with those affected remaining within their national borders.
• Food Security: Climate change poses serious threats to agriculture and food security globally. As per the
WFP’s Data “More than 80 percent of the world’s almost 800 million hungry people live in degraded
environments, prone to natural disasters”.
INDIA’S VULNERABILITY TO CLIMATE REFUGEES:

• The State of India’s Environment 2020 report, published by Delhi-based Centre for Science
and Environment (CSE) highlights that India recorded just nine out of 93 disasters in Asia in 2019
but accounted for nearly 48% of the deaths. Also, more people died due to extreme weather events in 2019
despite fewer events in comparison to 2018.
• In 2018 there were 23 extreme weather events that caused 1,396 deaths but last year, only nine disasters
claimed 2,038 lives as per official data.
THE GLOBAL COMPACT ON REFUGEES:

• The Global Compact on Refugees, adopted by an overwhelming majority in the UN General Assembly in
December 2018, directly addresses this growing concern. It recognizes that ‘climate, environmental
degradation and natural disasters increasingly interact with the drivers of refugee movements.’
• The Global Compact on Refugees is a framework for more predictable and equitable responsibility
sharing, recognizing that a sustainable solution to refugee situations cannot be achieved without
international cooperation.
• It provides a blueprint for governments, international organizations, and other stakeholders to ensure
that host communities get the support they need and that refugees can lead productive lives.
• It constitutes a unique opportunity to transform the way the world responds to refugee situations,
benefiting both refugees and the communities that host them.
• Its four key objectives are to:
1. Ease the pressures on host countries;
2. Enhance refugee self-reliance;
3. Expand access to third-country solutions;
4. Support conditions in countries of origin for return in safety and dignity.
4. MINING ACCIDENTS
• In December, 2018, an illegal coal mine at Ksan in Meghalaya flooded, trapping at least 13 workers despite
NGT banning unscientific and illegal mining including rat-hole mining in Meghalaya.
• Mines Act, 1965 defines Disaster as an act Accident (unexpected event) causing loss of more than 10
lives. A mining accident is an accident that occurs in the process of mining minerals.
• Following types of mining disasters are classified by the Directorate General of Mine Safety (DGMS):
• Side fall (slope failure) disaster in opencast mines • Mine Fires

• Roof and side falls in underground mines • Accident due to explosive
• Collapse of mine pillars • Inundations
• Air Blast • Explosions in Mines
• Failure of rope haulage • Rock Burst and bumps
• Accident due to electricity

CAUSES OF MINING INCIDENTS:

• Improper land fillings: Due to this previously mined region remains open and in the rainy season it gets
flooded and causes high risk to neighbouring human habitation.
• Technical failures: Conveyor - accident in the use of belt or chain conveyors. Other transport machinery -
accidents associated with trucks and wagons. Other machinery accidents - associated with non-transport
machinery like loading Machinery, crushers etc.
• Safety gears and training: Unsafe Act (Violation of commonly accepted procedures)-Exposed to High Risk
Man made & Undesirable Causing Undesirable Causing Accidents.
• Stress/Strain/Mental Imbalance: Exposure to high risk Man made uncontrolled phenomenon to compel
persons to live in high stress levels.
PREVENTION OF DISASTERS IN MINES:

• The various safeguards and preventive measures against coal mine fires are outlined in the Coal Mines.
• Regulations 1957 and related circulars, notifications and technical instructions.
• The Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) examines each and every application for underground and
surface mining from all considerations.
• Wherever necessary the DGMS imposes additional precautionary and preventive measures.
• Thus, the role of DGMS is not only that of an enforcer of legislation but also a facilitator of Mine Safety.
MEASURES TAKEN FOR IMPROVEMENT OF SAFETY BY COAL INDIA LIMITED (CIL) IN 2016:
• Internal safety Organization (ISO): Continuous review of safety status of mines is being done by the
multidisciplinary ISO
• Guidelines of Corrective Measures: After analysis of fatal accidents which occurred in different point of
time in 2016, guidelines of corrective measures to prevent recurrence of similar type of accidents in future
have been issued by Safety and Rescue Division of CIL
• Training for Preparation of Risk Assessment based Safety Management Plans (SMP)
• Standard Operating Procedure (SOP): Risk assessment-based site-specific SOP are formulated and being
implemented for various mining and allied operations
• Adoption of the state-of-art Technology suitable to geo-mining locales
• Monitoring of Mine Environment by installing Environment Tele-Monitoring System (ETMs) and Local
Methane Detectors
• District Mineral Fund (DMF): Use DMF for rehabilitation and welfare of the workers from impoverished
communities including child labourers who take these risky work because of the higher wages.
5. INDUSTRIAL DISASTERS
• From 2014 to 2017, 8,004 such incidents occurred in Indian workplaces killing 6,368 employees. Most such
incidents took place in Delhi, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.
The Union Carbide Gas Tragedy (1984)

In what is the biggest industrial disaster of the last hundred years in India, 5295 people died and 5,27,894
were affected after being exposed to some 40 tonne of methyl isocyanate gas leaked from a pesticide plant
owned by the US multinational, Union Carbide Corp, in Bhopal. It has been more than 35 years since the
incident which happened on December 3, 1984, but there is still a massive debate on the number of people
affected. Some activists estimate around 20,000 to 25,000 deaths.
CAUSES FOR INDUSTRIAL DISASTERS:

• Extraction, processing, manufacture, transportation, storage, usage, and disposal are all examples of
industrial dangers. Fire, explosions, toxic releases, poisoning, and other such events can all contribute to
chemical disasters.
• Process Failures: Design flaws, fatigue, and corrosion can all lead to equipment failure. Neglecting safety
guidelines or straying from prescribed procedures are examples of human errors.

• System Failures: Chemical disasters can also be caused by a lack of information or organisational faults such
as poor emergency planning or coordination, or non-compliance with mock drills.
• Natural Disasters: Natural disasters can cause chemical reactions. Some examples include the release of
acrylonitrile following the Kandla earthquake in 2001 and damage to phosphoric acid sludge containment
during the 1999 Odisha cyclones.
• Sabotage or Terrorist Attack: Chemical disaster vulnerability is exacerbated by the likelihood of terrorist
and wartime actions.
LEGISLATIONS TO PROTECT AGAINST CHEMICAL DISASTERS IN INDIA:

• At the time of the Bhopal gas tragedy, the Indian Penal Code (IPC) was the only relevant law specifying
criminal liability for such incidents.
• Bhopal Gas Leak (Processing of Claims) Act, 1985: It gives powers to the central government to secure
the claims arising out of or connected with the Bhopal gas tragedy. Under the provisions of this Act, such
claims are dealt with speedily and equitably.
• The Environment Protection Act, 1986: It gives powers to the central government to undertake measures
for improving the environment and setting standards and inspecting industrial units.
• The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991: It is an insurance meant to provide relief to persons affected by
accidents that occur while handling hazardous substances.
• The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997: Under this Act, the National Environment
Appellate Authority can hear appeals regarding the restriction of areas in which any industries, operations
or processes or class of industries shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards
under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• National Green Tribunal, 2010: It provided for the establishment of the National Green Tribunal for
effective and expeditious disposal of cases related to environmental protection and conservation of forests.
NDMA GUIDELINE:
• Information system, monitoring, research: Online information system on HAZCHEM conforming to
international standards.
• Promote research and studies: both in-house and extra-mural by providing research grants to researchers
and institutions
• Zoning or mapping: Industrial zones on basis of hazard potential and effective disaster management for
worst case scenarios for Major Accident Hazard (MAH) Units.
• Inter-agency coordination: Preparation and implementation of DM plans and ensure the functioning of
agencies with DM tasks. Effective coordination and seamless communication among central and state
agencies to ensure quick, clear, effective dissemination of warnings, information and data.
• Structural Measures: Identification of shelters with basic facilities like drinking water and first aid for
chemical exposure. Providing wide roads and multiple routes in the industrial area to allow quick access by
first responders and to ensure escape pathways.
• Non-structural measures: Formulate/ strengthen rules, norms, and laws such as factories rules consistent
with that of ensuring greater safety in hazardous industries and to reduce likelihood of disasters.
• Review land use norms for the use of hazardous industries.
• Amend land use norms to ensure greater safety and to ensure buffer zones without human settlements in
close proximity of hazardous industries
• Empower factory inspectorates to take legal actions for noncompliance of MSIHC Rules: Review rules to
grant compensation to chemical accident victims to improve them in favour of victims.
6. BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS
• Biological emergency is one caused due to natural outbreaks of epidemics or intentional use of
biological agents (viruses and microorganisms) or toxins through dissemination of such agents in ways
to harm human population, food crops and livestock to cause outbreaks of diseases.
• This may happen through natural, accidental, or deliberate dispersal of such harmful agents into food, water,
air, soil or into plants, crops, or livestock.

• Current system of surveillance and mechanism to control the outbreak of endemic diseases are through the
National Programme for Surveillance of Communicable Diseases.
• Initially during May-June 2020, Government of Rajasthan reported crop damage of 33% and more due to
locust attack in 2235 hectare area in Bikaner, 140 hectare in Hanumangarh and 1027 hectare area in Sri
Ganganagar.
• The increased interaction between humans and animals has increased the possibilities of zoonotic
diseases emerging in epidemic form.
• COVID-19 has exposed persistent inequalities by income, age, race, sex and geographic location. Despite
recent global health gains, across the world people continue to face complex, interconnected threats to their
health and well-being rooted in social, economic, political and environmental determinants of health.
CAUSES:
• In post-disaster scenarios, poor sanitary conditions can lead to food and water contamination, as well as
improper disposal of human or animal carcasses.
• Contaminated water and Food: Water-borne diseases such as cholera (and related gastroenteritis),
typhoid, Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, and others have caused large epidemics in the past and continue to do so.
• Natural Disaster: During floods and earthquakes, they pose genuine threats.
• Poor solid waste management has the potential to spread epidemics like the plague. Dengue fever,
chikungunya fever, Japanese encephalitis, malaria, kala-azar, and other vector-borne (often mosquito-borne)
epidemics that typically occur in specific regions of the country due to poor sanitation.
• Poor personal hygiene practices: Person-to-person transmission of diseases such as AIDS and other
venereal diseases; and Air-borne diseases such as influenza and measles that can also be transmitted through
fomites (used clothes etc.).
BIOLOGICAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH EMERGENCIES - NDMA GUIDELINE:

• Biosafety and Biosecurity Measures and Environmental Management: Strict compliance with biosafety
and biosecurity provisions such as wearing PPE kits while treating patients, conducting research on
biological agents in laboratories, safe handling of medical wastes etc.
o Environmental monitoring to prevent outbreaks: Most of the biological disasters are zoonotic in
origin. Discriminate handling of the environment and more specifically wild animals can cause jumping
of viral agents into human societies.
o Integrated vector management for elimination of breeding places such as meat markets, transportation
of exotic species, livestock management etc.
o Biological and chemical interventions for vector control Monitoring of water supply and sewage
systems to prevent the dispersal of biological agents that can cause epidemics.
• Upgrading medical facilities: Specialised health care and laboratory facilities to address biological
emergencies/ incidents. Biological disasters are sudden and sometimes exceed the human capabilities to
deal with such disasters with existing infrastructure. Creating at least one public health laboratory in each
district so that every person gets diagnosed at the right time and gets treatment with ease.
• Structural Measures: Establishing adequate decontamination systems, Critical Care Intensive Care Units
(ICUs) and isolation wards to slow down the spread of biological agents. Equipping Medical First Responders
(MFRs)/Quick Reaction Medical Teams (QRMTs) with all material logistics and backup support.
• Dissemination of warnings, data & information: Create awareness about preventive measures which will
help in bringing behavioural changes among all stakeholders. Extensive IEC campaigns to create awareness
through print, electronic and social media.
• Strengthening Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) and early warning systems at
regional levels.
o Epidemiological disease mapping of the past which will provide ready data to contain future disasters.
o Health facilities mapping is a necessary prerequisite, because biological disasters put a heavy burden on
people’s health.
7. NUCLEAR AND RADIOLOGICAL EMERGENCIES

• India has a thriving nuclear power programme that is mostly self-contained. By 2050, it aims to generate
25% of its electricity from nuclear power. A nuclear or radiological disaster can occur at the plant level,
resulting in a plant/site or offsite emergency, depending on the magnitude of the impact on the environment.
CAUSES:
• Natural hazards: Cosmic rays from space, emissions from radioactive materials in the earth's crust are
examples of natural resources.
• Accidental incidents: Nuclear power plants, X-rays, nuclear bombs, nuclear mishaps, nuclear weapons,
mining and processing of radioactive ores are all examples of man-made sources.
• Technical failures: Human mistake, system failure, sabotage, earthquake, cyclone, flood, and other
circumstances outside the control of the operational agency can cause nuclear catastrophes.
INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK IN INDIA:

• The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 is the main Nuclear Legislation in India. With increased emphasis on power
generation through nuclear technology, the threat of nuclear hazards has also increased.
• The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has been identified as the nodal agency in the country in respect
of manmade radiological emergencies in the public domain.
• The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board is the nuclear regulatory authority in India which, as per the legal
framework of Atomic Energy Act, 1962, has the mandate for issuance of licenses to nuclear and radiation
facilities upon ensuring compliance with the applicable standards and codes:
o It develops safety policies in nuclear, radiological and industrial safety areas.
o It grants consent for siting, constructing, commissioning and decommissioning after appropriate safety
review and assessment, for the nuclear and radiological facilities.
o It develops safety codes, guides and standards for siting, designing, construction, commissioning,
operation and decommissioning of different types of nuclear and radiological facilities.
o It reviews the emergency preparedness plans for nuclear and radiological facilities and transportation of
large radioactive sources, irradiated fuel and fissile material.
o It takes such steps as necessary to keep the public informed of major issues of radiological safety
significance.
8. OIL SPILL
• An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine
ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills,
where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land.
INSTANCES OF OIL SPILLS:

• On July 25, 2020, a Japanese ship named MV Wakashio struck a coral reef on the southeast coast of Mauritius.
The vessel carrying 4000 tonnes of crude oil started leaking into the Indian Ocean. More than 1000 tonnes of
oil leaked from the cracked vessel polluting the coral reefs, beaches and lagoons of the island nation.
METHODS OF CLEANING THE OIL SPILL:

• Including skimming: It involves removing oil from the sea surface before it is able to reach the sensitive
areas along the coastline.
• In situ burning: It means burning a particular patch of oil after it has concentrated in one area.
• Release of chemical dispersants: Releasing chemical dispersants helps break down oil into smaller
droplets, making it easier for microbes to consume, and further break it down into less harmful compounds.
• Natural actions: Natural actions in aquatic environments such as weathering, evaporation, emulsification,
biodegradation and oxidation can also help reduce the severity of an oil spill and accelerate the recovery of
an affected area.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE:

• The disaster management cycle depicts the continual process by

which governments, corporations, and civil society prepare for and
mitigate the effects of disasters, respond during and immediately after a
disaster, and recover after a disaster.
• The entire disaster management cycle involves the development of
public policies and programmes that either modify disaster causes or
minimise disaster effects on people, property, and infrastructure.
• In the long term, researchers believe that implementing a more holistic
pre-disaster approach is more cost-effective. Every dollar spent on
disaster preparedness saves society $4 in response and recovery
expenses.
• For pre-disaster planning to be effective it must be institutionalized in
the local decision-making process.
• Communities must think more holistically about how they prepare for, respond to, and recover from
disasters.
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS:
• Preparedness is defined by the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) as
knowledge, capabilities, and actions of governments, organizations, community groups, and individuals “to
effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from, the impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events
or conditions.”
• Measures done to prepare for and mitigate the effects of disasters are referred to as disaster preparedness.
That is, to anticipate and, when feasible, avert catastrophes, to limit disasters' impact on vulnerable people,
and to respond to and effectively cope with disasters' effects.
PHASES IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE:

• A pre-disaster Risk Management Phase, which comprises prevention, mitigation, and preparedness, is typical
of a disaster management continuum.
• Relief, response, rehabilitation, reconstruction, and recovery are all part of the post-disaster crisis
management phase.
• Phase 1 Risk reduction Before the disaster or crisis:
o Preparedness: This is the period when the potential hazard, risk and vulnerabilities can be assessed and
steps can be taken for: Preventing and mitigating the crisis, and Preparing for actual occurrences.
o Mitigation: Crisis can also be mitigated through various short-term measures which either reduce the
scale and intensity of the threat or improve the durability and capacity of the elements at risk. For
example, better enforcement of building codes and zoning regulations, proper maintenance of drainage
systems, better awareness and public education to reduce the risks of hazards, etc. help in containing the
damage.
• Phase 2 During the Disaster or Crisis (Response): When a crisis strikes, individuals who are touched by
it demand a quick response to alleviate and minimise their suffering and losses. Certain 'basic activities'
become essential during this stage. These are the following:
o The evacuation of an area
o Then there's the search and rescue
o Provision of basic essentials such as food, clothing, housing, medications, and other necessities necessary
to restore normalcy to the afflicted community's existence.
• Phase 3 After the Disaster or crisis (Recovery):
o Recovery: Efforts are made to achieve early recovery and reduce vulnerability and future risks during
this stage. It entails efforts that span two phases of rehabilitation and repair that overlap.
o Rehabilitation: As interim steps to aid long-term recovery, rehabilitation includes the provision of
temporary public amenities and housing.
o Reconstruction: of damaged infrastructure and ecosystems, as well as permitting sustainable
livelihoods, are all part of the reconstruction process.

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND PLANNING

• Disaster risk reduction is the concept and practise of lowering disaster risks by systematically
analysing and managing disaster-related factors, such as reduced exposure to hazards, reduced
vulnerability of people and property, wise land and environmental management, and improved
preparedness for adverse events.
• It encompasses efforts that enhance preparedness, prevention, and mitigation on a local, regional, national,
and worldwide scale. The following areas of action make up the disaster risk reduction framework:
o A policy framework: focusing on risk management that is backed by legal and institutional mechanisms
must be outlined. It is necessary to do a risk assessment based on hazards and community resilience.
o Risk awareness: After assessing the risk, the next stage is to inform stakeholders and decision-makers
about it, allowing government and civil society to make informed decisions.
o Plan implementation: The plan must be implemented with all stakeholders in mind, including
environmental management, urban planning, and other factors.
o Early Warning Systems: which provide timely and trustworthy information through specified
institutions, are an important aspect of risk mitigation.
o Knowledge Application: All stakeholders must be informed in order for disaster risk management to be
effective. Information exchange and easily accessible communication strategies are critical.
10 POINTS AGENDA OF THE PM FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION

• The Prime Minister had listed the agenda during his inaugural speech at the Asian Ministerial Conference on
Disaster Risk Reduction (AMCDRR) 2016. The all-inclusive agenda presents a holistic approach to disaster
risk management and addresses a whole range of issues, from community preparedness to use of technology
and international cooperation.
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT FOR MANAGEMENT OF DISASTERS

• The organisation is hierarchical, with three levels of operation: centre, state, and district.
• It is a multi-stakeholder framework, in which several key ministries, government departments, and
administrative entities are involved.
• The overall coordination of disaster management vests with the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Cabinet
Committee on Security and the National Crisis Management Committee are the key committees involved in
the top-level decision making regarding disaster management. The NDMA is the agency responsible for the
approval of the National Disaster Management Plan and its implementation.
NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT (NDMA-2005)

• The Disaster Management Act, 2005, was passed by the Indian government on December 23, 2005, and it
established:

1. National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA),

2. State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs), and
3. District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs) to take a holistic and integrated approach to disaster
management.
NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (NDMA):

• The GOI established the NDMA in 2005, headed by the Prime Minister. Under the DM Act 2005, the NDMA,
as the apex body for disaster management, shall have the responsibility for laying down the policies and
guidelines for disaster management for ensuring timely and effective response to disaster.
• The guidelines of NDMA will assist the Central Ministries, Departments, and States to formulate their
respective DM plans.
• It will approve the National Disaster Management Plan and DM plans of the Central Ministries/
Departments.
• It will take such other measures, as it may consider necessary, for the prevention of disasters, or
mitigation, or preparedness and capacity building, for dealing with a threatening disaster situation or
disaster.
• Central Ministries/ Departments and State Governments will extend necessary cooperation and assistance
to NDMA for carrying out its mandate.
• NDMA has the power to authorise the Departments or authorities concerned, to make emergency
procurement of provisions or materials for rescue and relief in a threatening disaster situation or disaster.
ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH NDMA:

• NDMA’s role during the Uttarakhand Flooding in 2013 was questioned, where it failed to timely inform
people about the flash floods and landslides. The post disaster relief response had not been upto NDMA’s
benchmarks. Experts blamed unfinished projects for flood and landslide mitigation which were the result
due to poor planning of NDMA.
• CAG report observed that there were delays in completion of projects under the flood management
programmes. It also stated that the projects were not taken up in an integrated manner and blamed NDMA
for institutional failures and poor flood management. There were huge delays in completion of river
management activities and works related to border areas projects which were long-term solutions for the
flood problems of Assam, north Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh.
• Devastations caused by Kerala Floods in 2018 and Chennai Floods in 2015 showed shortcomings in the
institutions regarding preparedness for the disaster situation. CAG report, 2015 Chennai Floods termed it as
a “man-made disaster” and holds the Tamil Nadu government responsible for the catastrophe.
• The NDRF lacks sufficient training, equipment, facilities and residential accommodation to deal with the crisis
situation properly.
• Misutilization of Funds:
o Audit findings show that some states have mis-utilised funds for expenditures that were not authorised
for disaster management. There was a significant delay in releasing funds.
o Additionally, some States didn’t invest the funds thereby incurring huge interest losses. This shows
financial indiscipline in states regarding management of funds.
MEASURES NEED TO BE TAKEN:

• Policy guidelines at the macro level are needed to inform and guide the preparation and implementation
of disaster management and development plans across sectors.
• Operational guidelines should be formed for integrating disaster management practices into development.
• Efficient early warning systems coupled with effective response plans at district, state and national levels
is the need of the hour.
• Involve Community, NGOs, CSOs and the media at all stages of disaster management.
• Climate risk management should be addressed through adaptation and mitigation.
• A dynamic policy is required to develop disaster-resilient infrastructure through proper investment in
research. ISRO, NRSA, IMD and other institutions have to collectively provide technological solutions to
enhance capabilities to tackle disasters.

NATIONAL DISASTER RESPONSE FORCE (NDRF):

• The NDRF has been constituted as per the Chapter-VIII of the DM Act 2005 as a specialist response force
that can be deployed in a threatening disaster situation or disaster.
• As per the DM Act, the general superintendence, direction and control of the NDRF shall be vested and
exercised by the NDMA.
• The command and supervision of the NDRF shall vest with the Director General appointed by the GOI.
• The NDRF will position its battalions at different locations as required for effective response.
• NDRF units will maintain close liaison with the designated State Governments and will be available to them
in the event of any serious threatening disaster situation.
• The NDRF is equipped and trained to respond to situations arising out of natural disasters and CBRN
emergencies.
• The NDRF units will also impart basic training to all the stakeholders identified by the State
Governments in their respective locations.
• A National Disaster Response Academy is operational in Nagpur and new infrastructure is being set up to
cater to National and international training programmes for disaster management.
NATIONAL CRISIS MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE (NCMC):

• Other emergencies such as terrorism (counter−insurgency), law and order situations, hijacking, air accidents,
CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear) weapon systems, which require the close involvement
of the security forces and/or intelligence agencies, and other incidents such as mine disasters, port and
harbour emergencies, forest fires, oilfield fires and oil spills are also handled by the National Crisis
Management Committee (NCMC).
DISASTER MANAGEMENT DIVISION, MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS:

• The overall coordination of disaster management vests with the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
• The Disaster Management Division is responsible for response, relief and preparedness for natural calamities
and man−made disasters (except drought and epidemics).
• DMD co−ordinates with disaster affected State Governments, concerned line ministries departments,
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), National
Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) and the Directorate General of Fire Services, Home Guards and
Civil Defense, and Armed Forces for effective disaster risk reduction.
NATIONAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (NEC):

• It acts as the coordinating and monitoring body for DM. It is chaired by the Union Home Secretary and
comprises of Secretary level officers from the Ministries and departments having control of agriculture,
atomic energy, defense, drinking water supply, environment and forests, finance (expenditure), health,
power, rural development, science and technology, space, telecommunications, urban development and
water resources.
• The NEC will coordinate response in the event of any threatening disaster situation or disaster where
central assistance is needed.
• The NEC may give directions to the relevant Ministries of the Government of India, the State Governments,
and the State Authorities regarding measures to be taken by them in response to any specific threatening
disaster situation or disaster as per needs of the State.
NATIONAL PLATFORM FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION (NPDRR):

• The GOI recognized the need to evolve a participatory process of decision making with active involvement of
the Central & State Governments and other stakeholders including people representing different interests in
the field of disaster management. Accordingly, a multi−stakeholder and multi−sectoral NPDRR was
constituted.
• The NPDRR is chaired by the Union Home Minister and Minister of State in− charge of Disaster
Management in the Ministry of Home Affairs.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT (NIDM):

• As per the provisions of the Chapter-VII of the DM Act, Government of India constituted the National
Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) under an Act of Parliament with the goal of being the premier
institute for capacity development for disaster management in India and the region.
• The National Institute of Disaster Management is the nodal agency responsible for human resource
development, capacity building, training, research, documentation and policy advocacy in the field of
disaster management.
• It provides technical support to the state governments through the Disaster Management Centers (DMCs)
in the Administrative Training Institutes (ATIs) of the States and Union Territories.
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT AT STATE LEVEL

• Each state in India is required by the DM Act of 2005 to create its own institutional structure for
disaster management and to prepare its own Disaster Management Plan. The DM Act requires each state
government to take the appropriate efforts to integrate disaster preventive and mitigation measures into
state development plans, finance allocation, and construct Early Warning Systems.
1. STATE DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (SDMA):

• As per provisions in Chapter-III of the DM Act, each State Government shall establish a State Disaster
Management Authority (SDMA) or its equivalent as notified by the state government with the Chief Minister
as the Chairperson.
• In case of other UTs, the Lieutenant Governor or the Administrator shall be the Chairperson of that
Authority.
• For the UT of Delhi, the Lieutenant Governor and the
Chief Minister shall be the Chairperson and Vice
Chairperson Respectively of The State Authority.
• In the case of a UT having Legislative Assembly, except
the UT of Delhi, the Chief Minister shall be the
Chairperson of the Authority.
• The SDMA will lay down policies and plans for DM in the
State.
• The SDMA will approve the disaster management plans
prepared by various departments.
• It will, inter alia approve the State Plan in accordance
with the guidelines laid down by the NDMA, coordinate
the implementation of the State Plan, recommend
provision of funds for mitigation and preparedness
measures and review the developmental plans of the
different departments of the State to ensure the
integration of prevention, preparedness and mitigation
measures.
• The State Government shall constitute a State Executive Committee (SEC) to assist the SDMA in the
performance of its functions. The SEC will be headed by the Chief Secretary to the State Government.
• The SEC will coordinate and monitor the implementation of the National Policy, the National Plan, and
the State Plan. The SEC will also provide information to the NDMA relating to different aspects of DM.
2. DISTRICT DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (DDMA):

• As per provisions in Chapter-IV of the DM Act, each State Government shall establish a District Disaster
Management Authority for every district in the State with such name as may be specified in that
notification.
• The DDMA will be headed by the District Collector, Deputy Commissioner, or District Magistrate as the
case may be, with the elected representative of the local authority as the Co-Chairperson.
• The State Government shall appoint an officer not below the rank of Additional Collector or Additional
District Magistrate or Additional Deputy Commissioner of the district to be the Chief Executive Officer of
the District Authority.

• The DDMA will act as the planning, coordinating and implementing body for DM at the District level
and take all necessary measures for the purposes of DM in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the
NDMA and SDMA.
• It will prepare the DM plan for the District and monitor the implementation of the all relevant national,
state, and district policies and plans.
• The DDMA will also ensure that the guidelines for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and response
measures laid down by the NDMA and the SDMA are followed by all the district-level offices of the various
departments of the State Government.
FINANCIAL SETUP
NATIONAL DISASTER RESPONSE FUND:

• It was established under the NDM Act of 2005. It is a central government-managed fund that is used to
cover the costs of emergency response, relief, and rehabilitation in the event of a disaster.
• If the need for funding for relief operations exceeds the cash available in the State Disaster Response Fund
account in the case of a disaster, further Central aid is provided from the National Disaster Response Fund.
• The 11th Finance Commission's National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) was integrated with the
NDRF.
STATE DISASTER RESPONSE FUND:

• The SDRF is exclusively used to cover costs associated with delivering urgent relief to disaster victims.
• In case the same state faces another severe disaster during the same year, no reduction will be made while
releasing assistance from the National Disaster Response Fund.
• The state-specific disasters within the local context in the State, which are not included in the notified
list of disasters eligible for assistance from State Disaster Response Fund and National Disaster Response
Fund, can be met from State Disaster Response Fund within the limit of 10 percent of the annual funds
allocation of the State Disaster Response Fund. For example, Uttar Pradesh recently announced
compensation from the SDRF for victims of man-animal conflicts.
• Gratuitous Relief, Search and Rescue ops, Relief measures, Air dropping of essential supplies, Emergency
supply of drinking water, Clearance of affected area, including debris management, Agriculture, Animal
husbandry, fishery, Handicraft, artisans, Repair Restoration (of immediate nature) of damaged infrastructure
are all covered by the National Disaster Response Fund and State Disaster Response Fund.
NATIONAL DISASTER MITIGATION FUND:

• The National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF) has yet to be established, but it will be soon. The government
believes that there are sufficient existing schemes to address the mitigation side of the problem, and that
there is no need for a separate NDMF at this time.
NATIONAL DISASTER RESPONSE RESERVE:

• The 13th Finance Commission suggested that a National Disaster Response Reserve (NDRR) with a
capital of Rs.250 crore be established to fulfil the immediate need for relief materials and equipment in the
event of a disaster.
• The goal of the National Disaster Response Reserve (NDRR) is to alleviate the suffering of disaster victims
who are beyond the States' ability to cope.
15 FINANCE COMMISSION AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

• The Commission recommends the total corpus of Rs 1.6 lakh crore for States for disaster management
for the duration of 2021-26, of which the Union share is Rs 1.2 lakh crore and States share is Rs 37,552
crore.
• The Commission has recommended that the total States allocation for SDMRF should be subdivided into
funding windows that encompass the full disaster management cycle. The funding windows of the SDRF and
SDMF are not interchangeable. SDRF (State Disaster Response Fund) should get 80% of the total allocation
and SDMF (State Disaster Management Fund) 20%.

• The Commission has recommended that the allocation for the National Disaster Risk Management Fund
(NDRMF) be Rs 68,463 crore for the duration of 2021-26.
• NDRF (National Disaster Response Fund) should get 80% of the total allocation and NDMF (National Disaster
Management Fund) 20%.
LEGISLATIONS DEALING WITH DISASTERS

• Seventh Schedule to the Constitution does not have an explicit entry on disaster management. Hence,
Parliament had to trace its legislative competence for passing the Disaster Management Act, 2005 to the
Concurrent List entry 23 on “Social security and social insurance; employment and unemployment”,
even though all aspects of crisis management cannot be said to be covered by this entry.
• This represented a paradigm shift, moving away from a relief-focused reaction and toward a proactive
preventative, mitigation, and preparedness-driven approach to reduce loss of life, livelihood, and
property.
• The Act calls for the establishment of NDMA, with the Prime Minister of India as chairperson. The Act
under Section 8 enjoins the Central Government to constitute a National Executive Committee (NEC)
to assist the National Authority.
• The NEC is responsible for the preparation of the National Disaster Management Plan for the whole
country and to ensure that it is reviewed and updated annually.
• All State Governments are mandated under Section 14 of the Act to establish a State Disaster Management
Authority (SDMA).
o The SDMA consists of the Chief Minister of the State, who is the Chairperson, and no more than eight
members appointed by the Chief Minister.
o The SDMA is mandated to ensure that all the departments of the State prepare disaster management
plans as prescribed by the national and state authorities.
• The Act directs the establishment of the District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA). The
Chairperson of DDMA will be the Collector or the District Magistrate or the Deputy Commissioner of
the district. The elected representative of the area is a member of the DDMA as an ex-officio Chairperson.
• The Act provides for constituting a National Disaster Response Force 'for the purpose of specialist
response to a threatening disaster situation or disaster' under the Director General to be appointed by the
Central Government.
• The Act contains provision for constitution of National Disaster Response Fund and National Disaster
Mitigation Fund and similar funds at the state and the district levels.
• The planning process has been carried down to the sub-divisional, block and village levels.
o Each village in a multi-hazard prone district will have a Disaster Management Plan.
o The Disaster Management Committee which draws up the plans consists of elected representatives at
the village level, local authorities, government functionaries, including doctors/paramedics of primary
health centres located in the village, primary school teachers, etc. The plan encompasses prevention,
mitigation and preparedness measures.
SECOND ARC ON NDM ACT 2005

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 needs to be amended to bring in the following features:
• Supportive role of the Union government: Disaster/Crisis Management should continue to be the primary
responsibility of the State Governments and the Union Government should play a supportive role.
• Lack of coverage: As pointed out by the Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2006), all aspects of
disaster management are not covered by this Concurrent list entry, and several State List entries also overlap.
This creates room for allegations about the Centre overstepping its powers.
• New entry in concurrent list: The Commission had recommended the addition of a new entry in the
Concurrent List for “Management of Disasters and Emergencies, Natural or Man-made”. This had also been
recommended by the National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2002) and later by a
Ministry of Home Affairs Task Force set up to review the DM Act (2013). However, it was never taken up.
• Categorization of the Disaster: The Act should provide categorization of disasters (say, local, district, state
or national level). This categorization along with intensity of each type of disaster will help in determining

the level of authority primarily responsible for dealing with the disaster as well as the scale of response and
relief - detailed guidelines may be stipulated by the NDMA on this subject.
• Stringent punishment: The law should make provisions for stringent punishment for misutilization of funds
meant for crisis/disaster management.
• The role of the local governments should be brought to the forefront for crisis/disaster management.
• The NEC as stipulated under the Disaster Management Act need not be constituted, and the NCMC should
continue to be the apex coordination body.
• The functions of the National Disaster Management Authority should be:
o To recommend policies, to lay down guidelines for preparation of different disaster management plans
and standard operating procedures; to promote and organize vulnerability studies, research and
evaluation
o To advise on parameters of categorization and on declaration of national and state level disasters
o To develop expertise and knowledge in the field of crisis/disaster management and disseminate to the
field, to develop and organize training and capacity building programmes, to coordinate the early
warning systems.
NDMA ACT AND COVID-19 PANDEMIC

• DM Act has two inherent issues with regards to COVID19:
o Lack of appropriate legal framework to manage epidemics
o An over centralization of powers
• The act was meant to be used in situations where a state government was unable to cope with natural
disasters on its own. It was never meant to be a legal mechanism to control the functional state governments.
• CoVID-19 was declared as a “notified disaster” allowing the central government wide powers to lay down
policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management to ensure a timely and effective response to the
disaster.
• Section 72 of the DMA, 2005, provides that the provisions of the Act, will have an overriding effect on all
other laws, to the extent that they are inconsistent.
• The Centre issues notifications, recommendations, circulars, and clarifications with little cooperation or
consideration about their implementation or repercussions. Because of the disparity of power between the
centre and the states, which is mediated by the DMA, the states have no room to design and execute
lockdowns that respect cultural and social norms.
• The DM Act is not capable of dealing with fake news and fake warnings being spread through social
media and the internet.
• The DM Act imposes criminal liabilities for violation of lockdown orders. This provision is a major
hurdle for the conduct of economic policy on a nationwide scale.
• The bureaucracy and police administration were entrusted with enforcement of the lockdown. But
they also got wide-ranging discretionary powers in deciding who to permit and who to ban.
EPIDEMIC ACT-1897
• This Act was applied by states to impose lockdowns during COVID-19 pandemic. The Act came into effect
amidst the outbreak of the bubonic plague in Bombay.
• This colonial-era law is India's only statute that has ever been used as a foundation for preventing the
spread of diseases like cholera and malaria.
• The law empowers the Union and state governments to adopt "extraordinary measures and prescribe
restrictions" that must be followed by residents in order to prevent disease spread.
• The State Government may take steps and create regulations for the inspection of persons travelling,
according to Section 2 of the act. It also states the penalties that will be imposed on individuals who break
the Act.
• The Epidemic act is deficient for effective management of CoVID-19 endemic because of:
o Lacking mention of modern approaches to disease prevention: The Epidemic Act makes no
provisions for the isolation and sequencing that are essential for drug/vaccine dissemination, as well as
quarantine and other preventive measures.

o Does not specify the responsibilities of government: The Act emphasises primarily the central and
state governments' powers during an epidemic, but it does not specify the government's responsibilities
in preventing and controlling the epidemic, nor does it expressly state citizens' rights in the event of a
major disease outbreak.
o The law lacks definitions for "dangerous," "infectious," or "contagious diseases," as well as a
"epidemic."
o The Act makes no mention of the existing criteria and processes for establishing a benchmark for
determining whether a disease should be designated an epidemic.
EPIDEMIC DISEASES (AMENDMENT) BILL, 2020

• Its goal is to protect healthcare workers who are in danger of catching the epidemic disease while
performing activities linked to the outbreak.
• Doctors, nurses, other state government-designated individuals, and anybody else empowered under the Act
to take steps to prevent the disease's spread are among them.
• It defines ‘act of violence’ committed against a healthcare service personnel, which include harassment,
harm, injury, hurt, or danger to life, obstruction in discharge of duties, and loss or damage to the property or
documents.
• Acts of violence or property loss are punishable by imprisonment for three months to five years, and also
a fine of Rs 50,000 to two lakh rupees.
o Acts of violence that cause grave hurt are punished by imprisonment for six months to seven years and a
fine of one lakh to five lakh rupees in this case.
o These are both cognizable and non-bailable offences.
• Persons convicted of crimes will be required to make restitution to the healthcare workers who were
injured as a result of their actions.
• Expands the Central government's authority to check any bus, rail, goods truck, ship, vessel, or aircraft
departing or arriving at any land port, port, or aerodrome. It used to be limited to inspections of ships and
vessels leaving or arriving at any port.
NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT PLAN 2016

• The National Disaster Management Plan was launched in 2016 with the goal of “making India disaster
resilient, achieving substantial disaster risk reduction, and significantly reducing losses of life, livelihoods,
and assets (economic, physical, social, cultural, and environmental) by maximising the ability to cope with
disasters at all levels of administration as well as among communities.” It was the first time such a plan had
been devised in India.
• It is in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, the Sustainable Development
Goals 2015-2030, and the Paris Agreement on Climate Change at COP-21.
• The approach utilised in this national plan includes the four Sendai Framework priorities into the DRR
planning framework under the five categories for Actions for each hazard:
1. Understanding Risk
2. Inter−Agency Coordination
3. Investing in DRR − Structural Measures
4. Investing in DRR − Non−Structural Measures
5. Capacity Development
• It covers all phases of disaster management: Prevention, Mitigation, Response and Recovery and covers
human induced disasters like chemical, nuclear etc. It plans for short, medium and long run respectively 5,
10, and 15 years in dealing with disasters.
INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
HYOGO FRAMEWORK OF ACTION:

• In 2005, 168 Governments adopted a 10-year plan to make the world safer from natural hazards at the World
Conference on Disaster Reduction, held in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan.

SENDAI FRAMEWORK FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION (SFDRR):

• Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015−2030 was adopted at the 3rd UN World Conference on
DRR, held in March 2015 in Sendai, Japan.
• It came after the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005−2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities to Disasters.
• It is a 15-year, voluntary, non-binding agreement which recognizes that the government has the primary role
to reduce disaster risk and vulnerabilities and also the responsibility should be shared with other
stakeholders including local governments, the private sector and other stakeholders.
SENDAI FRAMEWORK’S SEVEN GLOBAL TARGETS:

1. Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower average per 100,000 global
mortalities between 2020−2030 compared to 2005−2015;
2. Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower the average global
figure per 100,000 between 2020−2030 compared to 2005−2015;
3. Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product by 2030;
4. Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services, among
them health and educational facilities, including through developing their resilience by 2030;
5. Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction
strategies by 2020;
6. Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through adequate and
sustainable support to complement their national actions for implementation of the framework by 2030;
7. Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi− hazard early warning systems and
disaster risk information and assessments to the people by 2030.
FOUR PRIORITIES FOR ACTION AS PER THE SENDAI FRAMEWORK:

1. Understanding disaster risk: Disaster risk management should be based on an understanding of disaster
risk in all its dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure of persons and assets, hazard characteristics and
the environment.
2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk: Disaster risk governance at the
national, regional and global levels is very important for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response,
recovery, and rehabilitation. It fosters collaboration and partnership.
3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience: Public and private investment in disaster risk
prevention and reduction through structural and non−structural measures are essential to enhance the
economic, social, health and cultural resilience of people, communities, countries and their assets, as well as
the environment.
4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to "Build Back Better" in recovery,
rehabilitation and reconstruction: The recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction phase is a critical
opportunity to build back better, including through integrating disaster risk reduction into development
measures.
SENDAI FRAMEWORK READINESS REVIEW, UNISDR 2017

• Critical data gaps exist in specific areas of disaster loss, in all areas of international cooperation, and for many
aspects of early warning, risk information and disaster risk reduction strategies.
INDIA’S PROGRESS AFTER THE SENDAI DECLARATION:

• India has successfully hosted the Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Reduction (AMCDRR) in
November, 2016 and adopted ‘New Delhi Declaration’ and ‘Regional Action Plan for implementation of
the Sendai Framework’.
• The Government of India has issued a set of priority actions to all the State Government based on the goals,
targets and priorities of Sendai Framework.
• In line with Sendai priority 4, National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is strengthened with respect to
training and equipment
• Government has expressed keenness to share India’s expertise and help other countries in disaster response.

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) has declared India first regional champion
after the Sendai Agreement for its efforts to facilitate regional support towards enabling community resilience
in the Asia−Pacific region.
ASIAN MINISTERIAL CONFERENCE ON DISASTER RISK REDUCTION 2018

• Broad policy direction to guide the implementation of the Sendai Framework in the context of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development in the region;
• Long-term road map, outlining a chronological pathway of the Sendai Framework structured around key
milestones;
• The Action Plan 2017- 2018 with specific activities, prioritized based on the long-term road map and in line
with the policy direction.
• The Action Plan 2018-2020 follows the goals and directions set in the Asia Regional Plan and analyses the
progress made since its development.
• It also provides key highlights of the achievements made by the Member States against the milestones agreed
for this period, and extends the scope of the two-year Action Plan for the next biennium.
GLOBAL FACILITY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION AND RECOVERY (GFDRR)

• It is a global partnership program administered by the World Bank Group.
• It helps developing countries – where the most vulnerable natural disaster “hotspots” exist - enhance their
capacity for disaster prevention, emergency preparedness, response, and recovery.
• It also supports developing countries to Mainstream disaster risk management and climate change
adaptation in development strategies and investment programs, and Improve the quality and timeliness of
resilient recovery and reconstruction following a disaster.
UNITED NATIONS OFFICE FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION (UNISDR):

• The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) serves as the focal point for coordination
among all stakeholders involved in disaster reduction activities. The Government of India has contributed
US$ 1 million in November, 2016 in the 7th Asian Ministerial Conference for Disaster Risk.
• Reduction and signed a Statement of Cooperation to promote regional capacity buildings for the Asia-Pacific
Region in the field of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR).
WORLD CONFERENCE ON DISASTER RISK REDUCTION (WCDRR):

• It is a series of United Nations conferences focusing on disaster risk reduction and climate risk management
in the context of sustainable development. The conferences bring together government officials and other
stakeholders to discuss how to strengthen the sustainability of development by managing disaster and
climate risks.
• The conferences have been hosted by Japan: in Yokohama in 1994, in Kobe in 2005 and in Sendai in 2015.
GLOBAL PLATFORM FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION (GPDRR):

• It acts as the main global forum for emphasis on disaster risk reduction. It assesses the progress made in the
implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR). It meets biannually and
Indian delegation participated in it in Cancun, Mexico in 2017 where NDMA Guidelines on Museums were
also launched during the summit.
SDG AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT:

• Targets related to promoting education for sustainable development under SDG 4, such as building and
upgrading education facilities and ensuring healthy lives, as well as targets under SDG 11 (cities) and under
SDG 9 (building resilient infrastructure) reaffirm the interrelationship between disaster risk reduction
and sustainable development. amongst others can be cited.
• The SDG-13 categorically states that the international community will have to mobilize $100 billion annually
by 2020 towards climate-related disaster mitigation measures alone.

• SDG-13 is especially significant for India, as it ranks sixth most vulnerable country to climate change impact
in the Global Climate Risk Index 2018.
• Few targets of Goal 11 Sustainable cities and communities are:
o By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participation. Integrated and
sustainable human settlement and management in all countries.
o By 2030, significantly reduce the no. of deaths, people affected and also reduce direct economic losses
related disasters it focuses on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations.
• Under Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts Target 13.1: Strengthen
resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries.
• Target 15.3, Under goal 15: By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land
affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world
COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT

• Community based disaster management (CBDM) is a bottom-up and inclusive approach which is
universally accepted as a tool to prepare communities for disasters.
• The term “Community-Based Disaster Management” received attention in the development field in the
1980’s, although community based disaster initiatives were already on-going in different parts of the world
in formal or informal ways.
• Its best example is: The Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake of 1995 hit the city of Kobe and other parts of
Hyogo prefecture in Japan causing serious loss of life and property. Immediately after the earthquake, the
neighbours and relatives rescued many people from the debris. Statistics show that 85 percent of the people
were either self-evacuated or were rescued by neighbours. This indicates the importance of community and
neighbourhood immediately after such an event.
Case study of Odisha

• During Cyclone Amphan, one of the strongest cyclones ever to have been recorded in the Bay of Bengal,
nearly 200,000 people were evacuated in the state.
• Cyclone preparations began as soon as the alerts were issued by the Indian Meteorological Department
and restoration efforts were undertaken on a war footing so that by the time the cyclone steered away
from Odisha towards West Bengal more than 85 percent of the power restoration work was already done.
CBDM AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL:

• The core focus of the World Disasters Report 2004 is ‘Building Community Resilience.' Experiences with
recent catastrophes have shown that empowering communities to fight disasters is a far better policy choice
than ad hoc remedial methods for addressing short-term risks.
• On the same line, the 2005 Hyogo Declaration states that: “strengthening community level capacities to
reduce disaster risk at the local level is especially needed, considering that appropriate disaster reduction
measures at that level enable the communities and individuals to significantly reduce their vulnerability to
hazards.”
CBDM IN INDIA:
• The National Disaster Management Policy of 2009, envisaging “to build a safe and disaster resilient India
by developing a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster and technology-driven strategy through a culture of
prevention, mitigation, preparedness and efficient response, involving all stakeholders, especially the
community”, lays stress on building the capacity of the community.
• The national strategy envisages a multi-dimensional approach focusing on prevention, mitigation,
preparedness (capacity building of National Disaster Response Force, state disaster response force, civil
defence, National Cadet Corps, Nehru Yuva Kendras, etc) and CBDM during the pre-disaster phase.
• The post-disaster phase is characterised by proactive, prompt and efficient response; and the building
back is better in the reconstruction and recovery phases of disaster.
• In India, CBDM has been dubbed CBDRM, with the ‘R' standing for risk, to encompass community-based
risk mitigation in sensitive locations.

• Several NGOs, such as the Bharatiya Agro Industries Foundation (BAIF) Development Research Foundation,
are implementing a community preparation development initiative in drought-prone areas of Rajasthan.
• International NGOs are collaborating with local NGOs; for example, Save the Children is engaging with local
NGOs in Rajasthan to implement child-centered drought preparedness programmes.
PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT:

• Processes of CBDM are guided by principles of subsidiarity, economies of scale, equity, heterogeneity,
and public accountability.
• The different stages in CBDM are disaster/vulnerability risk assessment, risk reduction planning, early
warning systems, post-disaster relief, and participatory monitoring and evaluation.
NEED OF CBDM AND LACUNAS IN THE CURRENT SYSTEM:

• One size fits all approach: Regardless of regional differences, the same strategy is executed or imposed
everywhere.
• Lacking integration of traditional knowledge: Local expertise, experiences, skills, resources, and practises
are undervalued. It is proposed that other resources and procedures be used instead.
• An outsider, not the stakeholders or the community, decides on priority setting.
• Lack of awareness and information: Local communities do not have any information about the disaster
management plans for their area and the role of different sectors in helping the community during disasters.
SIGNIFICANCE OF CBDM:
• Bottom-Up approach: Community members may be more receptive to new knowledge and information if it
is delivered to them in a bottom-up, participatory manner. Local folks who only speak or comprehend their
native language may be wary of non-natives conducting education and awareness programmes for them.
• Monitoring of work at community level: The community can keep track of the quality of work being done
in its area. It will also instil in the community a sense of responsibility.
• Ground level preparation: People in development and disaster management pay attention to local
geoclimatic and sociocultural variables. Local initiatives are launched, and the community lends a helping
hand to the disaster-response authorities.
• Integration of traditional knowledge: The community and the specialists involved from outside exchange
knowledge, information, skills, and techniques. Community members come forward to share their
suggestions for selecting appropriate programmes for their community and society.
ROLE OF MEDIA IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

• The media forges a direct link between the public and emergency organizations and plays a very
important role in disseminating vital information to the public before, during and after disasters.
• The media assists in the management of disasters by educating the public about disasters; warning of
hazards; gathering and transmitting information about affected areas; alerting government officials, relief
organizations and the public to specific needs; and facilitating discussions about disaster preparedness and
response for continuous improvement.
• Disaster Management involves avoiding, mitigating disasters as well as preparing for them. Disaster
preparedness includes:
o Community Training to react to disasters.
o Training of NDRF and other Disaster Response Forces
o Predicting and identifying disasters through Geo-satellites and other technology.
• A very important task is to interlink the above three. That is, the information about impending disasters
must be immediately conveyed to the Response Forces as well as to the vulnerable communities, along with
all possible measures to be taken, steps to protect oneself and so on. This role is played by the Media, through
the Radio, Television, Social Media etc, which disseminate information to the masses at the earliest, enabling
them to brace for the disaster.
• Media shares instructions to all the people in the vulnerable areas, including a set of DOs and DON'Ts,
which help people take immediate protective action, even if they are hitherto unprepared.
• The more crucial role of the Media comes post-disaster, to ensure safety of all, and prevent casualties.

• Media does so by establishing a firm link between the wounded and the health workers. Trauma care is
directed towards those who need it, because Media helps in their identification.
• Along with this, the Media often helps give basic first aid tips to those in need, so that they can take some
care of themselves and their loved ones.
• Media helps generate sympathy, empathy and support for the victims, which often inspires people to
show their support.
NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT, 2009

• It is being created with the goal of "building a safe and disaster-resilient India through the development of a
holistic, proactive, multi-disaster focused, and technology driven approach through a culture of prevention,
mitigation, readiness, and response."
• The themes underpinning the policy are:
o Community-based DM, including last mile integration of the policy, plans and execution.
o Capacity development in all spheres.
o Consolidation of past initiatives and best practices.
o Cooperation with agencies at National and International levels.
o Multi-sectoral synergy.
OBJECTIVES OF POLICY:
• Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and resilience at all levels through knowledge, innovation
and education.
• Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology, traditional wisdom and environmental sustainability.
• Mainstreaming disaster management into the developmental planning process.
• Establishing institutional and techno-legal frameworks to create an enabling regulatory environment and a
compliance regime.
• Ensuring efficient mechanisms for identification, assessment and monitoring of disaster risks.
• Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning systems backed by responsive and fail-safe
communication with information technology support.
• Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring approach towards the needs of the vulnerable sections of
the society.
• Undertaking reconstruction as an opportunity to build disaster resilient structures and habitat for ensuring
safer living.
• Promoting a productive and proactive partnership with the media for disaster management.
LIMITATIONS OF THE POLICY:

• Policy is outdated and remains un-updated for a long time. It does not cover recent and emerging
disasters such as cold waves and heat waves. The recent CoVID 19 crisis exposed its outdated character.
• Policy does not recognize disasters occurring due to climate change and climate refugees.
• Lack of wide consultation: Lack of coordinated and coherent approach in policy formulation.
• Research and development for innovating new technologies in the field of early warning systems and risk
reduction, are not discussed adequately.
• Lacking legal commitment: Policy is silent on improving legal commitment for disaster risk reduction cycle
as it does not state any concrete legal framework to hold accountable the authorities responsible for disaster
management in the country.
WAY AHEAD:
• Update policy: Policy framework should be updated to include new and emerging threats such as biological
diseases and new types of industrial disasters. For example CoVID-19 disaster
• Strengthen community participation: The policy should be converged with MGNREGA to develop resilient
infrastructure in disaster prone areas.
• Promote cooperative federalism: Give more voice to States under the policy to cover disaster management
at ground level.

• Roadmap for research and development: Policy needs to be updated to include proactive measures in the
field of research and development to support disaster management with effective use of technology.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

• India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic
conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been a recurrent phenomenon.
• The role of technology in disaster can be predictable in such a way that it minimizes the hazard and helps in
reduction of vulnerability.
• Supervision of disaster risks and disaster events is heavily dependent on scientific knowledge and
evidence - based technique.
• The wide spectrum of technologies used in all four phases of disaster management preparedness,
mitigation, response and recovery are:
o Remote sensing, Geographical Information System, Global Positioning System (GPS), Satellite navigation
system, Satellite communication,
o Amateur and community radio, television and radio broadcasting,
o Telephone and fax, Cellular phones, video Conferencing Networking Technologies,
o Internet, e-mail; On-line management databases, disaster information systems and networks, Robotics.
THE APPLICATION AND IMPORTANCE OF ALL THESE TECHNOLOGIES IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT ARE:
• Setting up disaster early warning systems, Quick processing and analysis of disaster systems.
• Database construction; Information integration and analysis,
• Disaster mapping and scenario simulation; Hazard assessment and monitoring; disaster trend forecasting;
Vulnerability assessment;
• Emergency response - decision support;
• Planning of disaster response, reduction, and relief ;
• Logistics preparation for disaster relief; Search and rescue teams.
CASE STUDIES AND ANALYSIS OF USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT:

1. National Disaster Management Services (NDMS):
• NDMS was conceived by NDMA in 2015-16 for setting up of Very Small Aperture Terminal Network
Connecting Ministry of Home Affairs, NDMA, NDRF, all state/UTs headquarters and 81 vulnerable
districts.
• This network is further backed up with terrestrial networks and HF Radio. The project is being
implemented by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL)
• The project is to provide reliable telecommunication infrastructure and technical support for Emergency
Operation Center (EOC) operations at MHA, NDMA, NDRF HQ, States & selected vulnerable districts.
2. Early Warning Dissemination System:
• Early warning system is an adaptive measure for climate change, using integrated communication
systems to help communities prepare for hazardous climate-related events. A successful EWS saves lives
and jobs, land and infrastructures and supports long-term sustainability.
• Case studies of early warning: In recent years, early warning systems have been developed for heatwaves
and flooding as well.
3. The Indian Tsunami Early Warning System:
• According to experts from the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information System (INCOIS), India is
much safer against tsunami threats than it was in 2004, due to the establishment of a state-of-the-art
tsunami early warning system at INCOIS.
• The Indian Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS) was established in 2007 and is based at & operated
by INCOIS, Hyderabad.
• It is an integrated effort of different organizations including the Department of Space (DOS), Department
of Science and Technology (DST), the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Survey of India
(SOI) and National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT).
4. Earthquake Sensors At Andaman And Nicobar:

• The Indian Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS) of the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information
Services (INCOIS) is in the process of setting up an elaborate system of sensors on the Andaman & Nicobar
Islands for real-time monitoring of earthquakes.
• Strong Motion Sensors with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) have been installed at 28 locations on the
islands.
5. Use Of Satellite Technologies:
• GIS may be considered as the evolution of maps and the Global Positioning System is a satellite based
system that gives accurate location information anywhere on earth. It can be useful for risk assessment
in a particular area. GPS can be useful for emergency response to locate dangerous points and to find the
shortest route for the responders using network analysis.
• INCOIS has also partnered with ISRO and Airports Authority of India (AAI) to develop satellite based
message broadcasting services through the indigenous navigational satellite communication system
'NAVIC', RESOURCESAT, South Asia Satellite, RISAT, INSAT 3D. India also uses Terra and Aqua
Satellites of NASA for forest fires detection along RISAT.
• Tamil Nadu has built a web GIS based system called TNSMART. This application, which is developed in
collaboration with ISRO, has modules related to thresholds, hazard forecast, disaster impact forecast,
advisory, response planning, etc.
• Similarly, Karnataka has a GPS enabled system for near real-time monitoring and communication of
disasters in the state. In India, the Government has encouraged the use of digital technologies in ensuring
help during disasters.
6. Drones
• During the 2013 Uttarakhand floods, drones were used to locate missing people and scan the terrain to
provide relevant updated information to the authorities.
• Recently, students from IIT Madras developed an AI-enabled drone that can help authorities provide vital
information on people trapped in disaster-hit areas.
7. Internet And Social Media:
• In 2015, the social media platform, Twitter, was used by a number of government groups and people
to share vital information (helpline phone numbers, train schedules, relief counters, weather forecasts,
etc) about the Chennai floods on Twitter.
• This became a test case for Twitter, and showed government agencies on how social media platforms
could be leveraged for effective communication related to natural disasters.
• Kerala State IT Mission has developed a crisis management platform and hosted and made available to
the public available at the URL www.keralarescue.in It was up and running within 12 hours after the first
day of flooding in 2018.
• The text-based rescue requests posted were enhanced to capture geo-coordinates automatically and the
geotagged information provided by the people in this portal came handy for the rescue teams during
rescue operations.
Case study from Odisha:

• Odisha State Disaster Mitigation Authority (OSDMA) in collaboration with Regional Integrated Multi-
Hazard Early Warning System (RIMES) has developed a web and smartphone-based platform called
“SATARK” (System for Assessing, Tracking and Alerting Disaster Risk Information based on Dynamic Risk
Knowledge).
• The application is developed to provide real time watch, alert and warning information for different
hazards like heat wave, lightning, agriculture risk (drought), flood monitoring, ocean state information
and tsunami risk, earthquake monitoring, cyclone/storm surge for improved disaster management.
• Odisha is the first state in the country that has implemented an Early Warning Dissemination System
(EWDS). This aims at establishing a foolproof communication system to address the existing gap of
disseminating disaster warning from the state, district and block levels to communities.
CASE STUDY COVID-19 AND SOCIAL MEDIA

• As India fights the second wave of COVID-19, hospital beds, oxygen supplies, blood plasma, and medicines
are running scarce. So, several people are taking to social media by posting urgent requirements on Twitter,
Facebook and Instagram.
• Dhoondh Initiative: Dhoondh, a not-for-profit organisation that connects blood plasma donors with
patients. Delhi-based Dhoondh receives over a thousand patient enquiries daily via Instagram and Twitter
direct messages, and the website, a 75% jump from the June to November period last year.
• HelpNow Initiative: Mumbai-based HelpNow, an emergency ambulance service company started by three
engineering students. Instagram and Twitter users have helped spread awareness of the service, and its
helpline number on those platforms in the past one year.
LIMITATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

• Spread of fake information on social media platforms: False information runs the gamut, from
discrediting the threat of COVID-19 to conspiracy theories that vaccines could alter human DNA.
• Lack of funding: Innovation and research related to disaster mitigation technologies are very meagre.
• Awareness and knowledge level: Adoption of technology Such as early warning through SMS or Email are
restricted due to low level of education and knowledge to use the mobile applications.
• Failure of early warning system: In Uttarakhand, Early Warning systems failed both at Rishi Ganga and
Tapovan Vishnugad hydro power projects.
• An “early earthquake warning and security system” installed at Haryana Institute of Public
Administration (HIPA) failed to send out an alert when a 6.3 magnitude quake shook northern India,
including Delhi.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS: DISASTERS
1. COALITION FOR DISASTER RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE (CDRI)

• National governments, UN agencies and programmes, international development banks and finance
mechanisms, the private sector, and knowledge institutes make up the CDRI, a multi-stakeholder worldwide
cooperation. 22 countries and 7 organisations are members of CDRI.
• On September 23, 2019, India's Prime Minister announced CDRI during his speech at the United Nations
Climate Action Summit.
• In order to assist sustainable development, it strives to increase the resilience of new and existing
infrastructure systems to climate and disaster hazards.
• The NDMA will finalise the CDRI Charter document in consultation with the Ministry of External Affairs.
• It is India's second big coalition outside of the UN, following the International Solar Alliance, which has
already enlisted the support of 80 countries.
• CDRI will set goals for member nations to reduce catastrophe deaths and economic losses while also pursuing
the Sustainable Development Goal.
• It will also work at the crossroads of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and the Paris
Agreement on Climate Change. CDRI's Governing Council is the organization's top policy-making body.
• Every two years, India and a representative from another national government alternate as co-chairs.
2. DISASTER INSURANCE
• Because of the long-term ecological and psychological impacts, the degree of damage caused by any
natural disaster can never truly be evaluated. Post-flood repercussions, for example, include the development
of diseases like cholera, malaria, and leptospirosis (swamp fever), which could have long-term consequences
for flood-affected communities.
• Disaster Risk Financing and Insurance is one of the key financial tools for funding disasters. Across the
globe, it is being worked out to make a viable instrument. Many countries have already adopted insurance as
a key tool and many are in the process.
• Geological, meteorological, hydrological, climatological, oceanic, biological, and technological, man-made
catastrophes, or a combination of them, are covered by disaster risk insurance.
• One of the financial options accessible as a mitigation mechanism is disaster risk insurance.

NEED FOR DISASTER INSURANCE:

• Prevent poverty after disaster: Insurance provides dependable and timely financial assistance for the
recovery of livelihoods and reconstruction, as well as security in the aftermath of a disaster. As a result, it has
the potential to keep individuals out of poverty and desperation, as well as providing the liquidity needed to
rebuild livelihoods.
• Promote climate resilient financing: Individuals, institutions, and governments can use insurance to
establish a space of certainty and stability in which to make investments and plan.
• Promote sustainability: Satellite imaging and cell phones, for example, have significantly reduced the costs
of reviewing claims in remote and impoverished areas, and therefore of insurance products.
• Reduce fiscal burden: The temporary loss of tax income combined with an abrupt surge in public
reconstruction spending can quickly send fragile countries into a fiscal and macroeconomic tailspin. Disaster
risk insurance, particularly pooled systems, can assist governments in coping with macroeconomic shocks.
CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH DISASTER INSURANCE:

• Risk assessment necessitates trustworthy data and institutional risk assessment capabilities, both of
which are still lacking in many nations.
• Accessibility: In order to optimise coverage, insurance schemes must accommodate the needs of all
beneficiaries and stakeholders involved.
• Affordability: Premiums may be out of reach for low-income families.
• The scheme's financial viability: Direct insurance plans can only be commercially sustainable if a
consistent stream of premium income at scale is available to fund future payouts.
• Insurers may withdraw from markets if the risks become too high for the pool of premiums available,
resulting in un-insurability linked to increasing frequency and magnitude of catastrophic weather
occurrences.
CONCLUSION:
• The Government of India has launched quite a few social protection schemes leveraging on insurance
solutions like Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana, etc. A similar model can be used to offer
the protection for the low income group in case of natural disaster for loss of livelihood and loss of assets.
3. DISASTER RISK INDEX AND INDIA

• The Disaster Risk Index (DRI) measures the average risk of death per nation from large- and medium-
scale disasters such as earthquakes, tropical cyclones, and floods.
• The index is part of the World Risk Report 2016 released by the United Nations University Institute for
Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS) and Bundnis Entwicklung Hilft in cooperation with the
University of Stuttgart in Germany. India has been ranked 77th out of 171 countries.
• The index assessed the risk of disaster through the combined analysis of natural hazards and societal
vulnerabilities. Ranking No.1, the island state of Vanuatu displayed the greatest risk in 2016.
• The report says, “Lack of critical infrastructure and weak logistic chains substantially increase the risk
that an extreme natural event will become a disaster”.
• The National Disaster Risk Index is India's own disaster risk index. The National Disaster Risk Index would
map hazards and vulnerabilities across 640 districts and all states, including UTs, including economic
weaknesses.
• The score reflects India's commitment to the Sendai Framework, which requires the country to
significantly reduce disaster losses in terms of people and property.
4. RETROFITTING OF BUILDINGS – THE KEY IS TO LET IT SWING

• The need for seismic retrofitting of buildings arises under two circumstances:
o Earthquake damaged buildings and;
o Earthquake vulnerable buildings that have not yet experienced severe earthquakes.
• Quake-resistant buildings, an expression being widely used these days, refer to buildings that are designed
to withstand the shock of earthquakes and not crumble.

• Depending on the seismic zone they are in, buildings are constructed to withstand a certain magnitude
of earthquake. However, earthquake-resistant is not earthquake-proof. Faced with earthquakes of higher
magnitudes, they would go down.
• The key idea in making a building earthquake-resistant is to make it ductile, that is, to give it a certain
flexibility to shake horizontally. Stiff buildings, when faced with earthquakes, would go down, but the flexible
ones would sway and come back to their original position. The idea is to soften the impact of the earthquake,
and to let the building absorb the energy.
• Most of the newer high-rises these days, especially those in the high-seismic regions, are constructed to
withstand the impact of earthquakes of up to a certain strength.
• Older buildings can also be retrofitted with technologies to make them resistant, even though it involves
investments of time and funds. It makes sense to build an earthquake-resistant building.
5. DEVELOPING DISASTER PROOF CITIES

• As much as 59% of the country is vulnerable to earthquakes. There has been an increasing trend of urban
flood disasters in India over the past several years whereby major cities in India have been severely affected.
The most notable amongst them are Uttarakhand in 2013, Chennai in 2015, Mumbai in 2017, and Kerala
in 2018.
• Over the last 10 years, climate related disasters have also increased by more than 40%, magnifying
the risks that cities are already confronted with; particularly those associated with poverty, lack of basic
services, slum formation, unplanned and unstable buildings, houses and infrastructures located in hazard
prone areas, pollution and environmental degradation.
• Mainstreaming of risk reduction within the urban planning and development process is non-
negotiable since the emergence of risk is engrained in a city’s very foundation.
• A resilient and inclusive city approach is required for Indian cities where the infrastructure and the
urban systems can withstand the stresses and extreme weather events and thereby reducing the
vulnerabilities of men, women and children.
6. URBAN CLIMATE RESILIENCE FRAMEWORK

• Urban Climate Change Resilience (UCCR) is the capacity of an individual, community or institution to
dynamically and effectively respond to shifting climate impacts while continuing to function at an acceptable
level.
• The Resilient Cities component of the DRR Roadmap focusses on policy and practice level changes aiming for
resilience in urban areas.
• The Resilient Cities Programme broadly focus on:
o Disaster risks recognition, understanding and analysis;
o Disaster risk informed ward level development planning, using participatory, comprehensive and
scientific risk analysis;
o Risk reduction actions based on this planning;
o Capacity building measures for risk analysis, risk-informed planning and risk reduction actions;
o Actions for targeted and planned communication for DRR.
7. MAKING CITIES RESILIENT CAMPAIGN (UNISDR)

• Launched by UNISDR in May 2010, the “Making Cities Resilient: My City is Getting Ready Campaign” aims
to “support sustainable urban development by promoting resilience activities and increasing local-
level understanding of risk”. More than 3000 cities have joined the campaign by 2016 with a commitment
to lead risk reduction strategies.
BUILDING RESILIENT CITIES – KEY ESSENTIALS:

• Provisioning of resilient basic services: Functional continuity and timely restoration of basic services in
the aftermath of exposure to a hazard event forms the cornerstone of a resilient society.
• Role of peri-urban ecosystem services in urban resilience: Peri-urban areas are the transitional zones
between a sprawling city and its rural surroundings, neither urban nor rural in its outlook and
characteristics.

o The cities, which are rapidly urbanising and experiencing unplanned development are leading to a
threatening decline in ecosystems.
o This is impacting the resilience of several cities. The peri-urban areas which provide ecosystem services
to urban areas, are become the dumping grounds for urban solid waste, sewerage, etc., which is leading
to environmental degradation, groundwater contamination and adversely impacting the livelihoods and
the health of people residing in the peri-urban areas.
• Resilient Urban Governance: Urban local governments have critical roles and responsibilities in building
resilience to climate change and related disasters.


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