X Icse Math Science Sample Notes

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INDEX
01. MATHEMATICS – GST
02. PHYSICS – FORCE
03. CHEMISTRY – PRACTICAL

CHEMISTRY
04. BIOLOGY – CARDIO VASCULAR

SYSTEM
01. GST [GOODS AND SERVICES TAX]

2021 – 22.
• Scope:
o Computation of tax including problems involving discounts, list-
price, profit, loss, basic/cost price including inverse cases.
• Formulae:
𝒓
o GST = S.P. (𝟏𝟎𝟎)
o CGST + SGST = GST
o Input tax credit (ITC)/ GST paid = GST paid on purchase
o GST deposited with government or net GST = GST collected – GST
paid (ITC) OR GST on profit (value created)
• Points to remember:
o Inter-state:
▪ Goods or services sold from one state to the other.
▪ Entire GST is calculated on the S.P. as an integrated tax (IGST).
o Intra-state:
▪ Goods or services sold within a state.
▪ GST is equally divided between centre (CGST) and state
(SGCT) or union territory (UGST)
o If Inter-state or intrastate info is not provided in the sum,
calculate the GST as IGST.
o Current rates of GST in our country are: 0, 5%, 12%, 18% and 28%.
o GST is calculated on the S.P., which is arrived after deducting
discounts if any from the list or marked price
o A manufacturer pays GST on the S.P.
o Traders pay GST on the value added ie. Profit.
o Final answer should be in 2 decimal points and should have the
words Rs. or ₹.
EXERCISE – 01
1. Find the amount of bill for the following intra – state transaction of
goods /services. The GST rate is 5%.
Quantity (No. of items) MRP of each item (in Rs.) Discount%
18 150 10
24 240 20
30 100 30
12 120 20
[Rs.10,804.50]
2. National Trading Company, Meerut (UP) made the supply of the following
goods/services to Samarth Traders, Noida (UP). Find the total amount of bill if
the rate of GST = 12%.
Quantity (no. of pieces) 20 30 12 40
MRP (in Rs. per piece) 225 320 300 250
Discount% 40 30 50 40
[Rs.19,286.40]
3. Find the amount of bill for the following intra-state transaction of

goods/services.
MRP (in Rs.) 12,000 15,000 9,500 18,000
Discount% 30 20 30 40
CGST% 6 9 14 2.5
a. If it is intra-state. [Rs.43,420]
b. If it is inter-state. [Rs.43420]
4. M/s Ram Traders, Delhi, provided the following services to M/s Geeta
Trading Company in Agra (UP). Find the amount of bill:
Number of services 8 12 10 16
Cost of each service (in Rs.) 680 320 260 420
GST% 5 12 18 12
[Rs.20,607.20]
5. Mr. Malik went on a tour to Goa. He took a room in a hotel for two days at
the rate of Rs. 5000 per day. On the same day, his friend John also joined
him. Hotel provided an extra bed charging Rs. 1000 per day for the bed.
How much GST, at the rate of 28% is charged by the hotel in the bill to Mr.
Malik, for both the days? [Rs.3,360]
6. Ashraf went to see a movie. He wanted to purchase a movie ticket for Rs.
80. As the ticket for Rs. 80 was not available, he purchased a ticket for Rs.
120 of upper class. How much extra GST did he pay for the ticket? (GST for a
ticket below Rs. 100 is 18% and GST did he pay for the ticket above Rs. 100
is 28%). [Rs.19.20]
7. Goods/services are sold Kota (Rajasthan) to Mumbai for Rs. 20,000 and
then from Mumbai to Pune. If the rate of GST is 12% and the profit made at
Mumbai is Rs. 5,000; find the net GST paid at Pune, if the dealer at Pune is
the end user. [Rs.3,000]
8. A is a dealer in Banaras (UP). He supplies goods/services worth Rs. 8,000 to

a dealer B in Agra (UP). Dealer B, in turn, supplies the same goods/services
to dealer C in Patna (Bihar) at a profit of Rs. 1,200. Find the input and
output taxes for the dealer C under GST system; if the rate of GST is 18%
and C does not sell his goods/services further. [Rs.1,656 and 0]
9. A is a dealer in Meerut (UP). He supplies goods/services, worth Rs. 15,000

to a dealer B in Ratlam (M.P). Dealer B, in turn, supplies the same
goods/services to dealer C in Jabalpur (MP) at a profit of Rs. 3,000. If rate of
tax (under GST system) is 18%, find:
a. The cost of goods/services to the dealer C in Jabalpur. [Rs. 21,240]
b. Net tax payable by dealer B. [Rs.540]
10. A dealer X in Hapur (UP) supplies goods/services, worth Rs. 50,000 to some
other dealer Y in the same city. Now the dealer Y supplies the same
goods/services to dealer Z in Calcutta at a profit of Rs. 20,000. Find:
a. Output and input taxes for the dealer Y. [Rs.19,600 and Rs.14000]
b. Net GST payable by dealer Y. [Rs.5,600]
[The rate of GST at each stage is 28%].
11. Consultancy services, worth Rs. 50,000 are transferred from Delhi to
Calcutta at the rate of GST 18% and then from Calcutta to Nainital (with
profit = Rs. 20,000) at the same rate of GST. Find the output tax at:
a. Delhi. [Rs.9,000]
b. Calcutta. [Rs.12,600]
c. Nainital. [0] (If the dealer at Nainital is end user)
12. For a dealer A, the list price of an article is Rs. 9,000, which he sells to
dealer B at some lower price. If the rate of GST is 18% and dealer B paid a
tax, under GST, equal to Rs. 324 to the government, find the amount
(inclusive of GST) paid by dealer B. [Rs.8,496]
13. The marked price of an article is Rs. 6,000. A wholesaler sells it to dealer at 20%
discount. The dealer further sells the article to a customer at a discount of 10%
on the marked price. If the rate of GST at each stage is 18%, find the amount of
tax (under GST) paid by the dealer to the government. [Rs. 108]
14. A is a manufacturer of T.V. sets in Delhi. He manufactures a particular brand

of T.V. set and marks it at Rs. 75,000. He then sells this T.V. set to a
wholesaler B in Punjab at a discount of 30%. The wholesaler B raises the
marked price of the T.V. set brought by 30% and then sells it to dealer C in
Delhi. If the rate of GST = 5%, find tax (under GST) paid by wholesaler B to
the government. [Rs. 2,250]
15. For a trader, marked price of a refrigerator = Rs. 15,680 inclusive of GST at
the rate of 12% on the marked price. Gagan, a customer for this
refrigerator, asks the trader to reduce the marked price of the refrigerator
to such an extend that its reduced price plus GST on it is equal to marked
price of the refrigerator. Find the required reduction. [Rs. 1,500]
PHYSICS REVISION NOTES

01. FORCE 2021 – 22.
(A) MOMENT OF A FORCE AND EQULIBRIUM.
➢ Scope: Elementary introduction of translational and rotational motions;
moment (turning effect) of a force, also called torque and its C.G.S. and
S.I. units; Common examples – Door, steering wheel, bicycle pedal, etc.;
Clockwise and anticlockwise moments; conditions for a body to be in
equilibrium (translational and rotational); Principle of moments and its
verification using a metre rule suspended by two spring balances with
slotted weights hanging from it; simple numerical problems.
➢ Translational and Rotational Motions: A rigid body when acted upon by

a force, can have two kinds of motion.
o Linear or translational motion:
▪ Definition: Linear or translational motion is when a force
acts on a free to move stationary rigid body and the body
starts moving in a straight path in the direction of force.
▪ Example: Pushing a ball which is lying on the floor.
o Rotational motion:
▪ Definition: Rotational motion is the motion when a force
acts on a suitable point on a pivoted body and the body
begins to rotate about its axis, producing a turning effect of
the force.
▪ Example:
• Wheel: Wheel rotates about its center.
• Handle of a door: Door begins to rotate about an axis
passing through the hinges on which the door rests.
➢ Moment (Turning effect) of a Force or Torque:
o Definition: The turning effect of force acting on a body about an
axis is called the moment of force or torque.
o Factors affecting the turning of a body:
▪ The magnitude of the force applied – Directly Proportional.
▪ The perpendicular distance of line of action of the force
from the axis of rotation – Directly Proportional.
o The moment of force/torque is a vector quantity.
o Measurement:
▪ The moment of a force/torque is equal to the product of
magnitude of the applied force and the perpendicular
distance of the line of action of force from its axis of rotation.
▪ Moment of Force = F × perpendicular distance.
▪ Turning effect/torque produced can be maximum, if its
perpendicular distance of the line of action of force is maximum
from its axis of rotation.
o Clockwise and anticlockwise moments:
▪ Definition:
• If turning effect is anticlockwise,
the moment of force is called
anticlockwise moment and is
positive.
• If turning effect is clockwise, the
moment of force is called
clockwise moment and is negative.
o Direction of rotation depends on:
▪ Point of application of force.
▪ The direction of the force.
o Direction of rotation can be changed by:
▪ Changing the point of application of the force.
▪ Changing the direction of force.
o Units of moment of force:
▪ SI unit: Newton × meter.
▪ C.G.S: dyne × cm.
▪ Relation between Newton and Dyne:
1Nm = 105 dyne × 102 cm = 107 dyne.cm
1 kgf × m = 9.8 N m.
1 gf × cm = 980 dyne cm.
o Some examples of turning effect of force:
▪ Open or shut a door:
• A smaller force should be applied at a
larger perpendicular distance from the
hinges.
• Hence the handle is at the free end of the door.
▪ Hand flour grinder: Handle is provided at its rim so as
to rotate it with a small force.
▪ Turning of steering wheel:
• Force is applied tangentially
on the rim of the wheel.
• Greater the diameter
greater is the perpendicular
distance and is easier to move.
▪ Moving of a bicycle:
The toothed wheel is rotated by applying
less force on the foot pedal at a larger
distance from the axle of the wheel.
▪ A spanner: Long handle provides a
large turning effect with a small force.
▪ A jack screw:
• A jack screw used to lift a heavy load such as a vehicle.
• It has a long arm so that a less effort is needed to
rotate it so as to raise or lower the jack.
o Conclusion:
▪ Turning effect on a body depends on magnitude of force
and perpendicular distance of the line of action of the
applied force from axis of rotation.
▪ Larger the perpendicular distance less is the force needed to
turn the body.
▪ Turning is always produced by a pair of forces.
▪ The 2 forces forming the pair are:
• Externally applied force and
• The reaction force produced at the pivot.
➢ Couple and Moment of couple:

o Definition:
▪ Two equal and opposite parallel forces not acting along the
same line, forms a couple.
▪ The moment of couple is equal to the product of either
force and the perpendicular distance between the line of
action of both the forces.
o A couple is always needed to produce rotation in a body.
o Examples of couple:
▪ Open the nut of a car wheel.
▪ Turning of water tap.
▪ Tightening the cap of an ink pot.
▪ Turning the key in the hole of a lock.
▪ Steering wheel.
o Moment of couple:
Moment of force F at A = F × OA [anti clockwise].
Moment of force F at B = F × OB [anti clockwise].
Total moment of couple = F × OA + F × OB.
= F × [OA + OB].
= F × AB.
= F × d [anticlockwise].
= Either force × couple arm
➢ Equilibrium of bodies:
o Definition: Equilibrium is the state of a body, when a number of forces
acting on it produces no change in its state of rest or of motion.
o The equilibrium is of two kinds:
▪ Static equilibrium
▪ Dynamic equilibrium
o Static equilibrium:
▪ Definition: When a body remains in a state of rest under the
influence of number of forces, the body is in static equilibrium.
▪ Examples:
• A body lying on the table: The applied forces are equal and
opposite along the same line, so they balance each other
and hence the body remains at rest – static equilibrium.
• A book lying on the table: The weight of the book acts
vertically downwards and the force of reaction acts
vertically upwards, thus maintains static equilibrium.
• A beam balance: The clockwise moment of force in the
right pan is balanced by the anticlockwise moment of
force in the left pan - thus maintains static equilibrium.
o Dynamic equilibrium:
▪ Definition: Under the influence of the several forces, if a body
remains in the same state of motion, the body is said to be in
dynamic equilibrium.
▪ Examples:
• A rain drop reaches the earth surface with a
constant velocity.
Reason: The downward weight of the falling drop is
balanced by the sum of the upward buoyant and frictional
forces, thus, the net force on the drop is zero, hence it falls
down with a constant velocity.
• An airplane moves at a constant height.
Reason: The upward lift is balanced with its
downward weight.
• A stone tied at the end of a string remains in dynamic
equilibrium when whirled in a circular path with a
uniform speed.
Reason: The tension in the string provides the
centripetal force to bring about circular motion.
• Similarly, the motion of a planet around the sun or
satellite around the planet or electrons around the
nucleus of an atom, all are in dynamic equilibrium.
• Reason: The force of attraction on the moving body
provides the centripetal force required for circular
motion, in each of the cases.
o Conditions for equilibrium:
▪ The resultant of all forces acting on the body should be
equal to zero.
▪ The resultant moment of all the forces acting on the body
about the point of rotation should be zero.
➢ Principle of Moments:
o Definition: According to the principle of moments: If the algebraic
sum of all moments of forces, acting on the body, about an axis of
rotation is zero, then the body is in equilibrium. Thus, Sum of
anticlockwise moments = Sum of clockwise moments.
o A physical/beam balance works on the principle of moments.
o Verification of the principle of moments:
▪ Suspend a meter rule horizontally
from a fixed support by means of
a strong thread. Suspend two
spring balances with some slotted
weights W1 and W2 on them on
either side of the thread. Adjust
the distances of the two spring
balances from the support by keeping one at A and the
other at B in such a way that the scale is horizontal.
▪ Let the weight suspended on the right side, at A be W1 at
distance OA = l1, while the weight suspended on the left
side at B be W2 at a distance OB = l2.
▪ The weight W1 turns the scale clockwise, while the weight
W2 turns the scale anticlockwise.
▪ Therefore: Clockwise moment = W1 × l1 and Anticlockwise
moment = W2 × l2.
▪ When in equilibrium, the clockwise moments = anticlockwise
moments; thus, W1 × l1 = W2 × l2.
▪ This verifies the principle of moments.
➢ Definitions:
1. Anticlockwise moments: If turning effect is anticlockwise, the moment
of force is called anticlockwise moment and is positive.
2. Clockwise moments: If turning effect is clockwise, the moment of force
is called clockwise moment and is negative.
3. Couple: Two equal and opposite parallel forces not acting along the
same line, forms a couple.
4. Dynamic equilibrium: Under the influence of the several forces, if a
body remains in the same state of motion, the body is said to be in
5. Equilibrium of bodies: Equilibrium is the state of a body, when a number
of forces acting on it produces no change in its state of rest or of motion.
6. Linear or translational motion: Linear or translational motion is when a
force acts on a free to move stationary rigid body and the body starts
moving in a straight path in the direction of force.
7. Moment (Turning effect) of a Force or Torque: The turning effect of
force acting on a body about an axis is called the moment of force or
torque.
8. Moment of couple: The moment of couple is equal to the product of
either force and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of
both the forces.
9. Principle of Moments: According to the principle of moments: If the
algebraic sum of all moments of forces, acting on the body, about an axis
of rotation is zero, then the body is in equilibrium. Thus, Sum of
anticlockwise moments = Sum of clockwise moments.
10. Rotational motion: Rotational motion is the motion when a force acts
on a suitable point on a pivoted body and the body begins to rotate
about its axis, producing a turning effect of the force.
11. Static equilibrium: When a body remains in a state of rest under the
influence of number of forces, the body is in static equilibrium.
➢ Factor:
1. Factors affecting the turning of a body:
a. The magnitude of the force applied – Directly Proportional.
b. The perpendicular distance of line of action of the force from the
axis of rotation – Directly Proportional.
EXERCISE – 1 (A)
BOARD REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State the condition when on applying a force, a body has:

a. Translational motion.
When the body is free to move.
b. Rotational motion.
When the body is pivoted at a point.
2. Define moment of force and state its S.I. unit.
The turning effect of force acting on a body about an axis is
called the moment force or torque. S.I. unit: Newton × meter
3. State whether the moment of force is a scalar or vector quantity?
Vector quantity
4. State two factors affecting the turning effect of a force.
The 2 factors are:
b. The perpendicular distance of line of action of the force from
the axis of rotation – Directly Proportional.
5.
a. When does a body rotate?
When the force is applied at a point of the body for which
the perpendicular distance of line of action of force from
the axis of rotation is maximum so that the given force
may produce the maximum torque needed to turn the
body.
b. State one way to change the direction of rotation of the body.
The direction of rotation of a body changes only if the sum
of clockwise and anticlockwise moments is unequal. Thus,
by changing the direction of application of force, we can
change the direction of rotation.
c. Give a suitable example to explain your answer.
Example: Hand flour grinder: Handle is provided at its rim
so as to rotate it with a small force.
6. Write the expression for the moment of force about a given axis.
Moment of force about the point O = Force × Perpendicular
distance of the line of action
of force from the point O
=F × OP
7.
a. What do you understand by the clockwise and anticlockwise
moment of force?
If turning effect is anticlockwise, the moment of force is
called anticlockwise moment and is positive.
If turning effect is clockwise, the moment of force is called
clockwise moment and is negative.
b. When is it taken positive? If the turning effect on the body
is anticlockwise, it is taken positive.
8. State one way to reduce the moment of a given force about a
given axis of rotation.
The moment of a given force about an axis of rotation can be
reduced by reducing the perpendicular distance.
9. State one way to obtain a greater moment of a force about a
given axis of rotation.
To obtain a greater moment of force on a body, the force is applied
at a point on the body for which the perpendicular distance of line
of action of the force from the axis of rotation is maximum so that
the given force may provide the maximum torque to turn the body.
10. Why is it easier to open a door by applying the force at the free end of it?
A smaller force at a larger perpendicular distance produces the same
turning effect as a larger force at a smaller perpendicular distance.
This is why it is easier to open the door if the handle is provided near
the end of the door.
11. The stone of a hand flour grinder is provided with a handle near
its rim. Give a reason.
The upper circular stone of a hand flour grinder is provided with a
handle near its rim so as to increase its perpendicular distance to a
maximum, thus it can be rotated easily about its centre by a small
force applied at the handle.
12. It is easier to turn the steering wheel of a large diameter than that
of a small diameter. Give reason.
For turning a steering wheel, a force is applied tangentially on
the rim of the wheel. In a wheel of larger diameter, the
perpendicular distance is larger than in a wheel of small
diameter thereby a smaller force is required to turn a wheel of
large diameter, thus making it easier to operate.
13. A spanner (or wrench) has a long handle. Why?
A spanner used to tighten or loosen a nut, has a long handle so as to
increase its perpendicular distance and produce larger turning
moment with lesser force.
14. A jack screw is provided with a long arm. Explain why?
A jack screw used to lift a heavy load such as a vehicle, has a long
arm so that a less effort is needed to rotate it so as to raise or
lower the jack.
15. A, B and C are the three forces each of magnitude 4 N acting in the
plane of paper as shown in the figure.
Point O lies in the same plane.
Moment of force about A = 4 × 0.9 = 3.6Nm.
Moment of force about B = 4 × 0.8 = 3.2Nm.
Moment of force about C = 4 × 0.6 = 2.4Nm.
a. Which force has the least moment about O? Give reason.
C, because force C is nearest to O.
b. Which force has the greatest moment about O? Give reason.
A, because force A is farthest from O.
c. Name the forces producing (a) clockwise and (b) anticlockwise
moments.
(a) Clockwise: A and B, (b) Anticlockwise: C
d. What is the resultant torque about the point O?
Clockwise moment of force = A + B
= 3.6 + 3.2
= 6.8 N m.
Anticlockwise moment of force = C = 2.4 Nm.
The resultant moment of force = 6.8 – 2.4
= 4.4 N m (Clockwise).
16. The adjacent diagram shows a heavy roller, with its axle at O,
which is to be raised on a pavement XY. If there is friction between
the roller and pavement, show by an arrow on the diagram the
point of application and the direction of force to be applied. If
pivoted at O, now will it go up?
17. A body is acted upon by two forces each of magnitude F, but in

opposite directions. State the effect of the forces if:
a. Both forces act at the same point of the body.
Resultant force = 0, moment of forces = 0, no motion
b. The two forces act at two different points of the body at a
separation r.
Resultant force = 0, moment of forces = Fr
The forces tend to rotate the body about the mid-point
between the two forces.
18. Draw a neat labeled diagram to show the direction of two forces
acting on a body to produce rotation in it.
Also mark the point O about which the
rotation takes place.
Diagram ---->
19.
a. What do you understand by the term couple?
Two equal and opposite parallel forces not acting along
the same line, forms a couple.
b. State its effect.
Effect: A couple always produces rotation.
c. Give two examples in our daily life where couple is applied to
turn a body.
Open the nut of a car wheel, turning of water tap,
tightening the cap of an ink pot, turning the key in the hole
of a lock, steering wheel.
20. Define moment of couple. Write its S.I. unit.
The moment of couple is equal to the product of either forces
and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of
both the forces. S.I unit is Nm.
21. Prove that: Moment of couple = Force × Couple arm.
Moment of force F at the end A = F × OA (anticlockwise).

Moment of force F at the end B = F × OB (anticlockwise).
Total moment of couple = F × OA + F × OB.
= F × (OA + OB).
= F × AB.
= F × d (anticlockwise).
= Either force × couple arm
22. What do you mean by equilibrium of a body?
Equilibrium is the state of a body, when a number of forces
acting on it produces no change in its state of rest or of motion.
23. State the condition when a body is in (a) static, (b) dynamic
equilibrium. Give one example each of static and dynamic
equilibrium.
a. When a body remains in a state of rest under the influence
of number of forces, the body is in static equilibrium.
Example: A book lying on the table: The weight of the book
acts vertically downwards and the force of reaction acts
vertically upwards, thus maintains static equilibrium.
b. Under the influence of the several forces, if a body remains
in the same state of motion, the body is said to be in
Example: A rain drop reaches the earth surface with a
constant velocity. The downward weight of the falling
drop is balanced by the sum of the upward buoyant and
frictional forces, thus, the net force on the drop is zero,
hence it falls down with a constant velocity.
24. State two conditions for a body, acted upon by several forces, to
be in equilibrium.
The 2 conditions are:
a. The resultant of all forces acting on the body should be
equal to zero.
b. The resultant moment of all the forces acting on the body
about the point of rotation should be zero.
25. State the principle of moments. Name one device based on it.
According to the principle of moments: If the algebraic sum of all
moments of forces, acting on the body, about an axis of rotation is
zero, then the body is in equilibrium. Thus, Sum of anticlockwise
moments = Sum of clockwise moments.
Device: Beam balance.
26. Describe a simple experiment to verify the principle of moments,
if you are supplied with a metre rule, a fulcrum and two springs
with slotted weights.
Suspend a meter rule horizontally from a fixed support by means
of a strong thread as shown in the figure given below. Now
suspend two spring balances with some slotted weights W 1 and
W2 on them on either side of the thread. The scale may tilt to one
side. Now adjust the distances of the two spring balances from
the support by keeping one at A and the other at B in such a way
that the scale again becomes horizontal.
Let the weight suspended on the right side of the thread from the
spring balance at A be W1 at distance OA = l1, while the weight
suspended on the left side of the thread from the spring balance at B
be W2 at distance OB = l2.
The weight tends to turn the scale clockwise, while the weight
W2 tend to turn the scale anticlockwise.
Clockwise moment = W1 × l1.

Anticlockwise moment = W2 × l2.
In equilibrium, when the scale is horizontal, it is found that
Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments.
i.e., W1 × l1 = W2 × l2.
This verifies the principle of moments.
27. Complete the following sentences:
a. The S.I. unit of moment of force is …………. . N m
b. In equilibrium, algebraic sum of moments of all forces about
the point of rotation is ………….. . zero
c. In a beam balance when the beam is balanced in a
horizontal position, it is in …………. equilibrium. static
d. The moon revolving around the earth is in ………… equilibrium.
dynamic
28. *State two factors on which moment of force about a point depends.
The 2 factors are:
b. The perpendicular distance of line of action of the force
from the axis of rotation – Directly Proportional.
29. MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE
a. The moment of a force about a given axis depends:
i. Only on the magnitude of force.
ii. Only on the perpendicular distance of force from the axis.
iii. Neither on the force nor on the perpendicular
distance of force from the axis.
iv. Both, on the force and its perpendicular distance from
the axis.
(Ans: (iv) Both, on the force and its perpendicular
distance from the axis)
b. A body is acted upon by two unequal forces in opposite
directions, but not in same line. The effect is that:
i. The body will only have rotational motion.
ii. The body will only have translational motion.
iii. The body will have neither the rotational motion nor
the translational motion.
iv. The body will have rotational as well as translational motion.
(Ans: (iv) The body will have rotational as well as
translational motion.)
NUMERICALS 1 [A] 21 – 22.
FORMULAE:
1. F = ma
2. F = mg
3. Wt = mg
4. Moment of force = F × Perpendicular distance
5. Moment of couple = F × diameter
6. Sum of anticlockwise moments = Sum of clockwise moments
1. The moment of a force of 10 N about a fixed point O is 5 N m. Calculate

the distance of the point O from the line of action of the force. [0.5 m]
2. A nut is opened by a wrench of length 10 cm. If the least force required

is 5.0 N, find the moment of force needed to turn the nut. [0.5 N m]
3. A wheel of diameter 2 m is shown in diagram

with axle at O. A force F = 2 N is applied at B in
the direction shown in diagram. Calculate the
moment of force about.
a. The centre O, and [2 N m clockwise]
b. The point A. [4 N m clockwise]
4. The diagram shows two forces F1 = 5 N and F2 = 3 N acting at points A

and B of a rod pivoted at a point O, such that OA = 2 m and OB = 4 m.
Calculate:
a. Moment of force F1 about O. [10 N m anticlockwise]
b. Moment of force F2 about O. [12 N m clockwise]
c. Total moment of the two forces about O. [2 N m clockwise]
5. Two forces each of magnitude 10 N
act vertically upwards and downwards
respectively at the two ends A and B of
a uniform rod of length 4 m which
is pivoted at its mid-point O as shown in diagram. Determine the
magnitude of the resultant moment of forces about the pivot O.
[40 N m clockwise]
6. Diagram shows two forces each of magnitude 10 N

acting at points A and B at a separation of 50 cm,
in opposite directions. Calculate the resultant
moment of the two forces about the point.
a. A [5 N m clockwise]
b. B and [5 N m clockwise]
c. O, situated exactly at the middle of the two forces. [5 N m clockwise]
7. A steering wheel of diameter 0.5 m is rotated anticlockwise by

applying two forces each of magnitude 5 N. Draw a diagram to show
the application of forces and calculate the moment of the force
applied. [2.5 N m anticlockwise]
8. A uniform metre rule is pivoted at its mid-point. A weight of 50 gf is

suspended at one end of it. Where should a weight of 100 gf be suspended
to keep the rule horizontal? [At distance 25 cm from the other end]
9. A uniform metre rule balances horizontally on a knife edge placed at

the 58 cm mark when a weight of 20 gf is suspended from one end.
a. Draw a diagram of the arrangement. [Draw diagram]
b. What is the weight of the rule? [105 gf]
10. The diagram below shows a uniform bar supported at the middle point
O. A weight of 40 gf is placed at a distance 40 cm to the left of the
point O. How can you balance the bar with a weight of 80 gf? [20 cm]
11. Diagram shows a uniform meter rule placed on a fulcrum at its mid-
point O and having a weight 40 gf at the 10 cm mark and a weight of
20 gf at the 90 cm mark.
a. Is the metre rule in equilibrium? If not, how will the rule turn?
[No, the rule will turn anticlockwise]
b. How can the rule be brought in equilibrium by using an
additional weight of 40 gf? [70 cm]
12. When a boy weighing 20 kgf sits at one end of a 4 m long see-saw, it gets
depressed at this end. How can it be brought to the horizontal position by
a man weighing 40 kgf.
[If the man sits at a distance 1 m from the centre on the side
opposite to the boy]
13. A physical balance has its arms of length 60 cm and 40 cm. What
weight kept on the pan of longer arm will balance an object of weight
100 gf kept on other pan? [66.67 gf]
14. The diagram shows a uniform metre rule weighing 100 gf, pivoted at
its centre O. Two weights 150 gf and 250 gf hang from the points A
and B respectively of the metre rule such that OA = 40 cm and OB =
20 cm shown. Calculate:
a. The total anticlockwise moment about O. [6000 gf cm]

b. The total clockwise moment about O. [5000 gf cm]
c. The difference of anticlockwise and clockwise moments. [1000 gf cm]
d. The distance from O where a 100 gf weight should be placed to
balance the metre rule. [10 cm]
15. A uniform metre rule of weight 10 gf is pivoted at its 0 mark.
a. What moment of force depresses the rule? [500 gf cm]
b. How can it be made horizontal by applying a least force?
[By applying a force 5 gf upwards at the 100 cm mark]
16. A uniform half metre rule can be balanced at the 29.0 cm mark when
a mass 20 g is hung from its one end.
a. Draw a diagram of the arrangement. [Draw diagram]
b. Find the mass of the half metre rule. [105g]
c. In which direction would the balancing point shift if 20 g mass is
shifted inside from its one end? [towards 25 cm mark]
17. A uniform metre rule of mass 100 g is balanced on a fulcrum at mark

40 cm by suspending an unknown mass m at the mark 20 cm.
a. Find the value of m. [50 g]
b. To which side the rule will tilt if the mass m is moved to the
mark 10 cm? [On the side of mass ‘m’]
c. What is the resultant moment now? [500 gf cm]
d. How can it be balanced by another mass of 50 g? [50 cm]
18. In the given figure, a uniform bar of length 𝑙 m is supported at its ends
and loaded by a weight W kgf at its middle. In equilibrium, find the
𝒘 𝒘
reactions R1 and R2 at the ends. [R1 = 𝟐 kgf; R2 = 𝟐 kgf]

01. FORCE 2021 – 22.
(B). CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
➢ Scope: Centre of gravity (qualitative only) with example of some regular

bodies and irregular lamina.
➢ Centre of gravity:
o Definition: Centre of gravity of a body is the point about which the
algebraic sum of moments of weights of all the particles
constituting the body is equal to zero.
o The entire weight of the body can be considered to act at this point,
irrespective of how the body is placed.
o Factor on which C.G. depends: The position of centre of gravity of
a body of a given mass depends on the shape of the body – i.e. the
distribution of mass of all the particles contained in it.
o Note:
▪ C. G. changes if the body is deformed.
▪ According to the concept of C.G. - A body of weight W is
considered as a point particle of weight W at its centre of gravity.
▪ It is not necessary that the C.G. of a body must always be
within the material of the body.
o Centre of gravity of some regular objects:
OBJECT POSITION OF Diagram
CENTRE OF
GRAVITY
1) Rod Mid-point of rod.
2) Circular Geometric centre.

disc.
3) Solid or Geometric centre
hollow of the sphere.
sphere.
4) Cylinder. Mid-point on the

axis of cylinder.
5) Solid cone. At a height h/4
from the base, on
its axis.
(h = height of the
cone).
6) Hollow At a height h/3
cone. from the base on
its axis.
7) Circular Centre of ring.

ring.
8) Triangular The point of

lamina. intersection of the
medians.
9)Parallelogram The point of

or rectangular intersection of the
lamina or diagonals.
square.
➢ Centre of gravity and the balance point:
o When a body is freely suspended from a point, it comes to rest,
such that its centre of gravity lies vertically below the point of
suspension.
o Any solid object can be balanced by supporting it at its C.G. as, the
algebraic sum of moments of all the weights of all the particles
about its axis of rotation becomes zero.
o Example:
▪ A uniform meter rule (100cm) has its centre of gravity at the
50 cm mark, hence it can be balanced on a knife edge by
the knife exactly below the 50 cm mark.
Reason: The algebraic sum of moments of the weights of all
particles of ruler about the knife edge is zero.
▪ A square thin sheet/lamina has its C.G at the point where its
diagonals meet, hence it can be balanced on the tip of nail
exactly below the point of intersection of the diagonals.
Reason: The algebraic sum of moments of the weights of all
particles of the lamina about the tip of the nail is zero.
➢ Determination of centre of gravity of an irregular lamina by the

method of balance using a plumb line.
o Let ‘A’ be an irregular lamina for which the
centre of gravity is to be determined.
o Make three holes at a, b and c, near the edge
of the lamina.
o Suspend the lamina using a pin/nail clamped
on a stand.
o Hold a plumb line from the hole ‘a’ on the lamina.
o When lamina comes to rest, draw a straight line along the plumb line.
o Repeat this experiment by suspending the lamina through
the remaining holes ‘b’ and ‘c’.
o Obtain 3 straight lines ‘ad’, ‘be’ and ‘cf’ respectively.
o It will be observed that all 3 lines intersect each other at a
common point ‘G’ which is the position of centre of gravity of this
lamina.
➢ Definition:
1. Centre of gravity: Centre of gravity of a body is the point about which
the algebraic sum of moments of weights of all the particles
constituting the body is equal to zero.
➢ Factor:
1. Factor on which C.G. depends: The position of centre of gravity of a
body of a given mass depends on the shape of the body – i.e. the
distribution of mass of all the particles contained in it.
EXERCISE – 1 (B)
1. Define the term ‘centre of gravity of a body’.

Centre of gravity of a body is the point about which the algebraic
sum of moments of weights of all the particles constituting the
body is equal to zero.
2. Can centre of gravity of a body be situated outside its material?
Give an example. Yes; example: C.G. of a ring.
3. State a factor on which the position of the centre of gravity of a
body depends. Explain your answer with an example.
The position of centre of gravity of a body of a given mass depends on
the shape of the body – i.e. the distribution of mass of all the particles
contained in it.
Example: The centre of gravity of a uniform wire is at its mid –
point, but if it is bent into a circle, its C.G. will then be at the
centre of the circle.
4. What is the position of centre of gravity of a:
a. Rectangular lamina: At the point of intersection of its diagonals.
b. Cylinder: At the midpoint on the axis of cylinder.
5. At which point is the centre of gravity situated in:
a. A triangular lamina: At the point of intersection of its medians.
b. A circular lamina: At the centre of circular lamina.
6. Where is the centre of gravity of a uniform ring situated?
At the centre of ring.
7. A square card board is suspended by passing a pin
through a narrow hole at its one corner. Draw a
diagram to show its rest position. In the diagram,
mark the point of suspension by the letter S and
the centre of gravity by the letter G.
Diagram ------------->
8. Explain how you will determine experimentally the position of the
centre of gravity for a triangular lamina (or a triangular piece of
card board).
a. Let ‘A’ be a triangular lamina in the
figure given below for which the centre
of gravity is to be determined.
b. Make three fine holes at a, b and c,
near the edge of the lamina.
c. For suspension, use a pin or a nail
clamped horizontally on a retort stand.
d. Now suspend the given lamina along with a plumb line
from the hole ‘a’.
e. Check that the lamina is free to oscillate on the nail about
the point of suspension.
f. When lamina has come to rest, draw a straight line ‘ad’
along the plumb line.
g. Repeat the experiment by suspending the lamina through
the hole ‘b’ and then through the hole ‘c’ for which we
get straight lines ‘be’ and ‘cf’ respectively. It is noticed
that the lines ‘ad’, ‘be’ and ‘cf’ intersect each other at a
common point G which is the position of centre of gravity
of lamina.
9. State whether the following statements are true or false:
a. ‘The position of centre of gravity of a body remains
unchanged even when the body is deformed. False.
b. ‘The centre of gravity of a freely suspended body always lies
vertically below the point of suspension. True.
10. A uniform flat circular rim is balanced on a sharp

vertical nail by supporting it at a point A, as
shown in the figure. Mark the position of centre
of gravity of the rim in the diagram by the letter G.
The centre of gravity is at the centre of
the circle, below point A.
11. The figure below shows three pieces of cardboard of uniform

thickness cut into three different shapes. On each diagram draw
two lines to indicate the position of the center of gravity G.
In the triangle you can draw any two lines.

a. The centre of gravity of a uniform ball is:
i. At its geometrical centre.
ii. At its bottom.
iii. At its topmost point.
iv. At any point on its surface.
(Ans: (i) At its geometrical centre)
b. The centre of gravity of a hollow cone of height h is at
distance x from its vertex where the value of x is:
i. h/3
ii. h/4
iii. 2h/3
iv. 3h/4
(Ans: (iii) 2h/3)
13. No Numerical.

01. FORCE 2021 – 22.
(C) UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION.
➢ Scope: As an example of constant speed, though acceleration (force) is

present. Differences between centrifugal and centripetal force.
➢ Uniform circular motion:

o Definition: When a particle moves in a circular path with a constant
speed, its motion is said to be the uniform circular motion.
o Characteristics:
▪ The particle travels equal distances along the circular path
in equal interval of time, thus its speed is uniform.
▪ The direction of motion continuously changes at each point
of circular path so the velocity is variable or not uniform.
▪ Thus its motion is said to be accelerated.
o Direction of velocity at any instant in a circular path:
▪ In circular motion speed is uniform.
▪ In circular motion velocity is variable.
▪ At any point direction of motion is
along the tangent drawn at that
point on the circular path.
▪ At point A – motion is towards north.
▪ At point B – motion is towards west.
▪ At point C – motion is towards south.
▪ At point D – motion is towards east.
▪ Thus, the velocity of a particle in a circular motion is
variable due to change in direction.
▪ Hence the circular motion is accelerated even though the
speed of particle is uniform.
o Difference between uniform circular motion and uniform linear
motion:
▪ In the uniform linear motion – The velocity is constant and
acceleration is zero, thus the motion is an un-accelerated motion.
▪ In a uniform circular motion – The velocity is variable (although
speed is uniform), thus the motion is accelerated motion.
➢ Centripetal and Centrifugal forces:
o Centripetal force:
▪ Definition: Centripetal force is the force acting on a body
moving in a circular path, in a direction which is always
towards the centre of the circular path.
▪ The motion in a circular path is possible only under the
action of centripetal force.
▪ This force is always directed towards the centre of circle at
each point on its path.
▪ This force is variable because its direction changes at each
point of circular path.
▪ This force is a real force.
▪ Examples:
• In an atom, an electron moves around the nucleus in
a circular path for which the centripetal force is
obtained from the electric force of attraction on the
electron by the nucleus.
• A planet moves around the sun in a circular path for
which the centripetal force is obtained from the
gravitational force of attraction on the planet by the sun.
• The moon moves around the earth in a circular path for
which the centripetal force is obtained from the
gravitational force of attraction on the moon by the earth.
• A stone tied to the string and whirled, moves in a circular
path for which the centripetal force is obtained from the
tension on the string holding the stone at the other end.
If this force is not present, the stone will not turn to move
in the circular path, but will go away in a straight line.
o Centrifugal force:
▪ Definition: Force acting away from the centre of the circular
path is called centrifugal force.
▪ The centrifugal force away from the centre is not a real
force; it is fictitious or virtual force.
▪ It is not the force of reaction of centripetal force.
▪ Its magnitude is same as that of centripetal force.
➢ Experiment showing centripetal and centrifugal force:
o A ball is tied at one end of a string and its other end is tied at the
centre of a merry – go – round.
o When the platform of merry-go-round is stationary the ball is seen
stationary and the string is loose.
o When the platform of merry-go-round starts rotating, and the
string becomes tight due to tension in it.
o For both the person – M and A, the observations are different.
o Explanation:
▪ Person standing at M outside the merry-go-round finds the
ball is moving in circular path along the dotted line.
• Reason: The tension in the string provides the
centripetal force needed for a circular motion.
▪ Person standing at A in the merry-go-round finds the ball is
stationary in front of him.
• Reason:
o There are 2 forces acting on the ball -
▪ Tension in the string towards the centre
of the merry-go-round and
▪ The centrifugal force away from the centre.
o The 2 forces being equal and opposite, the net
force on the ball is zero.
o Hence it appears stationary at P to the person at A.
o Now if the string is cut when ball is in position P, the force of
tension ceases to act.
o For both the person at M and A, again the observations are different.
o Explanation:
▪ Person standing at M outside the merry-go-round sees the
ball is moving in a straight line along the path PT.
• Reason:
o The ball has no tension force to guide it towards
the centre.
o Thus, the ball moves tangential at P in a circular path.
▪ Person at A finds that the ball is always in front of him
moving radially, but away from him.
• Reason:
o When A, moving in the merry-go-round, comes
to A’, he finds the ball in front of him at P’.
o Similarly, for him the ball is at P’’, P’’’ when he
is at A’’, A’’’ respectively.
o For A – the force due to tension has ceased to exist.
o Thus he feels that the ball is moving because of
centrifugal force acting on it along the radius in
direction away from the center.
o Conclusion:
▪ Centrifugal force is not the real force.
▪ The only force involved is the force of tension acting towards the
centre.
▪ Centrifugal force is not the reaction force of centripetal
force, though it is same in magnitude.
➢ Definitions:
1. Centrifugal force: Force acting away from the centre of the circular
path is called centrifugal force.
2. Centripetal force: Centripetal force is the force acting on a body
moving in a circular path, in a direction which is always towards the
centre of the circular path.
3. Uniform circular motion: When a particle moves in a circular path
with a constant speed, its motion is said to be the uniform circular
motion.
➢ Differences:
1. Uniform linear motion and uniform circular motion:
Uniform linear motion Uniform circular motion
The velocity is constant. The velocity is variable.
Acceleration is zero. Acceleration is variable.
It is an un accelerated motion. It is an accelerated motion.
2. Centripetal force and centrifugal force:
Centripetal Force Centrifugal Force
Acts towards the centre. Acts away from the centre.
Real force. Fictitious force.
EXERCISE – 1 (C)
1. Explain the meaning of uniform circular motion. Explain why is such

motion said to be accelerated? * Give one example of such motion.
When a particle moves in a circular path with a constant speed,
its motion is said to be the uniform circular motion.
Direction of velocity at any instant in circular path:
The particle travels anticlockwise in each
quarter of circle AB, BC, CD and DA in same
interval of time t.
Thus, the speed of particle is constant
(or uniform), but the direction of motion of the particle is different
(along the tangent) at any point of the circular path.
At the point A, the direction of motion is towards north; at the
point B, the direction is towards west; at the point C, the
direction is towards south and at the point D, its direction is
towards east. Thus, the velocity of particle in circular motion is
variable or the circular motion is accelerated even though the
speed of particle is uniform.
Example: Take a small piece of stone. Tie it at one end of a thread
and move it in a horizontal circular path by holding the other end
of the thread.
2. Draw a neat labelled diagram for a particle
moving in a circular path with a constant
speed. In your diagram show the direction
of velocity at any instant.
Diagram -------------------->
3. Is it possible to have an accelerated motion with a constant
speed? Name such type of motion?
Yes, uniform circular motion.
4. Give an example of motion in which speed remains uniform, but the
velocity changes.
A particle moving with a constant speed in a circular path, its uniform
circular motion is an example of uniform speed and variable velocity.
5.
a. A uniform circular motion is an accelerated motion. Explain
it. State whether the acceleration is uniform or variable?
When a particle moves in a circular path with a constant
speed, its motion is said to be the uniform circular motion.
In such a motion, the particle travels equal distances along
the circular path in equal intervals of time, so the speed of
the particle is uniform.
But direction of motion of the particle changes at each
point of the circular path.
Due to continuous change in direction of motion, the velocity of
particle is not uniform (or velocity is variable) i.e., the motion is
accelerated.
b. Name the force responsible to cause this
acceleration. Centripetal force
c. What is the direction of force at any instant?
Towards the centre.
d. Draw diagram in support of your answer?
Diagram -------------------------------------------->
6. Differentiate between a uniform linear motion and a uniform
circular motion.
Uniform linear motion Uniform circular motion
The velocity is constant. The velocity is variable.
Acceleration is zero. Acceleration is variable.
It is an un accelerated motion. It is an accelerated motion.
7. Name the force required for circular motion. State its direction.
Centripetal force.
This force is directed towards the centre of the circle at each
point of its path.
8. What is a centripetal force?
Centripetal force is the force acting on a body moving in a circular
path, in a direction which is always towards the centre of the circular
path.
9. Explain the motion of a planet around the sun in a circular path.
A planet moves around the sun in a circular path for which the
gravitational force of attraction on the planet by the sun provides
necessary centripetal force.
10.
a. How does a centripetal force differ from a centrifugal force with
reference to the direction in which they act?
They act in opposite directions.
b. Is centrifugal force the force of reaction of centripetal force? No
c. Compare the magnitudes of centripetal and centrifugal force. 1:1
11. Is centrifugal force a real force? No
12. A small pebble tied at one end of a string is placed near the periphery
of a circular disc, at the centre of which the other end of the string is
tied a peg. The disc is rotating about an axis passing through its centre.
a. What will be your observation when you are standing
outside the disc? Explain.
Person standing outside the disc finds the pebble moving
in circular path along the circumference of the disc.
Explanation: Person standing outside sees the pebble moving in
circular path because the tension in the string provides the
centripetal force needed for circular motion acting towards the
center.
b. What will be your observation when you are standing at the
centre of the disc. Explain.
Person standing inside at the centre of the disc finds the
pebble is stationary in front of him.
Explanation: For the person standing inside there are 2 forces
acting on the pebble which balances the tension in the string:
1. Centripetal force is directed towards the centre
of the disc and
2. The centrifugal force away from the centre.
The 2 force being equal and opposite the net force is zero,
thus for him the pebble is stationary in front of him.
13. A piece of stone tied at the end of a thread is whirled in a
horizontal circle with uniform speed by hand. Answer the
following questions:
a. Is the velocity of stone uniform or variable?
Variable.
b. Is the acceleration of stone uniform or variable?
Variable.
c. What is the direction of acceleration of stone at any instant?
Towards the centre of the circular path.
d. Which force provides the centripetal force required for circular
motion?
Tension in the string.
e. Name the force and its direction which acts on the hand.
The reaction of tension away from the centre of the
circular path.
14. State two differences between the centripetal and centrifugal force.
Centripetal Force Centrifugal Force
Acts towards the centre. Acts away from the centre.
Real force. Fictitious force.
15. State whether the following statements are true or false by writing T/F
against them.
a. Earth moves around sun with a uniform velocity. F
b. The motion of moon around earth in a circular path is an
accelerated motion. T
c. A uniform linear motion is unaccelerated, while a uniform
circular motion is an accelerated motion. T
d. In a uniform circular motion, the speed continuously
changes because the direction of the motion changes. F
e. A boy experiences a centrifugal force on his hand when he
rotates a piece of stone tied at one end of a string, holding the
other end in the hand. F

a. Which of the following quantity remains constant in a
uniform circular motion:
i. Velocity
ii. Speed
iii. Acceleration
iv. Both velocity and speed.
(Ans: (ii) Speed)
b. The centrifugal force is:
i. A real force.
ii. The force of reaction of centripetal force.
iii. A fictitious force.
iv. Directed towards the centre of circular path.
(Ans: (iii) A fictitious force)
ADDITIONAL BOARD QUESTIONS
1. A piece of stone tied at the end of a thread is whirled in a

horizontal circle with the help Name the force, which provides the
centripetal force.
The force that provides the centripetal force is the Force of
tension in the thread.
2. No Numerical.
CHEMISTRY REVISION NOTES

3. ANALYTICAL AND PRACTICAL
CHEMISTRY. 2021 – 2022.
➢ Scope:
o Action of ammonium hydroxide & sodium hydroxide on soluble salt
solutions and formation of ppt. for identification of Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn &
Pb.
o Action of alkalis [NaOH, KOH] on amphoteric metals, their oxides &
hydroxides.
o Identification of gases.
o Action of heat on oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, bicarbonates,
sulphites, sulphates, nitrates.
o Apply the flame test to identify the metal.
o Action of dilute acids on salts like carbonates, sulphites, sulphates,
sulphides, nitrates.
➢ Effect on Indicators:
o Acids:
Indicator Original Colour Final Colour
Moist litmus Blue Red
Methyl orange Orange Red
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless
Phenolphthalein Pink Colourless
(alkaline)
o Bases:
Indicator Original Colour Final Colour
Litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange Orange Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
Phenolphthalein Pink Pink
(alkaline)
➢ Action of heat:
➢ Tests for cations:
➢ Test for anions:
Anion Tests Inference
Carbonate Add any dilute acid and heat. Gives out colourless, odorless gas CO2 which
[CO32–] turns lime water milky and has no effect on
KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7 solution.
Add barium chloride or barium Forms a white ppt. of barium carbonate which
nitrate solution. is soluble in dil. HCl.
Sulphite Add any dilute acid and heat. Gives out a colourless gas with suffocating
[SO32–] odour SO2, which turns lime water milky,
acidified KMnO4 from pink to colourless &
acidified K2Cr2O7 from orange to clear green.
Add a solution of barium chloride or Forms a white ppt. of Barium Sulphite, which is
barium nitrate. soluble in dil. HCl.
Sulphate Add a solution of barium chloride or Forms a white ppt. of Barium Sulphate, which is
[SO42–] barium nitrate. insoluble in dil. HCl.
Sulphide Add dilute acid & heat. Gives out a colorless gas with rotten egg odour
[S2–] H2S, which turns:
moist lead acetate paper silvery black, acidified
KMnO4 pink to colorless & acidified K2Cr2O7
from orange to turbid green [yellow particles of
– sulphur seen].
Chloride Add conc. H2SO4 & heat. Gives out a colorless gas HCl, which gives:
[Cl1–] Dense white fumes of NH4Cl with a glass rod
dipped in ammonia.
Add MnO2 and conc. H2SO4 and heat. Gives a greenish yellow gas, with a pungent
odour Cl2, which turns moist starch iodide
paper blue black.
Add a solution of AgNO3. It forms a white ppt. of AgCl, which is soluble in
NH4OH and insoluble in dil. HNO3.
Nitrate Add conc. H2SO4 & copper turnings Gives reddish brown fumes of NO2, violet
[NO31–] and heat. vapours of iodine and turns potassium iodide
paper brown.
Salt + acidified ferrous sulphate soln. Brown ring test: Brown ring is formed at the
junction of the two liquids.
➢ Tests for identification of gases:
Gases Color, odour, litmus Tests
Water vapour [H2O] Colourless, Odorless, • Turns white anhydrous copper sulphate to blue.
Neutral – no effect on litmus • Turns dry blue cobalt chloride paper to pink.
Hydrogen [H2] Colourless, Odorless, • Puts off a burning splinter with a pop sound.
Neutral - no effect on litmus • Hydrogen burns with a pale blue flame.
Oxygen [O2] Colourless, Odorless, • Rekindles a glowing splinter.
Neutral - no effect on litmus • Colourless alkaline pyrogallol solution turns brown.
Carbon dioxide [CO2] Colourless, Odorless, • Puts off the burning splinter.
Acidic - Moist blue litmus turns • Turns lime water (Ca(OH)2) milky (CaCO3) and has no effect on
red. acidified KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7 soln.
• The milkiness of lime water disappears on passage of excess
carbon dioxide due to formation of soluble calcium bicarbonate.
• Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
• CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2
Sulphur dioxide [SO2] Colourless, Suffocating odour, • Puts off the burning splinter.
Acidic - Moist blue litmus turns • Turns lime water (Ca(OH)2) milky (CaCO3).
red. • Turns acidified KMnO4 from pink to colourless and
• Turns acidified K2Cr2O7 solution from orange to green.
• The milkiness of lime water disappears on passage of excess
sulphur dioxide due to formation of soluble calcium bisulphite.
• Ca(OH)2 + SO2 → CaSO3 + H2O
• CaSO3 + H2O + SO2 → Ca(HSO3)2
Chlorine [Cl2] Greenish Yellow, Pungent odour, • Turns moist starch iodide paper blue black.
Acidic - Moist blue litmus turns • Chlorine in water forms 2 acids: hydrochloric and hypochlorous
red and then gets bleached. acid. Hypochlorous acid releases nascent oxygen which
bleaches colouring matter.
• Cl2 + H2O → HCl + HOCl;
• HOCl → + [O] [nascent]
• Colouring matter + [O] → Bleached product.
Hydrogen chloride Colourless, • Gives dense white fumes of NH4Cl with glass rod dipped in NH3.
gas [HCl] Pungent odour, • Forms a white precipitate of AgCl, with AgNO3 solution.
Acidic - Moist blue litmus turns • This AgCl is soluble in NH4OH but insoluble in dil. HNO3
red. • AgCl2 + 2NH4OH → Ag(NH3)2Cl [soluble – diamine silver chloride]
+ 2H2O
Hydrogen sulphide Colourless, • Turns acidified KMnO4 from pink to turbid colourless.
[H2S] Rotten egg odour, • Turns moist lead acetate paper silvery black.
Acidic - Moist blue litmus turns • Turns acidified K2Cr2O7 solution from orange to turbid green.
red. [It does not form clear colourless or clear green because it
reacts to form sulphur and yellow particles of sulphur imparts
turbidity.]
Nitrogen dioxide Reddish brown, Odourless, • It reacts with KI solution to give violet vapours of iodine.
[NO2] Acidic - Moist blue litmus turns • Turns moist potassium iodide paper brown.
red.
Ammonia [NH3] Colourless, • Given dense white fumes of NH4Cl with a glass rod dipped in
Pungent- urine like odour, Conc. HCl acid.
Basic - Moist red litmus turns • On passage through CuSO4 solution, it gives a pale blue
blue. precipitate of Cu(OH)2, which dissolves in excess to form deep
inky blue solution of tetramine copper [II] sulphate.
• Turns Nessler’s reagent from colourless to pale blue brown and
gives reddish brown ppt. in excess.
➢ Important chemicals and compounds:
Name Formula Common name
Acids:
Hydrochloric acid HCl Muriatic acid
Nitric acid HNO3 Aqua fortis
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Oil of vitriol
Conc. nitric and hydrochloric acid HNO3 + HCl [1:3] Aqua regia
Acetic acid CH3COOH Vinegar
Carbonic acid H2CO3 Carbonic anhydride
Bases: (Alkalis)
Potassium hydroxide KOH Caustic potash
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Caustic soda
Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH Liquor ammonia
Sodium hydroxide and quick lime NaOH + CaO Sodalime
Salts:
Sodium chloride NaCl Rock salt
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl Sal ammoniac
Silver chloride AgCl Horn silver
Potassium nitrate KNO3 Nitre
Sodium nitrate NaNO3 Chile salt petre
Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3 Smelling salt [constituent]
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3.10H2O Washing soda
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 Baking soda
Sodium bicarbonate + citric acid Health soda
Hydrated sodium sulphate Na2SO4.10H2O Glauber’s salt
Silver nitrate AgNO3 Lunar caustic
Mercuric sulphide HgS Cinnabar
Ores:
Zinc sulphide ZnS Zinc blende
Zinc carbonate ZnCO3 Calamine
Zinc oxide ZnO Zincite
Aluminium oxide [hyd.] Al2O3.2H2O Bauxite
Sodium aluminium fluoride Na3AlF6 Cryolite
Iron [lll] oxide Fe2 O3 Haematite
Tri iron tetraoxide Fe3O4 Magnetite
Iron sulphide FeS2 Iron pyrites
Lead sulphide PbS Galena
Miscellaneous Compounds:
Nitrous oxide N2O Laughing gas
Sulphur S Brimstone
Tri – nitro – toluene C7H5(NO2)3 T.N.T
Copper sulphate [hydrated] CuSO4.5H2O Blue vitriol
Iron [ll] sulphate [hydrated] FeSO4. 7H2O Green vitriol
Zinc sulphate [hydrated] ZnSO4. 7H2O White vitriol
Magnesium sulphate [hydrated] MgSO4. 7H2O Epsom salt
Potassium aluminium sulphate K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O Alum
Lead monoxide PbO Litharge
Silicon dioxide SiO2 Silica
Manganese dioxide MnO2 Pyrolusite
➢ Amphoteric metals and oxide:
o There are 3 amphoteric elements: Zn, Al, Pb. [ZAP]
o Action of amphoteric metals with alkalis:
▪ Definition: Amphoteric elements are metals, which reacts
with acids and alkalis to form salt and liberate hydrogen
gas.
▪ Reactions:
Metal Alkali [hot conc.] Salt + Hydrogen
Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2
Zn + 2KOH → K2ZnO2 + H2
Pb + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + H2
Pb + 2KOH → K2PbO2 + H2
2 Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2
2 Al + 2KOH + 2H2O → 2KAlO2 + 3H2
o Action of amphoteric bases with alkalis:
▪ Definition: Amphoteric compounds are those bases which
reacts with acids and alkalis to form salt and water as the
only compounds.
Atmospheric Alkali Salt + Water
oxide/ Hydroxide [hot conc.]
ZnO + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2O
Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O
PbO + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + H2O
Pb(OH)2 + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + 2H2O
Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O
Al(OH)3 + NaOH → NaAlO2 + 2H2O
Al2O3 + 2KOH → 2KAlO2 + H2O
Al(OH)3 + KOH → 2KAlO2 + 2H2O
➢ Colour of metal, non-metals and its ions:
Metal Cation Colour Non metal Anion Colour
+
K K Colourless Permanganate MnO41- Pink
[purple]
Na Na+ Colourless Dichromate Cr2O72- Orange
Ca Ca+2 Colourless Sulphite SO32- Colourless
Mg Mg+2 Colourless Sulphate SO42- Colourless
Al Al+3 Colourless Carbonate CO32- Colourless
Zn Zn+2 Colourless Chloride Cl1+ Colourless
Fe Fe2+ Green Bromide Br1- Colourless
Fe3+ Yellow/brown
Pb Pb2+ Colourless Nitrate NO31- Colourless
Pb4+ Colourless
Cu Cu+2 Blue/ green Bisulphite HSO31- Colourless
Cr Cr3+ Green Bisulphate HSO41-, Colourless
Mn Mn2+ Pink Bicarbonate HCO31- Colourless
Co Co2+ Blue [pink] Oxide O2- Colourless
Ni Ni2+ Blue to green Sulphide S2- Colourless
Ba Ba+2 Colourless Phosphate PO43- Colourless
Sn Sn2+ Colourless
Cd Cd+2 Colourless
Hg Hg+2 Colourless
NH NH+1 Colourless
➢ Note:
o Anhydride: A compound obtained by removing the elements of
water from an acid or a salt.
o Qualitative analysis: Qualitative analysis includes identification of
an unknown substance by chemical tests.
➢ Differentiate:
o Iron (III) chloride and copper chloride solution:
Iron (III) Chloride solution Copper Chloride solution
Add NH4OH, first little and then in Add NH4OH, first little and then in
excess, it forms a reddish brown excess, it forms a pale blue ppt.
ppt. which is insoluble in excess. which is soluble in excess forming
a deep inky blue solution of tetra
amine copper chloride.
o Ammonium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide using CuSO 4 soln.:
Ammonium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide
A pale blue ppt. of copper A pale blue ppt. of CuSO4 is
hydroxide is formed with little formed which is insoluble in
ammonium hydroxide and this excess.
ppt. is soluble in excess of NH4OH
forming a deep inky blue soln. of
tetra amine copper compound.
o Sodium chloride solution and sodium nitrate solution:
Sodium chloride soln. Sodium nitrate soln.
Add conc. H2SO4 to sodium Add conc. H2SO4, to sodium
chloride solution, it gives out nitrate solution, it gives out
colorless gas HCl which gives colorless vapors of nitric acid
dense white fumes of NH4Cl when which does not form dense white
a glass rod dipped in ammonia is fumes when a glass rod dipped in
brought near it. ammonia is brought near it.
o Sodium sulphate solution and sodium chloride solution:
Sodium sulphate solution Sodium chloride solution.
Add barium chloride, it forms a Add barium chloride, it forms no
white ppt. of barium sulphate, ppt.
which is insoluble in dil. HCl.
o Calcium nitrate soln. & zinc nitrate soln.:
Calcium nitrate soln. Zinc nitrate soln.
Add NH4OH to calcium nitrate Add NH4OH to zinc nitrate
solution, first little and then in solution, first little and then in
excess, it forms no ppt. excess, it forms a gelatinous
white ppt. of zinc hydroxide
which is soluble in excess forming
tetra amine zinc compound.
o Calcium nitrate & zinc nitrate:
Calcium nitrate Zinc nitrate
Heat calcium nitrate, it dissociate Heat zinc nitrate, it dissociate to
to give a colorless residue of give a residue of zinc oxide which
calcium oxide, reddish brown is yellow when hot and white
fumes of nitrogen dioxide and a when cold and reddish brown
colorless gas oxygen which fumes of nitrogen dioxide and a
rekindles the glowing splinter. colorless gas oxygen which
rekindles the glowing splinter.
o Zinc sulphate soln. and zinc chloride soln.:
Zinc sulphate soln. Zinc chloride soln.
Add BaCl2 to zinc sulphate Add BaCl2 to zinc chloride
solution, it forms a white ppt. of solution, it forms no ppt.
barium sulphate, which is
insoluble in dil. HCl.
o Iron (II) chloride soln. and Iron (III) chloride soln.:
Iron (II) chloride soln. Iron (III) chloride soln.
Add NH4OH to ferrous chloride Add NH4OH to ferric chloride
excess, it forms a dirty green ppt. excess, it forms a reddish brown
of ferrous hydroxide which is ppt. of ferric hydroxide which is
insoluble in excess. insoluble in excess.
o Calcium nitrate soln. and calcium chloride soln.:
Calcium nitrate soln. Calcium Chloride soln.
Add conc. H2SO4, to calcium Add conc. H2SO4 to calcium
nitrate solution, it gives out chloride solution, it gives out
colorless vapors of nitric acid colorless vapors of HCl which
which does not forms dense gives dense white fumes of NH4Cl
white fumes when a glass rod when a glass rod dipped in
dipped in ammonia is bought ammonia is bought near it.
near it.
o Hydrogen chloride gas & hydrogen sulphide gas:
Hydrogen chloride gas Hydrogen sulphide gas
Dip lead acetate paper in it, it has Dip lead acetate paper in it, it
no effect on the paper. turns silvery black.
Add Lead metal, it forms white Add Lead metal, it forms black
lead chloride and gives out a lead sulphide and give out a
colorless gas hydrogen which puts colorless gas hydrogen which puts
off a burning splinter with a pop off a burning splinter with a pop
sound. sound.
Get a rod dipped in ammonia at Get a rod dipped in ammonia at
the mouth of the test tube; it the mouth of the test tube; it
gives dense white fumes of does not give dense white fumes
ammonium chloride. of ammonium chloride.
o Sodium carbonate & Sodium sulphite:
Sodium carbonate Sodium Sulphite
Add dil. HCl, it gives colorless gas Add dil. HCl, it gives colorless gas
carbon dioxide which turns lime sulphur dioxide which turns lime
water milky and has no effect on water milky and turns orange
potassium dichromate paper. potassium dichromate paper
green.
o Ferrous nitrate & lead nitrate:
Ferrous nitrate Lead nitrate
Add NH4OH to ferrous nitrate Add NH4OH to lead nitrate
excess, it forms a dirty green ppt. excess, it forms a curdy white ppt.
of ferrous hydroxide which is of lead hydroxide which is
insoluble in excess. insoluble in excess, forming
sodium plumbate.
o Manganese dioxide & copper (II) oxide:
Manganese dioxide Copper (II) oxide
Add conc. HCl, black MnO2 turns Add conc. HCl, black CuO turns to
to colorless solution of greenish blue solution of copper
manganese chloride and give out chloride and give out no gas.
a greenish yellow gas chlorine.
o Carbon dioxide gas & Sulphur dioxide gas:
Carbon dioxide gas Sulphur dioxide gas.
Add few drops of potassium Add few drops of potassium
permanganate solution, it permanganate solution, it turns
remains unchanged. from pink to colorless.
dichromate solution, it remains dichromate solution, it turns
unchanged. orange to green.
Introduce burning Mg ribbon; it Introduce burning Mg ribbon; it
forms black particles of carbon. forms yellow particles of sulphur.
o A neutral, acidic and a basic gas:
Neutral gas Acidic gas Basic gas
Dip moist red litmus in it- Dip moist blue Dip moist red
no change, litmus – it turns litmus – it turns
Dip moist blue litmus in it – red. blue.
no change.
o Oxygen and hydrogen gas:
Oxygen gas Hydrogen gas
Bring a glowing splinter near it, it Bring a glowing splinter near it; it
continuous to burns with a bright puts off the glowing splinter with
flame. a pop sound.
o Chlorine and hydrogen chloride gas:
Chlorine gas Hydrogen chloride gas
Bring moist blue litmus paper Bring moist blue litmus paper
near it, it turns blue litmus red near it, it turns blue litmus red.
and then bleaches it. Does not bleaches it.
Bring moist starch iodide paper Bring moist starch iodide paper
near the mouth of the test tube, near the mouth of the test tube,
it turns from colorless to black- it remains unchanged.
black.
Chlorine gas on reaction with Hydrogen chloride gas on
iron, gives reddish brown ferric reaction with iron, forms green
chloride and does not give out ferrous chloride and colorless gas
any gas. hydrogen which puts off a
burning splinter with a pop
sound.
o Hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen dioxide gas:
Hydrogen sulphide gas Nitrogen dioxide gas.
Dip lead acetate paper in it, it Dip lead acetate paper in it, it
turns silvery black. remains unchanged.
o Ammonia and carbon dioxide gas:
Ammonia gas Carbon dioxide gas
Dip a moist blue litmus – it turns Dip a moist red litmus – it turns
blue. red.
o Zinc carbonate and potassium nitrate:
Zinc carbonate Potassium nitrate
Heat zinc carbonate, it dissociates Heat potassium nitrate, it
to give a residue of zinc oxide dissociates to give a colorless
which is yellow when hot and residue of potassium nitrite and
white when cold and gives out gives out a colorless gas oxygen,
colorless gas carbon dioxide which rekindles the glowing
which turns lime water milky. splinter.
o Hydrated copper sulphate and anhydrous copper sulphate:
Hydrated copper Sulphate Anhydrous copper sulphate
On heating the blue crystals of On heating the white powder of
copper sulphate, it first turns copper sulphate it dissociates to
white and then dissociates to give give black residue of copper
black residue of copper oxide, oxide, gives colorless gas sulphur
gives colorless gas sulphur dioxide dioxide, which turns moist orange
which turns moist orange potassium dichromate paper
potassium dichromate paper green and also gives colorless gas
green and also gives colorless gas oxygen, which rekindles the
oxygen, which rekindles the glowing splinter.
glowing splinter.
o Ammonium sulphate and sodium sulphate:
Ammonium Sulphate Sodium sulphate
Add calcium hydroxide solution Add calcium hydroxide solution
and heat it, it will give a pungent and heat it, it will give a white
smelling gas ammonia and no ppt. ppt. of calcium sulphate and no
will be formed. pungent smelling gas will be given
out.
o Potassium chloride and potassium nitrate:
Potassium chloride Potassium nitrate
Add conc. H2SO4 to potassium Add conc. H2SO4, to potassium
colorless vapors of HCl which colorless vapors of nitric acid
gives dense white fumes of NH4Cl which does not forms dense white
when a glass rod dipped in fumes when a glass rod dipped in
ammonia is bought near it. ammonia is bought near it.
o Copper carbonate and copper sulphite:
Copper carbonate Copper sulphite
water milky and has no effect on water milky and turns moist
potassium dichromate paper. orange potassium dichromate
paper green.
o Lead chloride and lead sulphide:
Lead chloride Lead sulphide
Add dil. HCl, it gives out no gas. Add dil. HCl, it gives colorless gas
hydrogen sulphide, which turns
moist lead acetate paper silvery
black.
o Iron (II) sulphate and iron (III) sulphate:
Iron II Sulphate Iron III Sulphate
Add NH4OH to ferrous sulphate Add NH4OH to ferric sulphate
o Calcium sulphate and zinc sulphate:
Calcium Sulphate Zinc sulphate
Add NaOH to calcium sulphate Add NaOH to zinc sulphate
excess, it forms a chalky white excess, it forms a gelatinous
ppt. of calcium hydroxide which is white ppt. of zinc hydroxide
insoluble in excess. which is soluble in excess forming
sodium zincate solution.
o Lead nitrate and zinc nitrate [Using liquor ammonia]:
Lead nitrate Zinc nitrate
Add NH4OH to lead nitrate Add NH4OH to zinc nitrate
excess, it forms a curdy white ppt. excess, it forms a gelatinous
of lead hydroxide which is white ppt. of zinc hydroxide
insoluble in excess. which is soluble in excess forming
OR
Lead nitrate solution Zinc nitrate solution
Add dil. hydrochloric acid, it Add dil. hydrochloric acid, it
forms a white ppt. of lead forms a soluble solution of zinc
chloride, which is soluble in hot chloride. No ppt. is formed.
water.
o Copper sulphate and calcium sulphate:
Copper Sulphate Calcium Sulphate
Add NaOH to copper sulphate Add NaOH to calcium sulphate
excess, it forms a pale blue ppt. of excess, it forms a chalky white
copper hydroxide which is ppt. of calcium hydroxide which is
o Manganese dioxide and copper [II] oxide:
Manganese dioxide Copper [II] oxide
o Dil. nitric acid, dil. sulphuric acid and dil. Hydrochloric acid:
Dil. nitric acid Dil. sulphuric acid Dil. hydrochloric acid.
Add lead nitrate Add lead nitrate Add lead nitrate
solution, no solution, it reacts to solution, reacts to
reaction. form white ppt. of lead form white ppt. of
sulphate, which is lead chloride, which is
insoluble in hot and soluble in hot water.
cold water.
o PbCl2 and PbSO4:
PbCl2 PbSO4
It is soluble in hot water and It is insoluble in hot and cold
insoluble in cold water. water
o Na2SO4 and (NH4)2SO4:
Na2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
Add NaOH and heat, no gas Add NaOH and heat, it liberates a
liberated. pungent smelling gas NH3; which
forms dense white fumes of
NH4Cl with HCl.
o Pb(NO3)2 and CaSO3:
Pb(NO3)2 CaSO3
Add NaOH, first little and then in Add NaOH, first little and then in
excess, It forms a curdy white ppt. excess, It forms a chalky white
of Pb(OH)2 which is soluble in ppt. of Ca(OH)2 which is insoluble
excess forming sodium plumbate in excess.
solution.
On heating it decomposes to give On heating it decomposes to give
a yellow residue of PbO, reddish a white residue of CaO, and a
brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide colourless gas sulphur dioxide,
and colourless gas oxygen, which which turns moist orange
rekindles the glowing splinter. potassium dichromate paper
green.
o Action of heat on lead carbonate and lead sulphate:
Lead carbonate Lead sulphate
On heating white lead carbonate On heating white lead sulphate it
it dissociates to give a yellow dissociates to give a yellow
residue of lead oxide and a residue of lead oxide and gives
colourless gas carbon dioxide out a colourless gas which turns
which turns lime water milky and moist orange potassium
has no effect on acidified KMnO4 dichromate paper green and gives
or K2Cr2O7 solutions. out a colourless gas O2 which
PbCO3 → PbO + CO2 2PbSO4 → 2PbO + 2SO2 + O2
o Action of heat on silver sulphate and ferrous sulphate:
Silver sulphate Ferrous sulphate
On heating white silver sulphate it On heating pale green Ferrous
dissociates to give a silvery sulphate it dissociates to give a
residue of solid silver, colorless dirty green residue of ferrous
gas sulphur dioxide which turns oxide, colorless gas sulphur
moist orange potassium dioxide which turns moist orange
dichromate paper green and a potassium dichromate paper
colorless gas oxygen which green and a colorless gas oxygen
rekindles the glowing splinter. which rekindles the glowing
splinter.
Ag2SO4 → 2Ag + SO2 + O2 2Fe SO4 → 2FeO +2SO2 + O2
o Strontium chloride and Sylvite:
Strontium chloride Sylvite (KCl)
It is a soft silver-white metal It is a colorless crystal compound,
compound, which gives a brilliant which gives a lilac flame in flame
red light in flame test. test.
o Action of heat on mild heating of copper sulphate and strong
heating of copper sulphate:
Mild heating of copper sulphate Strong heating of copper
sulphate
On mild heating of blue copper On strong heating of blue copper
sulphate, it dissociates to give a sulphate, it dissociates to give a
white anhydrous amorphous black residue of copper oxide, a
residue of copper sulphate. colourless gas sulphur dioxide
which turns moist orange
potassium dichromate paper
green and a colourless gas oxygen
which rekindles the glowing
splinter.
CuSO4.5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O 2CuSO4 → 2CuO +2SO2 + O2
o Action of heat on mild heating of aluminium bicarbonate and strong
heating of aluminium bicarbonate:
Mild heating of aluminium Strong heating of aluminium
bicarbonate bicarbonate
On mild heating of white On strong heating of aluminium
aluminium bicarbonate, it bicarbonate it dissociates to give
dissociates to give a white residue a white residue of aluminium
of aluminium carbonate, water oxide, and a colorless gas CO2
vapour and a colourless gas CO2 which turns lime water milky and
which turns lime water milky. has no effect on acidified KMnO4
or K2Cr2O7 solutions.
2Al(HCO3)3 → Al2(CO3)3 + 3H2O + Al2(CO3)3 → Al2O3 + 3CO2
3CO2
o Action of heat on sodium sulphite and sodium nitrate:
Sodium sulphite Sodium nitrate
It does not decompose on On heating white sodium nitrate,
heating. it first melts & dissociates to give
a creamish residue of sodium
nitrite and a colourless gas O2
which rekindles a glowing
splinter.
Na2SO3 → Na2SO3 2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2
o Action of heat on ferrous nitrate and ferric sulphite:
Ferrous nitrate Ferric sulphite
On heating of pale green ferrous On heating of yellowish brown
nitrate, it dissociates to give a ferric sulphite, it dissociates to
dirty green residue of ferrous give a reddish brown residue of
oxide, reddish brown fumes of ferric oxide and colorless fumes
NO2, and a colorless gas O2 which of SO2 which turns moist orange
rekindles the glowing splinter. K2Cr2O7 paper green.
2 Fe(NO3)2 → 2FeO + 4NO2 + O2 2Fe2(SO3)3 → 2Fe2O3 + 6SO2 .
o Action of heat on sodium nitrate and Action of heat on zinc nitrate:
Sodium nitrate Zinc nitrate
On heating white sodium nitrate, On heating white zinc nitrate, it
it first melts & dissociates to give dissociates to give a yellow when
a creamish residue of sodium hot & white when cold residue of
nitrite and a colourless gas O2 zinc oxide, reddish brown fumes
which rekindles a glowing of NO2 and colourless oxygen
splinter. which rekindles the glowing
splinter.
2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2 2Zn(NO3)2 → 2ZnO + 4NO2 + O2
o Compound salts of ammonium carbonate and copper carbonate:
Ammonium carbonate Copper carbonate
On exposing to air white On heating green copper
ammonium carbonate carbonate, it dissociates to give a
completely dissociates, leaving black residue of copper oxide,
no residue to give vapours of and a colourless gas CO2 which
ammonia, water and a colourless turns lime water milky and has no
gas carbon dioxide which turns effect on acidified KMnO4 or
lime water milky and has no K2Cr2O7 solutions.
effect on acidified KMnO4 or
K2Cr2O7 solutions.
(NH4)2CO3 → 2NH3 + H2O + CO2 CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
o Action of heat on Lead sulphate and sodium sulphate:

Lead sulphate Sodium sulphate
On heating white lead sulphate it It does not decompose on
dissociates to give a yellow heating.
residue of lead oxide and gives
out a colourless gas SO2 which
turns moist orange potassium
dichromate paper green and gives
out a colourless gas O2 which
2PbSO4 → 2PbO + 2SO2 + O2 Na2SO4 → Na2SO4
o Action of heat on lead nitrate and lead sulphate:
Lead nitrate Lead sulphate
On heating white lead nitrate, it On heating white lead sulphate it
dissociates to give a yellow dissociates to give a yellow
residue of lead oxide, reddish residue of lead oxide and gives
brown fumes ofNO2 and a out a colourless gas which turns
colourless gas oxygen which orange potassium dichromate
rekindles the glowing splinter. paper green and gives out a
colourless gas O2 which rekindles
the glowing splinter.
2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2 2PbSO4 → 2PbO +2 SO2 + O2
o Action of heat on sodium carbonate and sodium nitrate:
Sodium carbonate Sodium nitrate
It does not decompose on On heating white sodium nitrate,
heating. it first melts and dissociates to
give a creamish residue of sodium
nitrite and a colourless gas O2
which rekindles a glowing
splinter.
Na2CO3 → Na2CO3 2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2
o Sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate:
Sodium carbonate Sodium bicarbonate
Add water it is sparingly soluble Add water it is soluble forming a
forming a turbid solution of clear solution of sodium
sodium carbonate. bicarbonate.
o Sodium sulphite and sodium sulphate:
Sodium Sulphite Sodium sulphate
Add Barium chloride solution to Add Barium chloride solution to
sodium sulphite, it forms a sodium sulphate, it forms white
soluble solution of barium ppt. of barium sulphate.
sulphite.
BaCl2 + Na2SO3 → BaSO3 + 2NaCl BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl
o Potassium sulphide and sodium sulphate:
Potassium Sulphide Sodium Sulphate
Add dil. HCl, it forms a soluble Add dil. HCl, it forms a soluble
solution of potassium chloride solution of sodium chloride and
and gives out a colorless gas H2S, give out a colorless gas sulphur
which turns lead acetate paper dioxide which turns moist orange
silvery black. potassium dichromate paper
green.
o Zinc chloride and lead nitrate:
Zinc chloride Lead nitrate
Add NH4OH first little then in Add NH4OH first little then in
excess, it forms a gelatinous excess, it forms a curdy white ppt.
white ppt. of zinc hydroxide of lead hydroxide which is
which is soluble in excess of insoluble in excess of NH4OH.
NH4OH forming tetra amine zinc
compound.
o Lead Hydroxide and Zinc Hydroxide:
Lead hydroxide Zinc hydroxide
Add NH4OH, first little and then in Add NH4OH first little and then in
excess, it forms a curdy white ppt. excess, it forms a gelatinous
of lead hydroxide which is white ppt. of zinc hydroxide
insoluble in excess of NH4OH. which is soluble in excess of
NH4OH forming tetra amine zinc
compound.
o Ammonium Chloride and Potassium Chloride:
Ammonium chloride Potassium chloride
On adding sodium hydroxide to On adding sodium hydroxide to
ammonium chloride, it gives a potassium chloride, no gas is
colorless pungent smelling gas evolved.
ammonia, which turns red litmus
blue.
o Silver chloride and lead chloride:
Silver chloride Lead chloride
Add ammonium hydroxide, a little Add ammonium hydroxide, a little
then in excess, it forms a white then in excess it forms a white
ppt. of silver hydroxide, which ppt. of lead hydroxide, which is
dissolves in excess forming a insoluble in excess of ammonium
soluble solution of a complex hydroxide.
compound Diamine silver chloride
in excess.
AgCl + 2NH4OH → Ag(NH3)2Cl + PbCl2 + 2NH4OH → 2NH4Cl +
2H2O (Diamine silver chloride) Pb(OH)2
(white, insoluble in excess
NH4OH)
o Sodium sulphite and potassium sulphite:
Sodium sulphite Potassium sulphate
Burn Sodium Sulphite on a flame, Burn Potassium Sulphite on a
it burns with a golden yellow flame, it burns with a lilac flame.
flame.
o Potassium chloride and sodium chloride:
Potassium chloride Sodium chloride
Burn Potassium chloride on a Burn Sodium chloride on a flame,
flame, it burns with a lilac flame. it burns with a golden yellow
flame.
o Manganese dioxide and copper oxide:
Manganese dioxide Copper oxide
Black manganese dioxide on Black copper oxide on heating
heating with conc. HCl gives a with conc. HCl gives a bluish color
brownish color solution of solution of copper chloride and
manganese chloride and releases does not release any gas.
a greenish yellow gas, chlorine.
MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2 CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O
On adding NH4OH to the solution On adding NH4OH to the solution
of manganese chloride, no ppt. is of copper chloride, a pale blue
formed. ppt. of copper hydroxide is
formed, which is soluble in excess
of ammonium hydroxide forming
a deep inky blue solution of tetra
amine copper compound.
CuCl2 + 2NH4OH → Cu(OH)2 (pale
blue ppt.) + 2NH4Cl
Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 + 2NH4OH
(in excess) → [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 (deep
inky blue) + 4H2O
o Copper ions and Ferrous ions:
Copper ions Ferrous ions
On adding NH4OH to copper On adding NH4OH to ferrous
chloride (Cu ), a pale blue ppt. of chloride (Fe2+), a dirty green ppt.
2+
copper hydroxide is formed, of ferrous hydroxide is formed,

which is soluble in excess of which is insoluble in excess of
ammonium hydroxide forming a ammonium hydroxide.
deep inky blue solution of tetra
amine copper compound.
o Hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide:
Hydrogen Hydrogen sulphide
Hydrogen gas is an odorless gas, Hydrogen sulphide has a rotten
neutral to litmus and puts off a egg smell, turns blue litmus red
burning splinter with a pop and turns lead acetate paper
sound. silvery black.
o Sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide gas:
SO2 H2S
Turns moist K2Cr2O7 paper green. No effect on moist K2Cr2O7 paper.
No effect on lead acetate paper. Turns lead acetate paper black.
o Sulphur dioxide and chlorine gas:
SO2 Cl2
Colorless gas. Greenish yellow gas.
No effect on starch iodine paper. Turns starch iodine paper bluish
black.
It turns moist blue litmus red. It turns moist blue litmus red and
then bleaches it.
o Chlorine and hydrogen chloride gas:
It turns moist blue litmus red and It turns moist blue litmus red and
then bleaches it. does not bleaches it.
o Oxygen and Nitric oxide:
O2 NO
On exposure to air it rekindles the On exposure to air it puts off the
glowing splinter. splinter and turns reddish brown
due to the formation of NO2.
o Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide:
CO2 CO
It turns lime water milky. No effect on limewater.
It is non-combustible. It is combustible, burns in air with
a blue flame to form CO2.
o Sodium carbonate and sodium sulphate:
Sodium carbonate Sodium sulphate
green.
o Ferrous sulphate solution and ferric sulphate solution. [using sodium
hydroxide solution]:
Ferrous sulphate solution Ferric sulphate solution
Add NaOH to ferrous sulphate Add NaOH to ferric sulphate
EQUATIONS
1. 2PbO2 → 2PbO + O2
2. 2Pb3O4 → 6PbO + O2
3. 2HgO → 2Hg + O2
4. 2Ag2O → 4Ag + O2
5. (NH4)2Cr2O7 → Cr2O3 + 4H2O + N2
6. 2KHCO3 → K2CO3 + H2O + CO2
7. 2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
8. Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
9. Mg(HCO3)2 → MgCO3 + H2O + CO2
10. 2AI(HCO3)3 → AI2(CO3)3 + 3H2O + 3CO2
11. Zn(HCO3)2 → ZnCO3 + H2O + CO2
12. Fe(HCO3)2 → FeCO3 + H2O + CO2
13. 2Fe(HCO3)3 → Fe2(CO3)3 + 3H2O + 3CO2
14. Pb(HCO3)2 → PbCO3 + H2O + CO2
15. Cu(HCO3)2 → CuCO3 + H2O + CO2
16. 2Hg(HCO3)2 → 2Hg + 2H2O + 4CO2 + O2
17. 4AgHCO3 → 4Ag + 2H2O + 4CO2 + O2
18. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
19. MgCO3 → MgO + CO2
20. Al2(CO3)3 → Al2O3 + 3CO2
21. ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2
22. FeCO3 → FeO + CO2
23. Fe2(CO3)3 → Fe2O3 + 3CO2
24. PbCO3 → PbO + CO2
25. CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
26. 2HgCO3 → 2Hg + 2CO2 + O2
27. 2Ag2CO3 → 4Ag + 2CO2 + O2
28. (NH4)2CO3 → 2NH3 + H2O + CO2
29. CaSO3 → CaO + SO2
30. MgSO3 → MgO + SO2
31. AI2(SO3)3 → AI2O3 + 3SO2
32. ZnSO3 → ZnO + SO2
33. FeSO3 → FeO + SO2
34. Fe2(SO3)3 → Fe2O3 + 3SO2
35. PbSO3 → PbO + SO2
36. CuSO3 → CuO + SO2
37. 2HgSO3 → 2Hg + 2SO2 + O2
38. 2Ag2SO3 → 4Ag + 2SO2 + O2
39. 2CaSO4 → 2CaO + 2SO2 + O2
40. 2MgSO4 → 2MgO + 2SO2 + O2
41. 2AI2(SO4)3 → 2AI2O3 + 6SO2 + 3O2
42. 2ZnSO4 → ZnO + 2SO2 + O2
43. 2FeSO4 → 2FeO + 2SO2 + O2
44. 2Fe2(SO4)3 → 2Fe2O3 + 6SO2 + 3O2
45. 2PbSO4 → 2PbO + 2SO2 + O2
46. 2CuSO4 → 2CuO + 2SO2 + O2
47. HgSO4 → Hg + SO2 + O2
48. Ag2SO4 → 2Ag + SO2 + O2
49. 3(NH4)2SO4 → 4NH3 + 3SO2 + 6H2O + N2
50. 2KNO3 → 2KNO2 + O2
51. 2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2
52. 2Ca(NO3)2 → 2CaO + O2 + 4NO2
53. 2Mg(NO3)2 → 2MgO + O2 + 4NO2
54. 4AI(NO3)3 → 2AI2O3 + 3O2 + 12NO2
55. 2Zn(NO3)2 → 2ZnO + 4NO2 + O2
56. 2Fe(NO3)2 → 2FeO + 4NO2 + O2
57. 4Fe(NO3)3 → 2Fe2O3 + 3O2 + 12NO2
58. 2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + O2 + 4NO2
59. Cu(NO3)2 → 2CuO + O2 + 4NO2
60. Hg(NO3)2 → Hg + O2 + 2NO2
61. 2AgNO3 → 2Ag + O2 + 2NO2
62. NH4NO3 → N2O + 2H2O
63. NH4Cl ⇌ NH3 + HCl
64. CuSO4.5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O
65. Na2CO3.10H2O → Na2CO3 + 10H2O
66. Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
67. CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2
68. Ca(OH)2 + SO2 → CaSO3 + H2O
69. CaSO3 + H2O + SO2 → Ca(HSO3)2
70. Cl2 + H2O → HCl + HOCl
71. AgCl2 + 2NH4OH → Ag(NH3)2Cl
72. Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2
73. Zn + 2KOH → K2ZnO2 + H2
74. Pb + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + H2
75. Pb + 2KOH → K2PbO2 + H2
76. 2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2
77. 2Al + 2KOH + 2H2O → 2KAlO2 + 3H2
78. ZnO + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2O
79. Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O
80. PbO + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + H2O
81. Pb(OH)2 + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + 2H2O
82. Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O
83. Al(OH)3 + NaOH → NaAlO2 + 2H2O
84. Al2O3 + 2KOH → 2KAlO2 + H2O
85. Al(OH)3 + KOH → 2KAlO2 + 2H
86. 2Fe2(SO3)3 → 2Fe2O3 + 6SO2
87. BaCl2 + Na2SO3 → BaSO3 + 2NaCl
88. BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl
89. AgCl + 2NH4OH → Ag(NH3)2Cl + 2H2O
90. PbCl2 + 2NH4OH → 2NH4Cl + Pb(OH)2
91. MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
92. CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O
93. CuCl2 + 2NH4OH → Cu(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl
94. Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 + 2NH4OH → [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 + 4H2O
95. *2Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2O
96. Zn(NO3)2 + 2NaOH → 2NaNO3 + Zn(OH)2
97. ZnSO4 + 2NaOH → Zn(OH)2 + Na2SO4
98. FeCl3 + 3NaOH → 3NaCl + Fe(OH)3
99. AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
100. Na2S + Pb(CH3COO)2 → 2NaCH3COO + PbS
<200℃
101. NaCl + H2SO4 (conc.) → NaHSO4 + HCl
102. Na2CO3 + Ba(NO3)2 → BaCO3 + 2NaNO3
103. Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl
104. Na2SO3 + BaCl2 → 2NaCl + BaSO3
105. MgSO4 + BaCl2 → MgCl2 + BaSO4
106. Cu(NO3)2 + NH4OH → Cu(OH)2 + NH4NO3
107. CuSO4 + 2NH4OH → Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4
108. BaCO3 + 2HCl → BaCl2 + H2O + CO2
109. BaSO3 + 2HCl → BaCl2 + H2O + SO2
110. AgNO3 + HCl → AgCl + HNO3
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
2000:
1. State the effect of adding a small amount of: a. Sodium hydroxide and
b. Ammonium hydroxide followed by an excess to:
a. Zinc Nitrate soln.
b. Lead nitrate soln.
a. Zinc nitrate solution:
i. In small amount:
1. In sodium hydroxide it forms white gelatinous
ppt. of zinc hydroxide.
2. In ammonium hydroxide it forms white gelatinous
ppt. of zinc hydroxide.
ii. In excess:
1. In sodium hydroxide the ppt. of zinc hydroxide
dissolves forming a soluble colorless solution of
sodium zincate.
2. In ammonium hydroxide the ppt. of zinc hydroxide
dissolves forming a soluble colorless solution of
b. Lead nitrate solution:
i. In small amount:
1. In sodium hydroxide it forms a curdy white ppt. of
lead (II) hydroxide.
2. In ammonium hydroxide it forms a curdy white ppt.
of lead (II) hydroxide.
ii. In excess:
1. In excess of sodium hydroxide, the ppt. of lead (II)
hydroxide is soluble forming a colorless solution of sodium
plumbate.
2. In excess of ammonium hydroxide, the ppt. of lead
(II) hydroxide is insoluble.
2. Write a balanced chemical equation for the following: iron (III) chloride
soln, with sodium hydroxide soln. FeCl3 + 3NaOH → 3NaCl + Fe(OH)3
2001:
1. State what you observe when: Ammonium hydroxide is added to iron
(III) sulphate solution.
When little ammonium hydroxide is added to iron (III) sulphate
solution, a reddish brown ppt. of ferric hydroxide is formed which is
insoluble in excess of ammonium hydroxide.
2002:
1. Test were performed on aq. Solutions ‘A’ & ‘B’, and the conclusions were
drawn. State the observations seen in each case.
a. Test: To solution’ A’ sodium hydroxide soln. was added.
Conclusion: A contains Fe3+ ions.
When sodium hydroxide soln. is added to ‘A’ reddish brown ppt.
of ferric hydroxide is formed which is insoluble in excess of
sodium hydroxide.
b. Test: To solution ‘B’ ammonium hydroxide was added slowly till in
excess. Conclusion: B contains Cu2+ ions.
When ammonium hydroxide is added to ‘B’ pale blue ppt. of
copper hydroxide is formed which is soluble in excess of NH4OH
forming a deep inky blue soln. of tetra amine copper compound.
2003:
1. Write the observations & balanced equations for the following reactions:
a. Sodium hydroxide is added drop-wise till in excess to a solution of
zinc sulphate.
When NaOH is added drop wise a gelatinous white ppt. of zinc
hydroxide is formed, which is soluble in excess of NaOH forming
a colourless solution of sodium zincate.
ZnSO4 + 2NaOH → Zn(OH)2 + Na2SO4.
Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O.
b. Ammonium hydroxide is added in excess to a soln. of copper
sulphate.
A pale blue ppt. of copper hydroxide is observed which is soluble
in excess of NH4OH forming a deep inky blue soln. of tetra amine
copper sulphate.
CuSO4 + 2NH4OH → Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4.
Cu(OH)2 + 4NH4OH → [Cu(NH3)4] (OH)2 + 4H2O.
2004:
1. NaOH soln. is added first in small amount, then in excess to the aqueous
salt solutions of:
a. Copper (II) sulphate; b. Zinc nitrate; c. Lead nitrate; d. Iron (III)
Sulphate. State in each case:
a. The colour of the ppt. when NaOH is added in a small quantity.
b. The nature of ppt. (i.e. soluble / insoluble) when NaOH is added in
excess.
a. Copper (II) sulphate: (i) Pale Blue (ii) Insoluble
b. Zinc nitrate: (i) Gelatinous white (ii) Soluble
c. Lead nitrate: (i) Curdy white (ii) Soluble
d. Iron (III) sulphate: (i) Reddish brown (ii) Insoluble
2. Write balanced equations for (a) Aluminium and (b) Zinc; is warmed with
NaOH (caustic soda) solution.
a. 2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2
b. Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2
2005:
1. The question below refers to the following salt soln. listed a to f: -
a. Copper nitrate
b. Iron (II) Sulphate
c. Iron (III) Chloride
d. Lead Nitrate
e. Magnesium sulphate
f. Zinc Chloride
i. Which soln. becomes a deep/inky blue colour when excess
of NH4OH is added to it. a
ii. Which soln. gives a white ppt. with excess NH4OH soln. d
2006:
1. From the list of substances given below – (NH4)SO4, PbCO3, Chlorine,
Cu(NO3)2, FeSO4- State a soln. of the compound which gives a dirty green
ppt. with sodium hydroxide.
FeSO4 – Ferrous sulphate soln. gives a dirty green ppt. with sodium
hydroxide.
2. Write a balanced equation for the reaction between - aluminium oxide &
sodium hydroxide solution. 2Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2O.
3. Give one test to distinguish between the following:
Iron (III) chloride soln. and copper chloride solution.
Iron (III) chloride soln. Copper chloride soln.
Add NH4OH, first little and then in Add NH4OH, first little and then in
excess, it forms a reddish brown excess, it forms a pale blue ppt.
ppt. which is insoluble in excess. which is soluble in excess forming a
deep inky blue solution of tetra
amine copper chloride.
2007: –
2008:
1. The salt which in soln. gives a pale green ppt. with NaOH soln. and a
white ppt. with BaCl2 soln.
a. Iron (III) sulphate
b. Iron (II) Sulphate
c. Iron(II) chloride
d. Iron (III) chloride
Ans: b. Iron(II) sulphate.
2009:
1. Find the odd one out with reasons [valency is not a criterion]: Al(OH) 3,
Pb(OH)2, Mg(OH)2, Zn (OH)2.
Mg(OH)2 is the odd one as the others are Amphoteric oxides.
2. Identify the substance P based on the information given:
The deliquescent salt P, turns yellow on dissolving in water, and gives a
reddish brown precipitate with sodium hydroxide solution.
Ferric chloride (FeCl3).
2010:
1. Give an equation for: Zinc oxide reacts with sodium hydroxide solution.
ZnO + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2O.
2. Give an equation for conversion of – Zn(NO3)2 to Zn(OH)2.
Zn(NO3)2 + 2NaOH → 2NaNO3 + Zn(OH)2.
3. Select the correct answer from a, b, c. –
The solution which with zinc sulphate soln. will give a white ppt.
a. Sodium hydroxide soln.
b. A weak acid
c. Dil. Sulphuric acid.
Ans: a. Sodium hydroxide soln.
2011:
1. Choose the correct answer from the choices: A – Magnesium, B – Lead,
C – Silver, D – Copper Hydroxide of this metal is soluble in sodium
hydroxide solution. B – Lead
2. Sodium hydroxide solution is added to the solutions containing the ions
mentioned in:
List 1 – a. Pb2+ b. Fe2+ c. Zn2+ d. Fe3+ e. Cu2+ f. Ca2+
List 2 – Gives the details of the precipitate formed:
i. Reddish brown, ii. White insoluble in excess, iii. Dirty green,
iv. White soluble in excess, v. White soluble in excess, vi. Blue.
Match the ions in list 1 with their coloured precipitates in list 2.
List 1 A B C D E F
List 2 iv/v iii iv/v i Vi ii
3. Give a balanced equation for:

a. Zinc oxide dissolves in sodium hydroxide.
ZnO + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2O
b. Zinc is heated with sodium hydroxide solution.
Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2
2012:
1. Name: The gas evolved on reaction of aluminum with boiling conc.
caustic alkali solution. Hydrogen.
2. State one observation for the following:
a. Excess ammonium hydroxide soln. is added to lead nitrate soln.
In little ammonium hydroxide it forms a curdy white ppt. of lead
(II) hydroxide which is insoluble in excess of ammonium
hydroxide.
b. Sodium hydroxide soln. is added to ferric chloride soln. at first a
little and then in excess.
When little sodium hydroxide is added to iron (III) chloride
solution, a reddish brown ppt. of ferric hydroxide is formed
which is insoluble in excess of sodium hydroxide.
2013:
1. State two relevant observations for the reaction: Ammonium hydroxide
solution is added to – copper (II) nitrate solution in small quantities and
then in excess.
A pale blue ppt. of copper hydroxide is formed with little ammonium
hydroxide and this ppt. is soluble in excess of NH4OH forming a deep
inky blue soln. of tetra amine copper compound.
Cu(NO3)2 + NH4OH → Cu(OH)2 + NH4NO3.
Cu(OH)2 + NH4OH (excess) → [Cu (NH3)4] (OH)2 + 4H2O.
2014:
1. State your observation: When excess sodium hydroxide is added to
calcium nitrate solution.
A chalky white ppt. insoluble in excess of sodium hydroxide.
2015:
1. To a salt solution ‘Y’ a small quantity of ammonium hydroxide solution is
added slowly and then in excess. A pale blue precipitate is formed which
dissolves in excess to form a clear inky blue solution. Identify the
positive ion in the salt ‘Y’. Copper ion
2016:
1. State your observations when ammonium hydroxide solutions is added
drop by drop & then is excess to each of the following:
a. Copper sulphate soln.
It forms pale blue ppt. of copper hydroxide, which is soluble in
excess forming deep inky blue solution of tetra amine copper
sulphate.
b. Zinc sulphate soln.
It forms a gelatinous white ppt. which is soluble in excess
forming tetra amine zinc compound.
2017:
1. State one relevant observation.
Action of sodium hydroxide solution on iron [II] Sulphate solution.
Dirty green ppt. of Fe(OH)2 is formed which is in sol. in excess.
2. How will you distinguish between?
Ammonium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide using CuSO4 soln.
Ammonium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide
A pale blue ppt. of copper A pale blue ppt. of CuSO4 is
hydroxide is formed with little formed which is insoluble in
ammonium hydroxide and this excess.
ppt. is soluble in excess of NH4OH
forming a deep inky blue soln. of
tetra amine copper compound.
2018: –
2019:
1. Write balanced chemical equation for: Ammonium hydroxide is added to
ferrous sulphate solution.
CuSO4 + 2NaOH → Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
2. Copper [II] sulphate solution reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to
form a precipitate of copper hydroxide. State the color of the precipitate
formed. Pale blue
2020:
1. State one relevant observation for the reaction: Addition of excess
ammonium hydroxide into copper sulphate solution.
It forms pale blue ppt of copper hydroxide which dissolves in excess
forming deep inky blue solution of tetra amine copper sulphate.
PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY.
*** Note ***

• Whenever any paper is used for testing a gas, for ex: blue litmus paper
or red litmus paper or orange potassium dichromate paper, etc. it has
always to be moist paper.
• Whenever potassium dichromate solution is used it is always acidified.
• Use dry cobalt chloride paper for testing water.
1999:
1. Describe one chemical test to distinguish between the following pairs:
a. Sodium chloride solution and sodium nitrate solution.
chloride solution, it gives nitrate solution, it gives out
dense white fumes of NH4Cl which does not form dense
when a glass rod dipped in white fumes when a glass rod
ammonia is brought near it. dipped in ammonia is brought
near it.
b. Sodium sulphate solution and sodium chloride solution.
Sodium sulphate solution Sodium chloride solution
Add barium chloride, it forms a Add barium chloride, it forms
white ppt. of barium sulphate, no ppt.
which is insoluble in dil. HCl.
c. Calcium nitrate and zinc nitrate solution.
Calcium nitrate solution Zinc nitrate solution
which is soluble in excess
forming tetra amine zinc
compound.
2000:
1. State the effect of adding a small amount of a) NaOH b) NH 4OH
followed by excess in each case.
a. Calcium nitrate.
On adding NaOH first little then in excess, it forms a chalky white
ppt. of calcium hydroxide which is insoluble in excess of NaOH.
When NH4OH is added it doesn’t form any ppt.
b. Zinc nitrate.
Add NaOH first little then in excess, it forms a gelatinous white
ppt. of zinc hydroxide which is soluble in excess of NaOH forming
sodium zincate solution.
When NH4OH is added first little then in excess, it forms
gelatinous white ppt. of zinc hydroxide which is soluble in excess
of NH4OH forming a colorless solution of tetra amine zinc
compound.
c. Lead nitrate.
Add NaOH first little then in excess, it forms a curdy white ppt. of
lead hydroxide which is soluble in excess of NaOH forming a
colorless solution of sodium plumbate.
When NH4OH is added first little then in excess, it forms a curdy
white ppt. of lead (II) hydroxide which is insoluble in excess of
NH4OH.
2001:
1. State what do you observe when NH4OH is added to iron (III) sulphate
solution.
When ammonium hydroxide is added to iron (III) sulphate solution first
little then in excess, a reddish brown ppt. of ferric hydroxide is formed
which is insoluble in excess of ammonium hydroxide.
2. From the formulae list given below choose the one corresponding to the
salt having the given description: AgCl, CuCO3, CuSO4.5H2O, KNO3, NaCl,
Pb(NO3)2, ZnCO3, ZnSO4.7H2O.
a. On heating the salt changes from green to black. CuCO3.
2002:
1. State the observations seen in each case (a) to (d) for the tests
performed and the conclusions drawn in each case:
a. Test: To solution A, barium chloride solution & dil. HCl acid were
added.
Conclusion: A contains SO42- ions.
Observation: White ppt. of barium sulphate is seen which is
b. Test: To solution B, sodium hydroxide soln. was added.
Conclusion: B contains Fe3+ ions.
Observation: Reddish brown ppt. of ferric hydroxide is observed
which is insoluble in excess of NaOH.
c. Test: To solution C ammonium hydroxide was added slowly till in
excess.
Conclusion: C contains Cu2+ ions.
Observation: When ammonium hydroxide is added to ‘C’ pale
blue ppt. of copper hydroxide is seen. This ppt. is soluble in
excess of NH4OH and forms deep inky blue solution of tetra
amine copper sulphate.
d. Test: To solution D silver nitrate solution & dil. nitric acid were
added.
Conclusion: D contains Cl- ions.
Observation: White ppt. of silver chloride is formed which is
insoluble in dil. HNO3 and soluble in NH4OH.
2003:
1. State the colour of the residue obtained on cooling when following
carbonates are heated:
a. Zinc carbonate – Yellow when hot and white when cold.
b. Lead carbonate – Yellow Colour
c. Copper carbonate – Black colour
2004:
1. NaOH soln. is added first in small amount quantity, then in excess to the
aqueous salt solutions of: a. Copper (II) sulphate; b. Zinc nitrate;
c. Lead nitrate; d. Calcium chloride e. Iron (III) sulphate.
For each of the aqueous salt solution, State in each case:
a. The colour of the ppt. when NaOH is added in small quantity.
b. The nature of ppt. (i.e. soluble / insoluble) when NaOH is added in
excess.
a. Copper (II) sulphate: (i) Pale Blue (ii) Insoluble
b. Zinc nitrate: (i) Gelatinous white (ii) Soluble
c. Lead nitrate: (i) Curdy white (ii) Soluble
d. Calcium chloride: (i) Chalky white (ii) Insoluble
e. Iron (III) sulphate: (i) Reddish brown (ii) Insoluble
2005:
1. The questions below refer to the following salt solutions listed from a to
f.
a. Copper nitrate
b. Iron (II) sulphate
c. Iron (III) chloride
d. Lead Nitrate
e. Magnesium Sulphate
f. Zinc Chloride
i. Which 2 soln. will give a white ppt. when treated with dil.
HCl followed by barium chloride solution, [i.e. White ppt.
insoluble in dil. HCl]? d and e
ii. Which 2 soln. will give a white ppt. when treated with dil.
HNO3 & AgNO3 solution? c and f
iii. Which soln. will give a white ppt. when either dil. HCl or
dil. H2SO4 is added to it. d
iv. Which soln. becomes a deep / inky blue color when excess
of NH4OH is added to it? a
v. Which solution gives a white ppt. with excess NH4OH
solution? d
2006:
1. From the list of substances given state a substance that turns moist
starch iodide paper blue. Ammonium, sulphate, lead carbonate,
chlorine, copper nitrate, ferrous sulphate. Chlorine
2. State what is observed when excess of NH3 passed through an aq. soln.
of lead nitrate.
It forms a chalky white ppt. of lead hydroxide, which is insoluble in
excess of NH4OH.
3. Give one test each to distinguish between the following pairs of chemicals:
a. Calcium nitrate and zinc nitrate solution.
Heat calcium nitrate, it dissociate Heat zinc nitrate, it dissociate to
calcium oxide, reddish brown is yellow when hot and white
b. Sodium nitrate and sodium chloride solution:
Sodium nitrate solution Sodium chloride solution
Add conc. H2SO4, to sodium Add conc. H2SO4 to sodium
which does not forms dense gives dense white fumes of NH4Cl
white fumes when a glass rod when a glass rod dipped in
dipped in ammonia is bought ammonia is bought near it.
near it.
c. Iron (III) chloride and copper chloride solution:
Iron (III) Chloride solution Copper Chloride solution
Add NH4OH, first little and then Add NH4OH, first little and then
in excess, it forms a reddish in excess, it forms a pale blue
brown ppt. which is insoluble in ppt. which is soluble in excess
excess. forming a deep inky blue
solution of tetra amine copper
chloride.
4. Give a reason why carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide can’t be
distinguished by using lime water?
Both carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide turns lime water milky due to
the formation of insoluble calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate
respectively. Hence they can’t be distinguished by using lime water.
2007:
1. Salt A, B, C, D & E undergo reactions. Identify the anion present in these
salts on the basis of the following reactions:
a. When AgNO3 solution is added to soln. of A, a white ppt.,
insoluble in dil. HNO3, is formed. Cl–
b. Addition of dil. HCl to B produces a gas which turns lead acetate
paper black. S–2
c. When a freshly prepared soln. of FeSO4 is added to a soln. of C &
Conc. H2SO4 is gently poured from the side of test tube, a brown
ring is formed. NO3–1
d. When dil. H2SO4 is added to D a gas is produced which turns
acidified K2Cr2O7 soln. from orange to green. SO3–2 or SO4–2
e. Addition of dil. HCl to E produced an – effervescence. The gas
produced turns limewater milky but doesn’t affect acidified
K2Cr2O7 soln. CO3–2
2. How will the addition of barium chloride soln. help to distinguish
between dil. HCl & dil. H2SO4?
When barium chloride is added to dilute H2SO4, a white ppt. of barium
sulphate is formed but when barium chloride is added to dil. HCl no
white ppt. is produced since BaCl2 is soluble in dilute HCl.
2008:
1. The salt which in solution gives a pale green ppt. with NaOH soln. & a
white ppt. with barium chloride soln. is:
a. Iron (III) sulphate
b. Iron (II) sulphate
c. Iron (II) Chloride
d. Iron (III) chloride.
Ans: b. Iron (II) sulphate
2009:
1. CO2 & SO2 gas can be distinguished by using: -
A: moist blue litmus paper B: Lime water. C: acidified potassium
dichromate paper D: None of the above. C.
2. Identify the substance ‘R’ based on the information given below:
The pale green solid ‘R’ turns reddish brown on heating. Its aq. soln.
gives a white ppt. with BaCl2 soln. The ppt. is insoluble in mineral acids.
Ferric sulphate.
3. Give one test each to distinguish between the following pairs of
chemical soln.:
a. Zinc sulphate soln. and zinc chloride soln.:
Zinc sulphate soln. Zinc chloride soln.
Add BaCl2 to zinc sulphate Add BaCl2 to zinc chloride
solution, it forms a white ppt. solution, it forms no ppt.
of barium sulphate, which is
b. Iron (II) chloride soln. and Iron (III) chloride soln.:
Iron (II) chloride soln. Iron (III) chloride soln.
Add NH4OH to ferrous chloride Add NH4OH to ferric chloride
excess, it forms a dirty green excess, it forms a reddish
ppt. of ferrous hydroxide which brown ppt. of ferric hydroxide
is insoluble in excess. which is insoluble in excess.
c. Calcium nitrate soln. and calcium chloride soln.:
Calcium nitrate soln. Calcium Chloride soln.
Add conc. H2SO4, to calcium Add conc. H2SO4 to calcium
which does not forms dense gives dense white fumes of
white fumes when a glass rod NH4Cl when a glass rod dipped
dipped in ammonia is bought in ammonia is bought near it.
near it.
2010:
1. Select the correct answer from a, b, c, d & e:
The compound which is responsible for the green colour formed when
SO2 is bubbled through acidified potassium dichromate soln.
a. Nitroso Iron (II) sulphate
b. Iron (III) chloride
c. Chromium Sulphate
d. Lead (II) chloride
e. Sodium Chloride
Ans: c. Chromium sulphate.
2. State your observations when the following is introduced in each case
into a jar of sulphur dioxide:
a. A piece of moist blue litmus paper.
Blue litmus paper turns red and then gets bleached.
b. Paper soaked in potassium permanganate soln.-.
Turns potassium permanganate solution from pink to colourless.
3. Write the equation for the reaction of magnesium sulphate solution with
barium chloride soln. MgSO4 + BaCl2 → MgCl2 + BaSO4.
2011:
1. Choose from the list of substances – acetylene gas, aqua fortis, coke,
brass, barium chloride, bronze, platinum.
a. An aqueous solution used for testing sulphate radical. Barium chloride
2012:
1. Name – the gas, which turns acidified potassium dichromate solution
clear green. Sulphur dioxide.
2. Identify the anion present in the following compounds:
a. Compound X on heating with copper turnings & conc. Sulphuric
acid liberates a reddish brown gas. Nitrate, NO3–1
b. When a solution of compound Y is treated with silver nitrate
solution a white precipitate is obtained which is soluble in excess
of ammonium hydroxide solution. Chloride, Cl–1.
c. Compound Z which on reacting with dilute Sulphuric acid liberates
a gas which turns lime water milky, but the gas has no effect on
acidified potassium dichromate solution. Carbonate, CO3–2.
d. Compound L on reacting with barium chloride solution gives a
white precipitate insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute
nitric acid. Sulphate, SO4-2.
3. State one chemical test between each of the following pairs:
a. Sodium carbonate & sodium sulphite.
Sodium carbonate Sodium Sulphite
green.
b. Ferrous nitrate & lead nitrate.
Ferrous nitrate Lead nitrate
Add NH4OH to ferrous nitrate Add NH4OH to lead nitrate
excess, it forms a dirty green ppt. excess, it forms a curdy white
of ferrous hydroxide which is ppt. of lead hydroxide which is
insoluble in excess. insoluble in excess, forming
sodium plumbate.
c. Manganese dioxide & copper (II) oxide.
Manganese dioxide Copper II oxide
4. State one observation: A zinc granule is added to copper sulphate
solution.
Blue copper sulphate solution forms colorless solution of zinc sulphate
and red metal copper is deposited below.
5. Give balanced equation for the reaction: Silver nitrate solution & sodium
chloride solution.
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3.
2013:
1. Give a chemical test to distinguish between:
a. Sodium chloride soln. & sodium nitrate soln.
chloride solution, it gives nitrate solution, it gives out
dense white fumes of NH4Cl which does not forms dense
ammonia is brought near it. dipped in ammonia is brought
near it.
b. Hydrogen chloride gas & hydrogen sulphide gas.
Hydrogen chloride gas Hydrogen sulphide gas
has no effect on the paper. turns silvery black.
Add Lead metal, it forms white Add Lead metal, it forms black
lead chloride and gives out a lead sulphide and give out a
colorless gas hydrogen which colorless gas hydrogen which
puts off a burning splinter with a puts off a burning splinter with a
pop sound. pop sound.
Get a rod dipped in ammonia at Get a rod dipped in ammonia at
the mouth of the test tube; it the mouth of the test tube; it
gives dense white fumes of does not give dense white fumes
ammonium chloride. of ammonium chloride.
c. Calcium nitrate soln. & zinc nitrate soln.
Calcium nitrate soln. Zinc nitrate soln.
which is soluble in excess
compound.
Heat calcium nitrate, it dissociate
Heat zinc nitrate, it dissociate to
calcium oxide and reddish brown is yellow when hot and white
d. Carbon dioxide gas & sulphur dioxide gas.
Introduce burning Mg ribbon; it Introduce burning Mg ribbon; it
forms black particles of carbon. forms yellow particles of sulphur.
2. Which one of the following will not produce an acid when made to react
with water?
a. Carbon monoxide
b. Nitrogen dioxide
c. Carbon dioxide
d. Sulphur trioxide.
Ans: a. carbon monoxide.
2014:
1. Distinguish between: Sodium nitrate and sodium sulphite (using dilute
sulphuric acid).
Add dilute sulphuric acid separately to sodium nitrate and sodium
sulphite. In sodium sulphite colourless gas is produced with
effervescence and suffocating odour and turns acidified potassium
permanganate colourless or turns acidified potassium dichromate
solution from orange to green while no effect on sodium nitrate.
2. State your observation when moist starch iodide paper is introduced
into chlorine gas. The paper turns blue black.
3. The flame test with a salt P gave a brick red flame. What is cation in P? Ca2+
4. Gas Q turns moist lead acetate paper silvery black. Identify the gas Q. H2S.
5. pH of liquid R is 10. What kind of substance is R? Alkaline.
2015:
1. Select the gas that has a characteristic rotten egg smell. [ammonia,
ethane, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen sulphide, ethyne]. Hydrogen
sulphide
2. State one relevant observation: When hydrogen sulphide gas is passed
through lead acetate solution. Lead acetate solution becomes colorless
to black.
3. Identify the anion present in each of the following compounds – a, b, c:
a. Salt ‘A’ reacts with conc. H2SO4 producing a gas, which fumes in
moist air & gives dense fumes with ammonia. Cl– [as A – NaCl]
b. Salt ‘B’ reacts with dil. H2SO4 producing a gas, which turns lime
water milky but has no effect on acidified potassium dichromate
solution. CO32–
c. When barium chloride soln. is added to salt soln. ‘C’ a white
precipitate insoluble in dil. HCI is obtained. SO42–
4. Identify the cation present in each of the following compounds – W, X, Y,
Z:
a. To solution, ‘W’, ammonium hydroxide is added in minimum
quantity first and then in excess. A dirty white precipitate is
formed which dissolves in excess to form a clear solution. Mn2+
b. To solution ‘X’ ammonium hydroxide is added in minimum
quantity first and then in excess. A pale blue precipitate is formed
which dissolves in excess to form a clear inky blue solution. Cu2++
c. To solution ‘Y’ a small amount of sodium hydroxide is added
slowly and then in excess. A white insoluble precipitate is formed.
Ca2++
d. To a salt ‘Z’ calcium hydroxide solution is added and then the
mixture is heated. A pungent smelling gas turning moist red litmus
paper blue is obtained. NH4+
2016:
1. Identify the cations in each of the following cases:
a. NaOH solution when added to the solution ‘A’ – gives a reddish brown
precipitate. Ferric
b. NH4OH solution when added to the solution ‘B’ – gives a white
ppt. which does not dissolve in excess. Lead
c. NaOH solution when added to the solution ‘C’ – gives a white ppt.
which is insoluble in excess. Calcium
2017:
1. Choose the correct answer from the options: A chloride which forms a
precipitate that is soluble in excess of ammonium hydroxide is:
a.
b. Calcium chloride
c. Ferrous chloride
d. Ferric chloride
Ans: a. Copper chloride
2. Identify the substance underlined – Cation that does not form a
precipitate with ammonium hydroxide but forms one with sodium
hydroxide. Calcium
3. Identify the salts P & Q from the observations given below:
a. On performing the flame test salt P produces a lilac colored flame
and its solutions gives a white precipitate with silver nitrate
solution, which is soluble in ammonium hydroxide solution.
b. When dilute HCl is added to a salt Q, A brisk effervescence is
produced and the gas turns lime water milky. When NH 4OH soln.
is added to the above mixture [after adding dilute HCl], It
produces a white precipitate which is soluble in excess NH 4OH
soln.
P = Potassium chloride, Q = Zinc carbonate
2018:
1. State the relevant observation – Barium chloride solution is slowly
added to sodium sulphate solution. It forms a white ppt. of BaSO4
2. Give a chemical test to distinguish between the following pairs of
chemicals:
a. Lead nitrate solution and zinc nitrate solution.
Lead nitrate solution Zinc nitrate solution

excess, it forms a curdy white excess, it forms a gelatinous
ppt. of lead hydroxide which is white ppt. of zinc hydroxide
insoluble in excess. which is soluble in excess
compound.
b. Sodium chloride solution and sodium nitrate solution.

Sodium chloride solution Sodium nitrate solution

colorless gas of HCl which gives colorless vapors of nitric acid
dense white fumes of NH4Cl which does not forms dense
ammonia is bought near it. dipped in ammonia is bought
near it.
2019:
1. State one observation for the following:
Lead nitrate is heated strongly in a test tube.
Original color – white crystalline solid, turns buff yellow on heating,
decrepitates [give cracking sound].
2. Distinguish between the following pairs of compounds using the reagent
given in the bracket.
a. Manganese dioxide and copper [II] oxide [using concentrated HCl].
Add conc. HCl, black MnO2 turns Add conc. HCl, black CuO turns
to colorless solution of to greenish blue solution of
manganese chloride and give out copper chloride and give out
a greenish yellow gas chlorine. no gas.
b. Ferrous sulphate solution and ferric sulphate solution. [using

sodium hydroxide solution].
Ferrous sulphate solution Ferric sulphate solution
Add NaOH to ferrous sulphate Add NaOH to ferric sulphate

excess, it forms a dirty green ppt. excess, it forms a reddish
of ferrous hydroxide which is brown ppt. of ferric hydroxide
insoluble in excess. which is insoluble in excess.
2020:
1. State one relevant observation for the following reaction: Zinc carbonate
is heated strongly.
Heat zinc carbonate, it dissociates to give a residue of zinc oxide which
is yellow when hot and white when cold and gives out colorless gas
carbon dioxide which turns lime water milky.
2. State one relevant reason for the following: Hydrated copper sulphate
crystals turn white on heating.
Hydrated crystals of copper sulphate loses it water of crystallization ,
which is responsible for shape and colour and hence it turns into white
anhydrous powder.
3. Match the gases given in Column I to the identification of the gases
mentioned in Column II:
Column I Column II
i. Hydrogen A: Turns acidified potassium dichromate solution
sulphide green
ii. Carbon dioxide B: Turns lime water milky.
iii. Sulphur dioxide C: Turns reddish brown when it reacts with oxygen.
D: Turns moist lead acetate paper silvery black.
Column I (i) (ii) (iii)

Column II D B A
4. Distinguish between the following pairs of compounds using a reagent as

a chemical test:
a. Calcium nitrate & zinc nitrate solution.
Heat calcium nitrate, it Heat zinc nitrate, it dissociate
dissociate to give a colorless to give a residue of zinc oxide
residue of calcium oxide, which is yellow when hot and
reddish brown fumes of white when cold and reddish
nitrogen dioxide and a brown fumes of nitrogen
colorless gas oxygen which dioxide and a colorless gas
rekindles the glowing splinter. oxygen which rekindles the
glowing splinter.
b. Magnesium chloride and magnesium nitrate solution.
Magnesium chloride solution Magnesium nitrate solution
Add lead nitrate solution, it Add lead nitrate solution, it
forms a white ppt of lead does not form ant ppt.
chloride which is soluble in hot
water and insoluble in cold
water.
5. Identify the salts P, Q, R from the following observations:
a. Salt P has light bluish green colour. On heating, it produces a black
colored residue. Salt P produces brisk effervescence with dil. HCl
and the gas evolved turns lime water milky, but no action with
acidified potassium dichromate solution.
P = Copper Carbonate
b. Salt Q is white in colour. On strong heating, it produces buff
yellow residue & liberates reddish brown gas.
Solution of salt Q produces chalky white insoluble ppt. with excess
of ammonium hydroxide.
Q = Lead nitrate
c. Salt R is black in colour. On reacting with concentrated HCl, it
liberates a pungent greenish yellow gas which turns moist starch
iodide paper blue black.
R = Manganese dioxide
Analytical:
1. Salts of (i) (normal / transition) elements are generally coloured. From
the ions K1+, Cr3+, Fe2+, Ca2+, So32-, MnO41-, NO31- the ions generally
coloured are (ii).
i – transition, ii – Cr3+, Fe2+, MnO41
2. The hydroxide which is soluble in excess of NaOH is _____ (Zn(OH)2 /
Fe(OH)3 / Fe(OH)2).
Zn(OH)2
3. The salt which will not react with NH4OH solution is ______
(ZnCl2/CuCl2/NH4Cl/FeCl2). NH4Cl
4. The substance/s which react/s with hot conc. NaOH solution and
undergoes a neutralization reaction _____ (Al 2O3/Al/ Al(OH)3). Al2O3 and
Al(OH)3
5. To distinguish soluble salts of zinc and lead, ____ (NaOH/NH 4OH) can be
used. NH4OH
6. Oxides and hydroxides of certain metals i.e. _____ (iron / Zinc / Copper
/ aluminum/magnesium) are amphoteric and react with _____
(acids/alkalis/ acids& alkalis) to give salt & water.
Zinc & aluminium, acids & alkalis
Practical:
7. The following materials are provided – solutions of cobalt chloride,
ammonia, potassium permanganate, lime water, starch iodide,
sodium hydroxide, lead acetate, and potassium iodide. Also provided
are litmus and filter papers, glowing splinters and glass rods. Using the
above how would you distinguish between:
a. A neutral, acidic and a basic gas.
Neutral gas Acidic gas Basic gas
Dip moist red litmus in it- Dip moist blue litmus Dip moist red
no change, – it turns red. litmus – it turns
Dip moist blue litmus in it blue.
– no change.
b. Oxygen and hydrogen gas.
Oxygen gas Hydrogen gas
Bring a glowing splinter near it, it Bring a glowing splinter near it, it
continuous to burns with a bright puts off the glowing splinter with
flame. a pop sound.
c. Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide gas.
d. Chlorine and hydrogen chloride gas.
Bring moist blue litmus paper Bring moist blue litmus paper
near it, it turns blue litmus red near it, it turns blue litmus red.
and then bleaches it. Does not bleaches it.
Bring moist starch iodide paper Bring moist starch iodide paper
near the mouth of the test tube, near the mouth of the test tube,
it turns from colorless to black- it remains unchanged.
black.
e. Hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen dioxide gas.
Hydrogen sulphide gas Nitrogen dioxide gas.
turns silvery black. remains unchanged.
f. Ammonia and carbon dioxide gas.
Ammonia gas Carbon dioxide gas
Dip a moist red litmus – it turns Dip a moist blue litmus – it turns
blue. red.
g. Zinc carbonate and potassium nitrate.
Zinc carbonate Potassium nitrate
Heat zinc carbonate, it Heat potassium nitrate, it
dissociates to give a residue of dissociates to give a colorless
zinc oxide which is yellow when residue of potassium nitrite and
hot and white when cold and gives out a colorless gas oxygen,
gives out colorless gas carbon which rekindles the glowing
dioxide which turns lime water splinter.
milky.
h. Hydrated copper sulphate and anhydrous copper sulphate.
Hydrated copper Sulphate Anhydrous copper sulphate
On heating the blue crystals of On heating the white powder of
copper sulphate, it first turns copper sulphate it dissociates to
white and then dissociates to give black residue of copper
give black residue of copper oxide, gives colorless gas sulphur
oxide, gives colorless gas sulphur dioxide, which turns moist
dioxide which turns moist orange orange potassium dichromate
potassium dichromate paper paper green and also gives
green and also gives colorless gas colorless gas oxygen, which
oxygen, which rekindles the rekindles the glowing splinter.
glowing splinter.
i. Ammonium sulphate and sodium sulphate.
Ammonium Sulphate Sodium sulphate
Add calcium hydroxide solution Add calcium hydroxide solution
and heat it, it will give a pungent and heat it, it will give a white
smelling gas ammonia and no ppt. of calcium sulphate and no
ppt. will be formed. pungent smelling gas will be
given out.
8. Give a chemical test to distinguish between the following: [Explain the
procedure for the preparation of the solutions for the above tests
wherever required]
a. Sodium carbonate and Sodium sulphate.
Sodium carbonate Sodium sulphate
green.
b. Potassium chloride and potassium nitrate.
Potassium chloride Potassium nitrate
Add conc. H2SO4 to potassium Add conc. H2SO4, to potassium
colorless vapors of HCl which colorless vapors of nitric acid
gives dense white fumes of NH4Cl which does not forms dense
ammonia is bought near it. dipped in ammonia is bought
near it.
c. Copper carbonate and copper sulphite.
Copper carbonate Copper sulphite
water milky and has no effect on water milky and turns moist
potassium dichromate paper. orange potassium dichromate
paper green.
d. Lead chloride and lead sulphide.
Lead chloride Lead sulphide
Add dil. HCl, it gives out no gas. Add dil. HCl, it gives colorless gas
hydrogen sulphide, which turns
moist lead acetate paper silvery
black.
e. Iron (II) sulphate and iron (III) sulphate.
Iron II Sulphate Iron III Sulphate
Add NH4OH to ferrous sulphate Add NH4OH to ferric sulphate
f. Calcium sulphate and zinc sulphate.
Calcium Sulphate Zinc sulphate
Add NaOH to calcium sulphate Add NaOH to zinc sulphate
excess, it forms a chalky white excess, it forms a gelatinous
ppt. of calcium hydroxide which white ppt. of zinc hydroxide
is insoluble in excess. which is soluble in excess
forming sodium zincate solution.
g. Lead nitrate and zinc nitrate.
Lead nitrate Zinc nitrate
excess, it forms a curdy white excess, it forms a gelatinous
ppt. of lead hydroxide which is white ppt. of zinc hydroxide
insoluble in excess. which is soluble in excess
compound.
h. Copper sulphate and calcium sulphate.
Copper Sulphate Calcium Sulphate
Add NaOH to copper sulphate Add NaOH to calcium sulphate
excess, it forms a pale blue ppt. excess, it forms a chalky white
of copper hydroxide which is ppt. of calcium hydroxide which
insoluble in excess. is insoluble in excess.
i. Manganese dioxide and copper [II] oxide.
j. Dil. nitric acid, dil. sulphuric acid and dil. Hydrochloric acid.
Dil. nitric acid Dil. sulphuric acid Dil. hydrochloric acid.
Add lead Add lead nitrate solution, Add lead nitrate
nitrate it reacts to form white solution, reacts to form
solution, no ppt. of lead sulphate, white ppt. of lead
reaction. which is insoluble in hot chloride, which is
and cold water. soluble in hot water.
9. Identify the anion and cation in the following substances A, B and C. Also
identify P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W.
a. Substance ‘A’ is water soluble and gives a curdy white ppt. ‘P’ with
silver nitrate solution. ‘P’ is soluble in NH4OH but insoluble in dil.
HNO3. Substance ‘A’ reacts with NH4OH soln. to give a white ppt.
‘Q’ soluble in excess of NH4OH.
A – Zinc chloride (Zn+2, Cl-1),
P – Silver chloride (Ag+1, Cl-1),
Q – Zinc hydroxide (Zn+2, OH-1).
b. A soln. of substance ‘B’ is added to BaCl2 soln. A white ppt. ‘R’ is
formed, insoluble in dil. HCl or HNO3. A dirty green ppt. ‘S’ is
formed on addition of NH4OH to a solution of ‘B’ & the ppt. is
insoluble in excess NH4OH.
B – Ferrous sulphate (Fe+2, SO4-2),
R – Barium sulphate (Ba+2, SO4-2),
S – Ferrous hydroxide (Fe+2, OH-1).
c. Substance ‘C’ is a colored, a crystalline salt, which on heating
decomposes leaving a black, residue ‘T’. On addition of Cu
turnings & conc. H2SO4 to ‘C’ a colored acidic gas ‘U’ is evolved on
heating.
A soln. of ‘C’ is added to NaOH soln. until in excess. A pale blue
ppt. ‘P’ is obtained insoluble in excess of NaOH. A solution of ‘C’ is
then added to NH4OH solution in excess to give an inky blue
solution ‘V’. A soln. of ‘C’ is warmed and hydrogen sulphide gas is
passed through it. A black ppt. ‘W’ appears.
C – Copper sulphate (Cu+2, SO4-2),
T – Copper oxide (Cu+2, O-2),
P – Copper hydroxide (Cu+2, OH-1),
U – Sulphur dioxide (S+4, O-2),
V – Tetra amine copper sulphate solution (NH3+1, Cu-2, SO4-2),
W – Copper sulphide (Cu+2, S-2).
TEST PAPER.
1. Match the cations A to F and the solubility of ppt. G or H with the correct
colors from X & Y.
X On addition of NaOH in Cation Solubility of ppt. in
excess excess
1. Reddish brown ppt. A: Ca2+ G: Soluble
2. Pale blue ppt. B: Zn2+ H: Insoluble
3 Gelatinous white ppt. C: Fe2+
4. Chalky white ppt. D: Cu2+
5. Milky white ppt. E: Pb2+
F: Fe3+
Y On addition of NH4OH in Cation Solubility of ppt. in
excess excess
6. Dirty green ppt. A: Ca2+ G: Soluble
7. No ppt. formed B: Zn2+ H: Insoluble
8. Gelatinous white ppt. C: Fe2+
9. Pale blue ppt. D: Cu2+
10. Chalky white ppt. E : Pb2+
F: Fe3+
Answers:
X 1 2 3 4 5
F D B A E
H H G H G
Y 6 7 8 9 10
C A B D E
H G G G H
2. Select the correct anion of a salt from the anions given, which matches with
description 1 to 5.
A – CO32 –, B – NO31 –, C – SO42 –, D – Cl–, E – SO2 –.
a. The salt soln. reacts with AgNO3 soln. to give a white ppt.
insoluble in dil. HNO3. D
b. The salt soln. reacts with Ba(NO3)2 soln. to give a white ppt.
insoluble in dil. HNO3. C
c. The salt soln. reacts with Ba(NO3)2 soln. to give a white ppt.
soluble in dil. HNO3 but insoluble in dil. H2SO4. A
d. The salt reacts with dil. H2SO4 on heating evolving a gas which
turns KMnO4 solution pink to colorless. E.
e. The salt reacts with conc. H2SO4 on heating evolving a colored gas
which turns potassium iodide paper brown. B.
3. Give balanced equations for the conversions A and B.

𝐴− 𝐵𝑎(𝑁𝑂3 )2 𝐵−𝑑𝑖𝑙. 𝐻𝐶𝑙
a. Metallic carbonate→ White precipitation → ppt.
dissolves.
A – Na2CO3 + Ba(NO3)2 → BaCO3 + 2NaNO3.
B – BaCO3 + 2HCl → BaCl2 + H2O + CO2
𝐴−𝑃𝑏(𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂)2 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛.
b. Metallic sulphide → Black precipitate.
Na2S + Pb(CH3COO)2 → 2NaCH3COO + PbS
𝐴−𝐵𝑎𝐶𝑙2 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛. 𝐵−𝑑𝑖𝑙.𝐻𝐶𝑙
c. Metallic salt → Barium sulphite → Barium
chloride.
A – Na2SO3 + BaCl2 → 2NaCl + BaSO3.
B – BaSO3 + 2HCl → BaCl2 + H2O + SO2
𝐴−𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐.𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ∆ 𝐵−𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3
d. Metallic chloride→ Gas evolved → white
precipitate.
A – NaCl + H2SO4 (conc.) → NaHSO4 + HCl.
B – AgNO3 + HCl → AgCl + HNO3
𝐴−𝐵𝑎𝐶𝑙2
e. Metallic salt → White ppt. insoluble in dil. HCl.
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl
4. Complete the given table below:

Sr. Heat On Gas Colour of Odor of Nature of Solubility of Colour of
No. evolved gas gas gas gas in H2O residue if any.
1. KNO3 O2 Colourless No Neutral Fairly soluble White
2. (NH4)2Cr2O7 N2 Colourless - Neutral Not soluble Green
3. ZnCO3 CO2 Colorless - Acidic Soluble at Yellow when

4˚C. Fairly hot and white
soluble. when cold.
4. Zn + dil. H2SO4 H2 Colorless - Neutral Fairly soluble Colorless
5. Na2S + dil. H2SO4 H2S Colorless Rotten egg Acidic Fairly soluble Colorless
6. Na2SO3 + dil. H2SO4 SO2 Colorless Burnt Acidic Highly Colorless

sulphur soluble
7. NaCl + Conc. H2SO4 HCl colorless Pungent Acidic Highly Colorless

soluble
8. NaNO3 + Cu + Conc. NO2 Reddish - Acidic Highly Blue

H2SO4 brown soluble
9. MNO2 + Conc. HCl Cl2 Greenish - Acidic Highly Colorless

yellow soluble
10. NH4Cl + NaOH NH3 Colorless Pungent Basic Highly Colorless

soluble
5. Select the correct word from the words in bracket.

a. The solution which on heating with CaCO3 evolves CO2 gas (Conc.
H2SO4/dil. H2SO4/dil. HCl) dil. HCl
b. The soln. which can be used to distinguish an ammonium salt from
a sodium salt. (CuCl2 solution/ NH4OH/dil. H2SO4/AgNO3 soln.)
CuCl2 solution
c. The pH of blood is around 7.4 of saliva is 6.5 and of acid rain in
around 4.5. The solution which is slightly alkaline of the three.
(Saliva/ acid rain / blood) blood
d. Decomposition of (NaCl/NaHCO3/NaNO3) by dil. H2SO4 forms on
unstable acid. NaHCO3
e. A metal which reacts with an alkali to liberate hydrogen.
(iron / copper / aluminum). Aluminum
BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES

04. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 2021 – 22.
➢ Scope:
o Blood: Composition of blood (structure and functions of RBC, WBC
and platelets), Increase in efficiency of mammalian red blood cells
due to absence of certain organelles with reasons for the same,
blood coagulation, ABO blood group system and Rh factor.
o Blood vessels: Artery, vein and capillary to be explained with the
help of diagrams to bring out the relationship between their
structure and function.
o Heart: Structure and working of the heart along with names of the
main blood vessels entering and leaving the heart, the liver and
the kidney, Concept of systole and diastole; concept of double
circulation, pulse and blood pressure.
o Fluids: Tissue fluid, lymph, brief idea of the lymphatic organs:
Spleen and tonsils.
o Significance of the hepatic portal system.
➢ The cardio vascular system/ circulatory system/ vascular system:

o Definition: It is an organ system that circulates blood and body
fluids to provide nourishment, help in fighting diseases, stabilizes
temperature and maintains homeostasis.
o Homeostasis: A self-regulating biological process which adjusts
the body to changing condition and maintains relatively stable
environment is called Homeostasis.
o The circulatory system includes:
▪ Heart.
▪ Blood circulatory system: It consists of blood and blood vessels.
▪ Lymphatic circulatory system: It consists of lymph, lymph
nodes, and lymph vessels.
➢ Fluids in our body: There are two types of fluids in our body – circulating
and non-circulating fluids.
o Circulating fluids:
▪ They circulate in the body.
▪ They are tissue fluids, lymph and blood.
▪ Location:
• Tissue fluid: Between the cells of the organs.
• Lymph: It is contained within lymph vessels and
lymphatic organs such as the spleen and the tonsils.
• Blood: It is contained in the heart and in the blood vessels.
▪ Closed vascular system: Blood in the body of vertebrates
circulates in a closed manner is called Closed vascular system.
▪ Open blood circulatory system: Blood in the body of
invertebrates flows through open spaces is called as Open
blood circulatory system.
o Non-circulating fluids:
▪ They do not circulate.
▪ There are fluids located in particular organs:
• Synovial fluid filled in the cavities of skeletal joints.
• Aqueous and Vitreous humour in the eye.
➢ Need for circulatory system inside the body:
o Proper functioning of various systems like digestive system,
excretory system, respiratory system, etc.
o Transportation of hormones, digested food materials and oxygen
to all parts of the body.
o Transportation of carbon dioxide and all the excretory products
from all parts of the body to the organs for elimination.
➢ The Blood:
o Definition: Blood is a red fluid consisting of plasma and
corpuscles, circulating in all parts of the body.
o Characteristics:
▪ It is a circulating fluid.
▪ Slightly alkaline in nature.
▪ Saltish to taste.
▪ pH value: 7.35 – 7.45.
▪ Volume: 5 – 6 litres in adults.
▪ Colour: Bright red in artery and dark red in vein.
o Location: In the vascular tissues of the body.
o Function: The main functions of the blood are:
▪ Transportation: Blood transports hormones, digested food
materials and oxygen to all parts of the body.
• It transports hormones, digested food materials and
oxygen to all parts of the body.
• It transports carbon dioxide and all the excretory products
▪ Protection: Blood protects the body by phagocytosis, antibody
production and blood clotting.
• WBC kills germs by phagocytosis.
• WBC’s produce antibodies to kill or neutralize the
toxic effect of germs.
• Blood platelets help in blood clotting which prevents loss
of blood.
▪ Regulatory: Blood regulates the body temperature.
• It distributes heat evenly to regulate body temperature.
o Composition of blood:
▪ The blood consists of plasma
(55 – 60%) and cellular elements
(40 – 45%).
▪ Plasma:
• Definition: It is a yellow
coloured liquid part of the
blood containing
dissolved substances.
• It is an alkaline liquid.
• Composition:
o Water (90 – 92%).
o Nutrients, salts, metabolic wastes, gases,
hormones, enzymes etc. (6 to 8%).
• Location: In the blood.
• Function: It carries nutrients, body proteins, hormones,
etc. to different parts of the body and carry wastes
from all the cell to the organs for elimination.
▪ Cellular elements: It consists of:
• Red blood cells (erythrocytes).
• White blood cells (leukocyte).
• Blood platelets (thrombocyte).
➢ Red blood cells (erythrocytes, The Respiratory Gases Carriers):
o Definition: They are red biconcave discs, without nucleus,
floating in the blood plasma and responsible for transport of
respiratory gases.
o Location: Floats in the blood plasma.
o Function: It transports oxygen from lungs to the cells and carbon
dioxide from cells to lungs.
o Erythropoiesis: It is a process in which produces RBC from
stem cells (stimulated by decrease in O2 levels or increased
physical activities).
o Characteristics:
▪ The red blood cells have a colourless spongy body or
stroma.
▪ It contains a respiratory pigment haemoglobin (Hb).
o Shape: Bi-concave disc like.
o Size: These are about 7 micron in diameter.
▪ The small size enables them to travel through fine
capillaries in a single file.
▪ The small size plus the concavities on either side provide a
large surface area which makes them very efficient in
absorbing oxygen.
o Average life span: 120 days.
o Site of Production:
▪ RBC’s are produced in the red bone marrow of long bones,
ribs, breast bone and ilium of hip girdle.
▪ In the embryonic stage, RBC’s are produced in the liver and spleen.
o Destruction:
▪ Haemolysis: It is the process of destruction of RBC.
▪ RBC’s are destroyed in the liver, spleen and lymph nodes.
▪ Their iron part is retained in the liver while the rest is
excreted as a bile pigment (bilirubin).
o Chemical constituent:
▪ Haemoglobin:
• Definition: It is red coloured respiratory pigment on
RBC in blood.
• Location: Present on the RBC of the blood.
• Function: It is an respiratory gases carrier.
• Composition: It is made up of:
o Haemin: Iron containing part.
o Globulin: Protein containing part.
▪ It forms unstable compounds with oxygen and carbon dioxide:
• Oxyhaemoglobin: It is an unstable compound of
haemoglobin with oxygen in the blood.
• Deoxyhaemoglobin: It is an unstable compound of
haemoglobin after giving away oxygen.
• Carbamino-haemoglobin: It is an unstable compound
of haemoglobin with carbon dioxide in the blood.
• Decarbamino-haemoglobin: It is an unstable compound of
haemoglobin after giving away carbon dioxide to the lungs.
▪ It forms stable compound with carbon monoxide:
• Carboxyhaemoglobin (HbCO): It is a stable compound
of haemoglobin with carbon monoxide in the blood.
• This compound cuts down the capacity of the blood
to transport oxygen, leading to Carbon Monoxide
Poisoning and sometimes resulting in death.
• Example: Carbon monoxide poisoning may cause death due
to furnaces burning in small rooms without ventilation.
o RBC is deficient but very efficient:
▪ RBC lack three organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria and
endoplasmic reticulum.
▪ They lack nucleus: To increase the surface area for the
absorption and transportation of oxygen.
▪ They lack mitochondria: Because they do not use oxygen
for themselves and they efficiently transport oxygen.
▪ They lack endoplasmic reticulum: To provide flexibility so that
RBC’s can pass through any fine capillaries and transport oxygen.
o Abnormalities:
▪ Polycythaemia: It is a condition in which there is an
abnormal increase in the number of RBCs in the blood.
▪ Erythropenia: It is a condition in which there is an abnormal
decrease in the number of RBCs in the blood.
▪ Hypoxia (Arterial Hypoxia): It is a condition in which the
body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen
supply due to variation in arterial oxygen concentrations.
➢ White blood cells (leukocytes):
o Definition: They are large, round, colourless bodies, with nucleus, floating
in the blood plasma and are responsible for protection against germs.
o Location: Floats in the blood plasma.
o Function:
▪ Protects the body, provides immunity and prevents inflammation.
▪ Engulfs bacteria by phagocytosis.
▪ Production of antibodies.
o Leucopoiesis: It is a process of formation of leukocytes from stem
cells in organs producing cellular blood components.
o Characteristics:
▪ Absence of haemoglobin.
▪ Presence of nucleus.
▪ Their number is much less than RBCs in the blood.
▪ WBCs have amoeboid movement with the help of
pseudopodia, and perform diapedesis and phagocytosis.
▪ Diapedesis: It is a process of squeezing of WBC’s through the
capillary walls.
▪ Phagocytosis: The process of engulfing bacteria by WBC’s is
called phagocytosis.
o Shape and size: Based on the shape and other characteristics, the
white blood cells are classified into two major categories:
▪ Granulocytes: Granulocytes are WBC, containing granules
and have multi lobed nucleus.
▪ Agranulocytes: Agranulocytes are WBC which does not
contain granules and have a single nucleus.
Type of WBC Location Characteristics Function
Granulocytes: [B-E-N]
Basophil Floats in Large indistinctly It releases
blood lobed nucleus. histamine*.
plasma. Stained with basic
dyes.
Eosinophil Floats in Bi-lobed nucleus. Engulfs

blood Stained with acidic bacteria by
plasma. dyes. phagocytosis
and secrete
anti-toxins.
Neutrophil Floats in 3-4 lobed nucleus. Engulfs
blood Stained with neutral bacteria by
plasma. dyes. phagocytosis.
Agranulocytes: [M-L]
Monocyte Floats in Large and Kidney- Ingest germs
blood shaped or horse- by
plasma. shoe shaped phagocytosis
nucleus.
Transforms into
macrophages, at the
site of infection.
Lymphocyte Floats in Single large nucleus It protects
blood with a slight the body
plasma. depression on one from diseases
side. by producing
Smallest WBC. antibodies.
▪ *Histamine: It is a chemical that dilates the wall of the
capillaries for diapedesis during inflammation.
▪ Summary of function of WBC:
• Release antibodies – Lymphocytes
• Phagocytosis – Neutrophils and monocytes.
• Release antitoxins – Eosinophil
• Release histamine – Basophil
o Average lifespan: Average life span: 14 days or 2 weeks.
o Site of Production: They are produced in the bone marrow, lymph
glands, sometimes in liver and spleen.
o Destruction: They are destroyed in the liver.
o Abnormalities:
▪ Luekemia (blood cancer): It is a fatal disease in which the
WBCs number increases manifold at the cost of RBCs.
▪ Leucopenia: It is the condition caused due to abnormal
decrease in the number of WBCs in the blood.
o Antigen, antibodies, toxins and antitoxins:
▪ Antibodies are produced in response to antigen, which
circulates freely in the blood plasma.
▪ Antigen:
• Definition: Antigen is a pathogen protein which
when released stimulates the production of
antibodies in our body.
• Location: In the blood of an infected person.
• Function: They help to generate an antibody
response in the infected person’s body.
▪ Antibodies:
• Definition: Antibodies are special chemicals found in
the blood, of class immunoglobulin, produced by
lymphocytes as a response to antigen of the pathogen.
• Location: In the blood and lymph nodes.
• Function: To kill or neutralise the germs or the
poisons from pathogens.
▪ Toxins: Toxins are poisonous substances produced by
pathogens after entering the blood stream.
▪ Antitoxins:
• Definition: Antitoxins are specialized antibodies, which
neutralizes (detoxify) the poisonous effect of toxins of
pathogens.
• These antibodies are specific to the toxins for which
they are produced.
o Sequence of immune response:
Disease germs enters body → gives out protein antigen in our
blood → WBCs release antibodies in its response → if antibodies
may not be efficient, the pathogen may release toxin in our blood
→ Antibodies releases antitoxin to neutralise the toxin → if
antibodies may not work, WBCs may try to engulf the germs and
body tempt rises → if all this fails we acquire disease.
o Important terms:
▪ Pus: It is the dead WBC and bacteria with tissue debris and serum.
▪ Inflammation: It is a complex biological response of body
tissues in the form of redness, swelling, pain etc. to harmful
stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants.
▪ Antibiotics: They are chemical substances produced by some
organisms which can kill or inhibit the growth of other organisms.
➢ Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes/Indicators of clotting of blood):
o Definition: They are non-nucleated particles floating in blood
plasma which initiates blood clotting.
o Location: Floats in blood plasma.
o Function: Initiates blood clotting.
o Characteristics:
▪ Absence of nucleus / Non-nucleated.
▪ Completely surrounded by a membrane.
o Shape: Oval or round.
o Size: Minute structures.
o Average life span: 3 – 5 days.
o Production: Produced from giant cells called megakaryocyte in
the bone marrow.
▪ Megakaryocyte: It is a large bone marrow cell with
lobulated nucleus that produces platelets.
o Destruction: Destroyed in the spleen.
o Abnormalities:
▪ Haemorrhage: It is a condition where blood takes more
time to clot due to less number of blood platelets.
▪ Haemophilia: It is a genetic disorder caused due to absence
or insufficient thrombokinase in the blood.
▪ Internal clotting: It is caused by the movement of blood over
a rough surface of cholesterol deposits inside blood vessels.
o Clot formation: Schematic representation.
Blood platelets + injured cells → Release thromboplastin (in
presence of calcium ions) → Prothrombin (inactive) → Thrombin
(active) → Fibrinogen (soluble) (In presence of calcium ions) →
Fibrin (insoluble) → Clot → Serum.
o Clotting Process:
▪ Blood platelets of the injured cells release an enzyme called
thromboplastin or thrombokinase or Factor X or Stuart
Factor.
▪ Thromboplastin, in the presence of calcium ion converts
inactive prothrombin to active thrombin.
▪ Thrombin in the presence of calcium ion converts soluble
fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin.
▪ Fibrin forms a mesh like structure which traps corpuscles to
form the clot (Thrombus).
▪ The fluid left behind is called serum.
o Thrombin: Thrombin is the active product formed by the action of
thrombokinase on inactive protein prothrombin in the blood,
during the coagulation process.
o Thromboplastin: Thromboplastin is the enzyme released by the
disintegrated injured tissue cells and platelets.
o Serum: It is blood plasma without protein fibrinogen.
o Fibrin:
▪ Definition: It is an insoluble protein, forming mesh for
blood clot.
▪ Location: In the blood plasma.
▪ Function: It forms mesh in blood clotting process.
o Element necessary for blood clotting: Calcium ions.
▪ Reason:
• Converts inactive prothrombin to active thrombin and
• Converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin.
o Vitamin necessary for blood clotting: Vitamin K.
▪ Reason: Vitamin K helps in production of prothrombin in
the liver.
o Blood blisters: Blood clotting in the absence of air is called blood
blisters.
o Defibrinated blood: Blood without fibrin is called defibrinated blood.
o Clotting of Blood (Coagulation):
o Blood inside the vessels do not clot because:

▪ The coagulating factors remain inactive in blood vessels.
▪ Anticoagulants like heparin are present in blood.
▪ Endothelium is intact.
➢ Blood Transfusion and blood groups (ABO and Rh system):
o Blood transfusion:
▪ Definition: The process of transfer of blood from a person
to needy person in time of medical emergency is called
blood transfusion.
▪ If the blood is not matching, the blood cells stick together
(agglutination) leading to the death of a person.
▪ Agglutination: The process of clumping of unmatched blood
after transfusion is called agglutination.
o There are several systems of blood grouping, ABO and Rh systems
are most important.
o ABO system:
▪ Blood groups: Types: A, B, AB, O.
▪ Universal donor: A person with “O” type of blood can give
blood to all types of blood groups – O, A, B, AB hence called
universal donor.
▪ Universal recipient: A person with AB type of blood can
receive blood from all types of blood groups – AB, B, A and
O hence called universal recipient.
▪ Presence of antigen and antibodies according to blood group:
Blood Antigens on Antibodies in
Group RBC Plasma
A Antigen A Anti b
B Antigen B Anti a
AB Antigen A & B No antibody
O No Antigen Both anti a and
anti b
▪ The combination chart for blood transfusion:
Blood group Blood group of recipient
of Donor A B AB O
Universal
recipient
A ✓ × ✓ ×
B × ✓ ✓ ×
AB × × ✓ ×
O ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Universal
donor
o Rh system:
▪ Rh – factor: It is a factor which was (first discovered in a
rhesus monkey) present in the human blood.
▪ Presence of Rh factor means – positive
▪ Absence of Rh factor means – negative.
▪ Rh-positive blood group transfused into person with Rh-
negative:
• The blood of the recipient Rh-negative gets
sensitized within two weeks of transfusion.
• If a second transfusion is given to such Rh-negative person,
the antibody produced by the first transfusion causes a
reaction with the transfused blood which may lead to death.
• This is similar to the development of an allergy.
▪ Rh factor in pregnancy:
• An Rh-negative woman may become sensitive if she
carries an Rh-positive child in her uterus (when the
husband is Rh-positive).
• The first Rh-positive chid will be normal, but if it sensitizes the
mother the second positive child when conceived, may have
blood trouble, sometimes leading to the death of foetus.
▪ Erythroblastosis fetalis: It is a disorder in foetus caused due to
incompatibility between maternal and foetal blood groups.
➢ The Heart:
o Definition: Heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood & other
circulatory fluids throughout the body.
o Location: In the centre between the two lungs and above the diaphragm.
▪ Note: The heart is in the centre but the triangular end is
tilted to the left hence there is a common belief that heart
is towards the left side.
o Function: To pump blood and other circulatory fluids throughout
the body.
o Shape: Roughly triangular.
o Covering:
▪ It is protected by pericardium, and pericardial fluid.
▪ Pericardium:
• Definition: Pericardium is a double walled
membranous covering which protects the heart.
• Location: Covering around the heart.
• Function: Its lubricating pericardial fluid reduces friction
during heart beat and protects it from mechanical injuries.
▪ Pericardial fluid:
• Definition: It is protective lubricating fluid present
between the membranes of pericardium of heart.
• Location: Between the membranes of pericardium of the
heart.
• Function:
o Reduces friction during heart beat and
o Protects the heart from mechanical shocks.
➢ Internal structure of the heart:
o Chambers of the heart:
▪ The heart consists of four chambers- two upper atria (or
auricles) and two lower ventricles.
• Atrium/Auricles:
o Definition: The two upper chambers of human
heart are called auricles.
o Location: Upper chambers of the heart.
o Function: It contracts to pumps the blood in the
ventricles.
• Ventricles:
o Definition: The two lower chambers of human
heart are called ventricles.
o Location: Lower chambers of heart.
o Function: It contracts to pump blood to lungs
and all parts of the body.
▪ The atria have thin inner walls because it has to receive
blood from the body and pump it to the ventricles which
are next to it.
▪ The ventricles have thick muscular walls because right
ventricle has to pump blood to the lungs for oxygenation
and the left ventricle has to pumps to all parts of the body
along as well as against gravity.
▪ The left ventricle has thicker muscular walls than right
ventricle because it has to pump the blood to long
distances and reach farthest point to all parts of the body
whereas the right ventricle pumps only up to the lungs for
oxygenation.
o Blood vessels entering the heart (veins):
▪ The right atrium receives blood from two large veins:
• Anterior vena cava (or superior vena cava or SVC or
precaval).
• Posterior vena cava (or inferior vena cava or IVC).
▪ The left atrium receives blood from 4 pulmonary veins, two
from the left lung and two from the right lung.
▪ Anterior vena cava (or superior vena cava or SVC or
precaval):
• Definition: Superior vena cava is a blood vessel that
carries deoxygenated blood from the upper parts of
the body like the head and the neck to the right
auricle of the heart.
• Location: From upper part of the body like head and
neck to the right auricle.
• Function: Carries deoxygenated blood from the upper
parts of the body like the head and the neck to the
right auricle.
▪ Posterior vena cava (or inferior vena cava or IVC):
• Definition: Inferior vena cava is a blood vessel that
carries deoxygenated blood from the lower parts of
the body like the limbs and abdominal cavity to the
right auricle of the heart.
• Location: Arises from lower part of the body and goes
to the right auricle.
• Function: Carries deoxygenated blood from the lower
parts of the body like the limbs and abdominal cavity to
the right auricle.
▪ Pulmonary Vein:
• Definition: Pulmonary vein is a blood vessel that
carries the oxygenated blood from the lungs to the
left auricle.
• Location: From lungs to the left auricle of the heart.
• Function: It carries the oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the left auricle.
o Blood vessels leaving the heart:
▪ Two blood vessels (arteries) arise from the ventricles:
• Aorta.
• Pulmonary artery: 4 pulmonary arteries, two to the
left lung and two to the right lung.
▪ The aorta:
• Definition: Aorta is a blood vessel that carries
oxygenated blood from left ventricle of heart to all
parts of the body.
• Location: Left ventricle to different parts of the body.
• Function: Carries oxygenated blood from left
ventricle to all parts of the body.
▪ The pulmonary artery:
• Definition: Pulmonary artery is a blood vessel that
carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle of
the heart to the lungs for oxygenation.
• Location: From right ventricle to lungs.
• Function: Carries deoxygenated blood from right
ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation.
o Blood vessels of heart walls:
▪ Coronary sinus:
• Two veins on right and left.
• Definition: Coronary sinus is a blood vessel that carries
deoxygenated blood from the heart walls to the right
auricle.
• Location: It arises from the walls of the heart to the
inferior vena cava.
• Function: Carries deoxygenated blood from the heart
walls to the right auricle.
▪ Coronary Arteries:
• Two arteries on right and left.
• Definition: Coronary artery is a blood vessel that
supplies oxygenated blood to the heart muscles.
• Location: Arises from the base of aorta to the walls
of the heart.
• Function: Supplies oxygenated blood to the heart
muscles.
➢ Valves of the heart:
o Function: Maintains unidirectional flow of blood.
o There are four valves in the heart as follows:
▪ Right atrio-ventricular valve (tricuspid valve):
• Definition: Tricuspid valve is present on the right side
of the heart to prevent the backflow of deoxygenated
blood from right ventricle to right auricle of the heart.
• Location: It is located between the right auricle and
right ventricle of the heart.
• Function: Right atrio ventricular valve prevents the
backflow of deoxygenated blood from right ventricle
to right auricle of the heart.
• Characteristic:
o It has three thin triangular leaf-like flaps called cusps.
o The cusps open towards the ventricle.
o It is held in place by chordae tendinae.
o Chordae tendinae:
▪ Definition: Chordae tendinae are tendinous
cords that holds the bicuspid and tricuspid
valves in position and prevents their
upturning during ventricular contraction.
▪ Location: Arises from the papillary
muscles of the ventricles to the apices
of the cusps, in the heart.
▪ Function: They hold the bicuspid and
tricuspid valves in position and prevents their
upturning during ventricular contraction.
▪ Characteristics: They are tendinous
(elastic) cords.
▪ Left atrio-ventricular valve/bicuspid/mitral:
• Definition: Bicuspid valve is valve present on the left
side of the heart to prevent the backflow of oxygenated
blood from left ventricle to left auricle of the heart.
• Location: At the aperture between the left auricle
and left ventricle of the heart.
• Function: Left atrio-ventricular valve prevents the
backflow of oxygenated blood from left ventricle to
left auricle.
• Characteristics:
o It has two cusps.
o It is held in place with the help of Chordae tendinae.
o The cusps opens towards the ventricle.
▪ Pulmonary Semi lunar valves:
• Definition: Pulmonary semi lunar valves is the valve
present at the base of pulmonary artery to prevent
the backflow of deoxygenated blood from
pulmonary artery to right ventricle.
• Location: At the base of pulmonary artery opening
from right ventricle.
• Function: It prevents the backflow of deoxygenated
blood from pulmonary artery to right ventricle.
o They are three pocket shaped semi lunar valves.
o The cusp opens away from ventricle.
▪ Aortic Semilunar valves:
• Definition: Aortic semilunar valve present at the
base of aorta prevent the backflow of oxygenated
blood from aorta to left ventricle.
• Location: It is located at the base of aorta opening
from left ventricle.
• Function: It prevents the backflow of oxygenated
blood from aorta to left ventricle.
o They are three pocket shaped semi lunar valves
o The cusp opens away from ventricle.
▪ Coronary Heart Diseases (CHD):
• Coronary thrombosis (myocardial infarction or heart
attack): It is a condition due to blockage in coronary
artery which causes deadening of the corresponding
area of heart muscle.
• Angina pectoris: Angina pectoris is a condition
characterized by chest pain caused due to insufficient
supply of oxygen to heart walls.
• Arteriosclerosis: It is a condition caused due to
thickening and hardening of arterial walls.
➢ Blood circulation of the human heart:
o Right auricle relaxes (dilate) and fills with deoxygenated blood.
o The deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body is carried
through the superior and inferior vena cava to the right auricle.
o The right auricle contracts and tricuspid valve opens.
o The blood from the right auricle passes to the right ventricle
through the tricuspid valves.
o The tricuspid valves closes to prevent the backflow of the blood
from right ventricle to right auricle.
o The right ventricle contracts and pulmonary semi lunar valve
opens.
o The deoxygenated blood from right ventricle is carried through
the pulmonary artery, to the lungs.
o The left auricle relax (dilates) and fills with oxygenated blood.
o The oxygenated blood from the lungs is carried through the
pulmonary vein to the left auricle.
o The left auricle contracts and bicuspid valve opens.
o The blood from the left auricle passes to the left ventricle,
through the bicuspid valve.
o The bicuspid valves closes to prevent the backflow of the blood
from left ventricle to left auricle.
o The left ventricle contracts and aortic semi lunar valve opens.
o The oxygenated blood from left ventricle is carried through aorta
to different parts of the body.
➢ Sequence: All parts of the body → right auricle → right atrio ventricular
valve → right ventricle → pulmonary semi lunar valves → pulmonary
artery → right and left lungs → pulmonary vein → left auricle → left
atrio ventricular valve → left ventricle → aortic semi lunar valves →
aorta → all part of the body.
➢ Double circulation:
o Definition: In humans, the blood flows through the heart twice in
one complete round- the short pulmonary and long systemic
circulation; therefore the circulation is called double circulation.
o It consists of:
▪ Pulmonary circulation: Pulmonary circulation is the
circulation of the deoxygenated blood from the right
ventricle of the heart through pulmonary artery to the lungs
and oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left auricle of
the heart through the pulmonary veins.
▪ Systemic circulation: Systemic circulation is the circulation
of the oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart
through the aorta to different parts of the body and
deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body to
the right auricle of the heart through the superior and
inferior vena cava.
➢ Heart sounds:
o ‘LUBB’: It is the first sound produced at the beginning of ventricular
systole when the tricuspid and bicuspid valves closes sharply.
o ‘DUP’: It is the second sound produced at the beginning of
ventricular diastole when the pulmonary semilunar valve and
aortic semilunar valves closes.
➢ Phases of heart beat:
o Diastole: The relaxation phase of the heart is called diastole.

o Systole: The contraction phase of the heart is called systole.
o Auricular systole (ventricular diastole):
▪ Auricles contract.
▪ Bicuspid and tricuspid open.
▪ Aortic and pulmonary semi lunar valves close.
o Ventricular systole (auricular diastole):
▪ Ventricles contract.
▪ Bicuspid and tricuspid close.
▪ Aortic and pulmonary semi lunar valves open.
o Joint diastole: It is a phase of heart beat in which both Auricles
and ventricles are in the relaxed state.
➢ The Cardiac cycle:
o Definition: It is the sequential events during a single heartbeat.
o It lasts for 0.85 seconds.
▪ 0.15 seconds: Auricular Systole.
▪ 0.30 seconds: Ventricular Systole.
▪ 0.40 seconds: Joint Diastole.
➢ Heart Beat:
o Definition: It is the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the
muscles of the heart.
o Heart beats 72 times per minute.
o Pulse: Pulse corresponds to heart beat.
▪ Definition: It is the alternate expansion and elastic recoil of
the walls of the arteries during ventricular systole.
▪ The pulse rate increases due to physical exercise or under
certain emotions.
▪ Adult men: 64 – 72 per minute.
▪ Adult women: 72 – 80 per minute.
▪ Normal pulse rate is 72 per minute in adults.
▪ Tachycardia: It is a condition in which heart rate is above
100 beats per minute.
▪ Bradycardia: It is condition in which heart rate below 60
beats per minute.
▪ The pulse is felt by pressing gently over a superficial artery
such as the radial artery of the wrist on the side of the thumb.
o Smaller the size of the animal, faster is its heart rate:
This is because –
▪ Smaller the animals loses more body heat due to higher
surface volume ratio hence an increased heart rate
distributes body heat faster.
▪ The young growing stages, such as the human baby, have
higher metabolism for body growth and therefore, the
faster heart rate keeps “supply” and “take off “of the
metabolic substances in right quantity.
➢ Heart Beat Regulation:
o Sequence:
▪ Heart beat impulse originates from Sino atrial node (SAN).
▪ SAN contracts the auricles.
▪ Contraction of auricles stimulates auricular ventricular node (AVN).
▪ AVN transmits the impulse to the ventricle via bundle of
HIS and Purkinje fibres.
o All these together forms a system which creates an impulse and
conducts it to every part of the heart.
o Pacemaker or Sino-atrial node or SAN:
▪ Definition: It is a cluster of cells situated on the walls of the
right auricle near opening of superior and inferior vena cava
that initiates an electric impulse to trigger heartbeat.
▪ Location: On the walls of the right auricle near opening of
superior and inferior vena cava.
▪ Function: Initiates an electric impulse to trigger heartbeat.
▪ Sometimes the “pacemaker” becomes faulty causing heart
trouble. An artificial “pace-maker” may be fixed in the heart
of such a person.
o Auricular Ventricular Node or AVN:
▪ Definition: It is a compact structure at the junction of right
auricle and right ventricle near the intra auricular septum
that transmits the heart beat from auricle to ventricle.
▪ Location: At the junction of right auricle and right ventricle
near the intra auricular septum.
▪ Function: Transmits the heart beat from auricle to ventricle.
o Bundle of HIS:
▪ Definition: It is a collection of heart muscle cells in the inter
ventricular septum, that sends electric impulse to contract
ventricles.
▪ Location: In the inter ventricular septum, inferior to AV node.
▪ Function: Sends electric impulse to contract ventricles.
▪ Characteristics:
• It is a collection of heart
muscle cells.
• Purkinje fibres: Purkinje
fibres are branches of fibres
running along the wall of the
ventricles of the heart.
➢ Blood Pressure:
o Definition: It is the pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of
the arteries.
o There are two limits of this pressure:
▪ The lower limit (diastolic pressure).
▪ The upper limit (systolic pressure).
o Normal Blood Pressure: 80/120mm of Hg.
o High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): 90/140 mm of Hg or above.
o Low Blood pressure is anything below normal limits.
o Sphygmomanometer: It is an apparatus used to measure blood pressure.
➢ The blood vessels:
o They are of three major kinds of blood vessel in the body Arteries,
Capillaries and Veins.
o Other blood vessels are: Venule, arteriole, portal vein.
o Artery:
▪ Definition: Blood vessel which carries blood away from the
heart towards the organ.
▪ Location: Deep seated, arises from heart and branches to all organs.
▪ Function: It carries oxygenated blood to all parts of the
body except the pulmonary artery.
• It has outer connective layer, middle thick muscular
tissue and inner endothelium.
• It has a narrow lumen.
• The blood flows in spurts which correspond to the
ventricular contractions of the heart.
o Arteriole:
▪ Definition: The smallest or the final branch of an artery is
called an arteriole.
▪ Arterioles are highly muscular and can change their diameter
manifold.
▪ The arteriole breaks up into capillaries.
o Capillaries:
▪ Definition: Blood vessel which is very
narrow tube like structure without
muscles.
▪ Location: Branches between arterioles
to venules.
▪ Function of capillaries:
• Outward diffusion of oxygen into the intercellular tissue fluid.
• Inward diffusion of carbon dioxide from the
intercellular tissue fluid.
• Inward and outward diffusion of substances like
glucose, amino acids, urea, etc.
• Allow leukocytes (WBCs) to perform diapedesis.
• Its wall consists of a single layer endothelium.
o Endothelium: It is semi permeable single layer
squamous epithelial tissue which makes up the
capillary walls.
• They can dilate and contract, thus increasing or
decreasing the blood supply.
• Colour of skin changes due to contraction or dilation
of capillaries.
o Vasodilation: It is a condition in which, blood
flow to the skin increases and the skin turns
pink especially in hot sun.
o Vasoconstriction: It is a condition in which,
blood flow to the skin decreases and the skin
turns bluish especially in cold winter.
• The capillaries unite to form venule.
o Venule:
▪ Definition: Venule is the smallest common branch formed
by the reunion of capillaries.
▪ It increases in size forming the three layers- connective tissue,
muscular and endothelium.
▪ Venules join to form larger veins.
▪ Venules are larger with much weaker muscular coat.
o Vein:
▪ Definition: Veins are blood vessel that conveys the blood
away from the organs towards the heart.
▪ Location: Arising from all the organs throughout the body
and going towards the heart.
▪ Function: It carries deoxygenated blood from all parts of the
body to the heart except the
pulmonary vein.
▪ Characteristics of vein:
• Thin muscular walls.
• A wider lumen.
• The blood flows uniformly.
• It contains thin pocket-shaped valves whose openings
face in the direction of the heart.
▪ Pocket valve:
• Location: In the veins and lymph vessels of the
circulatory system.
• Function: They prevent the backflow of the blood
due to gravity.
o Portal Vein:
▪ Definition: It is a vein which starts in capillaries and ends in
capillaries.
▪ It does not join the main circulation through the heart.
▪ There are 3 portal systems:
• The hypophyseal portal vein – from hypothalamus to
the anterior pituitary.
• The Renal portal vein – from renal glomeruli to
secondary network of capillaries (peritubular plexus).
• The Hepatic portal vein – from small intestine to liver.
▪ Hepatic Portal vein/system:
• Definition: It is a vein which starts and ends in capillaries
from small intestine and stomach and goes to the liver.
• Location: Connects small intestine and stomach to
the liver.
• Function/importance: It carries digested food from
small intestine stomach to liver for assimilation.
o It is a vein which starts and ends in capillaries.
o It carries blood from the small intestine and
stomach to the liver.
➢ Important blood vessels:
Organ Blood vessel entering Blood vessel leaving
Kidney Renal artery Renal vein
Liver Hepatic artery Hepatic vein
Hepatic portal vein
Heart Coronary artery Coronary sinus
Inside the Heart Superior Vena cava Aorta and
Inferior Vena cava and Pulmonary Artery
Pulmonary Vein
Brain Carotid artery Jugular vein
shoulder and chest Subclavian artery Subclavian vein
area
Hands Radial artery Radial vein
stomach and intestine Mesenteric artery Hepatic portal vein
Legs Femoral artery Femoral vein
➢ Important blood vessels definition:
o Carotid artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that
carries oxygenated blood to the brain.
o Jugular vein: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood
from the brain to join the vena cava.
o Femoral artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that
carries oxygenated blood to the legs.
o Femoral vein: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood
from the legs to join the vena cava.
o Hepatic artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that
carries oxygenated blood to the liver.
o Hepatic vein: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood
from the liver to join the vena cava.
o Mesenteric artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that
carries oxygenated blood to the stomach and intestine.
o Radial artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that carries
oxygenated blood to the arms.
o Radial vein: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood from
the arms to join the vena cava.
o Subclavian artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that
carries oxygenated blood to the chest and ribs.
o Subclavian vein: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood
from the chest and ribs to join the vena cava.
o Renal artery:
▪ Definition: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that
carries oxygenated blood to the kidney.
▪ Location: The blood vessel which enters the kidney.
▪ Function: It carries oxygenated blood to the kidney.
o Renal vein:
▪ Definition: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood
from the kidney to join the vena cava.
▪ Location: The blood vessel which leaves the kidney.
▪ Function: It carries deoxygenated blood from the kidney for
oxygenation.
➢ Tissue fluid and Lymphatic system:

o Tissue Fluid (intercellular Fluid):
▪ Definition: The fluid that leaks and fills between the tissues
when blood passes through the capillaries, is called tissue
fluid or the intercellular or extracellular fluid.
▪ Location: Between the tissues of the body.
▪ Function: Tissue fluid acts as a medium of exchange between
body cells and vessels (blood and lymph) to diffuse gases,
wastes and nutrients.
o Lymphatic System: It consists of lymph and lymphatic
nodes/glands/organs.
▪ Lymph:
• Definition: Lymph is the tissue
fluid which enters a set of
minute channels called lymph
vessels.
• Location: In the lymph vessels
and lymphatic organs such as
the spleen and the tonsils.
• Function:
o Nutritive: Provides
nutrition to cells where
blood cannot reach.
o Drainage: Drains away excess metabolites
from the body.
o Defence: Lymphocytes in lymph produce antibodies
to kill the germs, neutralize its toxic effect and
localize the infection.
o Absorption: Lacteals in villi absorb fat and pour
it into blood circulation.
• Composition:
o Cellular Part: Lymphocytes.
o Non-Cellular Part: 94% of water and 6% of solids like
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, enzymes and antibodies.
o The lymph flows in these vessels due to
contraction of the surrounding muscles.
o The lymph vessels drains lymph into lymph nodes.
o From lymph nodes fresh lymph channels arise
and pours the lymph into the right auricle and
puts it back into circulation.
▪ Lymphatic nodes / glands / organs:
• Definition: Lymph Nodes are collection of lymph
tissues which act as filters for gems and foreign
matter and produce lymphocytes.
• Location: Widely present throughout the body,
mainly in underarms and groins.
• Function: They produce lymphocytes and act as filters
for germs and foreign matter.
• Thymus, tonsils and spleen are chief lymphatic organs.
• The thymus is situated above heart and behind the
sternum.
• The tonsils:
o Location: In the pharynx, on the sides of the neck.
o Function: They produce lymphocytes and
protects the body from infections.
• The Spleen:
o Definition: It is the largest lymphatic organ.
o It is reddish brown in colour.
o Location: In the abdomen behind the stomach
& above the left kidney.
o Function:
▪ It produces lymphocytes.
▪ It produces RBCs in an embryo.
▪ It acts as a blood reservoir.
➢ Liver:
o Definition: It is a detoxifying and synthesizing organ of the body.
o Location: In the abdomen, above the right kidney and below the
diaphragm.
o Function:
▪ Detoxify the food materials.
▪ Production of body proteins (albumin, globulin,
prothrombin, fibrinogen.)
▪ Deamination (During production of body proteins, removal of an
amine group and converting it into urea for elimination).
▪ Converts excess glucose to glycogen.
▪ Decomposition of red blood cells.
▪ Production of hormones.
o Characteristics:
▪ Produces bile for fat emulsification.
▪ Produces heparin – an anticoagulant.
▪ Stores glycogen.
▪ Retains haemoglobin from RBC and then destroys the RBC.
▪ Has the power of regeneration.
▪ Deamination: It is the process of removal of an amine group
from a protein molecule in the liver in humans.
➢ Examination of blood corpuscles under a microscope:
o Take 2 clean slides, clean the skin of your
Fingertip and prick it with sterile needle.
o Gently squeeze the fingertip and take a
drop of blood near the right end of one slide.
o Put the second slide held at an angle of 60o
over the first slide close to the drop of blood
and pull the blood gently over the first slide
so as to distribute it evenly.
o A very fine layer of blood is formed over the
first slide this is called blood smear or blood
film.
o Allow the blood smear to dry.
o Cover this smear with few drops of the stain – Leishman Stain.
o Then add equal volume of distilled water.
o Lightly rinse the slide under tap water.
o Dry the slide.
o Examine under microscope, it appears as the figure above.
➢ DEFINITIONS:
1. Agglutination: The process of clumping of unmatched blood after
transfusion is called agglutination.
2. Agranulocytes: Agranulocytes are WBC which does not contain granules
and have a single nucleus.
3. Angina pectoris: Angina pectoris is a condition characterized by chest
pain caused due to insufficient supply of oxygen to heart walls.
4. Anterior vena cava (or superior vena cava or SVC or precaval): Superior
vena cava is a blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood from the
upper parts of the body like the head and the neck to the right auricle of
the heart.
5. Antibiotics: They are chemical substances produced by some organisms
which can kill or inhibit the growth of other organisms.
6. Antibodies: Antibodies are special chemicals found in the blood, of class
immunoglobulin, produced by lymphocytes as a response to antigen of
the pathogen.
7. Antigen: Antigen is a pathogen protein which when released stimulates
the production of antibodies in our body.
8. Antitoxins: Antitoxins are specialized antibodies, which neutralizes
(detoxify) the poisonous effect of toxins of pathogens.
9. Aorta: Aorta is a blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood from left
ventricle of heart to all parts of the body.
10. Aortic Semilunar valves: Aortic semilunar valve present at the base of
aorta prevent the backflow of oxygenated blood from aorta to left
ventricle.
11. Arteriole: The smallest or the final branch of an artery is called an
arteriole.
12. Arteriosclerosis: It is a condition caused due to thickening and hardening
of arterial walls.
13. Artery: Blood vessel which carries blood away from the heart towards
the organ.
14. Atrium/Auricles: The two upper chambers of human heart are called
auricles.
15. Auricular Ventricular Node or AVN: It is a compact structure at the
junction of right auricle and right ventricle near the intra auricular
septum that transmits the heart beat from auricle to ventricle.
16. Blood blisters: Blood clotting in the absence of air is called blood
blisters.
17. Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes/Indicators of clotting of blood): They
are non-nucleated particles floating in blood plasma which initiates
blood clotting.
18. Blood Pressure: It is the pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of
the arteries.
19. Blood transfusion: The process of transfer of blood from a person to
needy person in time of medical emergency is called blood transfusion.
20. Blood: Blood is a red fluid consisting of plasma and corpuscles,
circulating in all parts of the body.
21. Bradycardia: It is condition in which heart rate below 60 beats per
minute.
22. Bundle of HIS: It is a collection of heart muscle cells in the inter
ventricular septum, that sends electric impulse to contract ventricles.
23. Capillaries: Blood vessel which is very narrow tube like structure without
24. Carbamino-haemoglobin: It is an unstable compound of haemoglobin
with carbon dioxide in the blood.
25. Carboxyhaemoglobin (HbCO): It is a stable compound of haemoglobin
with carbon monoxide in the blood.
26. Cardiac cycle: It is the sequential events during a single heartbeat.
27. Cardio vascular system/ circulatory system/ vascular system: It is an
organ system that circulates blood and body fluids to provide
nourishment, help in fighting diseases, stabilizes temperature and
maintains homeostasis.
28. Carotid artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that carries
oxygenated blood to the brain.
29. Chordae tendinae: Chordae tendinae are tendinous cords that holds the
bicuspid and tricuspid valves in position and prevents their upturning
during ventricular contraction.
30. Closed vascular system: Blood in the body of vertebrates circulates in a
closed manner is called Closed vascular system.
31. Coronary Arteries: Coronary artery is a blood vessel that supplies
oxygenated blood to the heart muscles.
32. Coronary sinus: Coronary sinus is a blood vessel that carries
deoxygenated blood from the heart walls to the right auricle.
33. Coronary thrombosis (myocardial infarction or heart attack): It is a
condition due to blockage in coronary artery which causes deadening of
the corresponding area of heart muscle.
34. Deamination: It is the process of removal of an amine group from a
protein molecule in the liver in humans.
35. Decarbamino-haemoglobin: It is an unstable compound of haemoglobin
after giving away carbon dioxide to the lungs.
36. Defibrinated blood: Blood without fibrin is called defibrinated blood.
37. Deoxyhaemoglobin: It is an unstable compound of haemoglobin after
giving away oxygen.
38. Diapedesis: It is a process of squeezing of WBC’s through the capillary
walls.
39. Diastole: The relaxation phase of the heart is called diastole.
dissolved substances.
40. Double circulation: In humans, the blood flows through the heart twice
in one complete round- the short pulmonary and long systemic
41. DUP: It is the second sound produced at the beginning of ventricular
diastole when the pulmonary semilunar valve and aortic semilunar
valves closes.
42. Endothelium: It is semi permeable single layer squamous epithelial
tissue which makes up the capillary walls.
43. Erythroblastosis fetalis: It is a disorder in foetus caused due to
incompatibility between maternal and foetal blood groups.
44. Erythropenia: It is a condition in which there is an abnormal decrease in
the number of RBCs in the blood.
45. Erythropoiesis: It is a process in which produces RBC from stem cells
(stimulated by decrease in O2 levels or increased physical activities).
46. Femoral artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that carries
oxygenated blood to the legs.
47. Femoral vein: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood from the
legs to join the vena cava.
48. Fibrin: It is an insoluble protein, forming mesh for blood clot.
49. Granulocytes: Granulocytes are WBC, containing granules and have
multi lobed nucleus.
50. Haemoglobin: It is red coloured respiratory pigment on RBC in blood.
51. Haemolysis: It is the process of destruction of RBC.
52. Haemophilia: It is a genetic disorder caused due to absence or
insufficient thrombokinase in the blood.
53. Haemorrhage: It is a condition where blood takes more time to clot due
to less number of blood platelets.
54. Heart Beat: It is the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the muscles
of the heart.
55. Heart: Heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood & other circulatory
fluids throughout the body.
56. Hepatic artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that carries
oxygenated blood to the liver.
57. Hepatic Portal vein/system: It is a vein which starts and ends in
capillaries from small intestine and stomach and goes to the liver.
58. Hepatic vein: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood from the
liver to join the vena cava.
59. Histamine: It is a chemical that dilates the wall of the capillaries for
diapedesis during inflammation.
60. Homeostasis: A self-regulating biological process which adjusts the body
to changing condition and maintains relatively stable environment is
called Homeostasis.
61. Hypoxia (Arterial Hypoxia): It is a condition in which the body or a
region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply due to
variation in arterial oxygen concentrations.
62. Inflammation: It is a complex biological response of body tissues in the
form of redness, swelling, pain etc. to harmful stimuli, such as
pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants.
63. Internal clotting: It is caused by the movement of blood over a rough
surface of cholesterol deposits inside blood vessels.
64. Joint diastole: It is a phase of heart beat in which both Auricles and
ventricles are in the relaxed state.
65. Jugular vein: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood from the
brain to join the vena cava.
66. Left atrio-ventricular valve/bicuspid/mitral: Bicuspid valve is valve
present on the left side of the heart to prevent the backflow of
oxygenated blood from left ventricle to left auricle of the heart.
67. Leucopenia: It is the condition caused due to abnormal decrease in the
number of WBCs in the blood.
68. Leucopoiesis: It is a process of formation of leukocytes from stem cells
in organs producing cellular blood components.
69. Liver: It is a detoxifying and synthesizing organ of the body.
70. LUBB: It is the first sound produced at the beginning of ventricular
71. Luekemia (blood cancer): It is a fatal disease in which the WBCs number
increases manifold at the cost of RBCs.
72. Lymph: Lymph is the tissue fluid which enters a set of minute channels
called lymph vessels.
73. Lymphatic nodes / glands / organs: Lymph Nodes are collection of
lymph tissues which act as filters for gems and foreign matter and
produce lymphocytes.
74. Megakaryocyte: It is a large bone marrow cell with lobulated nucleus
that produces platelets.
75. Mesenteric artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that carries
oxygenated blood to the stomach and intestine.
76. Open blood circulatory system: Blood in the body of invertebrates flows
through open spaces is called as Open blood circulatory system.
77. Oxyhaemoglobin: It is an unstable compound of haemoglobin with
oxygen in the blood.
78. Pacemaker or Sino-atrial node or SAN: It is a cluster of cells situated on
the walls of the right auricle near opening of superior and inferior vena
cava that initiates an electric impulse to trigger heartbeat.
79. Pericardial fluid: It is protective lubricating fluid present between the
membranes of pericardium of heart.
80. Pericardium: Pericardium is a double walled membranous covering
which protects the heart.
81. Phagocytosis: The process of engulfing bacteria by WBC’s is called
phagocytosis.
82. Plasma: It is a yellow coloured liquid part of the blood containing
83. Polycythaemia: It is a condition in which there is an abnormal increase
in the number of RBCs in the blood.
84. Portal Vein: It is a vein which starts in capillaries and ends in capillaries.
85. Posterior vena cava (or inferior vena cava or IVC): Inferior vena cava is a
blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood from the lower parts of
the body like the limbs and abdominal cavity to the right auricle of the
heart.
86. Pulmonary artery: Pulmonary artery is a blood vessel that carries
deoxygenated blood from right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for
oxygenation.
87. Pulmonary circulation: Pulmonary circulation is the circulation of the
deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart through
pulmonary artery to the lungs and oxygenated blood from the lungs to
the left auricle of the heart through the pulmonary veins.
88. Pulmonary Semi lunar valves: Pulmonary semi lunar valves is the valve
present at the base of pulmonary artery to prevent the backflow of
deoxygenated blood from pulmonary artery to right ventricle.
89. Pulmonary Vein: Pulmonary vein is a blood vessel that carries the
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left auricle.
90. Pulse: It is the alternate expansion and elastic recoil of the walls of the
arteries during ventricular systole.
91. Purkinje fibres: Purkinje fibres are branches of fibres running along the
wall of the ventricles of the heart.
92. Pus: It is the dead WBC and bacteria with tissue debris and serum.
93. Radial artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that carries
oxygenated blood to the arms.
94. Radial vein: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood from the
arms to join the vena cava.
95. Red blood cells: They are red biconcave discs, without nucleus, floating
in the blood plasma and responsible for transport of respiratory gases.
96. Renal artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that carries
oxygenated blood to the kidney.
97. Renal vein: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood from the
kidney to join the vena cava.
98. Rh – factor: It is a factor which was (first discovered in a rhesus monkey)
present in the human blood.
99. Right atrio-ventricular valve (tricuspid valve): Tricuspid valve is present
on the right side of the heart to prevent the backflow of deoxygenated
blood from right ventricle to right auricle of the heart.
100. Serum: It is blood plasma without protein fibrinogen.
101. Sphygmomanometer: It is an apparatus used to measure blood pressure.
102. Spleen: It is the largest lymphatic organ.
103. Subclavian artery: It is a blood vessel branched from aorta that carries
oxygenated blood to the chest and ribs.
104. Subclavian vein: It is a blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood from
the chest and ribs to join the vena cava.
105. Systemic circulation: Systemic circulation is the circulation of the
oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart through the aorta
to different parts of the body and deoxygenated blood from different
parts of the body to the right auricle of the heart through the superior
and inferior vena cava.
106. Systole: The contraction phase of the heart is called systole.
107. Tachycardia: It is a condition in which heart rate is above 100 beats per minute.
108. Thrombin: Thrombin is the active product formed by the action of
thrombokinase on inactive protein prothrombin in the blood, during the
coagulation process.
109. Thromboplastin: Thromboplastin is the enzyme released by the
disintegrated injured tissue cells and platelets.
110. Tissue Fluid (intercellular Fluid): The fluid that leaks and fills between
the tissues when blood passes through the capillaries, is called tissue
fluid or the intercellular or extracellular fluid.
111. Toxins: Toxins are poisonous substances produced by pathogens after
entering the blood stream.
112. Universal donor: A person with “O” type of blood can give blood to all
types of blood groups – O, A, B, AB hence called universal donor.
113. Universal recipient: A person with AB type of blood can receive blood
from all types of blood groups – AB, B, A and O hence called universal
recipient.
114. Vasoconstriction: It is a condition in which, blood flow to the skin
decreases and the skin turns bluish especially in cold winter.
115. Vasodilation: It is a condition in which, blood flow to the skin increases
and the skin turns pink especially in hot sun.
116. Vein: Veins are blood vessel that conveys the blood away from the
organs towards the heart.
117. Ventricles: The two lower chambers of human heart are called ventricles.
118. Venule: Venule is the smallest common branch formed by the reunion of
capillaries.
119. White blood cells (leukocytes): They are large, round, colourless bodies,
with nucleus, floating in the blood plasma and are responsible for
protection against germs.
➢ Differences:
o Antibody and Antibiotic:
Antibody Antibiotic
Antibodies are special chemicals found They are chemical substances
in the blood, of class immunoglobulin, produced by some organisms
produced by lymphocytes as a response which can kill or inhibit the
to antigen of the pathogen. growth of other organisms.
They are produced in one’s own body. They are administered in the
body after getting disease.
They prevent acquiring of a disease. They cure a disease.
o WBC & RBC:
WBC RBC
Definition They are large, round, They are red biconcave
colourless bodies, with discs, without nucleus,
nucleus, floating in the floating in the blood
blood plasma and are plasma and responsible
responsible for protection for transport of
against germs. respiratory gases.
Structure WBCs have nucleus. RBC have no nucleus.
It does not contain It contains pigment
pigment haemoglobin. haemoglobin.
These are large, round, These are biconcave discs,
colourless bodies having flat in centre and rounded
single large or lobed nucleus. at the periphery.
Function Most WBCs can perform They cannot perform
Diapedesis. Diapedesis.
Protects the body, provides It transports respiratory
immunity and prevents gases.
inflammation.
Site of WBCs are produced in RBCs are produced in the
production bone marrow, lymph red bone marrow of long
glands, liver and spleen. bones, ribs, breast bone
and ilium.
Embryo: Liver and spleen.
Life span Their average life span is The average life is about
about 14 days. 120 days.
o Serum and Vaccine:
Serum Vaccine
It is blood plasma without protein The material introduced into the
fibrinogen. body to develop resistance against
diseases is called the vaccine.
o Granulocyte & Agranulocyte (structure):
Granulocytes Agranulocytes
Presence of granules in the Absence of granules in the
cytoplasm. cytoplasm.
They have a lobed nucleus. They have a single large nucleus.
o Hepatic portal vein and Hepatic vein:
Hepatic portal vein Hepatic vein
It is a vein which starts and ends in It is a blood vessel carrying
capillaries from small intestine and deoxygenated blood from the
stomach and goes to the liver. liver to join the vena cava.
It is richly laden with nutrients like It is laden with urea along with
glucose, amino acid, and fatty acid. nutrients.
Similarity: Both carry deoxygenated blood.
o Auricles and Ventricles:
Auricles Ventricles
The two upper chambers of The two lower chambers of human
human heart are called auricles. heart are called ventricles.
They are thin walled. They are thick walled.
Right auricle receives blood from Right ventricle sends the blood to
all parts of the body and left lungs and left ventricle sends the
auricle receives blood from lungs. blood to all parts of the body.
o Pulmonary circulation and Systemic circulation:
Pulmonary circulation Systemic circulation
Pulmonary circulation is the Systemic circulation is the
circulation of the deoxygenated circulation of the oxygenated blood
blood from the right ventricle of from the left ventricle of the heart
the heart through pulmonary through the aorta to different parts
artery to the lungs and of the body and deoxygenated
oxygenated blood from the lungs blood from different parts of the
to the left auricle of the heart body to the right auricle of the
through the pulmonary veins. heart through the superior and
inferior vena cava.
It starts from right ventricle, goes It starts from the left ventricle, goes
to lungs and comes back to heart to all parts of the body and comes
in left auricle. back to heart in right auricle.
Blood travels in pulmonary artery Blood travels in aorta and SVC and
and vein. IVC.
This system gets oxygenated This system gets deoxygenated
blood to the heart. blood to the heart.
o Tricuspid and Bicuspid valves:
Tricuspid valve Bicuspid valve
It is located between the right It is located at the aperture
auricle and right ventricle of the between the left auricle and the
heart. left ventricle of the heart.
It has three cusps. It has two cusps.
It prevents the backflow of It prevents the backflow of
deoxygenated blood from right oxygenated blood from left
ventricle to right auricle. ventricle to left auricle.
o Superior vena cava and Pulmonary artery:
Superior vena cava Pulmonary artery
Superior vena cava is a blood Pulmonary artery is a blood vessel
vessel that carries deoxygenated that carries deoxygenated blood
blood from the upper parts of the from right ventricle of the heart to
body like the head and the neck to the lungs for oxygenation.
the right auricle of the heart.
o Arteries and Veins:
Arteries Veins
Definition Blood vessel which Veins are blood vessel that
carries blood away conveys the blood away
from the heart towards from the organs towards the
the organ. heart.
Structure Thick elastic and more Thin less elastic and less
muscular walls. muscular walls.
Have a narrow lumen. Have a wider lumen.
No valves in their inner Valves present in their inner
lining. lining to prevent backward
flow of blood.
General Smallest artery branches Smallest vein arises from
into arterioles. venules.
Deeply situated. Superficially situated.
Do not collapse when Collapse when empty.
empty.
Blood Carry oxygenated blood Carry deoxygenated blood
composition (except pulmonary (except pulmonary vein).
artery).
Blood flow Blood flows in spurts. Blood flows evenly.
o Blood plasma and Blood serum:
Blood plasma Blood serum
It is a yellow coloured liquid part of It is blood plasma without protein
the blood containing dissolved fibrinogen.
substances.
o Erythropenia and Leucopenia:
Erythropenia Leucopenia
It is a condition in which there is It is the condition caused due to
an abnormal decrease in the abnormal decrease in the number
number of RBCs in the blood. of WBCs in the blood.
o Antibodies and Antitoxins:
Antibodies Antitoxins
Antibodies are special chemicals Antitoxins are specialized
found in the blood, of class antibodies, which neutralizes
immunoglobulin, produced by (detoxify) the poisonous effect of
lymphocytes as a response to toxins of pathogens.
antigen of the pathogen.
o Granulocyte and Agranulocyte:
Granulocyte Agranulocyte
Granulocytes are WBC, containing Agranulocytes are WBC which does
granules and have multi lobed not contain granules and have a
nucleus. single nucleus.
They are produced in bone marrow. They are produced in lymph and
bone marrow.
They do not produce antibodies. They produce antibodies.
They have granular cytoplasm and They do not have granules in
nucleus is constricted into different cytoplasm and have a single large
lobes. nucleus.
o Thrombin and Thromboplastin:
Thrombin Thromboplastin
Thrombin is the active product Thromboplastin is the enzyme
formed by the action of released by the disintegrated
thrombokinase on inactive protein injured tissue cells and platelets.
prothrombin in the blood, during
the coagulation process.
o Systole and Diastole:
Systole Diastole
The contraction phase of the heart The relaxation phase of the heart is
is called systole. called diastole.
o Arteriole and Venule:
Arteriole Venule
The smallest or the final branch of Venule is the smallest common
an artery is called an arteriole. branch formed by the reunion of
capillaries.
o Universal donor and universal recipient:
Universal donor Universal recipient
A person with “O” type of blood can A person with AB type of blood can
give blood to all types of blood receive blood from all types of blood
groups – O, A, B, AB hence called groups – AB, B, A and O hence called
universal donor. universal recipient.
A. MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE

(Select the most appropriate option in each case)
1. Non-granular WBCs are:
a. Lymphocytes and monocytes.
b. Lymphocytes and basophils.
c. Eosinophils and basophils.
d. Eosinophils and monocytes.
Answer: (a) Lymphocytes and monocytes.
2. White blood cells engulf bacteria in a process called:
a. Diapedesis. d. Passive
b. Phagocytosis. transport.
c. Active transport.
Answer: (b) Phagocytosis.
3. The nearest organ to which the heart supplies oxygenated blood is:
a. Lung b. Stomach c. Intestine d. Heart itself
Answer: (d) Heart itself.
4. When a doctor is recording your pulse, he is pressing on your wrist
exactly on a:
a. Vein b. Capillary c. Artery d. Arteriole
Answer: (c) Artery
5. The blood vessel supplying blood to the kidney is:
a. Renal vein c. Dorsal aorta
b. Renal artery d. Hepatic vein
Answer: (b) Renal artery
6. Angina Pectoris is due to:
a. Defective nutrition.
b. Chest pain due to inadequate supply of oxygen to the heart
muscle.
c. Defective functioning of mitral valve.
d. Infection by a virus.
Answer: (b) Chest pain due to inadequate supply of oxygen
to the heart muscle.
7. The chief function of lymph nodes is to:
a. Produce WBCs c. Destroy old RBCs
b. Produce hormones d. Destroy pathogens
Answer: (a) Produce WBCs
8. Heart sounds are produced due to:
a. Closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves.
b. Rushing of blood through valves producing turbulence.
c. Closure of atrioventricular and semilunar valves.
d. Entry of blood into auricles.
Answer: (c) Closure of atrioventricular and semilunar
valves.
9. *The valve present between the right atrium and the right
ventricle is the:
a. Tricuspid valve c. Semi-lunar valve
b. Bicuspid valve d. Mitral valve
Answer: (a) Tricuspid valve
B. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE

1. Given below are certain structures, write their chief functional activity.
a. Blood platelets _______________. Coagulation
b. Neutrophils _______________. Phagocytosis
c. Erythrocytes _______________. Respiratory gases transport
d. Lymphocytes _______________. Antibody productions
e. Bone marrow _______________. Production of RBCs & WBCs
2. Name the following:
a. The cells which transport oxygen to the different parts of
the human body. RBC
b. The cells that initiate blood clotting. Platelets
c. Any one vein which starts from an organ and ends in
another organ besides the heart. Hepatic Portal Vein
d. The kind of blood vessels which have no muscular walls. Capillaries
e. The artery which carries deoxygenated blood. Pulmonary artery
f. The kind of blood cells which can squeeze out through the
walls of one category of blood vessels. WBC / leukocyte
g. The smallest common blood vessels formed by the union
of capillaries. Venule
h. The blood vessels which starts from capillaries and ends in
capillaries. Portal vein
i. The phase of the cardiac cycle in which the auricles
contract. Auricular systole
j. The valve present in between the chambers on the right
side of the human heart. Tricuspid valve
k. The phase of the cardiac cycle in which the ventricles get
filled with blood from the atrium. Auricular systole
l. The fluid found between the membranes of the heart.
Pericardial fluid
3. Complete the following statements by filling in the blanks from
the choices given in the brackets.
a. The blood vessel that begins and ends in capillaries is the
__________ (hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, hepatic
vein). hepatic portal vein
b. A blood vessel which has small lumen and thick wall is
_________ (capillary, lymphatic duct, artery, venule). artery
c. The valve which prevents back flow of blood in the veins and
lymph vessels is ________ (mitral valve, tricuspid valve, pocket
shaped valve). pocket shaped valve
d. An anticoagulant present in the blood is ______ (heparin,
hirudin, thromboplastin, calcium). heparin
4. Note the relationship between the first two words and suggest a
suitable word/words for the fourth place:
a. Lub : Atrioventricular valves :: Dup :_________ Semilunar valves
b. Coronary artery : Heart :: Hepatic artery:__________ Liver
5. Give reason, why a mature mammalian erythrocyte lacks nucleus and
mitochondria?
a. They lack nucleus: To increase the surface area for the
absorption and transportation of oxygen.
b. They lack mitochondria: Because they do not use oxygen
for themselves and they efficiently transport oxygen.
C. SHORT ANSWER TYPE

1. Enumerate the structural differences between white blood cells
and red blood cells.
WBC RBC
WBCs have nucleus. RBC have no nucleus.
These are large, round, These are biconcave discs, flat
colourless bodies having single in centre and rounded at the
large or lobed nucleus. periphery.
2. Why is it necessary to know the blood groups before giving transfusion?
It is necessary to know the kind or type of blood to be transfused
because if the blood is not matching, the blood cells stick
together (agglutination) leads to the death of a person.
3. Differentiate between members of each of the following pairs
with reference to phrases in brackets:
a. Antibodies and Antibiotics (Source).
Antibodies Antibiotics
They are produced in one’s They are produced in
own body by antigen plants like penicillium.
stimulation.
b. Serum and Vaccine (Composition).
Serum Vaccine
It is blood plasma without It is composed of dead
protein fibrinogen. and weakened germs or
toxoids.
c. Erythrocytes and leukocytes (function).
Erythrocytes Leukocytes
It transports oxygen from Protects the body,
lungs to the cells and provides immunity and
carbon dioxide from cells to prevents inflammation.
lungs.
d. Tricuspid and bicuspid valves (location).
Tricuspid valve Bicuspid valve
It is located between the It is located at the aperture
right auricle and right between the left auricle
ventricle of the heart. and left ventricle of the
heart.
e. *RBC and WBC (Structure).
WBC RBC
These are large, round, These are biconcave discs,
colourless bodies having flat in centre and rounded
single large or lobed nucleus. at the periphery.
f. *Artery and Vein (direction of blood flow).
Artery Vein
Blood vessel which carry Blood vessel which carries
blood away from the heart blood away from the
towards the organ. organs, towards the heart.
g. *Artery and Vein (type of blood primarily flowing through).
Artery Vein
Carry oxygenated blood Carry deoxygenated blood
(except pulmonary artery). (except pulmonary vein).
4. When are the sounds “LUBB’’ and “DUP’’ produced respectively during
heart beat?
The first sound LUBB is produced at the beginning of ventricular
The second sound DUP produced at the beginning of ventricular
diastole when the pulmonary semilunar valve and aortic
semilunar valves closes.
5. Why do people have a common belief that the heart is located on
the left side of the chest?
The heart is in the centre but the triangular end is tilted to the left
hence there is a common belief that heart is towards the left side.
6. Match the items in Column ‘A’ with those in Column ‘B’. Rewrite
the correct matching pairs.
Column A Column B
(a) SA Node 1. Plasma
(b) Defective haemoglobin in RBC 2. Serum
(c) Muscle fibres located in heart 3. Pacemaker
(d) The liquid squeezed out of 4. Sickle cell anaemia
blood during clotting
(e) Never tires, keep on 5. Purkinje fibres
contracting and relaxing
(f) Cardiac cycle 6. Cardiac muscle
(g) Liquid part of the blood 7. 0.85 sec
without corpuscles
Answers:
A (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
B 3 4 5 2 6 7 1
7. The table below is designed to indicate the transport of certain
substances in our body. Fill in the blanks with suitable answers.
Substance From To
1. Lungs Whole body
Carbon dioxide 2. 3.
Urea 4. 5.
Digested carbohydrates Intestine 6.
7. 8. Target organs
[Answer: 1 – O2; 2 – Whole body; 3 – Lungs; 4 – Liver; 5 – Kidney;
6 – Liver; 7 – hormones; 8 – Glands.]
D. DESCRIPTIVE TYPE
1. Define the following terms:
a. Circulatory system – It is an organ system that circulates
blood and body fluids to provide nourishment, help in
fighting diseases, stabilizes temperature and maintains
homeostasis.
b. Blood – Blood is a red fluid consisting of plasma and
corpuscles, circulating in all parts of the body.
c. Heart – Heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood &
other circulatory fluids throughout the body.
d. Diapedesis – It is a process of squeezing of WBC’s through
the capillary walls.
e. Phagocytosis – The process of engulfing bacteria by WBC’s
is called phagocytosis.
f. Rh factor – It is a factor which was (first discovered in a rhesus
monkey) present in the human blood.
2. Distinguish between the following pairs:
a. Systole and diastole:
Systole Diastole
The contraction phase of The relaxation phase of the
the heart is called systole. heart is called diastole.
b. Arteriole and venule:
Arteriole Venule
The smallest or the final Venule is the smallest
branch of an artery is called common branch formed by
an arteriole. the reunion of capillaries.
c. Universal donor and universal recipient:
Universal donor Universal recipient
A person with “O” type of A person with AB type of
blood can give blood to all blood can receive blood from
types of blood groups – O, all types of blood groups –
A, B, AB hence called AB, B, A and O hence called
universal donor. universal recipient.
d. Arteries and veins:
Arteries Veins
Blood vessel which carries Veins are blood vessel that
blood away from the heart conveys the blood away
towards the organ. from the organs towards
the heart.
3. Give reasons / explain:
a. The left ventricle has thicker walls than the right ventricle.
The left ventricles have thick muscular walls because right
ventricle has to pump blood to the lungs for oxygenation
and the left ventricle has to pumps to all parts of the
body along as well as against gravity.
b. The walls of right ventricle are thicker than those of the right
auricle.
The left ventricle has thicker muscular walls than right
ventricle because it has to pump the blood to long distances
and reach farthest point to all parts of the body whereas the
right ventricle pumps only up to the lungs for oxygenation.
c. Vitamin K is essential for the process of blood clotting.
Vitamin K is necessary for blood clotting because it helps
in production of prothrombin in the liver.
4. Write important role / roles of the following:
a. Tonsils: They produce lymphocytes and protects the body
from infections.
b. Spleen: It produces lymphocytes, RBCs in an embryo and
acts as a blood reservoir.
c. Hepatic Portal Vein: It carries digested food from small
intestine stomach to liver for assimilation.
d. Basophil: It releases histamine.
e. S.A.N.: Initiates an electric impulse to trigger heartbeat.
5. What is meant by the term ‘Double circulation’?
Distinguish between the two types of circulation in our body.
In humans, the blood flows through the heart twice in one
complete round- the short pulmonary and long systemic
Pulmonary Circulation Systemic Circulation
Pulmonary circulation is the Systemic circulation is the
circulation of the deoxygenated circulation of the oxygenated blood
blood from the right ventricle of from the left ventricle of the heart
the heart through pulmonary through the aorta to different parts
artery to the lungs and of the body and deoxygenated
oxygenated blood from the blood from different parts of the
lungs to the left auricle of the body to the right auricle of the
heart through the pulmonary heart through the superior and
veins. inferior vena cava.
6. Write the main steps in coagulation of blood in their correct sequence?
a. Blood platelets of the injured cells release an enzyme called
thromboplastin or thrombokinase or Factor X or Stuart Factor.
b. Thromboplastin, in the presence of calcium ion converts
inactive prothrombin to active thrombin.
c. Thrombin in the presence of calcium ion converts soluble
fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin.
d. Fibrin forms a mesh like structure which traps corpuscles
to form the clot (Thrombus).
7. What are the functions of blood plasma?
It carries nutrients, body proteins, hormones, etc. to different
parts of the body and carry wastes from all the cell to the organs
for elimination.
8. State any five functions of the blood. (Any five)
a. It transports hormones, digested food materials and oxygen
to all parts of the body.
b. It transports carbon dioxide and all the excretory products
c. WBC kills germs by phagocytosis.
d. WBC’s produce antibodies to kill or neutralize the toxic
effect of germs.
e. Blood platelets help in blood clotting which prevents loss of blood.
f. It distributes heat evenly to regulate body temperature.
E. STRUCTURED/ APPLICATION/SKILL TYPE

1. Given alongside is a diagram of a smear of
human blood. Study the same and answer the
questions that follow:-
a. Name the parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 indicated by
guidelines.
1. RBC, 2. WBC, 3. Platelets, 4. Plasma.
b. Mention two structural differences between the parts
labelled ‘1’ and ‘2’.
WBC RBC
c. What is the main function of the parts labelled 1, 2 and 3 respectively?
RBC – It transports oxygen from lungs to the cells and carbon
WBC – Protects the body, provides immunity and prevents
inflammation. Platelets – blood clotting.
d. What is the life span of the part labelled ‘1’? 120 days
e. Name a soluble protein found in ‘4’ which helps in the
clotting of blood. Fibrinogen
2. Given alongside is a highly schematic diagram of
the human blood circulatory system.
a. Which part (state the number) represents
the heart? Give reason in support of your
answer.
Heart – 3; Reason – Blood leaves and
enters the heart twice, i.e. it has double
circulation system.
b. Which numbers represent the following
respectively?
Aorta – 5, Renal Vein – 8,
Hepatic portal vein – 7, Stomach – 10,
Pulmonary artery – 1 , Dorsal aorta – 11,
Superior vena cava – 9.
3. The figures given below show diagrammatic cross section of three kinds
of blood vessels.
a. Identify the blood vessels A, B and C.

A – Artery, B – Vein, C – Capillaries.
b. Name the parts labelled 1 – 4.
1 – External layer (Connective tissue) 2 – Lumen
3 – Middle layer 4 – Endothelium
c. Mention two structural differences between A and B.
Artery Vein
Thick elastic and more Thin less elastic and less
muscular walls. muscular walls.
No valves in their inner Valves present in their inner
lining. lining to prevent backward
flow of blood.
d. Name the kinds of blood that flow through A and through B
respectively.
A – Oxygenated B – Deoxygenated
e. In which one of the vessels referred to in (a) above does the
exchange of gases actually takes place? Capillaries.
4. The diagram given alongside represents the
human heart in one phase of its activity.
Study the same and then answer the
questions that follow:
a. Name the phase.
Ventricular systolic phase.
b. Which part of the heart is contracting
in this phase? Give a reason to support your answer.
Ventricle; because the semilunar valves are open and the
bicuspid and tricuspid valves are closed.
c. Name the parts numbered 1 to 6.
1 – Pulmonary artery 2 – Aorta
3 – Pulmonary vein 4 – Left auricle
5 – Mitral valve 6 – Right ventricle
d. What type of blood flows through the parts marked ‘1’ and
‘2’ respectively?
1 – Deoxygenated blood; 2 – Oxygenated blood.
e. How many valves are closed in this phase?
2 – Tricuspid and Bicuspid valves.
5. Study the following diagram carefully and then answer the questions
that follow:
a. Name the cell labelled 1. Erythrocytes.

b. Identify the phenomenon occurring in A. Diapedisis.
c. Mention two structural differences between 1 and 2.
WBC RBC
d. Name the process occurring in B and C and state the
importance of this process in the human body.
Phagocytosis: The process of engulfing bacteria by WBC’s is
called phagocytosis.
Importance: Engulfs bacteria and protects the body form disease.
6. Given below is a diagrammatic representation of certain types of
blood vessels in human body.
a. Identify the types of blood vessels numbered 1 to 5.

i. Arteriole. iv. Capillaries.
ii. Artery. v. Vein.
iii. Venule.
b. Where can such an arrangement be found as an example –
in lungs or in heart walls? In both.
7. The diagram alongside shows part of the
capillary bed in an organ of the human
body. Some of the blood arriving at the
capillaries at points labelled A, moves out
into the spaces between the tissue cells.
Study the diagram and answer the
a. When the liquid from the blood surrounds the cells, what is
it called? Tissue fluid
FALGUNI MISS
b. Name any one important component of the blood which
remains inside the capillaries and fails to move out into the
spaces. RBC
c. Some of the liquid surrounding the cells does not pass directly
back into the blood but eventually reaches it by another route
through vessel X. Name the fluid present in vessel X.
Lymph fluid
d. State two important functions performed in our body by the
fluid present in the vessel X.
Any two functions:
i. Nutritive: Provides nutrition to cells where blood
cannot reach.
ii. Drainage: Drains away excess metabolites from the
body.
iii. Defence: Lymphocytes in lymph produce antibodies
to kill the germs, neutralize its toxic effect and
localize the infection.
iv. Absorption: Lacteals in villi absorb fat and pour it
into blood circulation.
FALGUNI MISS
1. The diagram shows the vertical section through a mammalian heart.
a. Copy the diagram and add labelling to each of the labelling lines.
b. Why the wall is labelled X is thicker than the wall labelled Y?
The left ventricle (X) have thick muscular walls than right ventricle (y)
because it has to pump the blood to long distances and reach
farthest point to all parts of the body whereas the right ventricle
pumps only up to the lungs for oxygenation.
c. What is the function of the part W?
To prevent the backflow of oxygenated blood from left ventricle to left
auricle.
2. The diagram is the longitudinal section of human
heart.
a. Label the guidelines 1 – 10.
1. Aorta.
2. Superior vena cava.
3. Inferior vena cava.
4. Pulmonary artery.
5. Pulmonary vein.
6. Right atrium.
7. Cordae tendonaie.
8. Bicuspid valve or left atrio – ventricular valve or mitral valve.
9. Left ventricle, 10. Tricuspid valve or right atrio ventricular valve.
b. Name the place where pacemaker is situated.
On the walls of the right auricle near opening of superior and
inferior vena cava.
c. What is difference in composition of blood in 4 and 5?
4 – Pulmonary artery 5 – Pulmonary vein
The blood is deoxygenated. The blood is oxygenated.
FALGUNI MISS
d. How many valves are present in the above diagram? Name them.
There are 4 valves present:
1 – Bicuspid valve or left atrio ventricular valve or mitral valve.
2 – Tricuspid valve or right atrio ventricular valve.
3 – Aortic semilunar valve. 4 – Pulmonary semi lunar valve.
3. Describe briefly the following: -
a. Pulmonary circulation.
Pulmonary circulation is the circulation of the deoxygenated
blood from the right ventricle of the heart through pulmonary
artery to the lungs and oxygenated blood from the lungs to the
left auricle of the heart through the pulmonary veins.
b. Systemic circulation.
Systemic circulation is the circulation of the oxygenated blood
from the left ventricle of the heart through the aorta to different
parts of the body and deoxygenated blood from different parts
of the body to the right auricle of the heart through the superior
and inferior vena cava.
c. Systole. The contraction phase of the heart is called systole.
d. Function of hepatic portal vein.
It carries digested food from small intestine stomach to liver for
assimilation.
4. Answer the questions below with reference to
the diagram below:
a. Name the below structure.
Longitudinal section of human heart.
b. Label all the parts from A to P.
A – Right atrium. I – Chordae tendonie.
B – Left atrium. J – Papillary muscle.
C – Right ventricle. K – Mitral valve.
D – Left ventricle. L – Aortic semi lunar valve.
E – Superior vena cava. M – Pulmonary vein.
F – Inferior vena cava. N – Aorta.
G – Pulmonary semi lunar valve. O – Sino atrial node.
H – Right atrio ventricular valve. P – Pulmonary artery.
c. Name the partition that separates A from B.
Inter auricular septum.
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d. State another name for O & give its function.
Pace maker.
Function: Initiates an electric impulse to trigger heartbeat.
e. Name the partition that separates C from D. Inter ventricular septum.
f. State the function of H & K.
H – Right atrio ventricular valve prevents the backflow of
deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to right auricle of the
heart.
K – Mitral valve prevents the backflow of oxygenated blood from
left ventricle to left auricle.
g. State the function of G & L.
G – Prevents the backflow of deoxygenated blood from
pulmonary artery to right ventricle.
L – Prevents the backflow of oxygenated blood from aorta to left
ventricle.
h. Name all the alphabets from the above diagram that receives
deoxygenated blood. E, F, A, G, H, I, J, C, O, P.
i. Name all the alphabets from the above diagram that receives
oxygenated blood. M, B, L, K, D, N.
j. Name the vein that supplies deoxygenated blood to A: but not
mentioned in the diagram. Coronary sinus.
k. How does some important constituents of the blood enter F.
Describe briefly.
i. Oxygen – Alveolar diffusion in lungs.
ii. Glucose amino acids – Diffusion through villi in small intestines.
iii. Fats – Some through lacteal duct of villi in small
intestines and some through liver.
l. What is the important characteristic of N.
N – Artery – It has outer connective layer, middle thick muscular
tissue and inner endothelium.
m. List the steps for blood flow through Heart in proper order.
Blood circulation of the human heart:
i. Right auricle relaxes (dilate) and fills with deoxygenated blood.
ii. The deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body is
carried through the superior and inferior vena cava to the
right auricle.
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iii. The right auricle contracts and tricuspid valve opens.
iv. The blood from the right auricle passes to the right
ventricle through the tricuspid valves.
v. The tricuspid valves closes to prevent the backflow of the
blood from right ventricle to right auricle.
vi. The right ventricle contracts and pulmonary semi lunar
valve opens.
vii. The deoxygenated blood from right ventricle is carried
through the pulmonary artery, to the lungs.
viii. The left auricle relax (dilates) and fills with oxygenated blood.
ix. The oxygenated blood from the lungs is carried through
the pulmonary vein to the left auricle.
x. The left auricle contracts and bicuspid valve opens.
xi. The blood from the left auricle passes to the left ventricle,
through the bicuspid valve.
xii. The bicuspid valves closes to prevent the backflow of the
blood from left ventricle to left auricle.
xiii. The left ventricle contracts and aortic semi lunar valve opens.
xiv. The oxygenated blood from left ventricle is carried through
aorta to different parts of the body.
xv. Sequence: All parts of the body →right auricle → right
atrio ventricular valve → right ventricle → pulmonary semi
lunar valves → pulmonary artery → right and left lungs →
pulmonary vein → left auricle → left atrio ventricular valve
→ left ventricle → aortic semi lunar valves → aorta → all
part of the body.
5. The diagram below represents a certain
category of blood vessels showing the role
of a special structure in their walls.
a. Name the kind of blood vessel shown.
Veins.
b. What is the structure inside the blood
vessel? Pocket valves.
c. What is the role of this structure?
It prevents the back flow of blood due to gravity.
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d. Are these structures present in any other type of blood vessel, if
so name it. Yes, lymph.
e. Towards which side of the figure (top or bottom) is heart located?
Top.
6. From which arterial branch does the following part receive its pure blood
supply: -
a. Heart – Coronary artery
b. Upper extremities – Radial artery
c. Liver – Hepatic artery
d. Kidney – Renal artery
e. Small and large intestine – Mesenteric artery
7. From which venial branch does the following part sends its impure blood
to heart:
a. Heart – Coronary sinus
b. Chest Muscles – Sub clavian vein
c. Stomach & spleen – Hepatic portal vein
d. Testes – Gonadal vein
e. Legs – Femoral vein
8. State true or false and correct them if false:
a. When blood flows from auricle to ventricles, Ventricle diastole &
auricles systole. True.
b. Average heart rate is 92 times/min. False – 72.
c. Higher systolic is at its lowest level each time the heart contracts.
False – highest.
d. Mercury thermometer is used for measuring blood pressure.
False – sphygmomanometer.
e. Blood flow in artery is slow and even. False – in spurts.
f. Veins carry blood towards the heart. True.
9. From where does each of the following enters the blood:
a. Oxygen – Lungs
b. Carbon dioxide – Body cells
c. Urea – Liver
d. Glucose – Villi
e. Toxic waste – Body cells
f. Fats – Liver
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10. Name the following: -
a. Muscular flaps that allow unidirectional flow. Valves.
b. Connective tissue that holds heart in place. Pericardium.
c. The muscle of the heart. Cardiac muscle.
d. A vein that drains the blood from the vessels supplying the walls of
the heart. Coronary sinus.
e. The muscle of the heart that initiates contractility. Sino atrial node.
f. The only vein that carries pure blood. Pulmonary vein.
g. Another name for bicuspid atrio-ventricular valve. Mitral valve
h. Force of the blood against the walls of heart. Blood pressure
i. A rapid heart rate. Tachycardy.
j. A blood vessel from where blood is drawn for transfusion. Vein
11. Given below is a diagrammatic sketch of the
internal structure of a human heart.
a. Label the parts 1-6.
1. Vena cava, 2. Pulmonary Vein,
3. Bicuspid valve, 4. Aorta,
5. Aortic Semilunar Valve,
6. Pulmonary Artery.
b. What is the main difference in the quality of blood in part 5 and 6?
Part 5 – Blood is oxygenated. Part 6 – Blood is deoxygenated.
c. What is a pulse?
Pulse is the alternate expansion and elastic recoil of the walls of
the arteries during ventricular systole.
d. Describe the role of the red blood cells.
It transports oxygen from lungs to the cells and carbon dioxide
from cells to lungs.
e. In what vessel will the concentration of RBC be the highest? Aorta
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12. Given on the alongside is a simple diagram of
the circulation of blood in a mammal showing
the main blood vessels, the heart, lungs and
body tissues. The blood vessel, labelled 6,
contains deoxygenated blood and the valve
leading to it has three semi-lunar pockets.
a. Name the blood vessels and organs
marked by numbers 1 to 8.
1 – Whole body 2 – Vena Cava
3 – Aorta 4 – Right ventricle
5 – Left auricle
6 – Pulmonary artery
7 – Pulmonary vein 8 – Lungs
b. What is meant by the term ‘double circulation’ of blood in mammals?
In humans, the blood flows through the heart twice in one
complete round- the short pulmonary and long systemic
c. What is diastole? The relaxation phase of the heart is called diastole.
13. Given below is a diagram of a smear of human
blood. Study the same and answer the
a. Name the parts 1, 2, 3 and 4. indicated by
guidelines.
1. RBC, 2. WBC, 3. Platelets, 4. Plasma.
b. Mention two structural differences between the parts
labelled ‘1’ and ‘2’.
WBC RBC
These are large, round, colourless These are biconcave discs, flat
bodies having single large or lobed in centre and rounded at the
nucleus. periphery.
c. What is the main function of the parts labelled 1, 2 and 3
respectively?
RBC – It transports oxygen from lungs to the cells and carbon
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WBC – Protects the body, provides immunity and prevents
inflammation.
Platelets – Initiates blood clotting.
d. What is the life span of the part labelled ‘1’ and ‘2’?
1 – 120 days; 2 – 2 weeks or 14 days.
e. How is ‘1’ eliminated from the body?
The old and weakened RBC are destroyed in the spleen, liver and
bone marrow; their iron part is retained in the liver while the rest
is excreted as a bile pigment (bilirubin).
f. Name:
i. A soluble protein found in ‘4’ which helps in the clotting of
blood. Fibrinogen,
ii. A protein found in ‘4’ that initiates blood clotting. Thrombin
iii. An element found in ‘4’ essential for clotting. Calcium
iv. An enzyme found in ‘4’ essential for clotting.
Thrombokinase
g. Name the 5 types of part ‘2’ present in the blood and state the
function of each.
Answers: 5 types;
i. Basophil : Release histamine
ii. Eosinophil : Release antitoxins
iii. Neutrophil : Phagocytosis
iv. Monocyte : Phagocytosis
v. Lymphocyte : Produces antibodies.
14. Observe the diagram given below and answer the following:
a. Name the kind of blood vessel shown in A? Capillaries.

b. What significant activity is taking place in A? Diapedesis.
c. Describe the activity taking place in b and C and write its significance.
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Phagocytosis: The process of engulfing bacteria by WBC’s is called
phagocytosis.
d. Write 1 technical term for the activities shown in the diagram.
Diapedesis and phagocytosis.
15.
a. What are the average values of blood pressure in a normal adult
human?
The normal blood pressure for the adults is 80/120 mm of Hg.
b. Is it true that your heart beats more than one lac times per day?
Yes
16. Define cardio vascular system.
Cardio vascular System is an organ system that circulates blood and
body fluids to provide nourishment, help in fighting diseases, stabilizes
temperature and maintains homeostasis.
17. State briefly 3 protective function of blood.
a. WBC kills germs by phagocytosis.
b. WBC’s produce antibodies to kill or neutralize the toxic effect of
germs.
c. Blood platelets help in blood clotting which prevents loss of blood.
18. State briefly 2 transport function of blood.
a. It transports hormones, digested food materials and oxygen to all
parts of the body.
b. It transports carbon dioxide and all the excretory products from
all parts of the body to the organs for elimination.
19. Briefly describe the constitution of plasma.
Water (90 – 92%).
Nutrients, salts, metabolic wastes, gases, hormones, enzymes etc. (6 to 8%).
20. State the functions of the plasma.
It carries nutrients, body proteins, hormones, etc. to different parts of the
body and carry wastes from all the cell to the organs for elimination.
21. Study the diagram and answer.
a. Identify the structure. Red blood cell (erythrocytes).
b. Name the pigment in it (for adults). Haemoglobin
c. Where are they produced?
RBC’s are produced in the red bone marrow of long bones,
ribs, breast bone and ilium of hip girdle.
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d. Where are they produced in embryo? Liver and spleen.
e. What happens to all these cells after 120 days?
Their iron part is retained in liver while the rest is excreted as a bile
pigment (bilirubin).
f. The matured cells are devoid of a main cell organelle. Name it.
Nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria.
g. State 2 main functions of the above structure.
i. To transport oxygen from lungs to all parts of the body and
ii. To transport carbon dioxide from all parts of the body to lungs.
22. Study the diagram and answer the questions that follow:
a. Identify the structure. Leukocyte
b. It is Agranulocyte / Granulocyte. Agranulocyte
c. Where do these develop from? Lymph nodes
d. It has two functions, list them.
Two function are: (Any two)
i. Protects the body, provides immunity and prevents inflammation.
ii. Engulfs bacteria by phagocytosis.
iii. Production of antibodies.
23. Define Phagocytosis.
The process of engulfing bacteria by WBC’s is called phagocytosis.
24. Distinguish between blood serum and blood plasma.
Blood plasma Blood serum
It is a yellow coloured liquid part of the It is blood plasma without
blood containing dissolved substances. protein fibrinogen.
25. Name the following : -
a. A bright red viscous fluid, which flows through all the vessels except
lymph. Blood
b. A protein group to which antibodies belong. Immunoglobulin
c. Two electrolytes present in blood plasma. Phosphates, chlorides
d. A non-protein nitrogenous salt in plasma. Urea
e. 90% composition of plasma. Water
f. An unstable compound of CO2 and haemoglobin.
Carbaminohaemoglobin
g. Movement performed by leukocytes. Amoeboid movement
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h. An unstable red compound formed between oxygen & haemoglobin.
Oxyhaemoglobin
i. A leukocytes that stains orange-red with acid dyes. Eosinophil
j. The ability of leukocytes to pass through capillary walls.
Diapedesis
k. Leukocytes that produces antitoxins. Eosinophil
l. Two leukocytes that are phagocytotic. Monocyte, Neutrophil
m. A formed element that helps in blood clotting. Thrombocytes
n. An anticoagulant in blood. Heparin
26. Why does blood inside vessels not clot?
Blood inside the vessels do not clot because:
a. The coagulating factors remain inactive in blood vessels.
b. Anticoagulants like heparin are present in blood.
c. Endothelium is intact.
27. Distinguish between Agranulocyte & Granulocyte.
Agranulocyte Granulocyte
Agranulocytes are WBC which Granulocytes are WBC,
does not contain granules and containing granules and have
have a single nucleus. multi lobed nucleus.
28. Draw the structure of RBC.
Diagram -----→
29. Which are the 3 principal fluids in our body?
They are tissue fluids, lymph and blood.
30. Why is carbon monoxide poisoning fatal?
Haemoglobin has a very strong affinity for carbon monoxide forming a
stable compound Carboxyhaemoglobin (HbCO). This cuts down the
capacity of the blood of transporting oxygen, sometimes resulting in
death.
31. Define:
a. Erythropenia: It is a condition in which there is an abnormal
decrease in the number of RBCs in the blood.
b. Leucopenia: It is the condition caused due to abnormal decrease
in the number of WBCs in the blood.
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32. Complete the following :
Blood in our body is always__________, thick fluid, _______ when taken
from an artery or ________ when taken from a vein.
circulating, bright red, dark red
The average adult blood volume is__________ , and it tastes saltish with a pH
of_________.
5 to 6 litres, 7.35 – 7.45
33. Answer the following:
a. Identify A to G.
A – Erythrocyte B – Neutrophil
C – Eosinophil D – platelets
E – Basophil F – Lymphocyte
G – Monocyte
b. State the function of each :
A – It transports oxygen from lungs to the cells and carbon
B – Engulfs bacteria by phagocytosis.
C – Engulfs bacteria by phagocytosis and secrete anti-toxins.
D – Initiates blood clotting.
E – It releases histamine.
F – It protects the body from diseases by producing antibodies.
G – Ingest germs by phagocytosis.
c. Give the number/s of the diagram to the following descriptions :
i. Deficient but more efficient. A
ii. Amoeboid movement. B, C, G
iii. Average life is 2 hrs. B
iv. Average life is 120 days. A
v. In adults produced in red bone marrow, liver and spleen. B,
C, E, F, G
vi. It is produced in liver and spleen in an embryo. A
vii. When active leaves thrombus behind. D
viii. Uses calcium ions. D
ix. Forms macrophages. G
x. Stains with acidic dye. C
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d. Name special component present in each - A, B, C, E and F.
A – Haemoglobin. B, C, E – Granules.
F – Cytoplasm without granules.
34. Distinguish between:
a. Erythropenia and leucopenia.
Erythropenia Leucopenia
It is a condition in which there is It is the condition caused due to
an abnormal decrease in the abnormal decrease in the
number of RBCs in the blood. number of WBCs in the blood.
b. Antibodies and antitoxins.
Antibodies Antitoxins
Antibodies are special chemicals Antitoxins are specialized
found in the blood, of class antibodies, which neutralizes
immunoglobulin, produced by (detoxify) the poisonous effect of
lymphocytes as a response to toxins of pathogens.
antigen of the pathogen.
a. A phagocytotic WBC. Neutrophils or monocytes
b. A respiratory pigment. Haemoglobin
c. A protein released to counteract the antigen of germs. Antibody
d. A histamine releasing WBC. Basophils
e. Type of muscle fibre that ensures contractility of the heart.
Cardiac muscles
f. Two types of valves found in heart.
Atrio-ventricular valves (left and right), semi-lunar valves (pulmonary
and aortic).
g. All the valves open during ventricular systole.
Pulmonary semi-lunar valve and aortic semi-lunar valve.
h. Type of muscle fibre that generates & transmits impulses. Purkinje fibres
i. All the valves open during Atrial systole.
Tricuspid valve and bicuspid (left and right atrio-ventricular
valve respectively).
j. Inlet in the heart for:
i. Oxygenated blood. Pulmonary vein
ii. Deoxygenated blood. Anterior and posterior vena cava
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k. Outlet in the heart for:
i. Oxygenated blood. Aorta
ii. Deoxygenated blood. Pulmonary artery
36. Select the correct answer:
The blood pressure of a person is 120/80. This means that: -
a. During atrial systole the blood pressure reaches a maximum level of
120 mm of Hg, & when ventricles relax, pressure falls to 80mm Hg.
b. During ventricular systole blood pressure reaches a maximum
level of 80 mm of Hg, & when atria relaxes pressure reaches a man
level of 120 mm of Hg
Answer: (a). During atrial systole the blood pressure reaches a
maximum level of 120 mm of Hg, & when ventricles relax,
pressure falls to 80mm Hg.
37. Arrange the blood vessels in correct sequence:
Arteriole, Venule, Capillaries, Aorta, Artery, Vein.
Aorta, Artery, Arteriole, Capillaries, Venule, Vein.
38. The figure below represents the human heart in one of the phases of its
activity.
a. Name the phase that occurs after this
phase. Joint diastole.
b. Name the parts numbered 1 to 5.
1 – Pulmonary Artery 2 – Aorta
3 – Pocket valve
4 – Left Auricle or left Atria
5 – Bicuspid valve or mitral valve
c. What do the arrows indicate in a general way?
The arrows indicate the direction of flow of blood.
d. Which part or parts of the heart are contracting in this phase, and
name this phase?
The left ventricle and the right ventricle are contracting in this
phase. It is the Ventricular Systole.
e. How many and which valves in this phase are closed?
2 valves are closed in this phase: Bicuspid Valve and Tricuspid
Valve.
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39. Study the structure A and B given below and answer the following
questions.
a. What structures do figures A and B represent?
A – Artery B – Vein
b. Label parts 1, 2, and 3.
1 – Middle thick muscular tissue,
2 – Outer connective tissue, 3 – Endothelium.
c. State the functions of A and B.
A – Artery carries oxygenated blood to all parts of the body
except the pulmonary artery.
B – Veins carries deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body
to the heart except the pulmonary vein.
d. From the figure, state two differences between A and B.
Artery (A) Vein (B)
Artery has a smaller lumen. Vein has a wider lumen.
Have a thick muscular middle Have a thin muscular middle
layer. layer.
e. Draw the third category of vessel.
The third category of vessel is Capillary.
Diagram ------->
40. Define ‘Pulse’. The pulse rate of a certain normal
human adult was counted after every 3 minutes as following: -
95, 85, 76, 73, 74, 75, 77. What do these figures indicate?
Pulse is the alternate expansion and elastic recoil of the walls of the
arteries during ventricular systole. The person must have done some
physical exercise and is now relaxing or has been through some
emotional stress and is now relaxing.
41. Comp. the statement “Chlorophyll: Magnesium::blood clotting:_________.
Calcium
42. State any 2 functions of spleen and lymph.
Functions of spleen are: (Any Two)
a. It produces lymphocytes.
b. It produces RBCs in an embryo.
c. It acts as a blood reservoir.
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Functions of lymph are: - (Any Two)
a. Nutritive: Provides nutrition to cells where blood cannot reach.
b. Drainage: Drains away excess metabolites from the body.
c. Defence: Lymphocytes in lymph produce antibodies to kill the
germs, neutralize its toxic effect and localize the infection.
d. Absorption: Lacteals in villi absorb fat and pour it into blood circulation.
a. Two blood vessels that supply blood to the liver.
Hepatic portal vein and Hepatic artery.
b. Two veins associated with the liver. Hepatic portal vein and
Hepatic vein.
c. The cavity in which heart and lungs are located. Thoracic cavity.
44. Draw a labeled diagram, of valves in vein
(open and close both), and also state on
which side is the heart located?
Heart is located in the centre between the two
lungs and above the diaphragm.
45. What is blood transfusion?
The process of transfer of blood from a person to
needy person in time of medical emergency is
called blood transfusion.
46. Study the diagram and answer the questions that
follow:
a. Label all the parts from 1 to 8.
1 – Superior vena cava2 – Aorta
3 – Pulmonary artery 4 – Right ventricle
5 – Left ventricle 6 – Coronary artery
7 – Sub-clavian artery 8 – Common carotid artery
b. Which part of the brain controls this organ?
The medulla oblongata controls this organ.
c. What happens when part 6 is blocked? Name the condition.
When part 6 (coronary artery) is blocked, there is ‘deadening’ of
the corresponding area of heart muscles leading to myocardial
infarction.
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47. Define: sphygmomanometer.
It is an apparatus used to measure blood pressure.
48. Match the following :
A B
a. Haemophilia 1. Narrowing of lumen
b. Angina pectoris 2. Clot plugging of any vessel
c. Hypertension 3. Cessation of heart beat
d. Coronary thrombosis 4. Reduced O2 supply to the heart
e. Cardiac arrest 5. Abnormal heart rate
f. Anaemia 6. Uncontrolled production of WBC
g. Leukaemia 7. Hereditary deficiency of coagulation
h. Palpitation 8. Haemoglobin deficiency
Answers:
A a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
B 7. 4. 5. 2. 3. 8. 6. 1.
49. The given diagram represents the section of the
human heart.
a. Label the parts indicated in the guidelines.
1 – Anterior vena cava 2 – Aorta
3 – Pulmonary artery 4 – Pulmonary vein
P – Left ventricle Q – Right ventricle
b. Which of the vessels labelled in the diagram carries
oxygenated blood. 2, 4
c. Name the blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the
heart muscle. Coronary artery.
d. State the function of each of the following structures represented by
2, 3, and 4.
2 – Carries oxygenated blood from left ventricle to all parts of the
body.
3 – Carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to the lungs
for oxygenation.
4 – Carries the oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left auricle.
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50. The diagram given below represents the various parts of the human heart in
vertical section.
a. Label the parts marked 1 – 8.
1 – Aorta 2 – Aortic semilunar valve
3 – Pulmonary vein 4 – Bicuspid valve
5 – Pulmonary artery 6 – Vena cava
7 – Tricuspid valve 8 – Chordae tendinae
b. Which part of the heart is responsible for the pumping
of oxygenated blood in systemic circulation? Left ventricle
c. Which part of the heart will receive deoxygenated blood?
Right auricle
d. Write the function of the part labelled 8.
They hold the bicuspid and tricuspid valves in position and
prevents their upturning during ventricular contraction.
51. The figure below shows a certain process :
a. Name the process shown in the figure.
Blood Clotting
b. Name the vitamin required, for the process to
occur. Vitamin K
c. Identify A, B, C, D.
A – Thrombokinase B – Prothrombin
C – Fibrin D – Serum
d. Name the genetic disorder in which the above process does not
take place or is too slow. Haemophilia
52. The given diagram shows the general plan of the human circulatory
system. Study the same and answer the following:
a. Label the guidelines 3 and 9.

3 – Hepatic artery. 9 – Hepatic portal vein.
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b. What do you mean by the hepatic portal system? What is its importance?
Definition: It is a vein which starts and ends in capillaries from
small intestine and stomach and goes to the liver.
Importance: It carries digested food from small intestine and
stomach to liver for assimilation.
c. What do the ‘LUBB’ and ‘DUP’ sound indicate?
‘LUBB’: It is the first sound produced at the beginning of ventricular
‘DUP’: It is the second sound produced at the beginning of ventricular
diastole when the pulmonary semilunar valve and aortic semilunar
valves closes.
d. Name 2 fluids. Lymph and tissue fluids.
53. Given below is the diagram of the external
features of the mammalian heart.
a. Label the parts 1-6.
1 – Aorta 2 – Left atrium
3 – Left ventricle 4 – Inferior vena cava
5 – Superior vena cava 6 – Pulmonary artery
b. What happens when the coronary artery gets an internal clot?
It causes coronary thrombosis (myocardial infarction or heart
attack). It is a condition due to blockage in coronary artery which
causes deadening of the corresponding area of heart muscle.
c. What type of blood number 4 carries?
4 carries deoxygenated blood.
d. Mention one functional difference between 5 and 6.
5 – Superior vena cava 6 – Pulmonary artery
Carries deoxygenated blood It carries deoxygenated blood

from the upper parts of the from right ventricle to the lungs
body like the head and the neck for oxygenation.
to the right auricle.
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54. Given below is the diagram of the L.S. of human heart. Study the diagram
carefully and answer the questions that follow :
a. Name all the parts labelled from 1 to 8
1 – Pulmonary artery 2 – Bicuspid valve
3 – Aorta 4 – Inferior vena-cava
5 – Left atrium 6 – Right ventricle
7 – Right atrium 8 – Pulmonary vein
b. State the function of part 2.
Bicuspid valve prevents the backflow of oxygenated blood from left
ventricle to left auricle.
c. Name the blood vessels, which have valves inside. Veins
d. Name the blood vessels, which supply blood to the muscles of the
heart. Coronary arteries.
55. Study the following diagram and answer :
a. Label all the parts from A to H.
A – Right at Atrio ventricular valve
(Tricuspid)
B – Left at Mitral/Atrio ventricular valve
(Bicuspid)
C – Superior vernacular D – Pulmonary vein
E – Pulmonary artery F – Left ventricle
G – Aorta H – Head
b. State one function of each A to F.
A – Right atrio ventricular valve prevents the backflow of
deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to right auricle of the heart.
B – Left atrio-ventricular valve prevents the backflow of
oxygenated blood from left ventricle to left auricle.
C – Superior vena cava carries deoxygenated blood from the upper
parts of the body like the head and the neck to the right auricle.
D – Pulmonary vein carries the oxygenated blood from the lungs
to the left auricle.
E – Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from right
ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation.
F – It contracts to push the oxygenated blood out of the heart to
all parts of the body.
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56. The following figure shows some blood vessels close to a group of cells: -
a. Name the vessel ‘X’ and ‘Y’. X – Arteriole, Y – Venule

b. State 2 important changes which takes place in the composition of
blood as it passes from ‘X’ to ‘Y’.
X – Carries oxygenated blood and
Y – Carries deoxygenated blood.
57. Given below is the series of diagrams (A – C) to show the activity of a
certain kind of cells in the human body:
a. Name the structures seen in A.

Erythrocytes and leukocyte (neutrophils).
b. What significant activity is shown in A? Give the technical term
for this activity.
The activity shown is squeezing out of WBCs from the blood
vessels. This is known as Diapedesis.
c. Describe the events and their significance, shown in B and C.
B – Phagocytosis – This is a defensive mechanism in which most
WBCs particularly the Neutrophils engulf particle-like solid
substances, especially bacteria pathogens.
C – Digestion – After phagocytosis, the neutrophils digest the
harmful substances.
58. The diagram given represents the section of the heart of a mammal:
a. Name the parts numbered 1 to 10.
1 – Aorta 2 – Pulmonary artery
3 – Left auricle 4 – Bicuspid valve
5 – Left ventricle 6 – Superior vena cava
7 – Right atrium 8 – Tricuspid valve
9 – Right ventricle 10 – Inferior vena cava
FALGUNI MISS
b. Which structures in the diagram help in maintaining the
direction of the flow of blood? Tricuspid and bicuspid valves.
c. To which organ/organs does the blood vessel labelled 2 carry
blood? Lungs
d. What is the purpose of structure 8?
8 – Tricuspid valve prevents the backflow of deoxygenated blood
from right ventricle to right auricle of the heart.
59. The given diagram is a schematic diagram of the V.S. of the heart.
a. Name the parts from 1to 8.
1 – Vena cava 2 – Right auricle
3 – Pulmonary artery 4 – Aorta
5 – Left auricle 6 – Pulmonary vein
7 – Left ventricle 8 – Tricuspid valve
b. Name a part that has not been shown. Semilunar valves.
c. Name the blood vessel which supplies blood to this organ for its
functioning. Coronary arteries.
60. In the given drawing of the heart and the related blood vessels.
a. Label the parts 1to 8.
1 – Left auricle 2 – Left ventricle
3 – Aorta 4 – Pulmonary artery
5 – Pulmonary vein 6 – Right auricle
7 – Right ventricle
8 – Pulmonary semi-lunar valve
b. Write in proper serial order only the numbers (among 8)
to show the circulation of blood into and out of the heart.
6→7→8→4→5→1→2→3
c. In which chamber of the heart is the Sino- atrial node located?
Right auricle
d. What is the significance of SAN?
Initiates an electric impulse to trigger heartbeat.
61. Complete the following statement by filling in the blank from the
choices given in the brackets.
An anticoagulant present in the blood is ________ (heparin, hirudin,
thromboplastin, calcium). heparin
FALGUNI MISS
62. The diagram below represents the simplified pathway of the
circulation of blood. Study the same and answer the questions that
follow:
a. Name the blood vessel labelled 1 and 2.
1 – Superior vena cava. 2 – Aorta.
b. State the function of blood vessels labelled
5 and 8.
5 – Function of hepatic artery:
It carries oxygenated blood to the liver.
8 – Function of inferior vena cava:
It carries deoxygenated blood from the liver to
join the vena cava.
c. What is the importance of the blood vessel
labelled 6?
Importance of hepatic portal vein: It carries digested
food from small intestine stomach to liver for assimilation.
d. Which blood vessel will contain a high amount of glucose and
amino acids after a meal? Hepatic portal vein.
e. Draw a diagram of the different blood cells as seen in a smear of
human blood.
FALGUNI MISS
63. What are the following?
a. Universal donor: A person with “O” type of blood can give blood
to all types of blood groups – O, A, B, AB hence called universal
donor.
b. Diapedesis: It is a process of squeezing of WBC’s through the
capillary walls.
64. Is it possible for the blood to clot under the skin? Give reason in
support of your answer.
Yes, clotting can occur under the skin; It does not need exposure to
air, clotting can be caused by the movement of blood over a rough
surface as on cholesterol deposit on the inside of a blood vessel.
65. Expand the following terms:
a. Endothelium: It is semi permeable single layer squamous
epithelial tissue which makes up the capillary walls.
b. Lymph nodes: Lymph Nodes are collection of lymph tissues which
act as filters for gems and foreign matter and produce
lymphocytes.
c. Venule: Venule is the smallest common branch formed by the
reunion of capillaries.
d. Diastole: The relaxation phase of the heart is called diastole.
66. Give the structural differences between an artery and a vein?
Artery Vein
Thick elastic and more muscular Thin less elastic and less
walls. muscular walls.
No valves in their inner lining. Valves present in their inner
lining to prevent backward
flow of blood.
67. Give reason for the following:
a. The walls of the left ventricle are thicker than the walls of all the
other chambers.
The left ventricles have thick muscular walls than all the other
chambers of the heart because it has to pump the blood to long
distances and reach farthest point to all parts of the body
whereas all other chambers have to pump blood to shorter
distances.
FALGUNI MISS
b. Blood flowing away from the stomach and intestines is put into
circulation via the liver and not directly.
The digested food absorbed by villi has to be assimilated before
supplying it to every cell of the body for its use. Hence, the blood is
taken to the liver and then put into circulatory.
c. The blood groups of both the donor and recipient must be known
before transfusing blood.
It is necessary that the blood groups of both donor and recipient
should match because if the blood is not matching, the blood cells
stick together (agglutination) leads to the death of the person.
d. Only the veins and not arteries are provided with valves.
The veins carry blood against gravity and hence needs valves to
prevent the back flow of blood whereas the artery carries it in line
with gravity so there is no need of the valves as there is no back flow.
e. Atrial walls is less muscular than the ventricular wall.
The atria have thin inner walls as it has to receive blood from the
body and pump it to the ventricles which are next to it while the
ventricles have thick muscular walls as the right ventricle has to
pump blood to the lungs for oxygenation and the left ventricle has
to pump to all parts of the body along as well as against gravity.
f. The arteries are deep seated in the body.
Arteries carry oxygenated blood and the blood flow in it is in
spurts. To avoid massive blood loss due to any kind of injury.
68. The following simplified diagram refers to the outline plan of the circulation of
blood in a mammal. Study the diagram and write the number and the name of
the blood vessel in each case as mentioned ahead.
a. Several hours after a meal containing a lot of protein, which vessel will
contain the highest concentration of urea? 7
b. Which vessel would contain the highest concentration of amino
acids and glucose soon after a meal? 4
FALGUNI MISS
!!! THANK YOU!!!

X Icse Math Science Sample Notes

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SAMPLE NOTES FALGUNI MISS

ICSE IX & X – MATHS & SCIENCE

INDEPTH EXPLANATION * DETAILED NOTES * AV

CONNECT – 98204 28493

Dear Parents and Students,

NO. OF ICSE STUDENTS COACHED ACROSS INDIA AND

BATCHES AVAILABLE FOR STD IX AND X:

FOR ALL ICSE SCHOOL IN INDIA AND ABROAD.

Ms. Falguni Thakker - B.Ed., Food Technologist.

01. MATHEMATICS – GST

02. PHYSICS – FORCE

03. CHEMISTRY – PRACTICAL

04. BIOLOGY – CARDIO VASCULAR

01. GST [GOODS AND SERVICES TAX]

3. Find the amount of bill for the following intra-state transaction of

8. A is a dealer in Banaras (UP). He supplies goods/services worth Rs. 8,000 to

9. A is a dealer in Meerut (UP). He supplies goods/services, worth Rs. 15,000

14. A is a manufacturer of T.V. sets in Delhi. He manufactures a particular brand

PHYSICS REVISION NOTES

➢ Translational and Rotational Motions: A rigid body when acted upon by

➢ Couple and Moment of couple:

BOARD REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. State the condition when on applying a force, a body has:

17. A body is acted upon by two forces each of magnitude F, but in

Moment of force F at the end A = F × OA (anticlockwise).

Clockwise moment = W1 × l1.

1. The moment of a force of 10 N about a fixed point O is 5 N m. Calculate

2. A nut is opened by a wrench of length 10 cm. If the least force required

3. A wheel of diameter 2 m is shown in diagram

4. The diagram shows two forces F1 = 5 N and F2 = 3 N acting at points A

6. Diagram shows two forces each of magnitude 10 N

7. A steering wheel of diameter 0.5 m is rotated anticlockwise by

8. A uniform metre rule is pivoted at its mid-point. A weight of 50 gf is

9. A uniform metre rule balances horizontally on a knife edge placed at

a. The total anticlockwise moment about O. [6000 gf cm]

17. A uniform metre rule of mass 100 g is balanced on a fulcrum at mark

PHYSICS REVISION NOTES

➢ Scope: Centre of gravity (qualitative only) with example of some regular

2) Circular Geometric centre.

4) Cylinder. Mid-point on the

7) Circular Centre of ring.

8) Triangular The point of

9)Parallelogram The point of

➢ Determination of centre of gravity of an irregular lamina by the

BOARD REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define the term ‘centre of gravity of a body’.

10. A uniform flat circular rim is balanced on a sharp

11. The figure below shows three pieces of cardboard of uniform

In the triangle you can draw any two lines.

PHYSICS REVISION NOTES

(C) UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION.

➢ Scope: As an example of constant speed, though acceleration (force) is

➢ Uniform circular motion:

1. Explain the meaning of uniform circular motion. Explain why is such

16. MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE

1. A piece of stone tied at the end of a thread is whirled in a

CHEMISTRY REVISION NOTES

o Action of heat on Lead sulphate and sodium sulphate:

copper hydroxide is formed, of ferrous hydroxide is formed,

List 2 iv/v iii iv/v i Vi ii

3. Give a balanced equation for:

*** Note ***

Add NH4OH to lead nitrate Add NH4OH to zinc nitrate

* Note *