CuSO4 , add gently hydroxide= OH KOH

substance that increases the rate of a

reaction

enzyme

metabolic reaction ;
chemical reaction

substrate: starch
product: maltose
sucrose, maltose : disaccharides
sucrose->glucose. substrate: sucrose
product: glucose
 HCl

best
temperature
for an enzyme
to work
perfectly
because they are proteins. At high temperature,
they lose their natural shape and gradually can not
be fit with substrates
 C H O S N formed by chains of amino acids
diet = food
CHO, 1glycerol +
about 20 different amino acids
3 fatty acids
haemoglobine in blood, hair, nail, enzyme
build up, grow, reproduce
 1kJ= 1000J

Joules 1MJ = 10^6 J

chemical reaction in a living organism = metabolism

= metabolic reaction
 haemoglobin= protein in blood

beef, sheep, goat, buffalo

carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamin,

water, minerals, fibre
 MINERAL AND
WATER: INORGANIC

fats stick to the arteries and

causes the lack of oxygen to
heart muscle
heart disease, strokes, diabete

deficiency disease is the lack of some

essential nutritions in a diet

starvation: dont have enough food

malnutrition: maybe enough food, but not
enough nutritions
 abso

out of the canal and come into the blood

asorption is the progress of food get

carbohydrate, fat protein

fat, pro
protein
carbohydrate
digested
into molecules

protein= chain of amino acids

fat = glycerol + fatty

acids

polysaccharides:
starch, cellulose
Formed by monosaccharide
mechanical
mechanical

mechanical
mechanical

chemical
chemical

chemical

simple sugar, water, vitamins, minerals

simple amino acids

glycerol and fatty sugar
acids

The digestion of large insoluble molecules into smaller soluble molecules

amylase: starch, protease: protein-> polypeptides, lipase: fat-> glycerol,
fatty acids

sm
acid environment for pepsin and kill
bacteria in food
pulmonary system: lung
sytemic system: heart
LEFT:
atrium: receive oxygenated blood->ventricle
ventricle: pump blood to the body upper chambers: atria (atrium)
lower chambers: ventricles
RIGHT SIDE OF THE HEART:
atrium: receive deoxygenated blood
from body ->ventricle
ventricle: pump blood to the lung

ventricles pump blood to further

places than atrium
so they have thicker walls
 left: transfer blood to the body, head
right: transfer blood to the lung
left: further than the right

to provide nutrients and oxygen

promptly to the muscles of the heart

tl
muscles of the heart: CARDIAC MUSCLES
 pulse rate caused by the expansion
&relaxation of the artery, which caused by
heart pushing blood through
`

organs need oxygen &nutrients quickly,

so the heart need to pump faster
pacemaker is a patch
of muscle in the right
atrium
`
the atrioventricular valves are forced
shut by the blood pressure. The
semilunar valves opened, to allow the
blood go out to the body
 atrioventricular

arteries: away from the heart

then divide into tiny vessels called capillaries.
capillaries join up to form vein. Vein transfer blood to the heart
arteries: heart
capilleries: tiny vessels

vein: a lot of tiny vessels(capilleries) joined together

ratio: surface area/volume is big
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Because we cannot say when the substance will have
entirely decayed, we have to think of another way of
describing the rate of decay. As shown on the graph in
Figure P22.08a, we identify the half-life of the substance,
which we describe as follows.
The half-life of a radioactive substance is the average time
taken for half of the atoms in a sample to decay.
Uranium decays slowly because it has a very long half­
life. The radioactive samples used in schools usually have
half-lives of a few years, so that they have to be replaced
once in a while. Some radioactive substances have half­
lives that are less than a microsecond. No sooner are they
formed than they decay into something else.
Explaining half-life
After one half-life, half of the atoms in a radioactive sample
have decayed. However, this does not mean that all of
the atoms will have decayed after two half-lives. From the
graph of Figure P22.08a, you can see that one quarter will
still remain after two half-lives. Why is this?
So the number of undecayed atoms goes 100-50-25-
12- ... and so on. It is because radioactive atoms decay
in a random fashion that we get this pattern of decay.
Notice that, just because one atom has not decayed in
the first half-life does not mean that it is more likely to
decay in the next half-life. It has no way of remembering
its past.
Usually, we cannot measure the numbers of atoms in a
sample. Instead, we measure the count rate using a Geiger
counter or some other detector. We might also determine
the activity of a sample. This is the number of atoms that
decay each second, and is measured in becquerels (Bq).
An activity of 1 Bq is one decay per second. The count rate
and activity both decrease following the same pattern as
the number of undecayed atoms.
WORKED EXAMPLE P22.0l
A sample of radioactive element X has an activity
of 240 Bq. If the half-life of Xis 3 years, what will its
activity be after 12 years?

■
Figure P22.09 shows one way of thinking about what Step 1: Calculate the number of half-lives in 12 years.
is going on. Imagine that we start with a sample of 100 12 years .
_- 4 ha If-11ves
undecayed atoms of a radioactive substance (white circles 3 years
in Figure P22.09a). They decay randomly (black circles in Hence we want to know the activity of the sample after
Figure P22.09b-d) - each undecayed atom has a so: so 4 half-lives.
chance of decaying in the course of one half-life. So, Step 2: Calculate the activity after 1, 2, 3 and
looking at the panels in Figure P22.09, we can describe the 4 half-lives (divide by 2 each time).
decay like this:
initial activity cc 240 Bq
a At the start, there are 100 undecayed atoms.
activity after l half-life= 120 Bq
b After one half-life, a random selection of SO atoms
has decayed. activity after 2 half-lives= 60 Bq
c During the next half-life, a random selection of half of
activity after 3 half-lives= 30 Bq
the remaining 50 atoms decays, leaving 25 undecayed.
d During the third half-life, half of the remaining atoms decay, activity after 4 half-lives= 15 Bq
leaving 12 or 13. (Of course, you cannot have half an atom.)

a b C d
000 o•oo••o••oo •••o••o••• ·••01••····
000 •o•oo••o•o •o••o••o•o •o•••••o••
000 ••oo••o.•o• •••o•••••• ••••••••••
000 o•o•ooo••o ••o•o•ia••o ••••·o••••o
oo·o, •o•o,d•o•o• •o••••ia,••• •o••••••••
00 •00••0•0•01 ••o••o•o•• •••••••o••i
o••o,o•o:o•• o•••o••o•• o•••,0•••••1
••o••oo•o• •••o•••o•o• ••0••·••0•1
oo••o••o•o ••••o••••• ········••j
oo 0 •o•o•oo•O• •••••o••o• •••••o••••
Figure P22.09 The pattern of radioactive decay comes about because the decay of individual atoms is random.
Half of the atoms decay during each half-life, but we have no way of predicting which individual atoms decay.
 P22: Atomic physics

So the activity of the sample has fallen to 15 Bq

after 12 years.
(Another way to do this is as follows. We have found Geiger tube
that 12 years is 4 half-lives, so we need to divide the
initial activity by 24, which is 16, giving:
240 Bq uranium in
= lS Bq
16 denser I ayer

So the activity is 15 Bq after 12 years, as before.)

Figure P22.10 A practical arrangement for measuring the
half-life of the radioactive decay of protactinium-234.

100
Measuring a half-life
Figure P22.l0 shows how the half-life of a particular 80 -+---+---.--+---!--�-�
substance, protactinium-234, is measured in the lab. "' >< I
After the bottle has been shaken, the upper layer of � 60
.�
liquid contains protactinium, which emits beta radiation
as it decays. Because its half-life is 70s, the count rate
§ 40 -+--+--+
decreases quickly. The number of counts in successive X
x_x
20
intervals of 10s is recorded. A graph is plotted of number X

■
of counts in each interval against time, as in Figure P22.ll. 0
The half-life can then be deduced from the decay graph, 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time/s
as shown.
Figure P22.ll The count rate for the radioactive decay of
protactinium-234 decreases rapidly. The points show
some experimental scatter, so a smooth curve is drawn.
QUESTIONS
From this, the half-life can be deduced. Here the initial
P22.22 In an answer, a student wrote: The half-life of a count rate is 80. Half of this is 40. Reading across from this
radioactive substance is the time taken for half value to the curve and then down to the time axis gives the
of the atoms in a sample to decay.' What word is half-life as 67 s.
missing from that definition of half-life?
P22.23 A sample of a radioactive substance contains isotope. Unstable (radioactive) isotopes are known as
200 undecayed atoms. How many will remain radioisotopes.
undecayed a�er3 half-lives?
Now we will look at some of the many uses to which
P22.24 The half-life of radioisotope X is 10 days. A sample
radioisotopes have been put. We will look at these uses in
gives an initial count rate of 440 counts per
four separate groups:
second. What will be the count rate after 30 days?
P22.25 Radioisotope Y has a half-life of 2000 years. How uses related to their different penetrating powers
long will It take the activity of a sample of Y to
• uses related to the damage their radiation causes to
decrease to one-eighth of its initial value?
living cells
• uses related to the fact that we can detect tiny
quantities of radioactive substances
P22.05 Using radioisotopes • uses related to radioactive decay and half-life.

Any element comes in several forms or isotopes (see

'Elements and isotopes' at the end of Section P22.0l). Uses related to penetrating power
Some may be stable, but others are unstable - in Smoke detectors
other words, they are radioactive. For example, carbon These are often found in domestic kitchens, and in public
1
has two stable isotopes ( and:c 1
:ci.
but
1
:c
is an unstable buildings such as offices and hotels. If you open a smoke
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
b a
�
I Fault detection in manufactured goods sometimes makes
source detector processor alarm
smoke
■
Figure P22.12 a The inside of a smoke detector. The source
of radiation is a small amount of am ericium-241. b Block
diagram of a smoke det ector. The alarm sounds when
smoke absorbs the alpha radiation.
detector to replace the battery, you may see a yellow
and black radiation hazard warning sign (Figure P22.12a).
The radioactive material used is americium-241, a source
of alpha radiation. Figure P22.12b shows how it works.
• Radiation from the source falls on a detector. Since
alpha radiation is charged, a small current flows in the
detector. The output from the processing circuit is OFF,
so the alarm is silent.
• When smoke enters the gap between the source and
the detector, it absorbs the alpha radiation. Now no
current flows in the detector, and the processing circuit
switches ON, sounding the alarm.
In this application, a source of alpha radiation is
chosen because alpha radiation is easily absorbed by
the smoke particles.
Thickness measurements
In industry, beta radiation is often used in measuring
thickness. Manufacturers of paper need to be sure that
their product is of a uniform thickness. To do this, beta
radiation is directed through the paper as it comes off
the production line. A detector measures the amount
of radiation getting through. If the paper is too thick,
the radiation level will be low and an automatic control
system adjusts the thickness. The same technique is used
in the manufacture of plastic sheeting.
Beta radiation is used in this application because alpha
radiation would be entirely absorbed by the paper or
plastic. Gamma radiation would hardly be affected,
because it is the most penetrating.
Medical diagnosis
The diagnosis of some diseases may be carried out using a
source of gamma radiation. The patient is injected with a
radioactive chemical that targets the problem area (it may
accumulate in bone, for example). Then a camera detects
the radiation coming from the chemical and gives an
image of the tissue under investigation.
Fault detection
use of gamma rays. Image P22 .06 shows an example,
where engineers are looking for any faults in some
pipework. A photographic film is strapped to the outside
of the pipe, and the radioactive source is placed on the
inside. When the film is developed, it looks like an X-ray
picture, and shows any faults in the welding.
Uses related to cell damage
Radiation therapy
The patient shown in Image P22.07 is receiving radiation
treatment as part of a cure for cancer. A source of
gamma rays (or X-rays) is directed at the tumour that is
Image P22.06 Checking for faults in a metal pipe. The
engineers are checking that no radiation is escaping from
the pipe. The gamma source is stored in the black box in
the foreground, but can be pushed through the long tube
along the pipe to reach the part to be checked.