TOPIC 8 TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS

8.1 The circulatory system

8.1.1 state that the mammalian circulatory system is a closed double circulation consisting
of a heart, blood and blood vessels including arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and
veins

Circulatory system: a system that carries fluids around an organism’s body.

Closed system: blood is contained within blood vessels
Double circulation: blood flows through the heart twice in one complete circulation; pulmonary
and systemic circulation

8.1.2 describe the functions of the main blood vessels of the pulmonary and systemic
circulations, limited to pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein, aorta and vena cava

Systemic circulation: part of circulatory system that carries blood from heart to all of the body,
except the gad exchange surface, and then back to the heart.
Pulmonary circulation: part of circulatory system that carries blood from the heart to gas
exchange surface and then back to the heart.

Pulmonary artery: transports blood, under some pressure, from _________ to __________
Pulmonary vein: transports blood, under low pressure, from _________ to __________
Aorta: transports blood, under high pressure, from _________ to __________
Vena cava: transports blood, under low pressure, from _________ to __________

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8.1.3 recognise arteries, veins and capillaries from microscope slides, photomicrographs
and electron micrographs and make plan diagrams showing the structure of arteries and
veins in transverse section (TS) and longitudinal section (LS)

Artery and vein. Capillary.

8.1.4 explain how the structure of muscular arteries, elastic arteries, veins and capillaries
are each related to their functions

Muscular arteries: have more smooth muscle in their walls which allows them to constrict and
dilate. Muscular arteries are closer to the final destination of the blood inside them than elastic
arteries.

Elastic arteries (eg aorta): relatively large and have a lot of elastic tissue and little muscle tissue
in their walls. They expand when the heart contracts and then recoil as the heart relaxes to
maintain pressure.

Veins: Vessel with relatively thin walls that carries low-pressure blood back to the heart.

Capillaries: Smallest blood vessel, whole role is to deliver oxygen and nutrients to body tissues,
and to remove their waste products.

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Tunica intima: single layer of endothelial cells and some elastic tissue. In arteries, this layer has
a ‘crinkly’ appearance, which is a result of the loss of blood pressure during the preparation of
microscope slides.
Tunica media: formed of smooth muscle tissue, elastic fibres and collagen fibres. In arteries, this
is the thickest of the three layers.
Tunica externa: outer layer composed mostly of collagen fibres with some elastic fibres.

8.1.5 recognise and draw red blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils and lymphocytes from
microscope slides, photomicrographs and electron micrographs

RBC:
Small, diameter of human red blood cell 7μm (remember this) – so no haemoglobin molecule
inside RBCs will be far from surface for exchange of oxygen to occur quickly. Capillaries also
have a 7μm lumen diameter, bringing oxygen as close as possible to cells that require them.
Biconcave disc-shaped - ‘dent’ on each side increases surface area, allowing more oxygen
diffusion.
Nucleus, mitochondria, ER absent - more room to carry haemoglobin molecules, so more oxygen
can be transported. (But this makes red blood cells short-lived!)

WBC:
Monocytes: pronounced in red bone marrow, phagocytosis, indented nucleus, agranulocytes,
mature into macrophages, largest WBC.

Neutrophils: produced in red bone marrow, phagocytosis, 2-6 lobed nucleus, granulocytes
(cytoplasm has fine granules), contain lysosomes.

Lymphocytes: pronounced in lymphatic tissue (spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils), produce

antibodies that neutralise specific bacterial or viral antigens.

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8.1.6 state that water is the main component of blood and tissue fluid and relate the
properties of water to its role in transport in mammals, limited to solvent action and high
specific heat capacity

Solvent action

Study this diagram showing electrostatic

attractions between polar water molecules and
ions (cation, anion) showing correctly the
orientation of the water molecules.

Being a polar molecule, water molecules are

attracted to other polar molecules and ions. Water
molecules collect around them and separate
them, allowing these polar molecules and ions to
dissolve in water. These molecules and ions are
said to be hydrophilic. Because of hydrogen
bonds, water molecules tent to stick to each other (cohesion). Water can also adhere to cellulose
and lignin (adhesion). This means water can travel in long, unbroken columns in xylem, phloem
and blood vessels. Water can then transport substances in bulk in aqueous solution via transport
systems (blood, lymph, phloem). Metabolic reactions can also take place between substances in
aqueous solution (cytoplasm).

High specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity is __________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Water has a high specific heat capacity as it takes a large amount of energy to raise the
temperature of water. In order to increase in temperature, the molecules must gain energy and
move about more rapidly. Some of the hydrogen bonds will need to be broken in order for the
water molecules to move freely. This has important biological implication. Due to hydrogen
bonding, a water body can remain at a fairly stable temperature despite rapid in air
temperatures. This stability is very important for enzymes and other proteins present in blood
and tissue fluid.

8.1.7 state the functions of tissue fluid and describe the formation of tissue fluid in a
capillary network

Tissue fluid:
Almost colourless that fills spaces between body cells.
Formed from fluid that has been forced out of blood plasma in capillaries via ultrafiltration.
Excess eventually collected in lymph vessels.
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 Blood Tissue fluid
Has red blood cells Has no red blood cells
More white blood cells, fewer macrophages Fewer white blood cells, more macrophages
Has platelets Has no platelets
Has large proteins (albumin, globulin) No large proteins
Higher concentration of oxygen Lower concentration of oxygen
Higher concentration of glucose, amino acids, Lower concentration of glucose, amino acids,
fatty acids fatty acids
Lower concentration of carbon dioxide Higher concentration of carbon dioxide
Higher pressure Lower pressure

8.2 Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

8.2.1 describe the role of red blood cells in transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide with
reference to the roles of:
• haemoglobin
• carbonic anhydrase
• the formation of haemoglobinic acid
• the formation of carbaminohaemoglobin

Haemoglobin molecules with 4 haem groups. Each haem group has a central iron ion.

How does haemoglobin transport oxygen?

• Haemoglobin has 4 polypeptide chains, therefore has a quaternary structure,
• which coils into a 3D spherical shape making it a globular protein.
• It has outwardly-pointing hydrophilic R groups, in order to allow haemoglobin to be soluble.
Inwardly-pointing hydrophobic R groups hold the molecule in globular shape.
• Each polypeptide chain has one haem group,
• which contains one iron ion (Fe2+).
• This iron ion temporarily binds to an oxygen molecule.
• In total, _________ oxygen molecules can bind to one haemoglobin molecule.
• Haemoglobin attached to oxygen molecules is known as oxyhaemoglobin.

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How is carbon dioxide transported?
• Carbon dioxide diffuses out of respiring cells, into surrounding tissue fluid and then into RBCs.
• Some of the carbon dioxide combine with terminal amine (-NH2) group of haemoglobin to form
carbaminohaemoglobin.
• Carbon dioxide also combines with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3).
a. Carbonic anhydrase enzyme catalyses this fast reaction and causes carbonic acid to
dissociate into H+ and HCO3-.
b. HCO3- diffuses out of RBC into the plasma (80-90% CO2 transported this way) while Cl-
moves in, in order to balance charges/maintain electroneutrality. This is known as the
chloride shift.
c. The reactions by carbonic anhydrase maintains concentration gradient of CO2 between
tissue fluid and blood.
d. Meanwhile, Hb has a higher affinity for hydrogen ions than oxygen so H+ combines
with oxyhaemoglobin, forming haemoglobinic acid (HHb). H+ combining causes a
change in tertiary structure of oxyhaemoglobin causing oxygen to be released.
(Other than haemoglobin, which other protein can be found in RBCs? _____________________)

Transport of carbon dioxide:

1. As carbon dioxide molecules dissolved in plasma
2. As hydrogen carbonate ions in plasma
3. As carbamino-haemoglobin

8.2.2 describe the chloride shift and explain the importance of the chloride shift

Chloride shift: as negative hydrogen carbonate ions move out of cell, negative chloride ions
move in.
Importance: maintain a balance of charged ions / maintain electrical neutrality of cell.

If the chloride shift did not happen, the inside of RBCs would develop an overall positive charge,
because hydrogen ions would accumulate. Hydrogen ions cannot leave RBCs because cell
surface membrane is not permeable to them.

8.2.3 describe the role of plasma in the transport of carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide molecules can dissolve in plasma and be transported to the lungs.
Carbon dioxide is also transported as hydrogen carbonate ions in the plasma.

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8.2.4 describe and explain the oxygen dissociation curve of adult haemoglobin

Oxygen dissociation curve of adult haemoglobin under normal conditions. (PO2 = partial
pressure of oxygen = measure of oxygen gas concentration)

The sigmoid shape (S-shape) of oxygen dissociation curve is a result of cooperative

binding of oxygen to four iron ions in the haem groups. Cooperative binding is the
characteristic of hemoglobin to have a greater ability to bind oxygen after one haem group
has attached to an oxygen. Once Hb has taken up its first oxygen molecule, it has a high
affinity for the second, third and fourth oxygen molecules. This is because after oxygen
combines with one haem group, the haemoglobin molecule is slightly distorted. This slight
distortion makes it easier for the second, third and fourth oxygen molecules to attach to the
haem groups. Hence, after the first oxygen is taken up, only a small increase in oxygen
partial pressure is needed to increase percentage saturation!

8.2.5 explain the importance of the oxygen dissociation curve at partial pressures of
oxygen in the lungs and in respiring tissues

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8.2.6 describe the Bohr shift and explain the importance of the Bohr shift

What happens to the dissociation curve when

Hb is exposed to high partial pressure of CO2
or H+? Why does percentage saturation of
haemoglobin with oxygen decrease as partial
pressure of carbon dioxide increases?

The Bohr shift occurs. Hydrogen ions

produced from dissociation of carbonic acid
reacts with haemoglobin to form HHb. Carbon
dioxide also combines with Hb, forming
carbaminohaemoglobin, stimulating Hb to
release more oxygen in areas with low pO2.

Haemoglobin has a higher affinity for

hydrogen ions and for carbon dioxide,
compared to oxygen.

Other factors that influence oxygen binding to Hb

Temperature - Increasing temperature denatures bond between oxygen and Hb, which
increases amount of oxygen and Hb and decreases the concentration of oxyhaemoglobin. The
dissociation curve shifts to the right.
pH - A decrease in pH (increase in acidity) by addition of carbon dioxide or other acids causes
a Bohr Shift. A Bohr shift is characterised by causing more oxygen to be given up as oxygen
pressure increases. The dissociation curve shifts to the right.

8.3 The heart

8.3.1 describe the external and internal structure of the mammalian heart

Number Name of part

Superior vena cava
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary vein
Bicuspid atrioventricular valve
Aortic semilunar valve
Left ventricle
Right ventricle
Left atrium
Right atrium
Aorta
Pulmonary semilunar valve
Tricuspid atrioventricular valve
Inferior vena cava

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8.3.2 explain the differences in the thickness of the walls of the:
• atria and ventricles
• left ventricle and right ventricle

Why is the atrial wall thinner than ventricular wall?

• Atrial wall is thinner. When they contract, they generate low pressure. Since blood only needs
to be pumped into the ventricles - over a short distance - the force is sufficient as there is less
resistance to overcome.
• Ventricles pump blood over relatively longer distances. They will also need to pump blood
through vessels of smaller diameters à will need to overcome greater resistance to flow à
the need to pump blood under high pressure à ventricular walls are thicker.

Why is the left ventricular wall thicker than the right ventricular wall?
• Left ventricular wall has more muscle, hence it is thicker. Left ventricle pumps blood over long
distances, including extremities of the body, hence need to pump blood under higher
pressure. Moreover, blood is travelling in narrow arteries/arterioles hence there is greater
resistance to overcome, therefore it is necessary for blood to be pumped under high pressure.
This is done via contraction of the thicker, more muscular ventricular walls.
• The right ventricle, meanwhile, only pumps blood to the lungs. This is over a shorter distance;
hence their thinner walls as relatively lower pressure is needed.
• There is far lower resistance to flow in the pulmonary circulation than in the systemic.

8.3.3 describe the cardiac cycle, with reference to the relationship between blood pressure
changes during systole and diastole and the opening and closing of valves

Cardiac cycle: rhythmic sequence of events that take place during one heartbeat.
Average human heart beats 72 times/min.
Approximately how long does a cardiac cycle last? ___ seconds.

Important to note:
1. Both right and left sides contract and relax in unison.
2. Atrioventricular valves do not actively open and close, but are pushed open and shut by
differences in pressure of atria and ventricles.

Each cardiac cycle consists of:

Atrial systole à Ventricular systole à Complete cardiac diastole.

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 Pressure changes in left side of the heart and in the aorta during one cardiac cycle.

From A to B: atrial systole – atrium contract. Pressure in atrium slightly higher than in ventricle.
Blood flows from atrium into ventricle. Backflow of blood into pulmonary vein (and venae cavae, if
discussing right side of heart) is prevented by closure of semilunar valves.

At B: ventricular systole – ventricle contracts. Pressure in ventricle exceeds that in atrium.

Atrioventricular valves are pushed shut (“lubb”).

From C: pressure higher in ventricle than in aorta (pulmonary artery if dissing right side of heart)
so semilunar valves in aorta open. Blood flows from ventricle into aorta.

At D: complete diastole – pressure in ventricle falls below that of the artery. Semilunar valves
shut (“dup”).

Meanwhile, from C to D: with atrial diastole, pressure in heart is low, blood enters via the vein
into the atrium.

From E to F: pressure higher in atrium than in ventricles now that it is filled. Blood passes into
ventricles and continues when atrial systole occurs until B, when ventricular systole follows.

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8.3.4 explain the roles of the sinoatrial node, the atrioventricular node and the Purkyne
tissue in the cardiac cycle (knowledge of nervous and hormonal control is not expected)

During one cardiac cycle, blood is pumped from the

heart into the pulmonary and systemic circulations.

Explain how the contraction of four chambers of the

heart are coordinated and controlled to enable
blood to be pumped simultaneously into both the
pulmonary and systemic circulations.

How is heart action initiated and controlled?

1. The heart is myogenic.

2. SAN:
o Acts as a pacemaker and is responsible for
rhythmic contraction.
o Sends out impulses/waves of excitation that
spreads over both atrial walls.
o These bring about contraction of both atrial at
the same time, in atrial systole.
3. Atria contract before ventricles.
4. The non-conducting tissue/fibrous ring between
atria and ventricles prevents impulses reaching
the ventricles.
5. AVN:
o Acts to relay impulses.
o Conducts impulses/waves of excitation down
the septum via the bundle of His/Purkyne fibres.
o Introduces delay of 0.1s to ventricular
contraction allowing atria to empty and ventricle
to fill with blood.
6. Purkyne fibres conduct impulses to muscles of
ventricle walls.
7. Waves of excitation reach the apex of the heart
and spread upwards, causing the ventricles to
contract together, from the bottom upwards.

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