BIOLOGY NOTES

TOPIC 1B
The principles of circulation
Simple diffusion membranes Simple diffusion
Simple diffusion across cell membranes requires Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area
particles to pass through the phospholipid bilayer. of higher concentration to an area of lower
Equilibrium is reached when the concentration of concentration. Diffusion occurs because all particles
particles is equal on both sides of the cell have kinetic energy - this means they can move freely,
randomly changing direction when they collide. there
membrane so there is no net movement. Only
must be a concentration gradient of that substance.
specific molecules are able to easily do this - these
Where there is a high concentration of particles, the
molecules must be small and non-polar. Small polar
random movement of particles will result in the particles
molecules with small differences in charge are able colliding and moving away from each other. This
to slowly diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer. eventually results in a net movement of particles from
Charged particles (ions) and larger molecules are high to low concentration until they are evenly dispersed
not able to pass through the phospholipid bilayer. - this is equilibrium. At equilibrium, particles are still
The cell membrane is therefore described as moving freely and randomly but there is no net
partially permeable. movement - there is equal movement in all directions.
Active transport
 Sometimes cells need to transport substances into or out of cells against the concentration
gradient. This is not able to passively occur a result of the natural motion of particles. Cells
must instead use specific carrier proteins to pump a substance across the membrane - it is a
selective process. This process requires energy in the form of ATP so it is known as active
transport. Active transport is the movement of particles from an area of low concentration
to an area of high concentration across a cell membrane, using ATP and protein carriers.

Process of active transport

 In order to active transport to occur, the particle must bind to a specific site in the carrier
protein. On the inside of the cell, ATP also binds to the carrier protein. The ATP is then
hydrolyzed to ADP and Pi which causes the carrier protein to change conformation (shape).
The carrier protein is now open to the other side of the membrane and the particle is

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 released. The phosphate molecule is then released from the carrier protein, which causes
the carrier protein to return to its original shape.

Why do multicellular organisms need a transport system?

Single circulation: In animals such as fish.
The heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the The bigger an organism is, the lower its surface
gills, where the blood takes in oxygen and area to volume ratio. Substances needed by a
becomes oxygenated. The blood then travels on large organism could not be supplied through its

around the rest of the body of the fish, giving up exposed external surface. Oxygen passing
through an external surface would be rapidly
oxygen to the body cells before returning to the used up before reaching the many layers of
heart. underlying cells. Similarly, waste substances
Double circulation: this is the most complex type would not be excreted quickly enough.
of transport system and involves two circulatory
systems. Birds and mammals need more oxygen then animals (fish) that only have a single
circulation. Not only do they move around without the support of water, but they also
maintain a constant body temperature which is usually higher than their surroundings. This
takes a lot of energy, so their cells need plenty of oxygen and food and produce a lot of
waste products that need to be removed quickly.

What is the circulation?

● Systemic circulation: carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the cells of the body where the
oxygen is used, and carries the deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
● pulmonary circulation: carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs to be oxygenated,
and carries the oxygenated blood back to the heart.
● These separate circulatory systems make sure that the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood cannot
mix, so the tissues receive as much oxygen as possible. Fully oxygenated blood can be delivered quickly
to the body tissues at high pressure. The blood going through the blood vessels in the lungs are at a
low pressure so the vessels aren't damaged and gas exchange can occur.
○ If this oxygenated blood at low pressure went straight into the big vessels that carry it around the
body it would move very slowly. It returns to the heart so the oxygenated blood can be pumped hard
and sent around the body at high pressure. This means it reaches all the tiny capillaries quickly
between the body cells quickly, supplying oxygen for an active way of life.

THE ROLES OF BLOOD

PLASMA
 The plasma is about 50%percent water, with the remaining made up of ions, proteins,
nutrients, wastes, and dissolved gases. They are important for maintaining blood pH and
osmotic balance. Some of the molecules found in the plasma have more specialized functions.
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 For example, hormones act as long-distance signals, antibodies recognize and neutralize
pathogens, and clotting factors promote blood clot formation at the site of wounds. Also
digesting food products like glucose and amino acids. As well as taking excretory products to
their organs.

ERYTHROCYTES (RED BLOOD CELLS)

 Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, deliver oxygen to tissues. In humans, red blood cells are
small and biconcave (thinnest in the center, just 7 - 8 {μm} and do not contain mitochondria
or a nucleus when mature.
 These characteristics allow red blood cells to perform their task of oxygen transport. Small
size and biconcave shape increase the surface area-to-volume ratio, improving gas
exchange, while lack of a nucleus makes additional space for hemoglobin, a key protein
used in oxygen transport. Lack of mitochondria keeps red blood cells from using any of the
oxygen they’re carrying, maximizing the amount delivered to tissues of the body.

LEUOCYTES (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)

 White blood cells are much less common than red blood cells and make up less than 1% of
the cells in blood. Their role is also very different from that of red blood cells: they are
primarily involved in immune responses, recognizing and neutralizing invaders such as
bacteria and viruses. White blood cells are larger than red blood cells, and unlike red blood
cells, they have a normal nucleus and mitochondria.
 some white blood cells are involved in engulfing and breaking down pathogens, while
others recognize specific microorganisms and launch immune responses against them.
Different types of white blood cells have different lifetimes, ranging from hours to years,
and new cells are produced primarily in the bone marrow

PLATELETS
 Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments involved in blood clotting. They are
produced when large cells called megakaryocytes break into pieces, each one making 2000
- 3000 platelets as it comes apart. Platelets are roughly disc-shaped and small, about 2 – 4
{μm} in diameter.

TRANSPORT IN OXYGEN

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HEMOGLOBIN MOLECULE IS A LARGE GLOBULAR PROTEIN CONSISTING OF FOUR PEPTIDE CHAIN EACH
WITH IRON CONTAINING PROSTHETIC GROUP . ERYTHROCYTES CONTAIN A METALLOPROTEINASE ,
HEMOGLOBIN, WHICH SERVES TO BIND OXYGEN MOLECULES TO THE ERYTHROCYTE BECAUSE OF THIS , EACH
HEMOGLOBIN MOLECULE IS CAPABLE OF CARRYING UP TO FOUR MOLECULES OF OXYGEN. A S OXYGEN
DIFFUSES ACROSS THE RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE FROM THE ALVEOLUS TO THE CAPILLARY, IT ALSO
DIFFUSES INTO THE RED BLOOD CELL AND IS BOUND BY HEMOGLOBIN. THE FINAL PRODUCT,
OXYHEMOGLOBIN WHICH IS FORMED WHEN OXYGEN BINDS TO HEMOGLOBIN THAT IS BRIGHT RED COLOR
OF OXYGENATED BLOOD .

HB + O2 ↔ HB − O2.
W HEN THE BLOOD ENTERS THE LUNGS, THE CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN IN RED BLOOD CELLS IS RELATIVELY LOW . OXYGEN MOVES
INTO RBC FROM THE AIR INTO THE LUNGS BY DIFFUSION . T HE OXYGEN IS COLLECTED AND BOUND TO THE HAMEOGLOBIN, SO THE
FREE OXYGEN CONCENTRATION IN THE CYTOPLASM OF RBC STAYS LOW . T HIS MAINTAINS A STEEP CONCENTRATION GRADIENT FROM
THE AIR IN THE LUNGS TO THE RBC SO MORE AND MORE OXYGEN DIFFUSES IN AND JOINS ONTO THE HEMOGLOBIN .

THE OXYGEN LEVELS ARE RELATIVELY LOW IN THE BLOOD TISSUES . THE CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN IN THE CYTOPLASM OF THE RBC
IS HIGHER THAN IN THE SURROUNDING TISSUES AS A RESULT OXYGEN MOVES OUT INTO THE BODY CELLS BY DIFFUSION DOWN ITS
CONCENTRATION GRADIENT . THE HEMOGLOBIN MOLECULES GIVE UP SOME OF THEIR OXYGEN. WHEN YOU ARE AT REST OR
EXERCISING GENTLY , ONLY ABOUT 25 PERCENT OF OXYGEN CARRIED BY THE HEMOGLOBIN IS RELEASED INTO THE CELLS . T HERE IS
ANOTHER 75 PERCENT IN RESERVE IN THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM FOR WHEN YOU ARE VERY ACTIVE.

THE SMALL AFFINITY OF HEMOGLOBIN FOR OXYGEN MEANS THAT A SMALL CHANGE IN THE PROPORTION OF OXYGEN IN THE
SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT CAN HAVE A BIG EFFECT ON THE SATURATION OF BLOOD WITH OXYGEN . I N THE LUNGS THE
HEMOGLOBIN RAPIDLY GAINS OXYGEN AND IN THE TISSUES , AS THE OXYGEN SATURATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT FALLS OXYGEN IS
RELEASED RAPIDLY .

Oxygen Dissociation Curve:

TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE Shows how oxygen affinity (and thus its % oxygen
 Waste carbon dioxide diffuses from the saturation) changes with partial pressure. Should
respiring cells of the body tissues into the always form an s-shaped (sigma) graph. Higher partial
blood along the concentration gradient. The pressure, means a faster uptake of oxygen as it is
reaction of CO2 with water is crucial. more readily available, so there is a higher % oxygen
saturation. In the lungs, there is high PPoO, and this
When carbon dioxide is dissolved in the
steep concentration gradient causes a rapid loading of
blood it reacts slowly with the water to form
oxygen into hemoglobin. In the body, there is a drop
to carbonic acid (H2CO3) . The carbonic acid
in PPoO in the tissues, so this causes a rapid offloading
separates to for hydrogen ions H* and hydrogen of oxygen
carbonate ions (HCO3−)
 About 5% of the carbon dioxide is carried in solution in the plasma. A further 10-20% combines with
hemoglobin molecule to form carbaminohaemoglobin. Most of the carbon dioxide is transported in the

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 cytoplasm of the red blood cells as the hydrogen carbonate ions. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase controls
the rate of the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to produce carbonic acid.
 In the body tissues, there is a high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood, so carbonic anhydrase
catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid. In the lungs the carbon dioxide concentration is low.so carbonic
anhydrase catalyzes the reverse reaction and the free carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the

lungs.
. The effect of CO2 on Oxygen dissociation
THE BOHR EFFECT curve is known as Bohr effect. It has been
found that increase in concentration of CO2
Bohr eff ect is very important physiological phenomenon,
decreases the amount of oxyhemoglobins
because uptake of oxygen in lungs and its releases in the
ti ssue is regulated by the concentrati on of CO2 and H+ ion as formation. According to Bohr effect, for any
well as the parti al pressure of O2. So, this phenomenon made particular partial pressure of Oxygen, the
possible the cellular transport and release of O2. affinity of Haemoglobin toward Oxygen
decreases and favors dissociation of
PCO2 is lower in lungs than ti ssue, so Hb has higher affi nity
oxyhemoglobins when the partial pressure
for O2, therefore it favors HbO2 formati on and transport of
of carbon dioxide increases.
O2 from lungs to ti ssue. similarly, PCO2 is higher in ti ssue, so
it favors dissociati on of HbO2 releasing free O2 and transport
of CO2 from ti ssue to lungs.

Fetal Haemoglobin
The haemoglobin of the fetus has a slightly diff erent molecular compositi on to adult haemoglobin.
Consequently, it has a higher affi nity for oxygen (dissociati on curve is shift ed to the left ). This is
important as it means fetal haemoglobin will load oxygen when adult haemoglobin is unloading it (i.e.
in the placenta). Following birth, fetal haemoglobin is almost completely replaced by adult
haemoglobin (~ 6 months post-Nataly). Fetal haemoglobin producti on can be pharmacologically induced
in adults to treat diseases such as sickle cell anemia.

BLOOD CLOTS
 Clotting functions to prevent blood loss from the body and limit pathogenic access to the bloodstream
when the skin is broken. Plasma, blood cells and platelets flow from a cut vessel. Contacts from the
platelets and the tissues components example collagen fibers in the skins. Causes the platelets to break
open in large numbers. They release substances like;
Serotonin: causes the smooth muscles of the blood vessel to contract. This narrows the blood vessels,
cutting off the blood flow to the damaged area.
Thromboplastin: is an enzyme that starts a sequence of chemical change that clot the blood.
THE PROCESS OF BLOOD CLOT
Vitamin K is important in production of many compounds needed for blood clot, including
prothrombin.

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1. Thromboplastin catalyzes the conversion of a large soluble protein called prothrombin found in the plasma
into another soluble protein, the enzyme called thrombin. Prothrombin is biologically inactive. Prothrombin
is precursor of thrombin. This conversion happens on a large scale at the site of the wound. Calcium ions
need to be present in the blood at right concentration for this reaction to happens.
2. Thrombin acts on another soluble plasma protein called fibrinogen, converting it to an insoluble substance
called fibrin. Again, fibrinogen is inactive precursor of biologically active fibrin. The fibrin forms a mesh of
fibers to cover the wound.
3. More platelets and red blood cells pouring from the wound get trapped in the fibrin mesh. This forms a clot.
4. Special proteins in the structure of platelets contract, making the clot tighter and tougher to from a scab
that protects the skin and vessels underneath as they heal.

CIRCULATION IN THE BLOOD VESSELS

Arteries Away
Veins Return
ARTERIES;
Carry blood away from the heart and towards the body cells. Two arteries that carry deoxygenated
blood are:

The pulmonary artery; carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to lungs.

The umbilical artery; during pregnancy, this carries deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta.

In the peheriphal arteries the muscle fi bers in the vessel walls contract or relax to change the size of
the lumen, controlling the blood fl ow The smaller the lumen the harder for blood to fl ow thru the vessel
this controls the blood fl ow into an organ.

Structure and Function

They have a narrow lumen (relati ve to wall thickness) to maintain a high blood pressure.

They have a thick wall containing an outer layer of collagen to prevent the artery from rupturing under
the high pressure.

The arterial wall also contains an inner layer of muscle and elasti c fi bers to help maintain pulse fl ow (it
can contract and stretch) arterioles are furthest from heart.

Flow of Blood
Blood is expelled from the heart upon ventricular contraction and flows through the arteries in repeated surges called
pulses 70 times per min. This blood flows at a high pressure and the muscle and elastic fibres assist in maintaining this
pressure between pumps The muscle fibres help to form a rigid arterial wall that is capable of withstanding the high
blood pressure without rupturing Muscle fibres can also contract to narrow the lumen, which increases the pressure
between pumps and helps to maintain blood pressure throughout the cardiac cycle

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The elastic fibres allow the arterial wall to stretch and expand upon the flow of a pulse through the lumen
The pressure exerted on the arterial wall is returned to the blood when the artery returns to its normal size
(elastic recoil)
The elasti c recoil helps to push the blood forward through the artery as well as maintain arterial
pressure between pump cycles

The endothelium forms a smooth

External layer of tough tissues lining which allows the easiest flow of
blood.

The middle layers of the artery walls contain

elastic fibres and smooth muscle; arteries Lumen is small when artery is upstretched by flow
nearest the heart have more elastic fibres, of blood from heart.
CAPILLARIES
those away from the heart have greater
proportion of muscle tissues.
 Arterioles lead into networks of capillaries. These are very small vessels that spread throughout the
ti ssues of body. the capillary networks link the arterioles and the venules. Capillaries branch
between cells- no cells is far from capillaries, so substance can diff use between the cells and blood
easily quickly. The diameter of capillary is small. The blood travels relati vely slow so there’s
opportunity for diff usion.

 Their walls are thin and contain no elasti c fi bres, smooth muscle or collagen. This helps them fi t
between individual cells and allows rapid diff usion for substances between the blood and the cells.
The walls are one cell thin. Oxygen and other molecules such as digested food and hormones,
quickly diff use out of the blood in the capillaries. Blood entering the capillaries network from
arteries is oxygenated. When it leaves it carries less oxygen and more carbon dioxide.

VEINS Waste
material like
Veins carry blood back towards the Heart except ; co2
1) The pulmonary vein; carrying oxygen rich blood from Oxygen and
the lungs back to the heart for circulati on around the body. food molecule.

2) The umbilical vein; during pregnancy, it carries oxygenated blood from

Capillary wall
the placenta into the fetus. epithelial cells.

 Tiny venules lead from the capillary network, combining into larger and larger vessels going back to
the heart. They have low pressure. The blood pressure is eliminated before the blood reaches the
capillary system this blood is at low pressure must be returned to the heart to be oxygenated again
and recirculated. and don’t need a thick wall. Eventually only two veins carry blood from the body
ti ssues to the heart. The inferior vena cava from the lower parts of body and the superior vena cava
from the upper parts of body. Veins hold more than half of the body’s blood volume they act as
blood reservoir.

 The blood is not pumped back to the heart, it returns to the heart by means of muscle pressure and
one way valves. Many of the larger veins are situated between the large muscle blocks of the body,
parti cularly in the arms and legs. When the muscles contact during physical acti vity they squeeze
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 these veins. The valves keep the blood travelling in one directi on and this squeezing helps to return
the blood back to the heart.

 There are one way valves at frequent interval throughout the venous system. These are called
semilunar valve because of their half-moon shape. They develop from inholdings of the inner wall of
the vein. Blood can pass thru toward the heart, but if it starts to fl ow backwards the valves close,
preventi ng any backfl ow.
Relatively thin layer of smooth
Smooth inner surface
muscle with few elastic fibres

Outer tough layer

consisting mainly of
collagen fibres Relatively large lumen

THE MAMMALIAN HEART

Human heart has two pumps and work together. The
right side of heart receives blood from the body and
pumps blood to the lungs. The left side receives from
the lungs and pumps to the body. . The blood in each
side doesn’t mix because of a thick wall of muscle and
connecti ve ti ssue SEPTUM. The heart is made up of
cardiac muscle, it can carry on contracti ng regularly
without getti ng resti ng or getti ng fati gued, it has a
good blood supply. The coronary arteries bring
oxygenated blood to the ti ssue.it also contains
myoglobin a respiratory pigment which has a stronger affi nity for oxygen than hemoglobin. The myoglobin
stores oxygen for respirati on needed to keep the heart contracti ng regularly.

Heart Structure
Chambers

 Two atria (singular = atrium) – smaller chambers near top of heart that collect blood from body and lungs
 Two ventricles – larger chambers near bottom of heart that pump blood to body and lungs

Heart Valves
 Atrioventricular valves (between atria and ventricles) – bicuspid valve on left side; tricuspid valve
on right side
 Semilunar valves (between ventricles and arteries) – aorti c valve on left side; pulmonary valve on
right side
Blood Vessels
 Vena cava (inferior and superior) feeds into the right atrium and returns deoxygenated blood from
the body
 Pulmonary artery connects to the right ventricle and sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs
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 Pulmonary vein feeds into the left atrium and returns oxygenated blood from the lungs
 Aorta extends from the left ventricle and sends oxygenated blood around the body
Heart beating
The sounds are not made by the heart muscle contracti ng but by the heart valves closing. The fi rst
sound (lub) comes when ventricles contract and the blood is forced against the atrioventricular valves.
The second sound (dub) comes when the ventricles relax and a back fl ow of the blood hits the
semilunar valve in the pulmonary artery and aorta. Rate of your heart shows how frequently its
contracti ng.

THE ACTION OF THE HEART

1. The inferior vena cava collects deoxygenated blood from the lower parts of the body, while the
superior vena cave receives deoxygenated blood from the head, neck, arms and chest.
Deoxygenated blood is delivered to the right atrium.

2. The right atrium receives blood from the great veins as it fi lls with blood, the pressure builds up
and opens the tricuspid valve, so the right ventricles starts to fi ll with blood too. When the atrium
is full it contracts forcing more blood into the ventricle. The atrium has a thin muscular walls
because it receives blood at low pressure from the inferior and superior vena cava it needs to exert
relati vely litt le pressure to move the blood into the ventricle. One-way semilunar valve at the
entrance to the atrium stop a backfl ow of blood into the veins.

3. The tricuspid valve consists of three fl aps and is also known as an atrioventricular valve because it
separates an atrium from a ventricle. The valve allows blood to pass from the atrium to the
ventricle, but not in the other directi on. The tough tendinous cords, also known as valve tendons or
heartstrings, make sure the valves are not turned inside out by the pressure exerted when the
ventricles contract.

4. The right ventricle is fi lled with blood under some pressure when the right atrium contract, then
the ventricles contact its muscular walls produce the pressure needed to force blood out of the
heart into the pulmonary arteries. These carry the deoxygenated blood to the capillaries in the
lungs. As the ventricle starts to contract, the tricuspid valve closes to prevent blood fl owing into
the atrium. Semilunar valves, like those in veins, prevent the blood fl owing back from the arteries
into the ventricles.

5. The blood returns from the lungs to the left side of the heart in the pulmonary veins. The blood is
relati vely low pressure aft er passing thru the extensive capillaries of the lungs. The blood returns to
the left atrium, another thin walled chamber that performs the same functi on as the right atrium. It
contracts to force blood into the left ventricle. Another atrioventricular valve known as the bicuspid
valve, which has only two fl aps, prevents Backfl ow.

6. As the left atrium contracts, the bicuspid valve opens and the left ventricle is fi lled with blood
under pressure. As the left ventricles starts to contract the bicuspid valve close to prevent backfl ow
of blood to the left atrium. The left ventricle pumps the blood out of the heart and into the aorta,
this carries blood away from the heart at even higher pressure.

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 The muscular wall of the left side is thicker than right. The left side must produce suffi cient force to
move the blood under pressure of the body to overcome the elasti c recoil of arteries. Valves open and
close at pressure changes. When pressure is higher on one side it will open the valve its higher on
other side it will close the valve.

Superior vena cava Tricuspid valve Pulmonary valve

Right Right Pulmonary lungs
atrium ventricle artery
Inferior vena cava

aorta Left Left

Rest of
ventricle atrium
body

THE CARDIAC CYCLE

Systole
Blood returning to the heart will fl ow into the atria and ventricles as the pressure in them is lower (due
to low volume of blood)

When ventricles are ~70% full, atria will contract (atrial systole), increasing pressure in the atria and
forcing blood into ventricles

As ventricles contract, ventricular pressure exceeds atrial pressure and AV valves close to prevent back
fl ow (fi rst heart sound)

With both sets of heart valves closed, pressure rapidly builds in the contracti ng ventricles (is
volumetric contracti on)

When ventricular pressure exceeds blood pressure in the aorta, the aorti c valve opens and blood is
released into the aorta

Diastole
As blood exits the ventricle and travels down the aorta, ventricular pressure falls

When ventricular pressure drops below aorti c pressure, the aorti c valve closes to prevent back fl ow
(second heart sound)

When the ventricular pressure drops below the atrial pressure, the AV valve opens and blood can fl ow
from atria to ventricle

Throughout the cycle, aorti c pressure remains quite high as muscle and elasti c fi bers in the artery wall
maintain blood pressure.

ATHEROSCLEROSIS
Atherosclerosis is the hardening
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and narrowing of the arteries due to the depositi on of cholesterol Atheroma (fatt y deposits) develop in
the arteries and signifi cantly reduce the diameter of the lumen (stenosis) The restricted blood fl ow
increases pressure in the artery, leading to damage to the arterial wall (from shear stress) The
damaged region is repaired with fi brous ti ssue which signifi cantly reduces the elasti city of the vessel
wall As the smooth lining of the artery is progressively degraded, lesions form called atheroscleroti c
plaques If the plaque ruptures, blood clotti ng is triggered, forming a thrombus that restricts blood fl ow
If the thrombus is dislodged it becomes an embolus and can cause a blockage in a smaller arteriole.
Atherosclerosis can lead to blood clots which cause coronary heart disease when they occur in coronary
arteries Myocardial ti ssue requires the oxygen and nutrients transported via the coronary arteries in
order to functi on If a coronary artery becomes completely blocked, an acute myocardial infarcti on
(heart att ack) will result. Blockages of coronary arteries are typically treated by by-pass surgery or
creati ng a stent (e.g. balloon angioplasty )

TOPIC 1B ENDS HERE

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