TOPIC 5 THE MITOTIC CELL CYCLE

5.1 Replication and division of nuclei and cells

5.1.1 describe the structure of a chromosome, limited to:
DNA centromere
histone proteins telomeres
sister chromatids

In a non-dividing cell or in a cell in interphase, chromatin is in its least condensed state.

Chromatin is the loosely coiled state of chromosomes and is made of DNA and histone proteins
and is visible as loosely distributed patches or fibres within the nucleus when stained.

When a cell prepares to divide, in the stage known as early prophase, chromosomes start to
appear as chromatin coils up around histone proteins/nucleosomes, becoming shorter and
thicker. They are thick enough to become visible when stained.

At interphase, just before the process of nuclear division starts, DNA in the cells replicates to
produce an identical copy. So, at prophase, when DNA coils up and continue to supercoil to
form chromosomes, two identical sister ___________________ are visible (one chromatid is
one DNA molecule; the length of DNA in a chromatid/chromosome is organised into functional
units called genes.). They are held together at a narrow region called the
_______________________. The centromere can be found anywhere along the length of the
chromosome, but the position is characteristic for a particular chromosome.

The ends of chromosomes are ‘sealed’ by _____________________. They are repetitive DNA
sequences that protect genes from the chromosome shortening that happens at each cell
division.

Draw and annotate a chromosome at prophase/metaphase. Show two sister chromatids, the
centromere and telomeres. Why must an identical sister chromatid be formed before cell
division?

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5.1.2 explain the importance of mitosis in the production of genetically identical daughter
cells during:
• growth of multicellular organisms
• replacement of damaged or dead cells
• repair of tissues by cell replacement
• asexual reproduction
Growth of multicellular organisms: Increase in cell number leads to growth. Mitosis is the
process that produces new cells – these daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cell. No
variation in genetic information arises by mitosis. It is important that new cells carry the same
information as the existing cells during growth and development. (If daughter cells were
genetically different, they would not be recognised as ‘self’ and could be attacked by the immune
system.)

Replacement of damaged or dead cells: When damaged/old tissues are repaired, new cells
must be exact copies of the cells being replaced.

Repair of tissues by cell replacement: Cell replacement is rapid in the skin and in the
intestinal epithelium. Some animals, like the starfish, can regenerate whole parts of the body,
because of mitosis producing exact copies of cells.

Asexual reproduction: offspring (clones) produced are identical to the parents due to mitosis.
Consequently, offspring have all the advantageous traits parents have in mastering the same
habitat – and unfortunately, all the disadvantages, too. Budding in plants is a form of vegetative
propagation in which a bud on part of the stem simply grows a new plant.

5.1.3 outline the mitotic cell cycle, including: m

• interphase (growth in G1 and G2 phases and DNA replication in S phase)
• mitosis
• cytokinesis

Interphase (G1 - S - G2) à Mitosis (P - M - A - T) à Cytokinesis

Some cells remain in the interphase state. Some cells carry out mitotic cell division during the
growth of an organism. Nuclear division is known as mitosis. It leads to cell division, cytokinesis.

Interphase: At the G1 phase (g for gap), cells make RNA, enzymes and other proteins needed
for growth. Cell grows to its normal size after cell division and carries out its normal functions. At
some point, a signal may be received that the cell should divide again. DNA replicates so that
each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids. This is called the S phase – synthesis of
DNA. During the G2 phase, the cell continues to grow, proteins synthesis continues and new
DNA is checked and any errors are usually repaired. The cell also prepares to divide, e.g. drastic
increase in tubulin protein production needed to make microtubules for the mitotic spindle.

Mitosis: nuclear division

Cytokinesis: cell division

5.1.4 outline the role of telomeres in preventing the loss of genes from the ends of
chromosomes during DNA replication

DNA replication results in loss of a short section of the ends of the chromosome. The protective
ends of chromosome are made of short repeating sequences of nucleotides known as
__________. The telomere of one strand is rich in guanine, so the other will be rich in
___________.

The DNA polymerase enzyme cannot run to the end of the DNA and complete DNA replication –
it stops a little short of the end. After many rounds of replication, telomeres shorten and then

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eventually, the loss of vital genes occurs, resulting in cell death. Stem cells are an exception,
hence are able to divide indefinitely.

The solution is to extend the ends of the DNA by adding telomeres, which have no useful
information. As long as extra bases are added to the ends during each cycle, no vital information
will be lost and the cell will be able to continue dividing successfully. Telomerase enzymes add
extra DNA (telomeres) to the ends of DNA molecules.

The main function of telomeres is to prevent the loss of genes during cell division and allow
continued replication of a cell. They serve to delay the ends of chromosomes from being
degraded so that DNA replication and, thus, mitosis can continue.

Fully differentiated/specialised cells do not ‘top up’ their telomeres at each division. This could be
one of the mechanisms of ageing by which our cells and, therefore, us grow old and die. On
another note, think about telomeres and telomerase in cancer cells.

5.1.5 outline the role of stem cells in cell replacement and tissue repair by mitosis

Stem cells: cells that can divide repeatedly by mitosis. When they divide, each new cell has the
potential to remain a stem cell or differentiate into a specialised cell such as a blood or muscle
cell. The extent of a stem cell to produce different cell types is variable and referred to as its
potency.
• Totipotent: stem cells that can produce any type of cell (e.g. zygote up to 16-cell stage)
• Pluripotent: stem cells that have ability to form all adult cells (e.g. embryonic stem cells)
• Multipotent: cells that are only able to differentiate into a few types of cells

Role of stem cells:

(1) for growth
(2) for repair of tissues
(3) for replacement of worn out/dead cells
(4) to differentiate into specialised cells for formation of tissues/organs

5.1.6 explain how uncontrolled cell division can result in the formation of a tumour

Timing of cell division is under genetic control. An alteration in a gene (involved in cell growth and
differentiation or inhibition of apoptosis), called a mutation, could lead to the cell dividing
uncontrollably to form a tumour.

(1) If healthy cells are exposed to carcinogens such as UV rays, asbestos and tar from tobacco
smoke,
(2) change in nucleotide sequence causes proto-oncogene to be mutated to oncogene and
tumour suppressor gene to be switched off,
(3) cells become immortal/no apoptosis or programmed cell death,
(4) checkpoints of cell cycle are not controlled,
(5) no contact inhibition so cells continue to grow when they contact other cells,
(6) uncontrolled mitosis leading to abnormal mass of cells formed (tumour),
(7) these cells are undifferentiated/unspecialised so tissue function is lost.
(8) If the cancerous cells do not spread from the point of origin, they are said to form a benign
tumour.
• If the cells spread via the lymph and/or blood vessels to other parts of the body and form
secondary tumours there, the tumour is known as a malignant tumour. The spreading of
cancer is known as metastasis.

Refer to Main Textbook, p105, Fig. 5.15 Stages in the development of cancer.

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