The importance of cycles in biology (1)

3.5.1 Photosynthesis – light independent reaction

The Calvin Cycle is very important in generating various products used in the process of
photosynthesis. This cycle occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast and produces glucose in the light
independent section of photosynthesis, which is needed in anaerobic and aerobic respiration, to allow
ATP to be released and allow processes such as photophosphorylation to occur.
Both NADPH and ATP are products of the light dependent reaction of photosynthesis. 1 out of 6
Triose phosphate molecules are converted into other useful organic substances such as glucose.
Glucose molecules are regenerated into Regenerate Ribulose bisphosphate and energy from
hydrolysis of 1 ATP molecule, from light dependent reaction, to ADP and inorganic phosphate are
used, allowing this final conversion to take place ensuring that the cycle can repeat itself. Overall
plants depend on this cycle as an energy source and wouldn’t have any without it.
3.5.2 Respiration – Krebs cycle and electron transport chain
Kreb's cycle is a process that takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria and is needed to allow
organisms to respire aerobically.
The products from this cycle which are NADH, FADH and ATP are important as they are used in
Oxidative phosphorylation: ATP is the energy source of this reaction and NADH and FADH release
high energy electrons which in turn allows 32 to 34 molecules of ATP to be generated. During
respiration the waste product release, which is carbon dioxide, is used for photosynthesis, specifically
the light independent reaction of plants. The ATP produced in this cycle is needed for various
functions: it provides energy for chemiosmosis of H+ ions down ATP synthase, which is also in
oxidative phosphorylation and allows muscle contraction to take place.
3.5.4 Nutrient cycles
The Nitrogen Cycle is a cycle that occurs in our environment but is important when it comes to
production of biological molecules within organisms. The process begins when nitrogen gas from the
atmosphere is converted into ammonia in a nitrogen fixation reaction, but this process can only be
performed by rhizobium bacteria which are found in the root nodules of leguminous plants. These
bacteria provide plants with Nitrogen compounds and in return plants give them carbohydrates, which
they use as energy.
This process is important as it produces nitrogen compounds which are used in plants to produce
proteins and nucleic acids which are then used to produce DNA and RNA.
3.2.2 All cells arise from other cells
The cell cycle. The cell cycle is a four-stage process in which the cell increases in size (gap 1), copies
its DNA (synthesis), prepares to divide (gap 2), and divides by mitosis.
The cell cycle allows damaged cells to be renewed through reproduction of new cells. The cell cycle
is also vital in immunity because without it, activation of Band T-Cells would decrease in humoral
immune response which would then lead to less memory cells being produced. If mitosis didn’t occur
rate of phagocytosis would decrease, and Memory B-Cells will produce less antibodies leading to a
larger increase in pathogens present in the body, which would only lead to severe illness present hence
why this cycle is so important.

Q6. The importance of osmosis to living organisms

Cells
Cells absorb water by osmosis. The osmotic pressure between the inside and outside of the cell wall,
which is a semipermeable barrier, rises as the concentration of waste products in a cell rises, and the
cell absorbs water from the blood, which is a more dilute solution than the cell's cytoplasm. Osmosis
allows basic nutrients and minerals to enter the cells.
Formation of Tissue fluid
Hydrostatic pressure is created when blood is pumped along the arteries, into arterioles and then
capillaries. This pressure forces blood fluid out of the capillaries. Only substances which are small
enough to escape through the gap in a capillary are components of the tissue fluid. The fluid is also
acted on by hydrostatic pressure which pushes some of the fluid back into the capillaries. As both the
tissue fluid and blood contain solutes, they have a negative water potential. The tissue fluid has a
more positive water potential in comparison to the blood. This causes water to move down the water
potential gradient from the tissue fluid to the blood by osmosis. The remaining tissue fluid which is
not pushed back into the capillaries is carried back via the lymphatic system.
This is important because Tissue fluid is a liquid containing dissolved oxygen and nutrients which
supply the tissues with the essential solutes in exchange for waste products such as carbon dioxide.
Reabsorption in gut
In the small intestine, water absorption is due to the creation of osmotic gradients that promote net
uptake of water from the intestinal lumen. The absorption of solute, especially that brought about by
active carriers, are highly effective in creating the osmotic gradients that allow net water uptake. The
activation of these transporters also increases the permeability of the mucosa which helps absorption.
Moderate hypotonicity of the luminal contents potentiates solute-induced water absorption while
hypertonicity slows fluid absorption.
Osmoregulation - control of the water potential of body fluids
Osmoreceptors, monitor the water potential of the blood. If the osmoreceptors detect a decrease in the
water potential of the blood, nerve impulses are sent along these sensory neurons to the posterior
pituitary gland. These nerve impulses stimulate the posterior pituitary gland to release antidiuretic
hormone (ADH). ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water this reduces the loss of water in the
urine.
ADH causes water to be reabsorbed by osmosis from the filtrate in the nephron. ADH causes the
luminal membranes to become more permeable to water by causing an increase in the number of
aquaporins in the luminal membranes of the collecting duct cells. This increases the permeability of
the membrane to water e filtrate in the collecting duct loses water it becomes more concentrated as a
result, a small volume of concentrated urine is produced. Osmosis is important in this process
because it allows the maintenance a constant normal blood pressure.

Q11. How the shapes of cells are related to their function.

Neurones; Dendrites make synaptic connection to other neurones, axon carries nerve impulses over
long distances, mylelin sheath faster transmission. Schwann cells means that the electrical impulse
does not travel down the whole axon, but jumps from one node to the nextThe 'jumping' of the
electrical impulse between nodes of Ranvier is called saltatory conductionThis speeds up the
conduction of the impulse and its transfer from one cell to another.
Muscle cells; elongated with rows of sarcomeres lead to conctraction in entire length, force generated
in a particular direction.
Leaf cell; palisade mesophyll are elongated, packed side by side, absorbs as much light as possible,
root hair cells increase SA for water absorption, leaf hair cells trap air to reduce water lost by
transpiration
Red Blood Cells; biconcave for increased SA, move through capillaries easily, no nucleus

Q16. The importance of how the structures of different polymers are related to their
functions.
3.1.4 Protein (enzymes)
Proteins are composed of amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. The specific sequence of
amino acids, known as the primary structure, dictates the protein's three-dimensional shape.
Secondary structures, like alpha helices and beta sheets, arise due to hydrogen bonding. Tertiary and
quaternary structures result from additional interactions such as disulfide bridges and hydrophobic
interactions.
Enzymes, have active sites with specific shapes that facilitate substrate binding and act as catalysts.
Structure is important because it determines their specific tertiary structure which allows it to be
specific and complementary to substrate and form ESC.
Protein (Antibodies)
Antibodies have variable regions that recognize and bind to specific antigens. This is important
because it facilitates the immune response to pathogens and other microorganisms that can be
harmful.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are polymers of simple sugars (monosaccharides) linked by glycosidic bonds. The
arrangement of monosaccharides determines the type of carbohydrate, such as glucose forming starch
or cellulose through different linkages.
The structure of carbohydrates aligns with their functions. Starch and glycogen, with their branched
structures, serve as energy storage molecules due to the ease of hydrolysis. The linear and rigid
structure of cellulose, provides structural support in plant cell walls. The variety in carbohydrate
structure allows for versatility in functions such as energy storage, structural support, and cellular
recognition.
Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids, DNA, and RNA are composed of nucleotide monomers. The sequence of nucleotides in
DNA forms a double helix structure stabilized by hydrogen bonds, while RNA is typically single-
stranded.
The structure of nucleic acids is directly related to their function as carriers of genetic information.
The complementary base pairing in DNA allows for accurate replication during cell division. RNA,
with its diverse forms like mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, plays crucial roles in transcription, translation,
and protein synthesis. The specific sequence of nucleotides in both DNA and RNA encodes genetic
instructions essential for the synthesis of proteins and overall cellular function.
Hemoglobin
Structure: Hemoglobin is a globular protein composed of four polypeptide chains (two alpha and two
beta globin chains) and four heme groups. Each heme group contains an iron ion (Fe²⁺) at its center,
capable of binding to an oxygen molecule.
The quaternary structure of hemoglobin allows it to undergo conformational changes upon binding to
oxygen. In the lungs, where oxygen concentration is high, hemoglobin binds oxygen, adopting the
relaxed (R) state. As blood circulates to tissues with lower oxygen concentration, hemoglobin releases
oxygen, transitioning to the tense (T) state. This cooperative binding and release of oxygen facilitate
efficient oxygen transport and delivery in the bloodstream.