How cells and organisms carry out exchanges with their external environment to maintain

their internal environment?

Osmoregulation is the control of the water content of body fluids. It is part of homeostasis,
the maintenance of a constant internal environment. Specialised sensory neurones, known as
osmoreceptors found in the hypothalamus, monitor the water potential of the blood. For
example, when the water concentration in the internal environment is too high due to the
external environment such as drinking too much water a negative feedback mechanism is
activated. First the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are not stimulated therefore no nerve
impulses are sent to the posterior pituitary gland so no ADH is released. ADH causes the
collecting ducts cells to become more permeable to water. ADH does this by increasing the
number of aquaporins in the collecting ducts. So, if water concentration is high less ADH will
be secreted and aquaporins are moved out of the collecting duct cells therefore the collecting
duct cells are no longer permeable to water. As a result, the filtrate flows along collecting
duct, but little water is reabsorbed back into the blood and is very dilute thus a large volume
of water is produced. The opposite will occur when the external environment causes the
internal environment of water concentration to be low i.e., dehydration. Instead, more ADH is
released so more aquaporins in the collecting ducts to reabsorb water back into the blood and
maintain the internal environment. Osmoregulation is especially important as cells need to be
surrounded by tissue fluid of a similar water potential to their own contents, to avoid too
much water loss or gain which could disrupt metabolism. Furthermore, too much water could
cause cells to become turgid and burst; cell lysis or not enough water could cause cells to
become flaccid and shrivel. If these occur, then it stops important metabolic processes such as
glycolysis which is cellular step in respiration and helps create glucose for energy to muscle
cells which require it.
Similarly, to osmoregulation formation of tissue fluid both involve the filtration of small
molecules e.g., water. Capillaries are essential for this process, and they have thin walls
which are “leaky”, allowing substances to leave the blood to reach the body’s tissues. Tissue
fluid is a substance containing water, glucose, amino acids and oxygen. The exchange of
substances between cells and the blood occurs via the tissue fluid such as carbon dioxide
produced in aerobic respiration will leave a cell, dissolve into the tissue fluid surrounding it,
and then diffuse into the capillary. How much liquid leaves the plasma to form tissue fluid
depends on two opposing forces. When blood is at the arteriole end of a capillary, the
hydrostatic pressure is great enough to push molecules out of the capillary. Proteins remain in
the blood; the increased protein content creates a water potential between the capillary and
the tissue fluid. At the venule end of the capillary, less fluid is pushed out of the capillary as
pressure within the capillary is reduced. The large molecules remain in the capillaries and
therefore create a lowered water potential as a result water is re-enters the capillaries by
osmosis. Overall, more fluid leaves the capillary than returns, leaving tissue fluid behind to
bathe cells. If blood pressure is high (hypertension) then the pressure at the arteriole end is
even greater, this pushes more fluid out of the capillary and fluid begins to accumulate
around the tissues. This is called oedema. Tissue fluid is very important in maintaining the
internal environment as not only does it bring oxygen and nutrients to respiring cells it also
removes waste products like CO2 and urea. Waste products like CO2 occur when a mammal
is respiring perhaps from exercise without the removal of CO2 it will remain in the blood and
lower the pH further which will affect many enzymes by making them non-functional and
cellular processes.
Humans have a wide range of receptor cells that can detect and respond to a large variety of
stimuli. This is highly beneficial as it allows for an organism to differentiate between the
different external and internal environmental conditions. For example, temperature, taste,
sound and light. Pacinian corpuscles are a type of receptor found deep in the skin. They are
present in the skin of fingers, soles of the feet as well as in joints, tendons, and ligaments.
They respond to changes in pressure. When these receptors are stimulated by pressure on the
skin it leads to an action potential and generate a response. The Pacinian corpuscle are made
of many layers of membrane called connective tissue separated by a gel. The gel between the
layers contains positively charged sodium ions (Na+). The section of axon surrounded by
layers of membrane contains stretch-mediated sodium ion channels which open when
sufficient pressure is applied. When pressure is applied, the sodium ion channels will stretch
and widen causing it to become deform which will allow Na + to enter the sensory neurone.
Before the sodium ions entered the neurone the sensory neurone was in its resting state, now
that sodium has entered it causes the sensory neurone to become more positive from –70mV
to –55mV which is enough to reach the threshold and an action potential can be generated.
This is important because a generation of action potential is essential for muscle contraction
and the sliding of actin. Without the maintenance of this internal environment due to the
external environment (pressure being applied) then not enough sodium ion will diffuse
through the protein channels to reach the threshold to generate an action potential. Therefore,
this decreases the chances of survival because the organism will not be able to respond to a
harmful stimulus such as a sharp edge.
Eukaryotes use transcription factors to control gene expression. A transcription factor is a
protein that controls the transcription of genes by binding to a specific region of DNA.
Transcription factors are activated through a signalling pathway that usually starts from
outside the cell. Transcription factors allow organisms to respond to their environment for
example changes to diet or presence of mutagens such as UV light can affect how a gene is
expressed. Some transcription factors bind to the promoter region of a gene. This binding can
either allow or prevent the transcription of the gene from taking place. Therefore, the
presence of a transcription factor will either increase or decrease the rate of transcription of a
gene. For example, oestrogen is a transcription factor found in mammals that activates the
transcription of many genes. Oestrogen is small, hydrophobic, lipid-based hormone that can
diffuse through the cell membrane and can pass directly into the nucleus through nuclear
pores into the cytoplasm. Oestrogen binds with receptor molecule of the transcriptional
factor. The shape of this site and the shape of oestrogen are complementary to each other.
This causes the shape of the DNA binding sites on the transcriptional factors, which can now
bind to DNA. This stimulates RNA polymerase binding and gene transcription. Without
oestrogen then the gene expression wouldn’t be regulated as a result, certain genes wouldn’t
be switched on such as in mammary gland development. The environment can affect the rate
of transcription so it very important this maintained to ensure that the correct proteins are
made when and where they are needed. This is essential as the regulation of gene expression
conserves energy and space.