Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844

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Automation in Construction
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon

Review

Application of weigh-in-motion technologies for pavement and bridge

response monitoring: State-of-the-art review
Mohhammad Sujon, Fei Dai *
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, West Virginia University, P.O. Box 6103, Morgantown, WV 26506, United States of America

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Overweight vehicles may cause damage and premature deterioration of pavement and bridge structures. Weigh-
Weigh-in-motion in-Motion (WIM) is efficient in avoiding structural damage and ensuring successful weight enforcement by
Review measuring a vehicle’s weight in a dynamic state. WIM additionally provides information such as traffic volume,
Response monitoring
vehicle’s speed, axle spacing, equivalent single axle load (ESAL), individual axle and gross vehicle weight (GVW),
Structural health monitoring
which is of value to planning, design, construction, and operations of transportation infrastructures. This paper
Weight enforcement
reviewed the state of practice and research in WIM with focuses on its potential, limitations, cost-effectiveness,
and data usage. Discussion was made on identifying needs and challenges for further development. This review
provides the research community with a holistic view of available WIM techniques, their limitations, cost-
effectiveness, and the need for future research on usage of the WIM data that might lead to wider adoption of
WIM in transportation applications.

1. Introduction
Roads are a prerequisite for a nation’s social wellbeing and economic
development. In the last few decades, there has been a rapid increase in
road traffic volume in the United States. To support this increased vol­
ume of traffic, new roads and highways have been constructed. The
United States has over 4.1 million miles of roads and more than 273
million registered automobiles are running on them, including 13
million heavy trucks [36]. To stay economically efficient and competi­
tive in business, truck fleet play a major role by reducing time and cost
and endorsed by transport companies. However, there is a great concern
because the overloaded trucks can cause damage to the roadway system
and significantly reduce the performance and service life of the pave­
ment. In Indonesia, more than 60% of trucks are overloaded trucks. This
is considered as one of the significant factors that weaken the road
pavements [67]. Since 2000, overloaded trucks have caused more than
50 bridge collapses in China [145]. Analysis of the axle loads from heavy
vehicles on Lagos-Ibadan Expressway in Nigeria revealed existence of
high vehicle damage factors caused by overloaded heavy vehicles [32].
Overloaded trucks circulating excessively on some roads of Colombia
resulted in accelerated deterioration on the pavement structures [38].
Moreover, the overloaded trucks can result in more traffic accidents and
loss of properties and lives [155]. They can cause chaos in transportation
systems, and ultimately more cost to road users, road agencies, and the
public. According to the ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers)
2017 Report Card for America’s Infrastructure, the service level of
highways in America is at the level of D (D = Poor) [4]. This condition
raised a concern in the pavement and bridge management system that
draws attention to development of an accurate and practical system to
satisfy the demands of traffic control. Enforcement of rational and im­
pactful weight restrictions can be powerful to regulate overweight
trucks and support the performance level of the pavement and bridge
structures [93].
There are still limitations to the current systems in application of
weight regulations for large vehicles on the major highways. Typically,
weigh stations are operated to impose weight restrictions. However,
overweight trucks around these stations frequently seek to avert weigh
stations due to loss of trucking time, possible hassles, and fines [137]. In
practice, there is considerable disparity between heavy trucks that
exceeded the legitimate weight limit and that are detected and issued
with fines at the weigh stations. This disparity is a result of overweight
trucks bypassing the weigh stations. This bypassing practice is unscru­
pulous and not officially endorsed by the trucking companies, but it
takes place [133]. Also, the weigh stations do not operate continuously
24 h./7 days a week and the stations are often closed due to long queue
waits. Moreover, many damages occur to the asphalt pavement roadway

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mas0130@mix.wvu.edu (M. Sujon), fei.dai@mail.wvu.edu (F. Dai).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2021.103844
Received 13 March 2021; Received in revised form 19 June 2021; Accepted 21 July 2021
Available online 12 August 2021
0926-5805/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Sujon and F. Dai
provoked by the break and turning of vehicles. The horizontal resistance
pressures generated by the braking and acceleration of the trucks at the
weigh stations can develop intense rutting and shoving in the proximity
of the stations [52]. Waiting in the queue takes time and may cause
delayed shipments [136]. Stopping of heavy tractor-trailers subjects the
road to negative conditions that over time can expedite deterioration of
the highway [124].
In the past decades, WIM has been regarded as an efficient way for
surmounting these limitations and to collect data for planners, de­
signers, and weight enforcement. WIM can serve as a weight measure­
ment device for vehicles moving at high speeds and reduce needless
stops and delays. WIM is usually divided into three groups: permanent,
semi-permanent, and portable systems [120]. Each system consists of
sensors and a controller specifically designed for data collection and
analysis. Permanent systems collect and analyze data on a single loca­
tion. Semi-permanent systems have sensors built into the pavement, and
the system controller is shifted between different locations. Portable
systems can be transported from location to location. Though WIM
systems have potential, they still have limitations. Measuring vehicle
weight accurately in a dynamic state using a WIM system is still chal­
lenging [154]. Nature of deployment site, WIM sensor installation,
vehicle dynamics at the point that the WIM sensor is impacted, and
accurate vehicle type classification are among the challenges. Initial
installation and maintenance costs are also major obstacles to WIM
implementation.
There are existing review works contributing to understanding of the
currently utilized WIM systems for pavements and bridges
[1,30,142,151]. Al-Qadi, et al. [1] reviewed the literature associated
with concepts, recent developments, and applications of WIM systems
and sensors for pavements and bridges. Dontu, et al. [30] reviewed the
present high-speed weigh-in-motion (HS-WIM) technologies, strengths
and weaknesses of different types of WIM sensors, and their possible
future improvements. Wang and Wu [142] provided an overview of
research works on WIM systems with a focus on problems that over­
weight vehicles may cause. Yu, et al. [151] discussed the common al­
gorithms for bridge WIM and the typical instrumentation of bridge WIM
systems. The above review works set forth the discussion of existing
WIM technologies in terms of their benefits, limitations, potential, and
future research regarding the performance improvement. However,
there are still unclarities that prevent researchers and professionals from
better understanding the current WIM systems and their associated
technologies. (1) The major obstacles for widespread WIM system
implementation are accuracy and cost associated with system installa­
tion and maintenance. However, specific research and development
works on WIM to overcome the obstacles are not adequately discussed in
the existing review works. (2) The research on low-cost WIM sensors is
ongoing. However, understanding of cost-effectiveness of the available
WIM systems is required to legitimize the installation and maintenance
costs. Existing studies that have discussed cost-effectiveness of WIM
systems mainly focused on WIM applications for weight enforcement,
delay reduction, safety, and traffic data collection. Insightful analysis
about cost-effectiveness of WIM that accounts for innovative applica­
tions of WIM data amenable to long-term pavement and bridge main­
tenance, traffic management, and freight management is still missing in
the existing studies. (3) Transportation professionals who collect WIM
data are unsure of the usefulness of the data. Therefore, analyzing the
current practices of WIM data applications are important to understand
the impediments of using WIM data for purposes such as pavement and
bridge design, weight enforcement, and freight logistics. However, the
existing review works neglected the requirement to analyze the limita­
tions of WIM data and its potential applications.
The objective of this research by reviewing literature works was to
(1) analyze the current state of research in WIM to improve accuracy and
reduce cost, (2) legitimize costs of WIM system implementation by un­
derstanding cost-effectiveness, and (3) identify barriers that hinder the
WIM data application by analyzing the ongoing practices of WIM data
2
Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844
utilization. To this end, this paper organized, investigated, and pre­
sented up-to-date validated information around WIM and its applica­
tions using existing materials from a diversity of reliable sources
including peer-reviewed journal articles, conference papers, technical
reports, specifications, standards and WIM vendors’ websites. First,
different WIM systems, their developments, benefits, limitations, data
analysis procedures, and factors were reviewed. Then, this paper
analyzed the present activities that concentrated on mitigating the
limitations of WIM systems and reducing installation and maintenance
costs. Next, this paper presented guidelines based on scholarly works
that explore cost-effectiveness required for wide adoption of the WIM
systems. Finally, the current practice of WIM data application was
analyzed to understand the limitations obstructing the potential of WIM.
Fig. 1 illustrates the flow of this review work.
2. Weigh-in-motion overview
According to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
Weigh-in-Motion is defined as the process of determining a moving ve­
hicle’s gross weight and the allocation of that weight that is transmitted
by each wheel, axle, or axle group, or a combination thereof, by mea­
surement and analysis of dynamic vehicle tire forces. Consequently,
ASTM defines a WIM system as a collection of sensors and supporting
devices that measure the presence of a moving vehicle and the associ­
ated dynamic tire forces at fixed locations concerning time; estimates
tire loads, speed, axle spacing, vehicle class corresponding to axle
arrangement, and other parameters belonging to the vehicle; and pro­
cesses, displays, and stores this report [75]. In addition to ASTM-
E1318–09 standard, there are other international standards and speci­
fications for WIM systems (COST 323, 2002; OIML R134, 2009; NMi,
2016). COST 323 (European Road Specification) provides a specification
of WIM accuracy, calibration and testing of WIM systems, selection of
road geometry, pavement characteristics, environmental requirements
and more. Based on the criteria for rutting, deflection and evenness,
WIM sites are classified into three classes. OIML (International Organi­
zation of Legal Metrology) specification indicates metrological, tech­
nical, instrumental requirements, metrological controls and test
methods [79]. The NMi WIM Standard specifies the different levels of
performance testing and process of various tests that are used in the
procedures for acceptance of WIM systems for legal or statistical appli­
cations [110]. Many countries follow one of these specifications for their
own WIM applications.
Pavement WIM was developed in the 1950s. In 1951, Norman and
Hopkins at the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads developed a WIM system
[59]. This system consisted of a floating reinforced concrete slab with
four strain-gauge load cells for support and photographs from an oscil­
loscope’s traces were used for the measurements. However, the
WIM overview
Pavement WIM technology
Bridge WIM technology
Calibration and WIM data analysis
Factors affecting WIM
State of research in WIM technological development
Cost-effectiveness of WIM
Status of WIM data utilization
Discussion
Fig. 1. The flow of this review work.
M. Sujon and F. Dai Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844

downside with this WIM system was the inertia of the reinforced con­ Table 1
crete slab that restrained response to rapid changes as caused by vehi­ ASTM weigh-in-motion system types [99].
cle’s multiple axles and closely following vehicles [86]. Also, issues Classification
including lateral movement, moisture damage, and high construction
Type I Type II Type III Type IV
and maintenance costs hampered the initial development process of
WIM. A smaller and portable WIM was developed to tackle the issues Speed Range 10–70 mph 10–70 mph 15–50 mph 15–50 mph
Application Traffic Traffic Weight Weight
related to large platform-based systems. Subsequent developments that data data enforcement enforcement
happened with embedded weight sensors included different iteration of collection collection station station
platform designs. The systems used steel plates with strain gauge load Number of up to four up to four up to two up to two
cells, steel bending plates instrumented with strain gauges, and strip Lanes
Bending Plate X X X X
sensors [22]. Recent technological developments reduced these limita­
Piezoelectric X X
tions and employed roadway sensors to classify vehicle types and Sensor
measure vehicle weights. These technologies can measure the axle or Load Cell X X X X
axle group weights and the GVW of the moving vehicles at their regular Wheel Load X X X
highway speeds. WIM sensor technologies typically include polymeric, Axle Load X X X X
Axle-Group X X X X
ceramic, quartz piezoelectric systems, load cells, and bending plates Load
[156]. Gross Vehicle X X X X
Bridge WIM (B-WIM) was introduced in the 1970s. Since then, the Weight
sensing capability of B-WIM has been continuously improved [86,103]. Speed X X X X
Center-to- X X X X
It was proposed by Moses and the idea was to use a bridge as a scale via
Center Axle
strain gauges to measure the weight of vehicles crossing the bridge. Spacing
According to Moses’ algorithm, the axle weight was predicted by Vehicle Class X X
minimizing the distinction between the calculated bridge response and Site X X X X
the predicted bridge response computed using the influence line Identification
Code
concept. The Moses’ algorithm is essential to establishing the framework Lane and X X X
of modern B-WIM systems. After that, the Axway system was developed Direction of
by Peters in Australia, who employed a culvert as the weighing scale Travel
[114]. The COST 323 action [24] and WAVE project [144] carried out in Date and Time X X X X
of Passage
Europe in the late 1990s have led to substantial enhancements of B-
Sequential X X X X
WIM. Great efforts made in recent years continuously improve the Vehicle
current algorithms and create new algorithms to broaden the applica­ Record
bility of B-WIM [97]. B-WIM systems typically employ the calculated Number
strain under the moving vehicle of a bridge to determine the weight and Wheelbase X X
(front to rear
other essential characteristics of the moving vehicle [48]. Generally, B- axle)
WIM systems require more elaborate data analysis procedures to derive Equivalent X X
information about the truck characteristics than pavement WIM, Single-Axle
because of factors such as multiple trucks and other vehicle’s presences Load
Violation Code X X X X
on the structure that remodels the structural performance, environ­
mental effects, geometric and structural complication of the bridge, and
dynamic relation between the vehicles and the bridge [105]. The Moses’ X = Applicable, Blank = Non-applicable
algorithm calculates axle weights from the global response of the
structure to all vehicles crossing at one time. To resolve this issue, using devices are usually placed in a roadside cabinet adjacent to the WIM site.
influence surfaces [117] or strips method [161] can be applicable. The The whole system is powered by either a AC power connection or by
influence surfaces method is extended to cater for the presence of batteries commonly charged by a solar panel array [1].
multiple vehicles on the bridge and the transverse position of the WIM utilizes weight sensors, which are the most vital component of
crossing vehicles. The strips method considers the transverse position of the system [149]. Weight sensors directly measure the force applied by
the vehicles on the bridge, and is computationally efficient and does not the vehicles passing over them. Piezoelectric, bending plate and load cell
require changing the calibration system. These methods require addi­ sensors are the most prevailing sensors for use in the measurement. A
tional analysis steps so as to result in more accurate weighing of the typical piezoelectric WIM system consists of at least one sensor for
vehicle. weight meassurement and two inductive loops embedded in a road cut
or portable to trigger the sensor and measure the axle spacing and
3. Pavement WIM vehicle speed [12]. When a piezoelectric sensor is applied with a me­
chanical force, it generates a voltage that is proportional to the force
Pavement WIM systems installed in the roadway are divided into (weight of the vehicle). This electrical charge is then recorded by the
four types according to the ASTM specification E 1318–94 [3]. This system, which uses it to calculate the dynamic load. Piezoceramic,
division is based on speed, operation, and other characteristics. ASTM piezopolymer, and piezoquartz sensors are the three major types of
Type I and Type II WIM are commonly used for collection of traffic data piezoelectric sensors in WIM applications [66]. The piezoelectric WIM
for up to four lanes with a vehicle speed range between 10 and 70 mph. systems have the advantage of competitive cost, but the disadvantage of
ASTM Type III and Type IV WIM are generally used for weight high sensitivity to surrounding conditions. However, the negligible
enforcement for up to two lanes with a vehicle speed range between 15 temperature effect of the piezoquartz sensors facilitates their protection
and 50 mph. Table 1 presents the major differences of these types [99]. to age or fatigue [120]. Fig. 2 shows a typical piezoelectric WIM system
A WIM system typically has different sensors inserted in the pave­ layout [153].
ment surface to identify, weigh, and classify vehicles [116]. It also A typical bending plate WIM system comprises two steel platforms,
contains software and electronics to control the sensors and collect the each for each wheel path of the traffic lane [44]. The system also con­
sensor measurements. Communication devices are used to transmit the tains two inductive loops, whose function is similar to that of the
measurements to remote sites [81]. The electronics and communication piezoelectric sensors. There are bending plate scales portable or that can

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M. Sujon and F. Dai Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844

Fig. 2. A typical piezoelectric WIM system layout [153].

Fig. 4. A typical load cell WIM system layout [153].
be installed permanently in the pavement structure. When a vehicle
passes over the bending plates, the strain gauge on each plate measures
the amount of strain, and the WIM system measures the dynamic load Table 2
Functional performance requirements for WIM [99].
that causes it. The bending plate WIM systems have higher accuracy
than the piezoelectric systems and lower cost than the load cell systems. Function Tolerance for 95% Probability of Conformity
It is convenient to maintain. However, it is less accurate than load cells Type I Type Type Type IV
and more expensive than the piezoceramic sensors [120]. Fig. 3 illus­ II III
Value > kg ± kg (lb)
trates a typical bending plate WIM system layout [153]. (lb)*
A typical load cell WIM system contains a single load cell with two in-
Wheel Load ± n.a. * ± 20% 2300 (5000) 100 (250)
line scales to identify and weigh the right and left sides of an axle 25%
together, at least one inductive loop for detection of vehicle presence, Axle Load ± ± 30% ± 15% 5400 (12,000 200 (500)
and one axle sensor for measurement of axle spacing and vehicle speed 20%
[8]. When the cell is applied with load, the wire under the strain gauge is Axle-Group Load ± ± 20% ± 10% 11,300 500 (1200)
15% (25,000)
compressed slightly and modified, leading to a resistance difference to Gross Vehicle ± ± 15% ± 6% 27,200 1100
the current in the wire. This resistance difference is then measured by Weight 10% (60,000) (2500)
the system, which uses it to determine weight of each scale and thereby Speed ± 2 km/h (1 mph)
to obtain the axle weight by summing them [22]. The load cell WIM Axle Spacing ± 150 mm (0.5 ft)
systems are most accurate, but also most expensive, requiring high
maintenance cost and restoration after five years of deployment [120]. *Lower values are not normally a concern in enforcement, * n.a. = not available.
Fig. 4 presents a typical load cell WIM system layout [153]. Source: FHWA “States’ Successful Practices Weigh-in-Motion Handbook”.
The sensor placement affects the performance of the system. Studies
indicated the feasibility to measure the axle weight with embedded with known truck axle configurations. Table 2 presents the functional
strain sensors [154] and established the relationship between the sensor performance requirements for WIM. Table 3 shows a comparison of
signal and the measurement dynamic range [148]. Research suggested different WIM sensors based on cost, accuracy (GVW, 95% confidence),
that the depth of embedded sensors and the pavement material should sensitivity, expected life, reliability, and applicability. Fig. 5 presents the
be analyzed to increase the capability of dynamic response sensing in the comparison of the most common WIM sensor technologies on cost versus
design of a WIM system. The sensors placed in the middle layer of accuracy from the data of Yannis and Antoniou [149].
asphalt concrete layer have better sensing ability for dynamic response
of the pavement, which fits a Gaussian distribution centered at the wheel 4. Bridge WIM
position [116]. Most WIM systems are also capable of gathering data
applicable for vehicle classification [135], which are important for Bridge WIM (B-WIM) systems employ an instrumented bridge as the
pavement and bridge design, rehabilitation, and traffic analysis [147]. weighing scale to determine the vehicle weights [107]. They generally
Vehicle classification can be derived by either the measured data from utilize the bending deformations of a bridge when vehicles are passing
the weight sensors alone or combining the measured data from both the over it [14]. These deformations are typically measured using strain
weight sensors and the axle detectors that are also installed in the sensors installed on the structural members and then analyzed to
pavement. determine the GVW (gross vehicle weight) and axle loads of the passing
Identifying vehicle configurations (e.g., axles) is vital to applications vehicles [111]. There are two major strategies for B-WIM design and
such as loading and traffic anslysis [18]. Regardless of which WIM implementation. The first one utilizes both strain sensors and axle
system is applied, it involves meticulous manual data analysis proced­ detection sensors that are installed on the bridge and on the road,
ures, such as application of photos to find and match the load indications respectively. The second one utilizes only strain sensors installed on the
bridge for both axle detection and weight measurements. In general, the
second strategy is more prevailing since it is more convenient in design,
implementation, and maintenance than the first strategy [17].
Data acquisition and communication devices, power supply, and
sensors are major components of an on-site B-WIM system [29]. The
components of a commercially available B-WIM system – SiWIM is
illustrated in Fig. 6 [162].
The sensors of a contemporary B-WIM system typically include
weighing sensors and axle detection sensors. The weighing sensors work
by collecting the bending strains of a bridge produced from vehicle
loads. The bending strains are used as input for computation of axle
weights. There are also weighing sensors that collect displacements and
accelerations for axle weight calculations [28,150,159]. However, it has
Fig. 3. A typical bending plate WIM system layout [153].

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M. Sujon and F. Dai Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844

Table 3
WIM sensors comparison [152].
Piezoelectric Bending Plate Single Load Cell Quartz
Sensor Piezoelectric
Sensor

Cost Initial Low Medium High Medium

(per Installation (around (around (around (around
lane) Cost (US$) $9000) $20,000) $50,000) $20,000)
Annual Low Medium High High
Life Cycle (around (around (around
Cost (US$) $5000) $6000) $8000)
Accuracy (GVW, 95% Confidence) ±15% ±10% ±6% ±10%
(100% confidence)
Sensitivity High Medium Medium Non-sensitive to temperature, but highly to roughness
Expected life 4 years 6 years 12 years Expected
> 15 years
Reliability Low Medium High Medium
Applicability Traffic data Weight Weight Weight enforcement,
collection enforcement, enforcement, Traffic data collection
Traffic data Traffic data
collection collection

Comparison of most common WIM Sensor Technology

(Cost vs Accuracy)
$70,000 16

$60,000 14
(1998 US dollar per year)

(GVW, 95% Confidence)

12
$50,000
Cost (US$)

10

Accuracy
$40,000
8
$30,000
6
$20,000
4
$10,000 2
$0 0
Piezoelectric Bending plate Single Load Cell
sensor
Sensor Technology

Initial Installation Cost (US$) Annual Life Cycle Cost (US$) Accuracy (GVW, 95% Confidence)

Fig. 5. Comparison of most common WIM sensor technologies (cost vs. accuracy) (data source: [149]).

reported that the current sensors provide better strain measurements
than displacement and acceleration measurements for commercial B-
WIM systems [7]. There are a diversity of strain sensors that exist and
careful selection should be carried out to ensure proper use in a B-WIM
system [96]. The popular types of strain sensors comprise foil strain
gauges, vibrating wire strain gauges, and fiber Bragg grating (FBG)
sensors. The foil strain gauges work by collecting a material’s strain
following the foil deformation that leads to the electrical resistance to
change [23]. This type of gauges are economical and produce acceptable
accuracy for experiments and short-term assessments. However, they
are not feasible for long-term field assessments as needed for applica­
tions of the B-WIM systems because of their high sensitivity to electro­
magnetic interferences and environmental changes [14]. The vibrating
wire strain gauges function by collecting the change in the resonant
frequency of a wire caused by the tension variation in the wire that is
associated with the strain variation [113]. This type of gauges have
excellent endurance and require minimum surface preparation for
installation [87]. However, their measurement range is narrow and
therefore cannot collect responses from a bridge when a vehicle moves
on the bridge at a high speed [122]. The FBG sensors measure the strain
based on the relationship between the variation of the wavelength in the
reflected spectrum and the strain produced by forces or temperature
changes [21]. The advantages of the FBG sensors are immunity to
electromagnetic interference, high endurance amenable for long-term
measurements, and of small size and being multiplexable for easy
sensor installation on large structures [158]. The axle detection sensors
are employed to determine the presence of vehicle axles by which the
vehicle speed and axle spacing can be determined. The conventional
equipment for axle detection includes tape switches and pneumatic
tubes [95]. The tape switches are simpler to be integrated into the sys­
tem, while the pneumatic tubes use a pressure sensing device to generate
the signal of axle passage [45]. To determine the vehicle speed and axle
spacing, typically two parallel axle detectors are placed on the pave­
ment and the measured spacing between the two detectors is utilized
[69]. To install the axle detectors on the pavement, it commonly re­
quires lane closure. Also, the sensors may suffer from low endurance that
undermines the advantage of the B-WIM systems [16].
Applying the B-WIM systems to measure site-specific traffic loading
can help understanding of the condition of deteriorating bridges [35]. It
can help check that declined capacity is yet acceptable in support of the
structure to continue operation and minimize unnecessary replacement
or reconstruction costs and so it avoids interruption to traffic [102]. The

5
M. Sujon and F. Dai
Fig. 6. Components of a SiWIM system: (1) FAD sensors, (2) spider, (3) weighing sensors, (4) cabinet and panel, (5) batteries, (6) solar panels, (7) solar panel
installation, (8) antenna, (9) camera, (10) PDA (image source: [162]).
B-WIM data can be potentially used to discover knowledge for
improvement of bridges and analysis of traffic [123]. One advantage of
the B-WIM systems is the convenience of the sensors to be uninstalled
and reinstalled on a distinctive structure. The portability of the sensors
adds flexibility to the system that is not available to the permanent
sensors installed in the roadway [58]. Another advantage of the B-WIM
systems is the possibility of using the system to measure the bridge re­
sponses for traffic data collection and assessing the performance of the
structure itself [74]. Also, the B-WIM systems are more structurally
stable than the pavement WIM systems because most sensors in the B-
WIM systems are installed under the bridge that avoids their direct
exposure to the traffic [146]. The installation of the B-WIM systems is
straightforward and safe so it can be implemented without traffic
interruption [130]. Moreover, the B-WIM systems may provide more
accurate measurements than the pavement WIM systems on an account
that the more contact time between the vehicle wheels and the bridge
structure can be recorded as compared to the contact time between the
vehicle wheels and the pavement WIM sensors, which is important to
ensure recording of a finished cycle of the axle force oscillation [57].
Insufficient contact time may lead to inaccurate estimation of the axle
weights due to the deviation of the dynamic axle force from the static
weight, specifically under uneven surfaces [106]. Finally, the B-WIM
systems can help generate a sustainable bridge health monitoring system
[94].
Till present, the study of B-WIM is limited to short-span bridges
because on long-span bridges, the opportunity is high for multiple
vehicle presence to occur at the same time, which is crucial to estimate
the vehicle parameters. Also, long-span bridges have low natural fre­
quencies that are prone to match the vehicle frequencies and thus in­
crease the dynamic effect resulted by the vehicles [117]. Moreover, the
speed of the vehicle is prone to shift during its passing over a long-span
bridge [85]. Data generated from the B-WIM systems were applied to
develop live load factors used in condition assessment of Alabama
bridges and the result indicated a considerable shift from the prescribed
rating method utilizing the AASHTO [10]. The conclusion pointed out
6
Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844
the present method of load assessment for bridge evaluation is
conservative.
5. Calibration and data analysis
The data collection process in WIM is made in the dynamic state of
the vehicle. Inaccuracy commonly occurs in the data collection process.
To minimize the effect of the inaccurate data, determining reference
values for the WIM system’s calibration, and developing methods for the
WIM system’s accuracy measurement is important [27]. The desired
accuracy level of WIM data depends upon its intended use for enforce­
ment, data collection, or both. The WIM calibration is the process of
assessing the calculated vehicle weight, axle spacing, overall length, and
speed presented by the WIM system against known fixed weights and
manually measured axle spacing, vehicle length, and speed, and
necessarily adjusting the WIM system’s operating parameters to
compensate for those deviations [25]. The initial calibration is imple­
mented to ensure that the WIM system’s accuracy fulfills contract
specifications after the site has been installed [115,118]. Periodic
routine WIM calibrations are implemented to ensure that the data ac­
curacy remains and meets the preferred performance requirement [6].
After proper calibration, the mean errors in WIM measurements (i.e.,
measurement bias) should be decreased as close as to zero practically
feasible for all measured parameters [126].
The WIM system calibration is generally implemented by an expe­
rienced WIM technician in conformity with the manufacturer’s specifi­
cations and guidelines. Calibration decreases the influence of speed,
temperature, truck type (if multiple test trucks are used), and environ­
mental changes in the supporting pavement structure on the WIM sys­
tem’s assessment efficacy for each lane measured [53]. The
recommended calibration methods are the ASTM E1318–09 method and
LTPP (Long-Term Pavement Performance) method described in LTPP
Field Operations Guide for SPS WIM Sites [51]. Both methods use
similar procedures but apply slightly different evaluation criteria to
interpret calibration results. After initial installation and calibration,
M. Sujon and F. Dai Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844

WIM may encounter drifts in weight and axle measurements. Re-
calibration is needed and can be conducted in two ways: (a) on-site
calibration that involves running trucks of known weights over the
WIM scales and (b) auto-calibration that involves comparison to
assumed reference weights [50]. Auto-calibration can be more cost- and
time-efficient than on-site calibration [31]. In general, the calibration
procedure is similar for all WIM sensor types. However, less precise
sensors such as the piezopolymer sensors may need more truck runs to
derive an error measure that can be applied to determine the equipment
compensation factors. Imprecise sensors may also involve higher fre­
quency of calibrations to compensate for seasonal temperature changes.
For example, it may require special calibration actions for the piezo­
polymer sensors installed on sites that have rapid day/night temperature
variations [132].
The collected WIM data are sampled and converted to a suitable
format for later analysis. The converted data are analyzed by computer
programs to compute the load spectra of the four-axle groups (i.e.,
steering, single, tandem, and tridem) of different truck types. Informa­
tion including time, location, traffic volume distribution, truck traffic
growth trend, side-wheel load difference, and truck speed distribution
can also be derived from the data [92]. BullPiezo, TrafLoad, Prep-ME,
DARWin-ME, LTPP PLUG are commonly known software to analyze
the data [89].
Typically, the WIM software comprises three modules: on-site
module, communication module, and in-house module. The on-site
module deciphers the signals generated by the WIM scale into docu­
ments that consist of information such as site location, vehicle passing
date and time, lane number, vehicle identification, speed, and

Table 4
WIM vendors.
Vendor Location Products/Services Scope Website

Axtec International Ltd. Runcorn, England ➢ Dynamic axle weighbridge ➢ Manufacture www.axtec.co.uk
➢ Static axle weighbridge ➢ Installation
➢ Portable weigh pad ➢ Commissioning
Betamont Zvolen, Slovakia ➢ Smart tolling system ➢ Manufacture www.betamont.sk
➢ WIM system ➢ Installation
CAMEA solutions Brno – Řečkovice, ➢ Sensor-technology ➢ Manufacture www.cameatechnology.com
Czech Republic ➢ Tire detection ➢ Installation
➢ WIM software ➢ Commissioning
➢ Training
Captels St Mathieu de Treviers, ➢ Low speed WIM system ➢ Manufacture www.pesage-captels.com
France ➢ Overload enforcement ➢ Installation
CIEMSA Montevide,Uruguay ➢ WIM scales ➢ Manufacture www.ciemsa.com.uy
➢ ALPR/RFID system ➢ Installation
➢ WIM sensor, software ➢ Maintenance
Cestel Trzin, Slovenia ➢ Bridge WIM system ➢ Manufacture www.cestel.eu
➢ WIM data distribution ➢ Installation
➢ Commissioning
CROSS Zlín Zlín, Czech Republic ➢ CrossWIM direct enforcement ➢ Manufacture www.cross-traffic.com
➢ OptiWIM toll-per-ton ➢ Installation
➢ Maintenance
Electronique Contrôle Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, ➢ Statistical WIM ➢ Manufacture www.ecm-france.com
Mesure France ➢ Overload WIM screening ➢ Installation
➢ Static/low speed weighing enforcement ➢ Maintenance
GEC Texas, USA ➢ WIM system ➢ Manufacture www.gecscales.com
➢ Weighing and cargo profiling system ➢ Installation
➢ Maintenance
Intercomp Medina, USA ➢ Strip sensors for WIM system ➢ Manufacture www.intercompcompany.com
➢ Axle scale for low speed WIM ➢ Installation
➢ Portable scale system
IRD Saskatoon, Canada ➢ Overload enforcement ➢ Manufacture www.irdinc.com
➢ Automated weigh station ➢ Installation
➢ Virtual weigh station ➢ Maintenance
iWIM Trento, Italy ➢ Gross vehicle weight (GVW) ➢ Manufacture www.iwim.it
➢ Transit speed ➢ Installation
➢ Axle spacing
Kapsch TrafficCom Vienna, Austria ➢ Overload enforcement ➢ Manufacture www.kapsch.net
➢ Bridge & construction protection ➢ Installation
➢ Maintenance
Kistler Winterthur, Switzerland ➢ WIM total service ➢ Manufacture www.kistler.com
➢ Calibration ➢ Installation
➢ Commissioning
➢ Training
Osmos Paris, France ➢ Weight enforcement ➢ Manufacture www.osmos-group.com
➢ Detection of abnormal overload ➢ Installation
Sterela Pins Justaret, France ➢ Autonomous WIM station ➢ Manufacture www.sterela.fr
➢ GLOBAL-WIM ➢ Installation
Q-Free UK Weston-s-Mare,UK ➢ WIM system ➢ Manufacture www.q-free.com/solution/weigh-in-
➢ Vehicle classification system ➢ Installation motion
➢ Maintenance
TDS Hamburg, Germany ➢ Automated low and high-speed overload ➢ Manufacture www.traffic-data-systems.com
enforcement ➢ Installation
TE Connectivity Dortmund, ➢ Overload enforcement ➢ Manufacture www.te.com
Germany ➢ WIM system ➢ Installation
➢ Maintenance
VanJee Technology Beijing, China ➢ WIM direct enforcement system ➢ Manufacture www.vanjee.net
➢ WIM big data service ➢ Installation
➢ Maintenance

7
M. Sujon and F. Dai
classification, weight of vehicle or axle groups, code for invalid mea­
surement, and ESAL. The communication module supports communi­
cation of the in-house module with the on-site module for control,
feedback, and configuration of the on-site software module’s parame­
ters. The in-house module generates reports with respect to the collected
vehicle records. The communication and in-house software modules
together allow for tasks such as real-time viewing vehicles by lane,
generating and viewing error reports (e.g., time down, and improperly
completed records), and transferring selected data/files from the site
system to the office computer [99]. Table 4 lists the WIM vendors in
North America, Europe and Asia.
6. Factors affecting the WIM systems
A number of factors affect the accuracy of the WIM systems. Table 5
presents the main factors.
The common factors for the WIM systems are conditions of the WIM
site, characteristics of the vehicles, and environmental conditions [128].
The WIM systems can be affected by conditions such as road geometry,
slope, and surface roughness at the location of the WIM site. Among
them, road surface roughness shows the most notable impact on the
accuracy of WIM sensors [91]. According to ASTM, pavement roughness
is defined as “the deviation of a surface from a true planar surface with
characteristic dimensions that affect vehicle dynamics and ride quality”.
In the LTPP program, two ranges of pavement roughness are stated to
influence the WIM scale errors [72]. Typically, the short wavelength
roughness influences vehicle axle motion, and the long wavelength
roughness influences vehicle body motion, both of which may lead to a
deviation of the dynamic axle loads measured by the WIM sensors. Ac­
cording to the ASTM E1318–09 standard, it requires that the pavement
surface 200 ft. in advance and 100 ft. beyond the WIM sensors shall be
smooth before sensor installation. The standard further requires that
"the surface smoothness shall be managed such that a 6-in.-diameter by
0.125-in.-thick circular plate cannot pass under a 16-ft.-long straight­
edge that is swept across the lane at distances from the WIM sensors".
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) has also published a provisional standard for pavement
smoothness requirements for use of the WIM systems. The LTPP Field
Operations Guide for SPS WIM Sites specifies pavement smoothness
criteria of 900 ft. before and 100 ft. after the WIM sensors [2]. A
straightedge method can be applied for longitudinal smoothness anal­
ysis 400 ft. before and 100 ft. beyond the sensors to check if the short
wavelengths led by dynamic vehicle motions are within tolerable limits.
The transverse smoothness of the pavement at the WIM site can also be
determined by applying the straightedge method as specified in the
guide. According to European road specification, WIM site conditions
influence vehicle motions and may cause significant inaccuracies be­
tween the applied force and the corresponding static load [46,60,62,63].
This specification also indicated that not only the pavement roughness
but also other distresses such as rutting, shoving, and cracking may
affect the accuracy performance of the WIM sensors.
The vehicle characteristics such as speed, tire suspension, and axle
configurations can influence the dynamic tire force and thereby the WIM
sensor measurement [82,128]. The dynamic tire force is also affected by
road surface conditions, whose impact on the WIM sensor measurement
is interlinked with that of vehicle characteristics [138]. Tilting of a
vehicle leads to shifting of the center of gravity that causes a load drift
Table 5
Factors affecting the WIM systems.
Factors Specification
WIM site Road geometry, slopes, and surface condition
Characteristics of the Vehicle’s speed, tire, suspension, and axle
vehicles configurations
Environmental conditions Temperature
8
Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844
towards the lower wheels [128]. No error calculation is typically needed
for full axle sensors. Substantial errors may be avoided for half sensors
by adjusting the calibration parameters or by applying a dedicated
correction. Tilting of the measurement sensor can also lead to a lower
signal because only the load perpendicular to the sensor surface is
recorded. The load on a wheel or an axle is directly associated with the
compression of the spring of the vehicle suspension. The sensor will not
get the correct load if the compression is varied than average and
therefore the measured weight of the vehicle will be inaccurate. If the
spring is stiffer, the effect will also be higher. This effect takes place in
conditions where the WIM sensor’s surface is not aligned with the road
surface or by vibration of the vehicle body. Higher or lower weight may
result from the wheel’s friction, depending on the direction of the axle
movement at the moment it crosses the WIM sensor. There is little in­
fluence from braking on the accuracy of the WIM systems, as braking
rarely occurs. The vehicle oscillation can be responsible for the largest
possible errors in WIM systems. These errors commonly appear as
commercially available WIM sensors are not sufficiently long to measure
the axle load during one full period of the lowest frequency [128]. The
measured weight will be higher or lower than the real static weight
depending on the actual amplitude of the oscillation at the moment that
the axle passes the WIM sensor. Because the axle frequency is nearly a
constant value, its influence on the sensor measurement can be reduced
by offsetting the left and the right sensor by half a wavelength. This
strategy can be advantageous when the speed of a vehicle is presumed
constant. Also, multi sensor-based WIM systems may reduce the impact
of vehicle and axle oscillations significantly. The tire tread may be
influential on strip sensors when the design contains cross grooves. The
measured weight will be higher or lower than the real static weight
depending on where the cross grooves are located while the wheel
passes the sensor strip. The magnitude of the effect depends on the
dimension of the strip width and of the groove.
The environmental conditions especially temperature can influence
the performance of the WIM sensors and the overall system [41].
Temperature can change behaviors of the sensors as well as material
properties of the pavement strcture. As a result, the contact force that is
measured by the WIM sensors can vary at different temperatures [39].
Typically, the WIM sensors inserted in the asphalt pavement have higher
temperature fluctuations than those installed in the concrete pavement
in that asphalt materials soften when the weather becomes warm. The
condition of the adjacent pavement to the WIM site is also affected by
temperature, which in turn changes the dynamics of a passing vehicle
before it reaches the WIM site. It is less sensitive to temperature changes
if isolation is made for the sensors from the direct exposure to the
neighboring pavement by ways such as installing the sensors in frames
or housings. Nevertheless, it is barely possible to eliminate the tem­
perature influences on the WIM system’s performance. As a result,
examining the impacts of the full range of operating temperatures fol­
lowed by necessary measures is alwasy desirable at a given WIM site. By
accounting for the full range of temperatures, it is suggested that
meticulous selection of the WIM sensors be made for provision of reli­
able measurements during operation within the examined temperature
range [11]. In addition to these factors, deterioration of the structure
may reduce the accuracy of weight measurement and increase mainte­
nance costs by reducing a sensor’s life span. The sensor will be more
easily damaged due to the truck pressing on extruded sensors, resulting
inaccurate weight data.
7. State of research in WIM technological development
The accuracy of the WIM systems is primarily dependent on sensors.
Enhancing their accuracy and life span have been extensively investi­
gated. To substitute pricey permanent WIM systems that are largely
restricted to major interstate highways, portable WIM systems are
employed for routine site-specific traffic data (e.g., speed, volume and
weight) collection due to their cost-effectiveness and ease-of-installation
M. Sujon and F. Dai Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844

[34,76,80,99,140]. However, the major challenges related to portable
WIM systems have been accuracy, reliability, and data quality
[99,112,115]. Low-speed portable WIM systems such as DAW300 PC,
and CAPTELS CET 10–4 SLIM are commercially available. However, the
accuracy of these systems is still under investigation [121]. A weigh-
pad-based portable WIM system with easy-to-install piezoelectric sen­
sors placed between two convey belts exists for rapid road installation.
Software was developed to determine weights from signals received
from the piezoelectric sensors [83]. Overall, the portable WIM systems
can be a viable option for routine data collection on highways where
installation and periodic maintenance of a permanent WIM system is not
financially beneficial [34].
Certain WIM systems include license plate recognition cameras to
automatically read vehicle registration plates for passing vehicles cata­
loging. The cameras being used can be traffic enforcement cameras or
closed-circuit televisions (CCTV) specifically constructed for traffic
surveillance [127]. Infrared light is generally used to compensate for
headlights and low visibility conditions (e.g., poor weather) that might
undermine recognition [134]. Computer vision techniques are
employed to recognize optical characters in video frames collected by
the cameras [65]. Processing of these video frames can be made on-line
at the location where the camera is deployed or offsite remontely after
data transmission and storage. Internet protocol (IP) cameras are also
employed for WIM systems to capture photos of passing vehicles from
the roadside and then send them for processing and storage via the
Internet [56]. The collected photos are usually used to work with WIM
systems for screening during weight enforcements [15]. Video cameras
are also applied to evaluate vehicle classification algorithms employed
by the WIM systems when necessary.
Research works focused to improve the accuracy and reducing the
cost of WIM technologies are ongoing. A brief description of these works
is provided in Table 6.
One advantage of using WIM technologies is generating big data.
Machine learning techniques are widely used to process and analyze this
sheer volume of data by using Artificial Neural Network (ANN) algo­
rithms [78]. ANN has been applied for effective removal of noises in
bridge WIM systems and for determining the relations in axle dynamics,
and adaptability to varying circumstances [47]. Researchers have
developed a back-propagation (BP) neural network to enhance the
weighing accuracy of the WIM system [20]. The regression trees method
was employed on available WIM data to identify overloaded trucks’
weight and their travel patterns for more effective pavement manage­
ment and design [9]. Thus far, research endeavors have demonstrated
the potential of machine learning for efficient WIM data analysis and
enhancing the performance of WIM systems. It can be a great tool for
detection of deficiencies in the WIM data that occur due to imperfection
in the sensors, system calibration, or software [119]. It can also serve to
determine overweight trucks whose axle weights are collected by WIM
systems for scrutiny of their compliance with their issued permits
because overweight trucks may have been issued permits that authorize
them to operate on an annual basis or a trip-by-trip basis [37].
8. Cost-effectiveness of WIM
The major drawback of the WIM systems lies in their high cost for
initial installation and recurring maintenance. WIM system deployment

Table 6
Research works to improve WIM.
Objective Technology Brief Description Outcome

Low-Cost Weigh- Wireless Vibration A cheap wireless sensor-based WIM system consisted of
in-Motion acceleration sensors, vehicle detection sensors, and an access
point (AP) was implemented that synchronized all the sensors
and recorded the sensor data [5].
Polymer Piezoelectric Film A WIM system around polymer piezoelectric film sensors was
Sensors built to measure susceptibility to temperature [84].
Cameras Contactless bridge weigh-in-motion was developed that
magnified the image to the extent that submillimeter bridge
deflections could be measured accurately [108].
Accuracy Novel Axle Detection A novel axle detection method and a new algorithm were
Improvement Method developed that increased the accuracy of the results for four
classes according to the European WIM specifications [160].
Pavement/Sensors Pavement/sensors mechanics and the application of the
Mechanics multilayer elastic half-space theory showed accuracy depends
on pavement temperature and vehicle speeds [13].
Axle Load Sensors The quantitative relationship between the number of axle load
sensors and weighing accuracy was established [40].
Multi-Sensor Weigh-In- MS-WIM system equipped with 16 lines of load sensors was
Motion (MS-WIM) System developed and accuracy assessed [42].
Technological Railway Bridge Implemented a piezoelectric sensors-based WIM system for a
Development larger structural health monitoring system specifically
dedicated to railway bridges [131].
Fiber Optic Sensors Evaluated state-of-the-art fiber optic sensors to measure actual
dynamic loads on pavements and structures [101].
Fiber Optic Sensors Initial signal deconvolution on symmetric and asymmetric
components was implemented to the approximate geometric
size of tire surface footprint as well as calculate the weight on
each wheel [49].
Superposition of Dynamic Considered the bridge’s elastic response for passing trucks to
Truck/ Static Bridge estimate the unknown truck parameters such as axle spacing,
Interaction speed, axle weights [88].
Artificial Neural Networks Developed signal analysis algorithms using artificial neural
networks for bridge WIM systems [77].
Information fusion of WIM Proposed an information fusion of the WIM system and
systems and machine multiple camera machine vision for load identification and
vision applied to bridges of different lengths [26].
The system was tested on a highway and achieved the required
accuracy of 15% for individual axle loads and 10% for the total
load (GVW), and outperformed a nearby conventional WIM
system.
A low-cost WIM system was built that accurately performed as
the conventional WIM system and cost reduced by 93%.
The accuracy of gross weight was reasonably good, but the
accuracies of groups and individual axle weights were not
satisfactory.
The highest GVW error was 7.6% and 94.4% of all GVW errors
were below 5% that demonstrated tangible progress in the
field of B-WIM.
Tests showed differences in the distribution of vertical and
horizontal stresses in the pavement structure were the cause of
vehicle weight measurement errors.
The result showed the influence of the number of sensors in
MS-WIM systems on the weighing errors depends on the
sensors’ quality (accuracy).
The maximum error for the total vehicle weight in the tested
MS-WIM system did not exceed 4%.
Piezoelectric fiber composite sensors and piezoceramic
sensors proved to apply to the dynamic weighing of trains. A
linear relationship between the identified load and sensor
responses was also obtained.
The study on fiber optic sensors in WIM system applications
revealed the advantages and disadvantages of each
application.
Results demonstrated that the factors most impacting the
sensor measurement accuracy can be investigated and
included in the axle weight calculations.
This method provided an average of 0.3% accuracy in the axle
weights and 0.001% accuracy in axle spacing and speed.
For the GVW calculation, the proposed ANN method and
conventional influence line method showed similar accuracy
classes.
The reliability and accuracy of the proposed approach were
satisfactory after verification by multi-view 3D simulation
video data and the field data.

9
M. Sujon and F. Dai
is so costly that in general, it is unaffordable for many small county
public works departments and local transportation offices. Its high cost
even leads to infeasibility for state transportation agencies to deploy
many WIM sites to achieve a high density of WIM measurements.
Therefore, if the overall cost of the WIM system implementation can be
considerably reduced, deploying more WIM systems would be possible.
This would result in a higher quality of traffic data collection that leads
to better decision making for the transportation systems [153]. The
benefits of a WIM system implementation include:
➢ Present a traffic database that can help to analyze the requirements
of a local or state’s weight enforcement program [19],
➢ Present better-quality traffic data for research programs, such as the
LTPP program [139],
➢ Enhance productivity of prescreening overweight/illegal trucks and
therefore reduce travel time and lessen delay cost [157],
➢ Enhance data utilization for pavement management systems [141],
➢ Enhance safety by effectively reducing overweight trucks on high­
ways [73].
To understand the impact of overweight trucks, Fig. 7 presents the
impact of excessive axle loads on damaging roads based on data from
Santero, et al. [127] at 10 locations. WIM applications can be effective
for regulating excessive axle loads to avoid damages to the pavement.
From the abovementioned benefits, the financial favors of WIM
easily exceed the costs associated with installation and maintenance.
The transportation industry may experience more profitable services in
a modern way that leads to fewer delay time, fewer number of stops, and
lowered incidents. Applying WIM technologies provide control of
vehicle weights without disturbing the traffic. Notifications can be for­
warded to the transport companies in promoting carrier behavior of shift
over time. A centralized server compiles the everyday data from all WIM
systems that enables long-term statistics and broader applications [61].
The WIM data can be beneficial for companies to identify solutions for
better organizing logistics of their vehicles for freight operations, which,
in turn, will reduce the delays caused by the weight controls and thereby
increase efficiency.
FEM (finite elements method) based models were developed to
validate the usage of WIM systems. A physical model based on the FEM
model of railway infrastructure and two-dimensional (2D) multibody
model of the railway vehicle was developed to validate the applicability
of the WIM system for railway vehicles [100]. A FEM-based model of
vehicle-bridge interaction considering different aspects of vehicle and
geometric behavior of bridge was developed and verified with experi­
ments in detecting vehicle axles on the prestressed concrete bridge [70].
Road Damage and Excessive Axle Loads
25%
Pavement Damage due to Overweight Axle
20%
Axles Over Legal Limit and
15%
10%
5%
0%
1 2
Fig. 7. Road damage and excessive axle loads (data source: [127]).
Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844
In field verification and optimization of weighing sensor location on US
girder bridges for B-WIM, a FEM-based model capable of obtaining ac­
curate bridge and vehicle parameters with the potential application in
Moving Force Identification (MFI) was developed and validated with
experiments [71].
By applying WIM technologies, also, the enforcement staff may have
better experience in weight enforcement by targeting suspected vehicles
only. WIM is economically profitable for road networks in northern
environments as commercial trucks are the major source of pavement
early damage. WIM can control overloads through monitoring the
vehicle weight. Research demonstrated 2–9% of cost savings per kilo­
meter of a regular two-lane road. The research also demonstrated that
the detailed axle loads determined from WIM data is important for
pavement design and management in cost savings [109]. To understand
the cost-effectiveness of regulating overweight vehicles, Table 7 pre­
sents the comparison among four rehabilitation scenarios based on
rehabilitation year, present worth of cost, and service life [152].
Using WIM systems has the potential to reduce the amount of
extremely overweight trucks and the associated repair and maintenance
costs for pavement and bridge infrastructure [104]. Continuous
reporting based on WIM data can serve to quantify the damage of the
pavement associated with the weight excess of the trucks. Excess weight
may lead to brake system defects by which the truck would be risky to
maneuver. The enhanced weight management via WIM systems may
reduce the costs for weight enforcement resources and operations. It
may also reduce the costs resulting from the infrastructure damage, road
closure, resurfacing work, maintenance and repair [54]. The trans­
portation engineers can have access to WIM data for transport planning,
highway design, construction, and maintenance. WIM data can also be
applied to assist in applications such as heavy traffic flow awareness,
real-time traffic safety risk alerting, dangerous freight tracking, traffic/
congestion monitoring, diagnosis, and management of lane occupancy,
traffic volume, and speed [143]. Radar interferometry techniques with
integration of WIM data have been employed for advanced structural
health monitoring. An innovative method using interferometric radar,
WIM sensors, and finite element modeling was developed for monitoring
the dynamic behavior of bridges. This method can precisely capture the
real-time dynamic characteristics of a bridge under traffic loading [68].
A bridge condition assessment framework integrating computational
modeling and noncontact radar sensor techniques was developed to
predict changes in the natural frequencies of a bridge girder caused from
a variety of parameters that regulate its structural performance [98].
The risk of running into an accident by driving an overweight truck is
greater than by driving a lawfully loaded truck [64]. Studies showed
that drivers of overweight trucks are suspected of using alternate
2500000
Freight Throughut per Day (kN)
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No. of locaion
Freight Throughput per Day (kN)
Percent of Axles Over Legal Limit
Percent of Pavement Damage due to Overweight Axles
10
M. Sujon and F. Dai
Table 7
Present worth analysis for alternative axle overloads per kilometer of a typical two-lane roadway [152].
Year Without Overload Rehabilitation 10% Overload Rehabilitation
0 $100,000 $100,000
7.5
9 $9982
12 $10,160
15
18
20 $9398
Net Present Worth Cost ($) 103,537 109,272
Relative Difference in Cost 0 0.06
First Rehabilitation Year ≥ 20 12
Second Rehabilitation Year 18 15
Service Life (years) 20 12
secondary roads to escape weigh stations which may increase the risk of
accidents on these roads [54]. This has also led to the missing statistics
of overweight trucks entailed road accidents and incidents because
overweight data has not been truthfully collected by the law enforce­
ment agencies [61]. The taxpayers enjoy smaller costs for roads and
transportation. Highway infrastructure benefits from fewer overloading
damage, higher service life, and stronger service level.
9. Current practices of WIM data utilization
Data generated from WIM systems have proven of value. However,
the applicability of WIM systems and the significance of WIM data do not
get appropriate attention from the transportation agencies. Therefore,
understanding the current practices of WIM systems and their data uti­
lization by the transportation agencies can help identify the sources of
issues and mitigate them to unleash the true potential of this technology.
A survey with state DOTs (Departments of Transportation) done by
Hazlett, et al. [55] explored these issues by understanding the current
situation of WIM applications. This survey inquired about equipment,
calibration, quality control, uses and users of WIM data, and barriers to
the use of WIM data. With a 90% response rate, the survey results pro­
vided a depiction of the state of practices for WIM uses among the re­
spondents. Most state DOTs collected WIM data with a wide variety of
sensor types and used them in a variety of applications. Many used WIM
data to assist in pavement design, but most did not use a Pavement ME
(Mechanistic Empirical) Design application. Seldom, they collected WIM
data for bridge and infrastructure asset management [55]. In the Twin
Cities metropolitan area in Minnesota, truck GPS (Global Positioning
System) data were validated with data from WIM sensors and loop de­
tectors to develop reliable freight performance measures that present
potential opportunities for freight planners and managers [90]. In
addition, Minnesota DOT used WIM data for traffic forecasting, weight
enforcement and pavement design. Oregon DOT applied WIM data to
determine truck volume, axle weight and spacing as input for its pave­
ment design program [33]. Extensive WIM data collected on the French
main road network were applied to better understand truck loading,
overloads and truck aggressiveness on infrastructure that may enable
policy optimization [129].
Most transportation agencies chose WIM sensors based on data
quality achievable, maintenance requirements, and road closure limi­
tations. Due to constraints in funding, workforce, and expertise, some
agencies resorted to contracting maintenance, leasing equipment, or a
pay-for-data model. Agencies could validate the installation costs but
faced difficulties for validation of the costs of maintenance and cali­
bration. To secure funding, agencies resorted to internal groups such as
those with traffic data, intelligent transportation, and transportation
planning, or external sources such as law enforcement. Agencies noticed
some information generated from WIM systems could be achieved by
other systems with less cost. However, if weight information was
required, WIM systems were necessary. Agencies required a properly
sized WIM network that contains sufficient WIM sites to have effective
11
Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844
20% Overload Rehabilitation 30% Overload Rehabilitation
$100,000 $100,000
$9754
$12,776
$12,929
112,927 116,235
0.09 0.12
9 7.5
9 7.5
coverage and obtain useful data. Maintenance such as system calibration
and sensor replacement was oftentimes performed to ensure the accu­
racy of the measured data. Lack of funding for both initial installation
and ongoing maintenance was deemed as an obstacle to achieving useful
data. Frequently, the DOT engineers who collected the data were un­
certain how other people in the agency were able to use it. On the other
hand, the DOT engineers who could utilize the data were uncertain
about the quality of the data that they have access to [55].
10. Discussion
The implementation of WIM systems can have a plethora of benefits.
In comparison to the traditional weigh stations, it may help control the
vehicle weights without disrupting the traffic flow and thereby reduce
the number of overweight vehicles. As a result, the associated costs for
pavement resurfacing works and infrastructure repairs due to over­
weight caused damages may be reduced. WIM systems can also be
efficient for pavement and bridge response monitoring. However, limi­
tations still exist to be overcome for widespread implementation. Many
WIM systems have load sensors directly situated in the road lane, and
automobiles run over them without velocity reduction. Thanks to the
dynamic state taking place during the movement of the vehicle sus­
pension, the axle loads fluctuate over time, leading to less accurate
measurements compared with static weigh stations. Prudent thoughts
should be given for use of the WIM measurement data [43]. Due to high
installation and maintenance costs, WIM systems are implemented in
important roadways and overweight trucks intend to bypass them. This
may cause significant degradation issues to the surface of the alternative
roads. Portable WIM systems can be a solution to this problem, but
calibration is needed for each time of installation [125].
B-WIM systems can be used along with pavement WIM systems for
their specific advantages. Research is ongoing to eliminate the multi-
vehicle presence problem and that could result in more implementa­
tions of B-WIM systems. B-WIM systems cannot be an alternative to
pavement WIM systems because the bridge is not available on all the
highways and the construction of bridges for WIM purposes is not
feasible. B-WIM systems can be used for bridge health monitoring and
pavement WIM systems can be used for pavement response monitoring.
B-WIM systems can provide more comprehensive data for the bridge and
help the agencies to collect weight data in a more comprehensive way.
B-WIM systems can contribute to weight enforcement with bridge health
monitoring systems and traffic monitoring efforts at federal, state, and
local transportation agencies.
Currently, WIM systems and data applications are concentrated on
functions that cooperate in enhancing the condition of management
activities for pavement and bridge infrastructure, consisting of admin­
istration of traffic demand, enhancement of highway safety and pro­
tection of the ecosystem. In extension to the current applications, the
data achieved from the WIM systems contain weight count information
which presents potential for actions associated with management and
maintenance of the infrastructure asset by adopting alternative road
M. Sujon and F. Dai
pricing systems, which can again facilitate improvement of the road
network performance. Incorporating WIM data with intelligence can be
advantageous for services provided both offline and actual-time situa­
tions. For the operation of the highway traffic, WIM data can be highly
effective as it provides information about the traffic condition in real-
time. If WIM data incorporate information about vehicles of all types,
that data can serve to accomplish powerful demand management of the
transportation system. If the WIM data particularly provide information
about heavy vehicles, that data can be effective for dealing with vehicles
serving economic purposes. WIM data can be routinely transmitted to
the transportation center and local offices who can analyze the data by
employing software developed for transport related works. Entailing
WIM data with intelligence can have other potential if transmitted to
various entities by processing of messages on radio, onboard computers
and digital signs. In addition to these activities, WIM data can be
specially processed to support regulation approaches for enhancing
safety conditions and facilitating uninterrupted flow of traffic. Data
collected form the WIM stations can be employed for establishing
automatic alert system that helps to recognize the unlawful dissemina­
tion of overloaded trucks and detect incident for unusual congestion,
special events, and accidents. These alarms can automatically stimulate
pre-established actions and inform concerned authorities to conduct
compulsory interventions.
To know the traffic growth and traffic distribution tendencies, in
depth analysis of WIM data over longer periods can be incredibly useful
as it consists of insightful information. This type of analysis can also be
useful for rational decision making by forecasting future traffic flow and
condition of the pavement. The degradation of the pavement surfaces
and underlying layers are precisely linked to the distribution of the
traffic and this data can serve to understand the present condition of the
pavement structure and potential demand of corrective and preventive
maintenance works. Estimating future traffic flow and pavement con­
dition is absolutely significant as decision making policies for trans­
portation system management precisely depend on this information. The
maintenance works can be suspended or delayed if the amount of traffic
flow is lower than the forecasted amount and the retained fund can be
used for reallocation of resources for other important transportation
related works. Costly reconstruction of the pavement can be needed if
the estimated amount is lower than the actual traffic amount as pre­
ventive maintenance works may not satisfy the requirement from the
traffic. Significant expenditure on the infrastructure development and
maintenance works requires extensive traffic data and WIM data can be
an excellent resource for this purpose. Moreover, regulating overweight
and heavy vehicles on the road by adopting pricing schemes based on
WIM data can cooperate to reduce traffic load on congested roads and
facilitate smooth traffic flow.
WIM data possess significant potential and attention is required to
address the issues associated to WIM data applications in the field. To
concentrate on the issues regarding WIM data applications, extensive
analysis is the fundamental prerequisite to guarantee high-quality data
and recognize their possible applications [55]. DOTs are the major users
of the WIM data and they need to concentrate on collecting additional
information from WIM data that can facilitate to legitimize the cost of
WIM system installation and maintenance. Also, WIM data are required
to be analyzed meticulously by promoting alternative approaches as
they consist of high-quality traffic information that is very necessary for
traffic flow and road condition estimation. Although calibration of WIM
system is costly and time-consuming, it is required to be done regularly
to ensure the high quality of the collected data. Although calibration
processes are available to most DOTs, the agencies are further appealed
to in developing substitutes to the calibration process to spare money
and time. Further research is required to develop the substitutes con­
ducting the process automatically by possibly applying WIM and fixed
scale or weigh sensor on board. DOTs have concerns about the capa­
bilities WIM network for correctly assessing the network of trans­
portation. Some DOTs are planning to expand or upgrade their network
12
Automation in Construction 130 (2021) 103844
system. The amount of WIM stations and their positions is one of the
major areas where further research works are expected to provide
stronger services for infrastructure asset management.
One of the major issues for the application of WIM data is that the
staffs from the DOTs are not properly acknowledged about the appli­
cations of the data; Also, analysts of the WIM data in the DOTs are not
fully acknowledged about the accuracy and the potential applications of
the data [55]. To alleviate these issues, different branches of DOTs are
expected to be trained about the potential of WIM data and its appli­
cations to their designated purpose. By applying visualization tech­
niques to explain the process of WIM data collection, analysis and
application, the users and staffs can be instructed about the system and
applications. Research is essential to understand the applicability of
WIM data in transportation agencies among different internal sections.
They should be encouraged to learn about the capability of WIM data to
solve their problems. One of the methods of sharing cost of WIM system
implementation could be sharing information from WIM data to freight
operators. This data can also be used for planning of corridor and freight.
The utilization of additional databases can be considered for research
before acquiring and utilizing them, as they can facilitate data mining
and artificial intelligence based on WIM data from the network of DOTs.
The WIM industry can benefit from the knowledge of innovative
applications of the WIM data. The industry can learn and develop their
future products capable of producing rich data useful for long-term
applications. Information concerning the vendors presented in Table 4
indicated that most of the vendors are from Europe and only a few
provide commissioning and training. The industry has tremendous po­
tential to expand their business in Asia. Also, the industry can get up-to-
date information about WIM technological development, which may
facilitate them to concentrate their manufacture on market demands.
Recognizing the WIM system factors may help the industry to improve
their systems and applications. The industry may provide more events
for training to transportation officials as they are the major purchaser of
the WIM systems. The training can help the transportation professionals
to understand the applications of WIM system and their potential long
term uses. The process can lead to more WIM system implementation
and better business environment for the industry.
11. Conclusion and future work
WIM has shown great potential to help efficient pavement and bridge
operations and maintenance. The collected WIM data can be valuable
for highway planners, pavement designers, and weight enforcements.
However, the applicability of WIM is restrained by its accuracy issues
and higher installation and maintenance costs. Therefore, there is a
great opportunity for prospective research on WIM in the future.
Developing new types of sensors is one of the prospects so that the
sensors can generate more conclusive data as these data can be a vast
resource to the LTPP program. Improving the current sensors by finding
out their limitations and reducing their production cost can lead to the
development of more sustainable technology for weight enforcement
and freight management. Reducing the impact from the WIM factors has
great potential for research because the invented system requires to be
free from external effects. The data emanating from the WIM need to be
high quality due to their application for pavement and bridge response
monitoring. It is plausible if the WIM systems are energy independent.
Solar energy can be an excellent solution for this purpose. Additionally,
improving WIM by introduction of virtual WIM through employing
techniques such as machine vision and artificial intelligence offer more
opportunities for field implementation. The significance of data
collected from WIM is often neglected by the transportation agencies
due to their insufficient knowledge about the potential applications of
the data. Mining the WIM data may facilitate wider applications.
M. Sujon and F. Dai
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
Acknowledgment
This work was sponsored by a grant from the Center for Integrated
Asset Management for Multimodal Transportation Infrastructure Sys­
tems (CIAMTIS), a US Department of Transportation University Trans­
portation Center, under federal grant number 69A3551847103. The
authors are grateful for the support.
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