Functional Equation 2

A.F.Mashrafi
March 5, 2021

Proof of f (f (x)) = x is bijective

Since f (f (x)) exists it implies that f (x) must be in the domain of f (else we can’t form f (f (x)). So f
must map some set A to itself, i.e. f : A → A. Examples using say R and C are therefore not valid: the
domain of f is either R or C, in this case you would have f : R → C and F : C → R with f = F |R (i.e.
f is F restricted to R), and then F (f (x)) = x.
In general if f : A → B and F : B → A then f = F B = A, and here f = F is implied by f (f (x)) = x.
So with that understanding then f is a bijection.
1. f must be onto (surjective) since for all x ∈ A f (x) is defined (under normal understanding) and
= x, so for all x ∈ A there exists x ∈ A such that x = f (x)
2. f must be into (injective) as f (y) = y so if f (x) = f (y) then x = y.

Problem 1:
Find all functions f : R → R such that

f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)

and
f (xy) = f (x)f (y)
Solution: We know f (x) = xf (1) for all x ∈ Q

• Case 1: for f (1) = 0; f (x) = f (x.1) = f (x)f (1) = 0

• Case 2: for f (1) 6= 0; f (p) = f (p.1) = f (p)f (1) ⇒ f (1) = 1

so there is only two solution f (x) = 0 and f (x) = x

Problem 2:
Find all functions f : R → R such that

f (x2 + yf (x)) = xf (x) + xf (y)

Solution :Let P (x, y) be the assertion of this problem now P (0, 0)f (0) = 0
P (x, 0)f (x2 ) = xf (x) which implies f (x) = −f (−x))
y y
Now, P (x, − f (x) ) + P (x, f (x) )f (x2 − y) + f (x2 + y) = 2xf (x) = 2f (x2 ) which is definitely additive.
So, from our given function and the additive property we can see xf (x) + xf (y) = f (x2 + yf (x)) =
xf (x) + f (yf (x)) ⇒ xf (y) = f (yf (x)) (Call it Q(x, y) )
Now , Q(1, y)f (y) = f (yf (1))y = yf (1)f (1) = 1
Q(f (x), y)f (x)f (y) = f (xy) , together with the additive of f it implies that f ≡ cx , and since f (1) = 1,
f (x) = x
so our two solutions is f (x) = x and f (x) = 0 .

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Problem 3
Does there exist a function f : R → R satisfying the following conditions:
• for each real y there is a real x such that f (x) = y , and
• f (f (x)) = (x − 1)f (x) + 2 for all real x ?


Solution : Assume that there exists such function. It follows from (b) that f f (1) = 2.
Since f is surjective, there exists a such that f (a) = 0. From this, we get


f (0) = f f (a) = (a − 1) · f (a) + 2 = 2

and

f (2) = f f (0) = (0 − 1) · f (0) + 2 = 0.


Since f f (1) = 2 and f (2) = 0, we have






0 = f (2) = f f f (1) = f (1) − 1 · f f (1) + 2 = 2 f (1) − 1 + 2.

Therefore, we have f (1) = 0. Also, we see that there exists b such that f (b) = 1, so


0 = f (1) = f f (b) = (b − 1) · f (b) + 2 = b − 1 + 2.

From this, we obtain b = −1 and f (−1) = 1.

Finally, we see that there exists c such that f (c) = −1. Therefore,


1 = f (−1) = f f (c) = (c − 1) · f (c) + 2 = 3 − c,

so c = 2 and f (2) = −1. But we already have that f (2) = 0, a contradiction. So, there is no function
satisfying the given conditions.

Problem 4
Find all the functions f : R → R such that

f (x2 ) + 4y 2 f (y) = (f (x − y) + y 2 )(f (x + y) + f (y))

for every real x, y.

Solution : Let P (x, y) be the given assertion. P (0, y) gives us,

f (0) + 4y 2 f (y) = (f (−y) + y 2 )2f (y)f (0) + 2y 2 f (y) = 2f (y)f (−y).

Now, arguing similarly, and considering P (0, −y), we get, f (0) + 2y 2 f (−y) = 2f (−y)f (y) = f (0) +
2y 2 f (y). Hence, f (y) = f (−y). Plugging this in what was just found, we get,

2f (y)2 = 2y 2 f (y) + f (0).

Therefore, letting y = 0, f (0) = 0 or f (0) = 1/2.

a) We first claim that f (0) 6= 1/2. Suppose that f (0) = 1/2. Taking y = 0, we get,
1 1
f (x2 ) = f (x) · (f (x) + )f (1) = f (1)(f (1) + ).
2 2
Now, if f (1) = 0, then, using 2f (y)2 = 2y 2 f (y) + f (0), with y = 1, we get a contradiction. If f (1) 6= 0,
then, f (1) = f (1)(f (1) + 1/2) gives us f (1) = 1/2. However, with this, using 2f (1)2 = 2f (1) + f (0) one
more time, we get a contradiction, as left-hand-side is 1/2; while the right-hand-side is 3/2.
b) Therefore, f (0) = 0. Namely, f (y)2 = f (y)y 2 f (y) = 0orf (y) = y 2 . In the assertion above, consider
P (x, −y), and notice that, P (−x, y) gives,

f (x2 ) + 4y 2 f (y) = (f (−x − y) + y 2 )(f (−x + y) + f (y)) = (f (x + y) + y 2 )(f (x − y) + f (y)),

using the fact that f (·) is even. On the other hand, the left-hand-side above is also equal to (f (x − y) +
y 2 )(f (x + y) + f (y)), hence,

f (x−y)f (x+y)+f (x−y)f (y)+y 2 f (x+y)+y 2 f (y) = f (x+y)f (x−y)+f (x+y)f (y)+y 2 f (x−y)+y 2 f (y),

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which implies,
f (x − y)(f (y) − y 2 ) = f (x + y)(f (y) − y 2 ).
From here, we recover our first solution. If, for every y, f (y) = y 2 , the entire assertion holds. Thus,
f (x) = x2 , ∀x ∈ R is a solution. Next, suppose that, ∃y0 such that f (y0 ) 6= y02 . We clearly have, y0 6= 0,
since, f (0) = 0. For this choice of y0 , and for every x, we get (keeping x intact, and after letting
y = y0 above), f (x − x0 ) = f (x + x0 ). Now, if f is identically 0, we recover a second solution, namely,
f (x) = 0, ∀x ∈ R is also a solution. Now, assume that, ∃t such that f (t) 6= 0. In particular, since
f (y0 ) 6= y02 f (y0 ) = 0, t 6= y0 and t 6= 0. Taking x = t − y0 above, we get,

f (t) = f (t − 2y0 )t2 = (t − 2y0 )2 t = t − 2y0 ⇔ t = 2y0 − t,

where, f (t) is necessarily t2 (as it is not zero), hence, f (t − 2y0 ) cannot be 0, and thus, should be
(t − 2y0 )2 . If t = t − 2y0 , then we get y0 = 0, a contradiction. If t = 2y0 − t, we get, t = y0 , again, a
contradiction. Hence, no further solutions exists.
Therefore, the answer is f (x) = x2 , ∀x ∈ R and f (x) = 0, ∀x ∈ R.

Problem 5
Let R be the set of real numbers. Determine all functions f : R → R such that

f (x2 − y 2 ) = xf (x) − yf (y)

for all pairs of real numbers x and y

Solution 1 : We first prove that f is odd.

Note that f (0) = f (x2 − x2 ) = xf (x) − xf (x) = 0, and for nonzero y,

xf (x) + yf (−y) = f (x2 − y 2 ) = xf (x) − yf (y) ⇔ yf (−y) = −yf (y)

, which implies f (−y) = −f (y). Therefore f is odd. Henceforth, we shall assume that all variables are
non-negative.
If we let y = 0, then we obtain f (x2 ) = xf (x). Therefore the problem’s condition becomes

f (x2 − y 2 ) + f (y 2 ) = f (x2 )
. √ √
But for any a, b, we may set x = a, y = b to obtain

.
(It is well known that the
f (x) = kx, but there do exist
problem.)
We may let a = 2t, b = t to
Letting x = t + 1 and y = t
f (a − b) + f (b) = f (a)
only continuous solutions to this functional equation are of the form
other solutions to this which are not solutions to the equation of this
obtain 2f (t) = f (2t).
in the original condition yields

f (2t + 1) = (t + 1)f (t + 1) − tf (t) = (t + 1)[f (t) + f (1)] − tf (t) = f (t) + (t + 1)f (1)

But we know
f (2t + 1) = f (2t) + f (1) = 2f (t) + f (1)
, so we have
2f (t) + f (1) = f (t) + tf (1) + f (1)
, or

f (t) = tf (1)
.

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 Hence all solutions to our equation are of the form f (x) = kx. It is easy to see that real value of k
will suffice.
Solution 2: s in the first solution, we obtain the result that f satisfies the condition

f (a) + f (b) = f (a + b)
.
We note that
" 2  2 #    
x+1 x−1 x+1 x+1 x−1 x−1
f (x) = f − = f − f
2 2 2 2 2 2
Since f (2t) = 2f (t), this is equal to

(x + 1)[f (x) + f (1)] (x − 1)[f (x) − f (1)] xf (1) + f (x)

− =
4 4 2
It follows that f must be of the form f (x) = kx.

Problem 6
Solve f (t2 + u) = tf (t) + f (u) on R.
Solution : Let the given assertion be P (t, u)
P (1, 0)f (1) = f (1) + f (0) ⇔ f (0) = 0
P (t, 0)f (t2 ) = tf (t) + f (0) = tf (t)1
Substituting x = t2 and (1) in P (t, u)
P (t, u)f (t2 + u) = tf (t) + f (u) = f (t2 ) + f (u)
f (x + u) = f (x) + f (u)2
But this holds for all x ≥ 0, so
P (−t, 0)f (t2 ) = −tf (−t)
Now combining that with (1) we get
f (−t) = −f (t)
Or that f is odd. So, substituting x with −x in (2)
f (u − x) = f (u) + f (−x) = f (u) − f (x)∀x ≥ 0
or in other words
f (u + x) = f (u) + f (x)∀x ≤ 0
The fact that x works (2) implies that −x also works in (2) or the fact that f is odd extends (2) to
work for all x, u ∈ R.
Now, we’re going to use (2) many times by making partitioning sums inside functions (I mean
f (a1 + a2 + . . . + an ) = f (a1 ) + f (a2 ) + . . . + f (an ) for any positive integer n and variables ai )
P (t + 1, 0)f (t2 + 2t + 1) = (t + 1)f (t + 1)
⇔ f (t2 ) + f (2t) + f (1) = (t + 1)(f (t) + f (1))
and by (1) and distributing the right-hand side,
⇔ tf (t) + f (2t) + f (1) = tf (t) + tf (1) + f (t) + f (1)
⇔ f (2t) = tf (1) + f (t)
and since f (2t) = f (t + t) = f (t) + f (t) = 2f (t)
f (2t) = tf (1) + f (t) ⇔ 2f (t) = tf (1) + f (t)
⇔ f (t) = tf (1)
Putting f (1) = k and substituting it in the original equation, we get that it applies for any k, t, u ∈ R,
hence the conclusion.