Useful Tables Drawing Draw Geom

Geometrical Tolerances
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Geometrical Tolerancing
Reference Standards
BS ISO 1101:1983 Technical Drawings - Geometrical tolerancing - Tolerancing of form, orientation,
location and run-out - Generalities, definitions, symbols, indications on drawings
BS ISO 5459:1981 Technical Drawings - Geometrical tolerancing - Datums and datum-systems for
geometrical tolerances
Introduction
The notes below relate to use of geometric tolerances on drawing. The notes are outline in nature to
provide general guidance. This subject is complex and it is wise to consult the standards and have a
clear understanding of what is required when including geometric tolerances on technical
drawings. There are clear differences between ANSI Y14.5 and the above noted ISO standard. The
notes below do not address this difference or refer to the ANSI standard in any way.
Geometric Tolerances
Geometric tolerances specify the maximum variation that is allowed in form or position from true
geometry. The geometric tolerance is, in essence, the width or diameter of tolerance zone within which a
surface or axis of hole or cylinder can lie which results in resulting feature being acceptable for proper
function and interchangeability.
If a tolerance of form is not specified on a drawing for a feature, then the feature as made will be acceptable regardless of form variation. The
tolerances of form control straightness, flatness, parallelism, angular displacement etc. etc.
The tolerance zone will be one of the following:
● The area within a circle

● The area between two circles
● The area between two equidistant lines or between two parallel straight lines
● The space within a cylinder
● The space between two coaxial cylinders
● The space between two equidistant surfaces or two parallel planes
● The space within a bent pipe
Tolerance Frame with Symbol identifications
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Indication of datum
Supplimentary Symbols

Tolerance Frame Variations
The tolerance frame can be divided into two or more compartments.

These compartments include from left to right
● The symbol for the feature to be toleranced

● The tolerance value..If the tolerance zone is circular or cylinderical it is preceded with a
● Letters for datums when the toleranced feature is specified in relation to one, or more datums.
When multiple datums are referenced in the tolerance box they are indicated as below:
Maximum Material Indication in Tolerance Frame
The maximum material condition, when used, is indicated by a symbol placed after the tolerance value, after the datum letter, or both.
See the figures below:

Additional Frames- Notes
If a single frame cannot convey sufficient information it is acceptable to stack additional frames and/or provide additional notes..
Positioning of Frames /Datum triangles
The datum triangle is placed on a feature or on an extension of the outline ( but clearly separated from the
dimension line) when the datum feature is the line or surface itself
The datum triangle is place on the extension of a dimension arrow when the datum feature is the axis or
medium line.
When two datums are indicated they relate to the common axis of the two features
The datum triangle can replace a dimension arrow if there is not enough room.

The datum can be located on the axes or median line when
● The axis or median line is clearly for a single feature

● The axis or median line is clearly formed by two features
Geometric Tolerancing Examples
1. Maximum Material Condition

2. Form Control
3. Flatness
4. Roundness
5. Straightness
6. Squareness/ Perpendicity
7. Form
8. Angularity
9. Position
10. Concentricity/Coaxility
11. Cylindricity
12. Parallelism
13. Runout
14. Total Runout

Links Providing
information on
Geometrical
Tolerancing
1. Volvo Drawing
Standards......
Document on
European-
Standard-based
drawing
procedures
2. Volvo
Geometrical
Tolerancing...
Document on
European-
Standard-based
geometrical
tolerancing
3. Baseline
Uncertainty in
Geometric
Tolerance
Inspection......
Interesting
downloadable
paper
4. Drawing
Standards...
Downloadable
Notes from
Dartmouth U.
(USA Not ISO)
5. Geometric
Dimensioning
and
Tolerancing...A
very detailed
and useful
downloadable
paper
This Page is being developed
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Last Updated 24/08/2005

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Drawing Standards
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Design Standards
BS 8888:2004 Technical Product Documentation (TPD)

Specification for defining, specifying and graphically representing products
This British Standard supersedes BS308-1:1993, BS308-2:1985 and BS308-3:1990, which are all
withdrawn. Drawing conventions which applied to BS 308-1'2'3 in general also apply to the
European Standards referenced in BS 8888.
This standard is provided to unify all of the recently implemented ISO and EN ISO standards related
to Technical Product Documentation (it references them). Most designers and engineers should
have no difficulty in working to the new standards. BS 8888 references standards covering all
aspects of technical product documentation including:
● Engineering Flow Diagrams,

● Representation of Engineering components,
● Lettering,
● Units/ quantities,
● Tolerancing,
● Geometric Product Specifications,
● Orthographic/Axometric representation,
● Handling of Computer based information
● Metrology etc. etc.
An important difference between BS 308 and BS 8888 is in the marking of the decimal place. In
BS308 the decimal place is indicated with a decimal point. In BS 8888 the decimal place is
indicated with a comma with each group of three digits from the decimal provided with a space e.g.
14 234,012 8 .
For manual drawings this is not really a problem. For Autocad drawings on a Windows based PC it
is most convenient set the decimal point to display as a comma on the regional settings on the
control panel (This option is available if you set the Country to German or France). .
BS 8888 KITS
It is important that anyone working to BS 8888 has convenient access to the referenced European
standards. All of the standards referenced in BS 8888 are grouped into four "Kits". These kits, with
linked lists, are provided below.
The kits can be procured from British Standards Publishing, see link below, or they are available for
reference in the UK at Central Libraries. British Standards also sell a CD which includes all of BS
8888 and all of the associated standards..
Note:In the 2004 edition of the BS 8888 CD a number of addition standards has been included.
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Drawing Standards
These are listed in the linked page "2004 Added Standards "
● Kit 1 :General principles kit.

● Kit 2 :Tolerancing and dimensioning kit
● Kit 3 :Computer aided engineering kit
● Kit 4 :Design Management
● 2004 Added Standards
British Standards - ISO Drawing Aids
Drawing Sheet Sizes Title Block Notes Drawing Guide

Limits and Fits-Holes & Shafts Dimensioning Geometric Tolerances
Weld Representation Drawing Components Tolerances and Limits
Surface Texture Notes Lettering
Simplified Fastening Assy's Abbreviations and Symbols Flowsheet symbols
Notes On Mechanical Electrical/ Control Diagram
Notes on Process Drawings
Drawings Types
Diagram Ref. Standards Electrical Control Symbols Electrical Power Symbols
Mechanical Flopwsheet
Hydraulic/Pneumatic Symbols Useful Layout Dimensions
symbols
Checking Mechanical
Item References/Item List
Drawings
Links Providing information on Drawing
1. SkillCad..UK Skills is an organisation which champions skills and learning for work through competitions, awards and events
2. Draughstman.co.uk...A UK site specially devoted to drawing to UK codes
3. BSI...British Standards Website
4. Volvo Drawing Standards......Document on European-Standard-based drawing procedures
5. Volvo Weld Symbols/Procedures.....Document on European-Standard-based Weld Symbols
6. Volvo Geometrical Tolerancing...Document on European-Standard-based geometrical tolerancing
7. The Design Process...A review of the design process including drawing examples.( Not BS 8888 )
8. Drawing Tools...Notes on Drawing using CoralDraw
9. Cadalot...Lots of Advice and Lessons from a Drawing expert
10. PMPA...Precision Machined Products Association designer's guide- (American)
11. Graphic Symbols For Diagrams...Very Useful article on the problem of diverse symbols in different countries/industries)
12. Metrication.com..Information on metric drawing and other metric subjects
13. CAD drawing 2..Middle East Dep of Tchnology - Useful drawing guide with some drawing examples. (Mixture of ISO an ANSI
14. Kelsey Park School-symbols ..A UK school website with electrical symbols
Home

Drawing Standards
Last Updated 18/10/2006 Search

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Geometrical Tolerances Examples 3
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an

independent person. Use this information at your own risk.
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Geometrical Tolerances Page
Geometrical Tolerancing Examples
Examples of Form Control
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Examples of Maximum Material Condition


Examples of Profile Tolerancing

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Geometrical Tolerances Examples

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Flatness
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Roundness

Straightness


Form

Angularity

Squareness

Symmetry


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Use this information at your own risk.
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Examples of parallelism

Examples of position


Examples of Concentricity


Examples of Cylindricity

Examples of Runout

Note: Runout is a composite tolerance including the effects of Cylindricity, and Concentricity.
Example of Total Runout
Note: Total runout is a composite tolerance including the effects of cylindricity, and concentricity, co-
axiality, straightness and parallism along the axis.
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This is my mechanical engineers reference site. Please feel free to visit. The site includes various tables and notes
which are (I hope) useful to engineers. The site also includes links to a wide variety of other web sites associated with
mechanical engineering. I have created this site to provide easy access to relevant useful information on the World
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In my opinion any UK company involved in engineering should have direct access to the current BS's using BS online.
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very reliable sources of information
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It is probably clear to anyone using this site that I am a bit of an amateur. I have
worked in engineering for approaching 45 years I have to accept that we engineers
(mostly me) make lots of mistakes. Mechanical engineering is a very complicated
activity. Over the period of time that I have been developing the website I have
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improving some aspect of the website. Please contact me if you spot any mistakes,
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Webmaster: Roy Beardmore - Roy@roymech.co.uk
First issue 02/09/2000 last update 19/08/2006
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General Reference Sites
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General Reference Links
Encyclopedias
Ref Desk;... A number of links to different Encyclopedias
1 Thefreedictionary.com... A very good dictionary /encyclopedia..
Bartleby.com... Proverbs, Quotations,Roget’s Thesaurus,English usage etc. A
very useful reference source ..
Internet Public Library;...As the name indicates the site provides numerous links
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to information sources
Masterlines;...Canadian based site - with a World Gateway to encyclopedic
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information
4 National Lottery...UK Lotto Results
5 UK Weather ... Met Office Weather Site
6 RAC UK Travel ...RAC Road Traffic Report
Dictionaries
7 Cambridge online Dictionary... Cambridge Dictionary (English)
Dictionary.Com... English and Foreign Language Dictionaries (American ?)
How stuff Works...Explains in plain language how things work , very good
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pictures
Telephone Directories;
192.com... Addresses/ map/Number/electoral register
9 UK Yellow Pages... For Business Numbers
Allpages ..US Yellow Pages... For Business Numbers
British Telecom... ->Directory Enquiries..Better than Directory Enquiries
Maps/ Area Information
National Geographic...Very Good general View Atlas
Local Live... Worldwide street maps, Clever scrolling system, Routefinder etc.
10 (Microsofts )
MultiMap... Maps and Directions (with times ).
Google Map... Excellent UK map + directions (without timing) + arial views.
Upmystreet... Detailed statistics about local areas.
Search Engines;
11 Yahoo.Com... Very comprehensive
google... Fast and efficient
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General Reference Sites
British Rail Timetables... British Rails Timetables ;

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13 UK Flights... UK Airport Information , Links to Flight Information;
Acronym Search...A large database of acronyms
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15 BabelFish...An Online Translation Service
CompletePlanet.com;...over 70,000+ searchable databases and specialty
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search engines
17 The world Factbook ... Information on all of the countries in the world
18 About.com ...About The Human Internet Lots of Useful Links and Reference Info
xrefer...Web info search engine:Free access to over 50 reference titles
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containing more than 500,000 entries
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● Freestudy.co.uk .... A site for use of engineers preparing for UK Engineering Examinations (Excellent)
Useful Related Links
1. Platonic Realms ...Very Extensive Mathematics Information /formulae

2. Efunda ....A number of formulae on Engineering topics are found at
3. MJVanvooris...Beam Formulas..
4. alfred.edu...Mechanics Formulae..
5. Mechanics Course Notes ..Engineering Mechanics Tutorial
6. Mecanicasoft ..Site including various Calculators and useful links..
7. Math.Org* ..Site Based on Mathemetic formulae /equations..
8. Xs4all..A 1M pdf file with lots of physics formulae- Advanced stuff
9. Gowelding..A Real Find..this site has lots of Information on calculating the strength of Welds
10. Plymouth University ..Various Design Notes and Links
11. University Of Winsconsin ... Strength of Materials
12. Scienceworld.wolfram .... Welcome to the best resource of Science and math on the Internet- Probably true
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Mechanics Index Page...
Mechanics... is the study of the way matter and forces interact with each other. There are a number of disciplines that relate to
mechanics e.g Biomechanics, Classical Mechanics, Continuum Mechanics, Mechatronics, Quantum Mechanics, Relativistic
Mechanics etc.
The notes in this section relate to Classical and Continuum mechanics and the following areas..
● Classical-Statics... is a field within mechanics which concerns itself with forces when no change in momentum occurs.
● Classical-Kinematics... is a study of motion without regard to the forces present.
● Classical-Dynamics... is a field concerned with forces and matter when a change in momentum does occur.
● Continuum-Solid Mechanics... governs the response of solid material to applied stress
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Note ..More detailed information is to be found at the links below;
Engineering Directives & Regulations
To permit the free circulation of goods, as expressed in the Rome Treaty, the founding act of the European Union, the European Commission
publishes directives that are common to all the Member States that define the essential requirements to be satisfied by such goods before they are
put on the market, or during the probable period of their use.. Notes on some of the directives are provided below
The CE Mark
Products meeting the requirements of all appropriate directives must carry the CE mark.
Under whichever route a manufacturer has chosen to follow, he/she is required to complete a Declaration of Conformity and place the CE marking on
the equipment.
The Marking should be affixed to one of the following:
● the equipment itself; or

● the packaging of the equipment; or
● the instructions for use; or
● the guarantee certificate.
By affixing the CE marking to the equipment a manufacturer is making a statement that his/her equipment meets the requirement of all relevant
directives. It is for the manufacturer to decide which directives are applicable.
Machinery Directive (98/37/EC)
The Machinery Directive came into full force in the U.K. from the 1st January 1995.
All machinery manufactured for use in the European community must be manufactured and supplied in
conformity with the Machinery Directive...
For the purpose of the directive, 'machinery' means an assembly of linked parts or components, at least
one of which moves, with the appropriate actuators, control and power circuits, etc., joined together for a
specific application, in particular for the processing, treatment, moving or packaging of material.
For most items of machinery, the manufacturer (or their authorised representative) can self-certify, that is
they design their products to meet the requirements of the Directive and sign a Declaration of Conformity.
This declaration of conformity needs to be backed up with the Technical File. The Technical File has to
be retained for a period of 10 years after the manufacture of the machine (or the last machine of a
production run).
Equipment manufactured for the manufacturer's own use is not excluded from the requirements, but may
be subject to slightly lesser obligations with respect to marking and documentation.
Pressure Equipment Directive
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Pressure equipment and assemblies subject to an internal pressure greater than 0.5 bar. The Regulations therefore concern manufacturers of items
such as shell and water tube boilers, heat exchangers, vessels, pressurised storage containers, industrial pipework and accessories.
The PED has been enacted in UK law.
The Low Voltage Directive (LVD)
The LVD (73/23/EEC) regulates the safety of electrical equipment (including the non-electrical aspects of safety). It came into force in September
1974, but was amended by Directive 93/68/EC to make it consistent with the other CE Marking Directives in the European Union. As a result of this,
CE marking for the safety of electrical equipment became mandatory on 1 January 1997. The amendment also introduced new documentation
requirements.
The LVD applies to any electrical apparatus or device which is designed or adapted for use between 50 and 1000VAC or between 75 and 1500VDC.
Exemptions include equipment covered by other Directives such as:
● Electrical equipment for use in a potentially explosive atmosphere.

● Electrical equipment for radiology and medical purposes.
● Electrical parts for goods and passenger lifts.
● Electricity meters.
● Plugs and socket outlets for domestic use.
● Electric fence controllers.
ElectroMagnetic Compatibility(EMC)
Since 1 January 1996, most electrical and electronic products sold in the EU must be constructed so that they do not cause excessive
electromagnetic interference and are not duly affected by electromagnetic interference... They must carry the CE mark to show that they comply with
these requirements and a manufacturer's declaration of conformity must be prepared for each product, and be made available to the authorities on
request for up to 10 years after the last product of that type has been manufactured.
Phenomena regarded as electromagnetic disturbances
Conducted low-frequency phenomena

● slow variations of supply voltages
● harmonics, interharmonics
● signalling voltages
● voltage fluctuations
● voltage unbalance
● power-frequency variations
● induced low-frequency voltages
● DC in AC networks
● DC ground circuits
Radiated low-frequency phenomena

● magnetic fields (continuous or transient)
● electric fields
Conducted high-frequency phenomena
● induced continuous wave (CW) voltage or currents

● unidirectional transients
Radiated high-frequency phenomena
● magnetic fields
● electric fields
● electromagnetic fields
● continuous waves
● transients

Electrostatic discharge (ESD) phenomena
ATEX 100A (95) and ATEX 137
( Named after the French "ATmosphere EXplosible" ).

From July 1, 2003 the two European directives became fully active: - Directive 1999/92/EC (ATEX 137); - Directive 94/9/EC (ATEX 95). These
directives effect company's with an explosion hazard (gas, vapour, mist or dust explosion) and manufacturers of equipment intended to be used in
explosive atmospheres.
Directive 1999/92/EC (ATEX 137)

This directive gives the minimum requirements for improving the safety and health protection of workers potentially at risk from explosive
atmospheres. The employer shall take technical and/or organisational measures appropriate to the nature of the operation and in accordance with
the following basic principles, in this order of priority:
● The prevention of the formation of explosive atmospheres, or where the nature of the activity does not allow that;
● The avoidance of the ignition of explosive atmospheres, and;
● The mitigation of the detrimental effects of an explosion so as to ensure the health and safety of workers.
To do so, the employer will have to assess the specific risks arising from potential explosive atmospheres. Hazardous areas should be classified in
terms of zones on the basis of the frequency and duration of the occurrence of an explosive atmosphere. For gases and vapours these zones will be
0, 1 and 2. For dusts these zones will be 20, 21 and 22. To meet the requirements of the directive 1999/92/EC it's necessary to conduct a risk
assessment.
ATEX Directive 94/9/EC (ATEX 95)

The directive 94/9/EC gives the requirements of equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres. Its
objective is to eliminate or at least minimize the risk resulting from the use of these products. The level of protection depends on the fore mentioned
area classification. Manufacturers are under the obligation to design equipment and protective systems from a point of view of integrated explosion
safety. This means preventing the formation of explosive atmospheres as well as sources of ignition and, should an explosion nevertheless occur, to
halt it immediately and/or limit its effects. To meet the requirements of the directive 94/9/EC it's necessary to conduct a risk assessment and comply
with relevant harmonized standards. Phases of this risk assessment are: determination of the intended use (equipment characteristics, product
properties, process)
● hazard identification (explosive atmospheres, ignition sources)

● risk estimation (severity of the possible harm and the probability of occurrence)
● risk evaluation (intolerable or acceptable)
● risk reduction option analyses (change of design, use of protective systems, user information)
Regulations
Regulations are law, approved by Parliament. These are usually made under the Health and Safety at Work Act, following proposals from HSC. This
applies to regulations based on EC Directives as well as 'home-grown' ones.
PUWER..The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (S.I. No 2932)
The primary objective of PUWER is to ensure the provision of safe work equipment and its safe use. This has several components which are inter-
linked and complementary. Work equipment should not give rise to risks to health and safety, irrespective of its age place or origin. The above
regulations, (PUWER 98), came into force on December 5th 1998 and affect all work equipment. They update the previous 1992 regulations and this
time have an accompanying set of regulations in the form of the LOLER statutes. The main requirement of PUWER is to plan the intended use of all
work equipment. This will take the form of a basic risk assessment identifying what the equipment is to be used for, who will use it, how it will be
used and the hazards that may arise from it's use both to the operator and others.
LOLER... The Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998
"LOLER" are a new set of regulations which came into effect on the 5th of December 1998 and replace all previous regulations on lifting equipment
many of which contained differing requirements and definitions and were specific to certain industries. These have now been brought together under
one document applicable to all. The regulations apply to :-

● "Work equipment for lifting or lowering loads (a load includes a person)" . Work equipment means machinery, appliances, apparatus and
tools or installations for use at work.
● Great Britain and it's territorial waters and offshore facilities where the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 applies.
● Those in control of work equipment such as employers, self employed and employers where employees use their own tools. Also where an
employer has some control over equipment e.g. a hired in crane with driver.
CDM...Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994:
The CDM Regulations are aimed at improving the overall management and co-ordination of health, safety and welfare throughout all stages of a
construction project to reduce the large numbers of serious and fatal accidents and cases of ill health which occur every year in the construction
industry.
The CDM Regulations place duties on all those who can contribute to the health and safety of a construction project. Duties are placed upon clients,
designers and contractors and the Regulations create a new duty holder - the planning supervisor. They also introduce new documents - health and
safety plans and the health and safety file.
The degree of detail as well as the time and effort required to comply with your legal duties need only be in proportion to the nature, size and level of
health and safety risks involved in the project. Therefore for small projects with minimal health and safety risks, you will only be required to take
simple, straightforward steps and few, if any, specialist skills will be needed.
The Noise at Work Regulations 1989
The Noise at Work Regulations came into force in 1990 and they aim to protect workers from the risk of hearing damage due to excessive noise.
The Noise at Work Regulations, 1989 define the responsibilities of employers and employees in noisy or potentially noisy workplaces. They also
specify the duties of manufacturers, suppliers, designers or importers of machinery likely to give rise to a noisy workplace, although these duties
have been more comprehensively defined by the European Machinery Directive and its consequent legislation. The Noise at Work Regulations
extend the general duty of care to safeguard employees' health (including their hearing) arising from the Health and Safety at Work Act, 1974. The
Regulations cover not only the obviously noisy industrial environments, but virtually all workplaces with few exceptions.
The Regulations are based on the "daily personal noise exposure", LEP,d (technically equivalent to LEX,8h in International Standards), of each
worker or category of worker. The daily personal noise exposure is a measure of the total amount of noise received during a working day taking into
account the noise levels and the amount of time the person spends in each noise level. Noise levels should be measured in the undisturbed sound
field, that is without the local effects of the worker's head and body.
COSHH..Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations ..1999
Using hazardous substances can put people's health at risk. COSHH requires employers to control exposures to hazardous substances to protect
both employees and others who may be exposed from work activities.
Hazardous Substances
Hazardous substances are anything that can harm your health when you work with them if they are not properly controlled eg by using adequate
ventilation. They are found in nearly all work places eg factories, shops, mines, farms and offices.
They can include
● substances used directly in work activities eg glues, paints, cleaning agents

● substances generated during work activities eg fumes from soldering and welding
● naturally occurring substances
eg grain dust, blood, bacteria
For the vast majority of commercial chemicals, the presence (or not) of a warning label will indicate whether COSHH is relevant. For example,
household washing up liquid doesn't have a warning label but bleach does - so COSHH applies to bleach but not washing up liquid when used at
work.

Links Providing information on European Directives and Regulations
1. Europa EU ..Machinery Directive Download Page ...

2. Conformance- Machinery Directive ... A site Providing information of the Machinery Directive.
3. HSE Home Site ...The Official Home site of the Health and Safety Executive
4. dti Publications ...Relevant Downloadable Publications- Very Very useful Info
5. New Approach ...New approach standardisation in the European Internal Market
6. HSE.Gov.UK ...Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994: The role of the designer
7. ISVR Consultancy Services ...An introduction to the Noise a Work Regualtions
8. EnviroMeasure Page ...The Noise At work Regulations 1989
9. Health Directive COSSH Regulations...An Essential Guide to COSHH
10. Safety Net...ATEX Regulations and related regulations
11. CDMRegulationst...A site devoted to CDM Regulations
Home
Send Comments to RoyBeardmore@ic24.net

Ergometrics Anthropometics Index Page )
ROYMECH
Home
Man Machine Interfaces (Ergonomics Index Page...)
Ergonomics is the study of human abilities and characteristics which affect the design of equipment, systems, and jobs. The terms ergonomics and
human factors can be used interchangeably. The name Ergonomics was derived from the Greek words: Ergon/ergos - work; Nomikos/nomos -
natural laws - control and orderly assignment.
Notes..Relating to the information in the pages below..
Information Pages
Strength Controls Work Energy Access Space Anthropometric
Links to Ergonomics Sites
1. The Ergonomics Society ..Forum for ergonomists and human factors specialists
2. Ergonomic Notes ...A site providing notes on ergometric design...
3. ErgoWeb ...The popular ergonomics reference site....
4. Bad Designs ..Many interesting examples of bad ergonomic designs.
5. Usernomic ..Site devoted to Human Factors - Includes a vast no of relevant Links
6. System concepts Ergonomics ..UK DTI site providing a number of downloads including useful dimension and strength data
7. Strength Data for design safety - Phase 1 ...UK DTI download of strength data
8. Strength Data for design safety - Phase 2 ..UK DTI download of strength data
9. Building Regulations ...ODPM - Downloadable regulations providing useful UK building access requirements
10. 14 Anthropometry and biomechanics...(FAA William J. Hughes via U of Michigan ). Lots of strength and size data
11. Ergonomic Design & Usability Engineering...English Download of AAchen U Document.. An excellent document with lots of relevant
design info
12. Human Engineering Guides...Department of Defense Design Guides
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Human/Human_index.html10/24/2006 11:11:26 AM
Reliability /Risk /Safety Index page

ROYMECH
Home
Reliability /Risk /Safety Index page
Safety Failure
ARM** Risk HAZOPs Failure Rates
Factors Distributions
** Availability Reliability Maintainability...
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/ARM/Reliability_Safety_index.html10/24/2006 11:11:28 AM
Quality
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Home
Quality
Quality Standards
In 1987 the International Organization for Standardization, or ISO, established a series of international quality standards called the ISO 9000 Series of
Standards. These standards were developed form the British Standards BS 5750 Parts 1-3. The series is not specific to any one industry, but when used
with proper industry-specific standards, helps build a strong foundation for a quality system. The idea behind ISO is to promote standardization which will
facilitate the international exchange of goods and services. The BS EN versions of these standards are as issued by the BSI.
In 2000 BS EN IS0 9001:2000 replaced and superseded BS EN ISO 9001,BS EN ISO 9002 and BS EN ISO 9003
For Reference a list of the relevant standards is provided below;
1. ISO 8402 Quality management and quality assurance - Vocabulary

2. BS EN ISO 9000:2000 Quality management systems. Fundamentals and vocabulary
3. BS EN ISO 9000-1:1994 Quality management and quality assurance standards - Part 1: Guidelines for section and use
4. BS EN ISO 9000-2:1997 Quality management and quality assurance standards - Part 2: Generic guidelines for the application of ISO 9001
5. BS EN ISO 9000-3:1997 Quality management and quality assurance standards - Part 3: Guidelines for the application of ISO 9001 to the
development, supply and maintenance of software
6. BS EN ISO 9001:2000 Quality management systems. Requirements
7. BS EN ISO 9004-1:1994 Quality management and quality assurance standards. Guidelines
8. BS EN ISO 9004:2000 Quality management systems- Guidelines for performance improvements
9. BS EN ISO 9004-2:1991 Quality management and quality system elements - Part 2: Guidelines for services
10. BS ENISO 9004-4 :1993 Quality management and quality system elements - Part 4: Guidelines for quality improvement
ISO 9000 provides the user with guidelines for selection and use of ISO 9001
ISO 9004 provides guidelines for internal use by a producer developing its own quality system to meet business needs and take advantage of opportunities.
Page Under Construction
5. Cyberman Quality and Design Page... Quality Online is a Site devote to quality management and measurement
Links Providing information on Design Standards and Quality Systems
1. Praxiom ISO 9001:2000 translated into plain english

2. Approval Internet The Engineering Guide to Quality, Standards and Regulations
3. Quality Network A Site providing Information on Quality /Engineering Management
4. Quality Online... Quality Online is a Site devote to quality management and measurement
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Quality.html10/24/2006 11:11:30 AM
Environmental Standards
ROYMECH
Home
BS EN ISO 14001:1996 Environmental Management Systems - Specification with guidance for use
BS EN ISO 14004:1996 Environmental Management Systems - General guidelines on principles, systems and supporting techniques
Many organisations are concerned to achieve and demonstrate sound environmental performance by controlling the impact of their
activities, products or services on the environment. BS EN ISO 14001 is the British issue of the international standard ISO 14001. This
standard contains those environmental requirements of an organization that may be audited for certification/registration purposes and/or self
declaration purposes. This standard shares common management principles with the ISO 9000 series of Standards. .
Those organsizations requiring more general guidance on a broad range of environmental system issues should refer to ISO 14004:1996
Links Providing information on Environmental Issues
1. Frey Environmental Consultants... Useful Notes and Links

2. NCER Guides ISO 14001... Downloadable ISO 14001 Guidance Manual
3. ISO Work Group White Paper... Very Interesting Discussion Paper
4. Greenpeace... Real protectors of the environment
5. International Institute for Energy Conservation... Partners for Sustainable Energy and Environmental Solutions
6. Environment Dictionary Page... A dictionary related to environmental matters
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Environment.html10/24/2006 11:11:33 AM
Properties of Matter
ROYMECH
Home
Properties of Matter
Solids Liquids Gases Metals Basic Mat'l Science
Useful Notes
Shear/ Hardness Material
Heat Treatment Mechanical Properties
Tensile stress Notes costs
Iron / Steel
BS970-Steels BS EN Steel Notes BS En Steel Data Iron-Steel Forms
Non Ferrous Metals

Copper Alloys Aluminium Alloys Titanium Nickel Alloys
Plastic, Rubber, Wood, Ceramics, Glass and Concrete
Rubber/Plastics Wood Ceramics Glass Concrete
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Matter_index.html10/24/2006 11:11:35 AM
Fatigue Index page
ROYMECH
Home
Fatigue Index page
Often machine members subjected to repeated stressing are found to have failed even when the actual maximum stresses were below the ultimate
strength of the material, and quite frequently at stress values even below the yield strength. The most distinguishing characteristics is that the
failure had occurred only after the stresses have been repeated a very large number of times. Hence the failure is called fatigue failure
Stress Concentration
Fatigue Notes Fatigue Loading Modifying Factors
Factors
Reducing Stress High Cycles Fatigue
Fatigue Life Impact/Sudden Loading
Concentrations strength
Useful Links..
1. Metal Fatigue examples... Open University Notes and pictures

2. Fatigue Lecture... Un of Tesnesse at Martin ..Informative lecture
3. Comparison of fatigue provisions in codes and standards... HSE down load related to offshore industry
4. EPI Fatigue ... General Informative Notes
5. Fundamentals of Metal Fatigue ... Powerpoint lecture Lecture notes
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Fatigue/Fatigue_index.html10/24/2006 11:11:39 AM
Manufacturing Index
ROYMECH
Home
Engineering Manufacturing Process
Casting /Forging etc. Machining Welding

Joining Painting/Galvanising etc Surface Engineering etc
Useful Links to Sites providing manufacturing Information
1. Manufacturing Advisory Service 2.0 ...A Process/Material Selection Tool ..Well worth a visit.. Takes time to download
2. EngineersEdge -> Manufacturing information on Forging, Extrusion, EDM, Injection moulding etc.etc.
3. Manufacturing Engineer On a Disk ..A comprehensive document covering most Manufacturing processes
4. Efunda ..->Processes Provide and excellent reference source for all aspects of manufacturing
5. Manufacturing Education Page ..->Michigan Technological University - general machining information
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Manufacturing/Manufacturing_Index.html10/24/2006 11:11:41 AM
Corrosion Index Page
ROYMECH
Home
Corrosion Index Page...
Corrosion Bi-Metallic Stress Surface

Piping Systems Materials
Process Corrosion Corrosion Coatings
Links to Corrosion
1. Corrosion Doctors ...An excellent reference site for the very important topic of corrosion
2. National Physical Laboratory ... On line guides ..Excellent
3. Henderson Group ...Material Consultants - Some useful notes
4. Tubesales Australia ...Good Concise notes and a corrosion table
5. Corrosionsource .....Relevant online magazine
Home
Please Send Comments to mailto:Roy@roymech.co.uk
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Corrosion/Corrosion_index.html10/24/2006 11:11:44 AM
Tribology Index Page

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Home
Tribology Index Page...
Tribology...the study of the interaction of sliding surfaces. It includes three subjects: Lubrication, friction, and wear;
Gas Liquid Solid Wear Friction

Viscosity
Lubrication Lubrication Lubricaton Reduction Coefficients
Links to
Tribology
1. Automotive and
Industrial
Lubricants ...A
Website
devoted to
Lubricants
2. Tibology Links
A providing
numerous links
3. Tribology ABC...
Alphabetically
arranges notes
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Tribology/Tribology_index.html10/24/2006 11:11:46 AM
Vibration / Noise Index page
ROYMECH
Home
Information on Vibrations / Noise
Forced
Notes on Noise / SDOF free SDOF forced Natural Freq's
vib'n response
Vibrations vibration vibration beams/shafts
charts
Links to Vibration/Noise Reduction
1. Vibrotec ...Articles on Vibration Analysis

2. Maintenance Resources ...Using Vibration Analysis for maintenance
3. Vibration Isolation - transmissibility ...A system response curve generated in real time very useful
4. Enviro Measure... A site dedicated to Acoustics
5. A.E.R speciality Composites ...site includes useful papers on vibration
6. EAR_Online ...E A R Speciality Composites- Including Useful Article
7. Taylor Devices ... Taylor Devices Free Techical Papers Literature on Vibration, Shock, Damping, Isolation..
8. Euro Bearings ...Product information on Vibrations Dampers.
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Vibrations/Vibrations_Index.html10/24/2006 11:11:49 AM
Documentation
Disclaimer:
The
information
on this
page has
not been
checked by
an
independent
person.
Use this
information
at your own
risk.
ROYMECH
Home Page
Design Documentation
General Notes
Various Documents are completed as part of the mechanical design process This page provides notes and links to aid the production of these documents
Various documents are involved in the mechanical engineering process including
1. Calculations
2. Specifications
3. Data Sheets
4. Technical Drawings
5. Sales Literature
6. Manuals
7. Standards/codes/Regulations.
The documents covered on this page are the first three items identified above. The other items are covered in other areas of the site.
Links related to Design Documentation
1. Cambridge online Dictionary;... Cambridge Dictionary (English)

2. Dictionary.Com;.. English and Foreign Language Dictionaries (American ?)
3. Report Writing ...NAS Guidance Notes on Report Writing
4. Equipment data Sheets ..Some examples of equipment data sheets
5. Report examples..Some example reports
6. Technical Description..Notes on writing a technical descripton
7. Other types of reports.. Notes on various types of reports
8. Specification Writing Hints.. Hints from the Army of writing technical Specifictions
9. TS_Nist Guidelines.. Information including the requirements of the technical file (Machinery Directive)
10. Writing Technical Reports in the Present Tense.. Useful advice on the tense of technical reports
11. Hints on Technical Report Writing.. Pointers to writing professional, structured technical reports
12. Underlying principles in writing for engineers .. Helpful Notes in writing reports
Page Under Construction-

to be developed to include information on
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Design_Documents.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:11:51 AM

Documentation
all types of mechanical engineering documents
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Design_Documents.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:11:51 AM

Index of ISO Hole and Shaft tolerances/limits pages

ROYMECH
Home
Relevant Standards
BS EN 20286-1:1993(ISO 286-1:1988 )...... ISO system of limits and fits. ISO system of limits and fits. Bases of tolerances,
deviations and fits
BS EN 20286-2 : 1993(ISO 286-2:1988 ).... ISO system of limits and fits. ISO system of limits and fits. Tables of standard tolerance
grades and limit deviations for holes and shafts
Notes
The tolerance of size is normally defined as the difference between the upper and lower dimensions.
The need for tolerances to be identified on drawings is vital to allow assembly of parts in the desired way and interchangeability of
parts as require in modern manufacturing methods.
ISO 286 implements 20 grades of accuracy to satisfy the requirements of different industries.
● IT01, IT0, IT1, IT2, IT3, IT4, IT5, IT6.. Production of gauges and instruments.
● IT 5, IT6, IT7, IT8, I9, IT10, IT11, IT12...Precision and general Industry.
● IT11, IT14, IT15, IT16..Semi finished products
● IT16, IT17, IT18 ..Structural Engineering
Hole and Shaft tolerance tables- Using Fundamental Deviations and Tolerance Band T
ISO Tolerance Band ISO Shaft Nearest ISO HOLE Nearest
T limit to Zero limit to Zero
Examples in using above tables..
Hole Dia 110mm H11,...

Nearest zero = 110mm + 0mm = 110,000mm ...
Furthest from zero = 110mm + (0+ T=0,220)=110,220mm
Reulting limits 110,000/110,220
Shaft 110mm e9...

Nearest zero = 110mm - 0,072=109,928mm...
Furthest from zero = 110mm - (0,072 + T=0,087) = 109,841mm
Resulting limits 109,928/109,841
Hole and Shaft Tolerances to ISO 286-2

ISO Hole Limits ISO Shaft Tolerance
Example limits and fits using hole basis
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/ISO_Tolerances/ISO_LIMITS.htm (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:11:58 AM

Description Hole Shaft

Loose Running H11 c11
Free Running H9 d9
Loose Running H11 c11
Easy Running - Good
H8 f8
quality easy to do-
Sliding H7 g6
Close Clearance -
H8 f7
Spigots and locations
Location/Clearance H7 h6
Location- slight
H7 k6
interference
Location/Transition H7 n6
Location/Interference-
Press fit which can be H7 p6
separated
Medium Drive H7 s6
Force H7 u6
Machining Process associated with ISO IT Tolerance Grade..
IT Grade 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Lapping
Honing
Superfinishing
Cylinderical grinding
Diamond turning
Plan grinding
Broaching
Reaming
Boring, Turning
Sawing
Milling

Planing, Shaping
Extruding
Cold Rolling, Drawing
Drilling
Die Casting
Forging
Sand Casting
Hot rolling, Flame
cutting
Useful Links.
1. Teconlogix. Net Site includes extremely useful online limits and fits calculator and graphic viewer
2. MWTech -> "Mechanical Engineering " for tables of limits and fits.
3. MITCalc...Downloadable Excel Programmes..Including Tolerances. Reasonable Prices
4. SEED .... SEED Engineering design guide- A good reference sit on limits and fits
5. ISO Holes ..ISO Shafts .... ABC Tribology- Tables of ISO limits
Home

Surface Texture Index Page )

ROYMECH
Home
Surface Texture Index Page.
The surface texture is the local deviations of a surface from its ideal shape e.g perfect flat shape, perfect cylinderical shape, sherical
shape etc. The measure of the surface texture is generally determined in terms of its roughness, waviness and Form .
Information Pages
Surface Texture Surface Finish Surface Texture Surface Texture vs

Notes Symbols Examples Machining Table
Links to Relevant
sites
1. Precision
Devices Inc...A
comprehensive
set of informative
notes on surface
texture
2. iCrank... A link to
further
information on
Surface Texture
3. Taylor Hobson...
Metrology
Instruments-
Useful
information on
FAQ link
4. Zygo.Com....
Informative
reference
document
download
5. Cylinder Bore
Surface Texture
Analysis.... ...
Digital Metrology
Paper.(download
pdf)..Descibes /
comments
surface texture
measurements
6. Basic
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Surface_Texture/Surface_Texture_index.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:12:01 AM

Surface Texture Index Page )
Components and
Elements of
Surface
Topography ..A
very useful pdf
paper with lots of
background info
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Surface_Texture/Surface_Texture_index.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:12:01 AM

Keyways Index page

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Home
Metric Keyways Index page
Straight Sided Key-spline

Parallel Keys Taper keys Woodruff Keys
ISO Splines torque
Relevant British Standards

BS 4235-1:1972: Specification for metric keys and keyways - Parallel and taper keys
BS 4235-2:1977, ISO 3912-1977: Specification for metric keys and keyways - Woodruff keys and keyways
BS 5686:1986, ISO 14-1982: Specification for straight-sided splines for cylindrical shafts: metric nominal dimensions, tolerances and
gauging requirements
#
Information ref. the following spline is not yet available in this section
BS 6186-1:1981, ISO 4156:1981: Specification for straight cylindrical involute splines: metric module, side fit. Dimensions and
tolerances-
Tables of old imperial keyways

BS 46 Parallel rectangular keyways.... BS 46 Square Keys... BS 46 Rectangular Taper Keyways... BS 46 Square Taper Keyways
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Keyways/keyways_index.html10/24/2006 11:12:02 AM
Hardness testing
ROYMECH
Home
Matter Index Page
Hardness Measurement
Brinell ...... Vickers ...... Rockwell ...... Superficial Rockwell...... Scleroscope...... Knoop...... Jominy...... Moh...... Shore (Durometer)
Equivalent Hardness Table (harder scales)...... Equivalent Hardness Table (softerr scales)
Hardness Comparison chart...... Typical component Surface Hardness......
Methods of Measuring Hardness
Brinell Hardness Test

In this test a hardened steel ball is pressed into the surface of the test material using a prescribed ball. The
ball and load have to be selected to suit the material being tested.
The Brinell hardness test consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or
carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kgf (29 430 N). For softer materials the load can be reduced to
1500 kgf (14 715 N) or 500 kgf (4 905 N ) to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied
for 10 to 15 seconds for harder ferrous metals and for 30 seconds or more for other metals softer metals.
The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a microscope.
The Brinell hardness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the
indentation.
BHN = 2.F / (π.D .(D - √(D2-D1)
D = Diameter of Ball
D1 = Diameter of indentation
F = applied force
Vickers Hardness Test

In this test a Diamond Indenter is pressed into the surface of the material being tested. Standard loads
used include 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, and 100 kgf. (49,05, 98,1 196,2 490,5 and 981 N).
The load is stated in specifying the hardness number i.e HD(10) = 100. the indenter is a square based
pyramid (136o included angle )to suit the material being tested
The Hardness Number HD = 1.844 x Load/ Average diagonal length of indentation
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Hardness.html (1 of 13)10/24/2006 11:12:22 AM

Hardness testing
Rockwell Hardness Test

In this test a Hard Steel Ball or a Diamond Cone Indenter is pressed into the surface of the material being
tested/ The result of the test is read directly from machine.
The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary minor load (98N)and after equilibrium are
achieved an indicating device, which follows the movements of the indenter, is set to the datum position.
An additional major load is then applied with resulting increase in penetration. The conditions are then
allowed to stabilise and then the additional major load is removed,leaving the minor load in place. The
resulting permanent penetration esulting from the application and removal of the additional major load is
used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number.
HR = E - e
F1 = additional major
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load , measured in units of 0.001 mm
E = a constant of 100 units for diamond and ball indenters
HR = Rockwell hardness number
D = diameter of steel ball
Major Load
Scale Indenter F1 E Applications
N
Sheet steel ; shallow
A 120oDiamond cone 490.5 100
case hardened
Copper, Aluminium
B 1/16" steel ball 882.9 130 alloys, Low Carbon
Steel
Most Widely Used -
C 120oDiamond cone 1373.4 100 Hardened Steels, Cast
irons etc
Thin but hard steels,
D 120oDiamond cone 882.9 100
Ductile Iron (Pearlitic
Cast Iron, Aluminium,
E 1/8" steel ball 882.9 130
Bearings alloys
Annealed copper
F 1/16" steel ball 490.5 130
alloys , Soft thin metals
Phosphor bronze,
beryllium copper,
G 1/16" steel ball 1373.4 130
malleable irons, Lead
etc
H 1/8" steel ball 490.5 130 Soft Metals Plastics etc
Soft bearing metals,
K 1/8" steel ball 1373.4 130
Plastics, soft materials.

Hardness testing

L 1/4" steel ball 490.5 130
M 1/4" steel ball 882.9 130
P 1/4" steel ball 1373.4 130
R 1/2" steel ball 490.5 130
S 1/2" steel ball 882.9 130
V 1/2" steel ball 1373.4 130
Superficial Rockwell Hardness Test

A more surface sensitive measurement of hardness than for the regular Rockwell scales. This technique
is useful for samples with hardness gradients at the surface, to test small areas, and for thin samples.
Superficial Rockwell hardness scales are N and T for metals and W, X, and Y for non-metallic materials
and coatings. The Superficial Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a
diamond cone (N scale) or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material
under a preliminary minor (29.43N) and the conditions are allowed to settle. Then the indicating device
that follows the movements of the indenter is set to a datum position. An additional major load, is applied
with resulting increase in penetration . The conditions are allowed to settle again and then the additional
major load is removed. The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application
and removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell Superficial hardness number.
HR = E - e
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1, measured in units of 0.001 mm
Major
Scale Indenter Load E Application
(N)
Similar to C
scale, but
15N 120o Diamond cone 117.72 100
for thin
materials
Same as
15N

Hardness testing
Same as
45N 120o Diamond cone 412 100
15N
Similar to B
scale, but
15T 1/16" steel ball 117.72 100
for thin
materials
Same as
30T 1/16" steel ball 264.87 100
15T
Same as
45T 1/16" steel ball 412 100
15T
For very
15W 1/8" steel ball 117.72 100 soft
materials
For very
materials
For very
45W 1/8" steel ball 412 100 soft
materials
For very
15X 1/4" steel ball 117.72 100 soft
materials
For very
materials
For very
45X 1/4" steel ball 412 100 soft
materials
For very
15Y 1/2" steel ball 117.72 100 soft
materials
For very
materials
For very
45Y 1/2" steel ball 412 100 soft
materials
The Shore (Scleroscope ) Hardness Test
The Scleroscope test consists of dropping a diamond tipped hammer, which falls inside a glass tube under
the force of its own weight from a fixed height, onto the test specimen. The height of the rebound travel of
the hammer is measured on a graduated scale. The harder the material, the higher the rebound. The
scale of the rebound is arbitrarily chosen and consists on Shore units, divided into 100 parts, which

Hardness testing
represent the average rebound from pure hardened high-carbon steel. The scale is continued higher than
100 to to allow for metals having greater hardness.
The shore scleroscope test does not normally mark the material under test. The Shore Scleroscope
measures hardness in relation to the elasticity of the material.
Advantages of this method are portability and non-marking of the test surface.
Knoop
The Knoop indenter has a polished rhombohedral shape with an included longitudinal angle of 172° 30’
and an included transverse angle of 130° 0’. The narrowness of the indenter makes it ideal for testing
specimens with steep hardness gradients and coatings. Knoop is a better choice for hardness testing of
hard brittle materials.
Jominy Hardenability
The Jominy test involves heating a test specimen of steel 25mm diameter and 100mm long to an
austenitising temperature and quenching from one end with a controlled and standardized jet of water.
After quenching, the hardness is measured at intervals taken form the quenched end. The hardness
gradient along the test surface provides an indication of the material’s hardenability.
Moh's Hardness Scale

The Moh's hardness scale consists of 10 minerals arranged in order from 1 to 10. Diamond is rated as
the hardest and is indexed as 10; talc as the softest with index number 1. Each mineral in the scale will
scratch all those below it as follows:
Diamond 10
Corundum 9
Topaz 8
Quartz 7
Orthoclase
6
(Feldspar)
Aptite 5
Fluorite 4
Calcite 3
Gypsum 2
Talc 1

Hardness testing
Shore (Durometer) test

The hardness testing of plastics is most commonly measured by the Shore (Durometer) test. This test
measures the resistance of the plastic toward indentation. The scale provide an empirical hardness value
that doesn't relate directly to the mechanical properties of the material being tested. Shore Hardness,
using either the Shore A or Shore D scale, is the preferred method for rubbers/elastomers and is also
commonly used for 'softer' plastics such as polyolefins, fluoropolymers, and vinyls. The Shore A scale is
used for 'softer' rubbers while the Shore D scale is used for 'harder' rubbers.
The Shore hardness is measured with an apparatus known as a Durometer and consequently is also
known as 'Durometer hardness'. The hardness value is determined by the penetration of the Durometer
indenter foot into the sample. If the indenter completely penetrates the sample, a reading of 0 is obtained,
and if no penetration occurs, a reading of 100 results. Because of the resilience of rubbers and plastics,
the hardness reading my change over time - so the indentation time is sometimes reported along with the
hardness number. The test method is identified in standard ISO 868.
The results obtained from this test are a useful measure of relative resistance to indentation of various
grades of polymers. However, the Shore Durometer hardness test does not serve well as a predictor of
other properties such as strength or resistance to scratches, abrasion, or wear, and should not be used
alone for product design specifications.
Tables showing the comparative hardness numbers between scales is provided at site the following sites.....
1. Gordon England.....
2. Corrosion Products Handbook
Equivalent Hardness Conversion Tables
Harder Scales
ROCKWELL ROCKWELL SCLERO- U.T.

VPN BRINELL
SCALES Superficial SCOPE S.
DPH BHN BHN
A B C D G 15N 30N 45N MPa
HV/10 500kg 3000kg
Softer Scales
ROCKWELL SCLERO- U.T.

VPN ROCKWELL SCALES BRINELL
Superficial SCOPE S.

Hardness testing
DPH BHN BHN

A B C E F G H K 15T 30T 45T MPa
HV/10 500kg 3000kg
234 60 97 19 77 92 80 69 181 218 34 738
230 59 96 18 76 92 80 68 179 214 33 731
226 59 96 17 75 92 80 68 177 210 33 717
222 58 95 16 74 92 79 67 175 208 32 703
217 58 95 15 73 92 79 67 171 205 31 690
213 58 94 14 73 91 79 66 169 203 31 683
208 57 93 13 71 91 78 66 167 200 30 676
204 57 92 12 70 100 91 78 65 163 195 30 662
200 56 92 11 69 100 91 77 64 162 193 29 655
196 56 91 10 68 100 90 77 64 160 190 28 641
192 56 90 9 66 99 90 76 63 157 185 27 627
188 55 89 8 64 98 90 76 62 154 180 26 607
184 54 88 7 63 97 90 75 61 151 176 26 593
180 54 87 6 61 97 89 75 60 148 172 26 579
176 53 86 5 59 96 89 74 59 145 169 25 572
172 53 85 4 58 95 89 74 58 142 165 25 558
168 52 84 3 56 94 88 73 57 140 162 25 545
164 51 83 2 54 93 88 72 56 137 159 24 538
160 51 82 1 53 92 88 72 55 135 156 24 524
156 50 81 0 51 91 87 71 54 133 153 24 517
152 50 80 49 91 87 70 53 130 150 503
148 49 79 48 90 87 70 52 128 147
144 49 78 46 89 86 69 51 126 144
141 48 77 44 88 86 68 50 124 141
139 47 76 43 87 86 68 49 122 139
137 47 75 100 41 86 85 67 49 120 137
135 46 74 99 39 85 85 66 48 118 135
132 46 73 99 38 85 85 66 47 116 132
130 45 72 98 36 84 84 65 46 114 130
127 45 71 100 98 35 83 84 64 45 112 127
125 44 70 100 97 33 82 84 64 44 110 125
123 44 69 99 96 31 81 83 63 43 109 123
120 43 68 98 96 30 80 83 62 42 107 121
118 43 67 98 95 28 79 83 62 41 106 119
116 42 66 97 95 27 78 82 61 40 104 117
115 42 65 96 94 25 78 82 60 39 102 116
114 42 64 96 94 24 77 82 60 38 101 114

Hardness testing
113 41 63 95 93 22 76 81 59 37 99 112
112 41 62 95 92 21 75 81 58 36 98 110
111 40 61 94 92 19 74 81 57 35 96 108
110 40 60 93 91 18 73 81 57 34 95 107
108 39 59 93 91 16 72 80 56 32 94 106
107 39 58 92 90 15 71 80 55 31 92 104
106 38 57 91 90 13 71 80 55 30 91 102
105 38 56 91 89 12 70 79 54 29 90 101
104 38 55 90 88 10 69 79 53 28 89 99
103 37 54 90 88 9 68 79 53 27 87
102 37 53 89 87 7 67 78 52 26 86
101 36 52 88 87 6 66 78 51 25 85
100 36 51 88 86 4 65 78 51 24 84
100 35 50 87 86 3 65 77 50 23 83
99 35 49 87 85 64 77 49 22 82
98 35 48 86 85 63 77 49 21 81
97 34 47 85 84 62 76 48 20 80
96 34 46 85 83 61 76 47 19 79
95 33 45 84 83 60 76 46 18 79
95 33 44 84 82 59 75 46 17 78
94 32 43 83 82 58 75 45 16 77
93 32 42 82 81 58 75 44 15 76
92 31 41 82 81 57 74 44 14 75
91 31 40 81 80 56 74 43 13 74
90 31 39 80 79 55 74 42 11 74
90 30 38 80 79 54 73 42 10 73
89 30 37 79 78 53 73 41 9 72
88 29 36 79 78 100 52 73 40 8 71
88 29 35 78 77 100 52 72 40 7 71
87 28 34 77 77 99 51 72 39 6 70
87 28 33 77 76 99 50 72 38 5 69
86 28 32 76 75 99 49 71 38 4 68
86 27 31 76 75 98 48 71 37 3 68
85 27 30 75 74 98 47 71 36 2 67
85 26 29 74 74 98 46 70 36 1 66
84 26 28 74 73 97 45 70 35 66
84 25 27 73 73 97 45 70 34 65
83 25 26 73 72 97 44 69 33 65
83 24 25 72 71 96 42 69 33 64

Hardness testing
82 24 24 71 71 96 42 69 32 64
82 24 23 71 70 96 41 68 31 63
81 23 22 70 70 95 40 68 31 63
81 23 21 70 69 95 39 68 30 62
80 22 20 69 69 95 38 68 29 62
80 22 19 68 68 94 38 67 29 61
79 21 18 68 67 94 37 67 28 61
79 21 17 67 67 93 36 67 27 60
78 21 16 67 66 93 35 66 26 60
78 20 15 66 66 93 34 66 26 59
77 14 65 65 92 33 66 25 59
77 13 65 65 92 32 65 24 58
76 12 64 64 92 32 65 24 58
76 11 64 64 91 31 65 23 57
75 10 63 63 91 30 64 22 57
75 9 62 62 91 29 64 22 56
74 8 62 62 90 28 64 21 56
74 7 61 61 90 27 63 20 56
73 6 61 61 90 26 63 20 55
73 5 60 60 89 26 63 19 55
72 4 59 60 89 25 62 18 55
72 3 59 59 88 24 62 17 54
71 2 58 58 88 23 62 17 54
71 1 58 58 88 22 61 16 53
70 0 57 57 87 21 61 15 53
DPH BHN BHN
HV/10 500kg 3000kg
Figure comparing hardness scales

Hardness testing
Table of Components showing relevant surface Hardness values
Important Notes Values below are typical of high specification components.. Lower values are likely in
more general applications...
Component Hardness Scale
Hardened Track
670-840 HV
for Roller
Hardened
Machine 70-75 HS
slideway
Surface
Hardened Gear 58-63 RC
(High spc'n)

Hardness testing
Modern Rails
(Used for 300-340 HV
Normal traffic)
Modern Rails
340 -420 HV
(High Duty)
Shear Blades 81-85 RC
Carbide Dies
(Drawing , 80-92 RA
Forming etc)
Mild steel
120 HV
components
Wrought iron 102 HV
Axe 600 HV
Fork/Rake 700 HV
Kitchen knife 680 HV
Stainless table
550 HV
knife
Hammer Face 660 HV
Chisel 600 HV
File 60-61 RC
Drill Bit HSS 63-65 RC
Drill Bit Cobalt 66-67 RC

VPN BRINELL
DPH BHN BHN
HV/10 500kg 3000kg
1865 92 80 87 97 92 87
1787 92 79 86 96 92 87
1710 91 78 85 96 91 86
1633 91 77 84 96 91 85
1556 90 76 83 96 90 84
1478 90 75 83 95 89 83
1400 89 74 82 95 89 82
1323 89 73 81 95 88 81
1245 88 72 80 95 87 80
1160 87 71 80 94 87 79
1076 87 70 79 94 86 78 101
1004 86 69 78 94 85 77 99
940 86 68 77 93 84 75 97

Hardness testing
900 85 67 76 93 84 74 95
865 85 66 75 93 83 73 92
832 84 65 75 92 82 72 739 91
800 84 64 74 92 81 71 722 88
772 83 63 73 91 80 70 705 87
746 83 62 72 91 79 69 688 85
720 82 61 72 91 79 68 670 83
697 81 60 71 90 78 67 654 81 2206
674 81 59 70 90 77 66 634 80 2137
653 80 58 69 89 76 64 615 78 2069
633 80 57 69 89 75 63 595 76 2000
613 79 56 68 88 74 62 577 75 1944
595 79 120 55 67 88 73 61 560 74 1889
577 78 120 54 66 87 72 60 543 72 1834
560 78 119 53 65 87 71 59 523 71 1772
544 77 119 52 65 86 70 57 512 69 1689
528 77 118 51 64 86 69 56 496 68 1648
513 76 117 50 63 86 69 55 481 67 1607
498 75 117 49 62 85 68 54 469 66 1565
484 75 116 48 61 85 67 53 455 64 1524
471 74 116 47 61 84 66 51 443 63 1496
458 74 115 46 60 84 65 50 432 62 1462
446 73 115 45 59 83 64 49 421 60 1420
434 73 114 44 59 83 63 48 409 58 1379
423 72 113 43 58 82 62 47 400 57 1351
412 72 113 42 57 82 61 46 390 56 1317
402 71 112 41 56 81 60 44 381 55 1289
392 71 112 40 55 80 60 43 371 54 1255
382 70 111 39 55 80 59 42 362 52 1220
372 70 110 38 54 79 58 41 353 51 1193
363 69 110 37 53 79 57 40 344 50 1165
354 69 109 36 52 78 56 38 336 49 1138
345 68 109 35 52 78 55 37 327 48 1103
336 68 108 34 51 77 54 36 319 47 1076
327 67 108 33 50 77 53 35 311 46 1048
318 67 107 32 49 76 52 34 301 44 1014
310 66 106 31 48 91 76 51 33 294 43 993
302 66 105 30 48 91 75 50 31 286 42 965
294 65 104 29 47 89 75 50 30 279 41 945

Hardness testing
286 65 104 28 46 88 74 49 29 271 41 917

279 64 103 27 45 87 73 48 28 264 40 889
272 64 103 26 45 86 73 47 27 258 39 869
266 63 102 25 44 85 72 46 26 253 38 855
260 63 101 24 43 84 72 45 24 247 37 834
254 62 100 23 42 83 71 44 23 201 240 36 814
248 62 99 22 42 81 71 43 22 195 234 35 793
243 61 98 21 41 79 70 42 21 189 228 35 772
238 61 97 20 40 78 69 42 20 184 222 34 752
Links Providing Relevant Information
1. Gordon England ..Thermal Spraying Specialist with detailed information on Hardness Testing / Corrosion
2. Hardness Testers..Equipment supplier with detailed information on Hardness Testing / Corrosion
3. Materials Co UK - Rubber Hardness Testing..Useful Notes and references
4. NPL -Hardness Teating..Authoritative source of information on hardness testing
5. Cambridge U. Jominy Test..Jominy test example with not
6. Material Hardness..A very detailed document covering most hardness testing methods
Home
Matter Index Page

Drive Components
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Drive Components
Shaft Design Bearings

Brakes Clutches
Couplings Belt Drives
Chain Drives Gears-Gearboxes
Seals Prime Movers
Links to Drive Information
1. textronpt goto "institute -> Courses . For a concise set of drive information notes.
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Drive_Index.html10/24/2006 11:12:32 AM
Gears- Gear boxes
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Drive_Index
Gears /Gearboxes
Gear Selection Options
When an drive application requires rotary motion to be transferred with speed change and or torque change. A number of options are available
controlled by system layout, economics and power capacity. The drive transmission selection is selected from the options below in order of
convenience.
1. Belt Drive (flat, vee , synchronous )

2. Chain drive
3. Gearbox - geared motor
4. Purchased Stock gears- unlubricated(Plastic/metal- plastic/plastic )
5. Purchased Stock gears- metal lubricated
6. Engineered gears
It must be emphasised that designing and manufacturing a gear system is relatively, expensive and inconvenient if a proprietory system is available
which will do the job..
Types Of Gears
Note: More details and pictures of all gear types below are to be found at the links below table
Type Notes Further Notes

Majority of gears are spur. Relatively easy to design and make.
Parallel shafts. High efficiency (99% per train). No side thrust.
Spur Can back drive. Single Ratio up to 1:10. Can be made very
accurate with low vibration /noise. Normally steel pinions require Spur Gears
lubrication. Plastic gears can be used requiring no lubrication
Internal Similar performance to normal spur. Results in compact drive
Spur geometry. Used in manufacture of epicyclic / planetary gears.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Gears_Gearboxes.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:12:42 AM

Gears- Gear boxes
Single Helical have similar properties to spur. However drive results

in axial thrust. Gears are smoother/quieter for the same size/spec.
Helical
The gears can run at high speeds up to large diameters. Higher
torque/life capabilities for same size as spur.
Helical Gears
Double- Similar benefits to single helical but with no generated side thrust.
Helical Higher performance compared to single helical
Crossed-
Helical Shaft at 90o. Difficult to make accurately. Smooth drive.
Offset shafts at 90o. Very high ratios possible in single stage. Sliding
Worm action. One gear is normally copper allow (bronze). Low efficiency Worm Gears
at higher ratios and low speeds. Lubrication essential for
mechanical and thermal reasons. Cannot backdrive at high ratios.
Bevel Mainly used for drive transmission through 90o. Only low ratios
Gear used (4:1 and less). Lubrication required. Some vibration on spur Bevel Gears
type: Helical type smoother.
Perform a similar function to worm boxes but the gears have
characteristics which combine those of the bevel and worm gears.
Spiroid
High powers and speed ratios are possible and mechanical
efficiencies higher than worm boxes for equivalent ratios.
Performance advantages include high-torque capacity, concentric
geometry, lightweight and compact design, zero backlash, high Harmonic
Harmonic
efficiency, high ratios (up to 320:1), and back drivability. Harmonic
Drive Drives
drive systems suffer however, from high flexibility, resonance
vibration. Used in robotics
Brief Comparison
Normal Pitch Line Efficiency
Type
Ratio Range Velocity (m/s) Range
Spur 1:1 to 6:1 25 98-99%
Helical 1:1 to 10:1 50 98-99%
Double Helical 1:1 to 15:1 150 98-99%
Bevel 1:1 to 4:1 20 98-99%
Worm 5:1 to 75:1 30 20-98%
Crossed
1:1 to 6:1 30 70-98%
Helical
Gear Box Notes
Differential Gear Heat
Gearboxes Epicyclic Gears Gear Lubrication
Gearboxes Transfer

Gears- Gear boxes
Links to Gear Design
1. Gear Design ...A comprehensive source of Gear Design Information

2. Efunda ...Efunda -> Design Centre-> Gears.. Some useful Notes.
3. How to Specify and Choose Gears ... A Useful Guide in preparation
4. Gear Design Topics ... A Site devoted to theorical "esoteric" analysis of Gear Design/Manufacture, Amazing Graphics
5. SEW Eurodrive...All the information on Gearboxes you will need
6. Gears & Gear Drives...A comprehensive review of gear design in 16 pages
7. Reliance Precision Ltd...UK supplier of gears and related products
8. Omnigear...A site including dimensions of gears/splines/chains etc to various standards
9. Speed-reducers.org...Speed And Gear Reducers Manufacturers
Home
Drive_Index

Cams, Springs, Levers, Pulleys

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Index of Machine Elements
Power Shock
Cams Springs Mechanisms
Screws Absorbers
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http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Cams_Springs/Machine_Parts_Index.html10/24/2006 11:12:45 AM
Flange Index

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Flange Index
Note: Dimensions of the most popular flanges (Plate, Boss, and Weld-neck) are provided for the obsolete BS4504 flanges and the
current BS EN 1092-1 flanges. In practice the dimensions are similar in all but a few minor dimensions.
BS4504 PN16 BS4504 PN25 BS4504 PN40

Flanges Flanges Flanges BS 1600
BS3600 Pipes
BS EN 1092-1 BS EN 1092-1 BS EN 1092-1 Pipes
PN16 PN25 PN40
Note: Standard BS 4504 is now superseded by

BS EN 1092-1:2002 Flanges and their joints. Circular flanges for pipes, valves, fittings and accessories, PN designated. Steel flanges
BS EN 1092-2:1997 Flanges and their joints. Circular flanges for pipes, valves, fittings and accessories, PN designated. Cast iron
flanges
BS EN 1092-3:2003 Flanges and their joints. Circular flanges for pipes, valves, fittings and accessories, PN designated. Copper alloy
flanges
BS EN 1092-4:2002 Flanges and their joints. Circular flanges for pipes, valves, fittings and accessories, PN designated. Aluminium
alloy flanges
BS EN 1515-1:2000 Flanges and their joints- Bolting: selection of bolting.
BS EN 1515-2:2000 Classification of bolt material for steel flanges PN designated.
Links Includng Information on Flange Pipe Sizes
1. Irish Associates.. ANSI Pipe and Flange Dimensions(Imperial)

2. Thermo Metrics .. ANSI Flange Dimensions and Weights (Imperial)
3. SANDVIK.. Downloadable Catalog of Din Flange dimensions
4. Red Bag.. -> Free Engineering Tools -Flange Dimensions/ Pipe Size and much more
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Flanges/Flange_index.html10/24/2006 11:12:47 AM
Wire Sizes

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Wire Sizes
Metric and English equivalents of British Standard (Imperial) Wire Gauge
inch inch inch

SWG mm - SWG mm SWG mm
x103 x103 x103
7/0 500 12.7 13 92 2.34 33 10.0 0.254
6/0 464 11.8 14 80 2.03 34 9.2 0.234
5/0 432 11.0 15 72 1.83 35 8.4 0.213
4/0 400 10.2 16 64 1.63 36 7.6 0.193
3/0 372 9.45 17 56 1.42 37 6.8 0.173
18 48 1.22 38 6.0 0.152
00 348 8.84 19 40 1.02 39 5.2 0.132
0 324 8.23 20 36 0.914 40 4.8 0.122
1 300 7.62 21 32 0.813 41 4.4 0.112
2 276 7.01 22 28 0.711 42 4.0 0.102
3 252 6.40 23 24 0.610 43 3.6 0.091
4 232 5.89 24 22 0.559 44 3.2 0.081
5 212 5.38 25 20 0.508 45 2.8 0.071
6 192 4.88 26 18 0.457 46 2.4 0.061
7 176 4.47 27 16.4 0.417 47 2.0 0.051
8 160 4.06 28 14.8 0.376 48 1.6 0.041
9 144 3.66 29 13.6 0.345 49 1.2 0.030
10 128 3.25 30 12.4 0.315 50 1.0 0.025
11 116 2.95 31 11.6 0.295 - -
12 104 2.64 32 10.8 0.274 - -
Mesh Sizes
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Wire.htm (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:12:50 AM

Wire Sizes
Metric Mesh Sizes
BS BS BS
Aperture DIN- Aperture DIN- Aperture DIN-
410-1 410-1 410-1
Size 4188 Size 4188 Size 4188
:2000 :2000 :2000
µm µm µm
Mesh mm Mesh mm Mesh mm
(microns) (microns) (microns)
5 2500 0.005 106 150 600 25

10 1250 0.01 112 0.112 630 0.63
15 800 0.015 115 0.115 710 22 0.71
20 625 0.02 125 120 0.125 800 0.8

22 0.022 140 0.14 850 18
25 500 0.025 150 100 900 0.9
28 0.028 160 0.16 1000 16 1

32 0.032 180 85 0.18 1120 1.12
36 0.036 200 0.2 1180 14
38 400 212 72 1250 1.25

40 0.04 250 60 0.25 1400 12 1.4
45 350 0.045 280 0.28 1600 1.6
50 0.05 300 52 1700 10

53 300 315 0.315 1800 1.8
56 0.056 355 44 0.355 2000 8 2
63 240 0.063 400 0.4 2240 2.24

71 0.071 425 36 2360 7
75 200 450 0.45 2500 2.5
80 0.08 500 30 0.5 2800 6 2.8

90 170 0.09 560 0.56 3150 3.15
100 0.1 600 25 3350 5

Wire Sizes
Links to other sources of wire gauge equivalents/mesh sizes
● Efunda --> Design Center includes Wire gauge calculators

● Fine Mesh Metals --> Mesh Suppliers
● Croft Engineering Services Mesh suppliers useful relevant information
Home

Circlips /Pins Index

ROYMECH
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Fasteners -Circlips -Pins
Split
External Internal
Taper Pins Cotter
Circlips Circlips
Pins
Reference Standards
● BS EN ISO 1234:1998 ..Split pins

● BS EN 22339:1992, ISO 2339:1986 ..Taper pins, unhardened
● BS 3673-4:1977 ..Specification for spring retaining rings. Carbon steel circlips - metric series
● BS EN ISO 8751:1998...Spring-type straight pins. Coiled, light duty
● BS EN ISO 8750:1998...Spring-type straight pins. Coiled, standard duty
● BS EN ISO 8748:1998...Spring-type straight pins. Coiled, heavy duty
● BS EN ISO 8752:1998...Spring-type straight pins. Slotted, heavy duty
● BS EN ISO 13337:1998...Spring-type straight pins. Slotted, light duty
The most widely used standard for metric external circlips (DIN 471) and internal circlips (DIN472) have very similar dimensions to
BS 3673 . The circlips in this site have been dimension in general accordance with the DIN standards...
Useful Links
1. Co_Design..
Dimensions of
Metric
fastener
threads etc
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Circlips/Circlip_Index.html10/24/2006 11:12:52 AM
Rivets

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Rivets
.... Blind (Pop) Rivets
Introduction
Rivets are considered to be permanent fasteners. Riveted joints are therefore similar to
welded and adhesive joints. When considering the strength of riveted joints similar
calculations are used as for bolted joints.
Rivets have been used in many large scale applications including shipbuilding, boilers,
pressure vessels, bridges and buildings etc. In recent years there has been a
progressive move from riveted joints to welded, bonded and even bolted joints A riveted
joint, in larger quantities is sometimes cheaper than the other options but it requires
higher skill levels and more access to both sides of the joint
There are strict standards and codes for riveted joints used for structural/pressure vessels
engineering but the standards are less rigorous for using riveted joints in general
mechanical engineering.
A rivet is a cylindrical body called a shank with a head. A hot rivet is inserted into a hole
passing through two clamped plates to be attached and the head is supported whilst a
head is formed on the other end of the shank using a hammer or a special shaped tool.
The plates are thus permanently attached. Cold rivets can be used for smaller sizes the -
forming processes being dependent on the ductility of the rivet material...
When a hot rivet cools it contracts imposing a compressive (clamping) stress on the
plates. The rivet itself is then in tension the tensile stress is approximately equal to the
yield stress of the rivet material
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Rivets.html (1 of 10)10/24/2006 11:12:58 AM

Rivets
Strength of riveted joint

The notes below are assuming that the plate loads are withstood by the rivets. In
practice the loads are generally withstood by friction between the plates under the
compressive force of the contracted rivets. The calculations provided below are
simplified but provide relatively conservative joint strength value. There is still a need to
complete fatigue assessments on joints when relevant
Joint Types
There are two basic types of axial riveted joint the lap joint and the butt joint.
The selection of the number of rivets used for a joint and the array is simply to ensure the
maximum strength of the rivets and the plates. If ten small arrayed rivets on a lap joint
were replaced by three large rivets across a plate the plate section area (in tension)
would clearly be significantly reduced...
Rivet materials
Rivets for mechanical and structural applications are normally made from ductile (low
carbon ) steel or wrought iron. For applications where weight, corrosion, or material
constraints apply, rivets can be made from copper (+alloys) aluminium (+alloys),monel
etc.
Design stresses
For rivets used for structures and vessels etc the relevant design stresses are provided in
the applicable codes. For rivets used in mechanical engineering, values are available in
mechanical equipment standards which can be used with judgement.
BS 2573 Pt 1 Rules for the design of cranes includes design stress values based on the
Yields stress (0,2% proof stress) YR0.2 as follows:-
Hand driven rivets ..tensile stress (40%YR0.2) ..Shear (36,6%YR0.2)..Bearing (80%YR0.2)

Rivets
Machinery's handbook includes some values for steel rivets . I have intepreted these
values and include them below as rough approximate values for first estimate. These are
typical values for ductile steel. Tensile (76MPa) .. Shear (61MPa) ..Bearing (131MPa)
Design Assumptions
In designing rivet joints it is convenient to simplify the process by making the following
assumptions.
● The rivets fail in either pure compression, or pure shear.

● The shear stress is evenly distributed across the rivet section.
● The bearing stress is evenly distributed across the projected area of the rivet.
● The force to cause a rivet to fail in double shear is 2 x the force to cause single shear failure.
● the tensile stress is uniform across the plate area between the rivets.
Rivet Joint Failure A rivet joint may fail as a result of one( or more) of a number
mechanisms..
● Shearing through one section of the rivet (single shear).

● Shearing through two sections of the rivet (double shear.
● Compressive bearing failure of the rivet.
● Shearing of the plate(s) being joined.
● Bearing failure of the plate(s) being joined.
● Tearing of the plates between the rivets.
Rivet Joint Efficienty

The rivet joint effieciency is simply described as follows
Eff = Max Allowable Force applied to Rivet Joint/ Plate Strength with not holes
The joint efficiency is increased by having multiple rows of rivets. It is also clear that the
efficiency can never be 100% . The maximum allowable force is the smallest of the
allowable shear, tensile or bearing forces

Rivets
Rivets are initially sized with nominal diameters of between 1,2√ t and 1,4 √t (t = plate thickness) The diametrical clearance
provided for hot rivets is about 1,5mm max. For cold rivets very tight fits are often provided by using reamed holes. It is
important that the rivets are not positioned too close to the side of the plate or the edge of a plate. m t should be greater than
1,5 d and m a should be greater than 1,5 d. (d = nominal rivet diameter). It is also suggested that the distance between rivets
in the rows (pt) is greater than 3d and the distance between rows (pa )is greater than 3 d. Uisng these guidance factors the
strength calculations are simplified
Rivets calculations are generally completed to check for three failure modes : rivet shear, plate tensile failure, and rivet /plate
bearing..These are shown below. A rivet joint can also fail due to plate shearing (tearing )behind the rivet. This calculation
is not always completed because the joint design should include that the minimim metal land behind the rivet (ma above )is
specified ensuring that other failure modes will operate before this mode.
It is also important that the axial pitch (p a ) is maximised (see above note )to ensure that the weakest section of the plate is
through a row of holes
Rivet Shear
The rivet shear calculation is
τ = F / ( n π d 2 /4 )
● τ = Shear Stress (MPa)

● d = rivet diameter (mm)
● F = Total Axial Force (N)
● n = Number of Rivets

Rivets
Plate Tensile Stress

The tensile stress in the plate =
σt = F / [t (w - n r d 1)
● σt = Tensile Stress (MPa)

● d 1= rivet hole diameter (mm)
● n r = Number of Rivets in a row across the plate
Plate /rivet bearing stress

The Plate/Rivet bearing stress =
σc = F /(n d t)
Plate tearing stress..

The plate shear stress =
τc = F /(2 m a t)
Hot Forged Rivets to BS 4620: 1998

Note: The Standard BS 4620 has been declared obsolescent as it is no longer used for
current technologies....

Rivets
Non-
Preferred
sizes
60 Deg Csk
& Raised Snap Hd Universal Hd
Nom Csk
Dia
Shank
Tol Nom Raise Nom Nom Nom Nom
dia Rad Rad
dia Ht dia Depth dia Depth
D W D K D K R r
+/-
14 21 2,8 22 9 28 5,6 42 8,4
0,43
+/-
16 24 3,2 25 10 32 6,4 48 9,6
0,43
+/-
18 27 3,6 28 11,5 36 7,2 54 11,0
0,43
+/-
20 30 4,0 32 13 40 8,0 60 12,0
0,52
+/-
24 33 4,4 36 14 44 8,8 66 13,0
0,52
+/-
24 36 4,8 40 16 48 9,6 72 14,0
0,52
+/-
27 40 5,4 43 17 54 10,8 81 16,0
0,62
+/-
30 45 6,0 48 19 60 12,0 90 18,0
0,62
+/-
33 50 6,6 53 21 66 13,2 99 20
0,62
+/-
36 55 7,2 58 23 72 14,4 108 22
0,62
+/-
39 59 7,8 62 25 78 15,6 117 23
0,62
Cold Forged Rivets to BS 4620: 1998

Note: The Standard BS 4620 has been declared obsolescent as it is no longer used for
current technologies....

Rivets
Non-
Preferred
sizes
90
Deg Snap Hd Universal Hd Flat Head
Nominal Dia Csk
Shank dia Tol Nom Nom Nom Nom Nom Nom Nom
Rad Rad
dia dia Depth dia Depth dia Depth
D D K D K R r D K
+/-
1 2 1,8 0,6 2 0,4 3,0 0,6 2 0,25
0,07
+/-
1,2 2,4 2,1 0,7 2,4 0,5 3,6 0,7 2,4 0,3
0,07
+/-
1,6 3,2 2,8 1,0 3,2 0,6 4,8 1,0 3,2 0,4
0,07
+/-
2,0 4 3,5 1,2 4 0,8 6,0 1,2 4 0,6
0,07
+/-
2,5 5 4,4 1,5 5 1 7,5 1,5 5 0,8
0,07
+/-
3 6 5,3 1,8 6 1,2 9,0 1,8 6 0,9
0,07
+/-
3,5 7 6,1 2,1 7 1,4 10,5 2,1 7 1,0
0,09
+/-
4 8 7 2,4 8 1,6 12 2,4 8 1,3
0,09
+/-
5 10 8,8 3,0 10 2,0 15 3,0 9 1,5
0,09

Rivets
+/-
6 12 10,5 3,6 12 2,4 18 3,6 10 1,8
0,09
+/-
7 14 12.3 4,2 14 2,8 21 4,2 14 2,0
0,11
+/-
8 16 14 4,8 16 3,2 24 4,8 16 2,5
0,11
+/-
10 20 18 6,0 20 4,0 30 6,0 20
0,11
+/-
12 24 21 7,2 24 4,8 36 7,2
0,14
+/-
14 25 8,4 28 5,6 42 8,4
0,14
+/-
16 28 9,6 32 6,4 48 9,6
0,14
Blind Rivets (pop rivets )

Solid rivets require access to both sides of a joint and require some skill for correct
installation. Blind rivets have been developed to solve both of these shortcomings.
Blind rivets are available in a range of body styles such as open , closed end ,multi-grip,
and peel with head styles in dome, countersunk and large flange and in materials such as
aluminium, steel, nickel copper, copper, plastic and stainless steel.
Blind rivets are normally supplied in sizes up to 8mm and able to clamp two plates with
total thickness up to 25mm (normal) 50mm (special). For steel rivets which are not as
ductile as copper /aluminium rivets the size limit is restricted to about 6mm.
Standard Pop Rivet

This is used for all open blind riveting locations for normal materials with no structural or
access problems. The rivet is a hollow tube of relatively soft material with a formed head
on one side. The rivet is pre-assembled on a headed mandrel made from a stronger
material than the rivet, the plain end of the madrel projecting a relatively high distance
through the head of the hollow rivet. The rivet shank is inserted through the hole in the
parts to be joined such that it projects a set distance out of the far end of the hole. The
mandrel is pulled through the rivet using a special tool causing the projecting end to be
upset. The mandrel is engineeered to snap at a set tension resulting in the correct
formed head on the far side and the joint being under compression...

Rivets
Sealed Pop Rivet

This rivet is used where the joint has to be fluid pressure tight. The end include a sealed
end completely enclosing the head end of the mandrel and 100% mandrel head
retention. This feature combined with the fact that the rivet expands radially to fill the
hole when set ensures that the rivet will seal at pressures up to 35 bar
Peel type Pop Rivet

This type of rivet is used in soft materials including wood, plastic, glass fibre etc. It is
often used to fasten sheets of soft material to metals sheets. The peel type rivet has a
soft metal body e.g. aluminium with a stronger steel metal. On setting the the far end of
the rivet body splits into a number of petals creating a large blind side gripping area
capable of withstanding large pull out forces.
Grooved body type Pop Rivet

This type of pop rivet has been designed for use with thick sections of soft , or brittle
material e.g. hardboard, plywood,, glassfibre, asbestos board, brick, concrete etc. These
rivets include a shank with a number of grooves which protrude into the material to be
fixed. On setting these grooves are expanded to grip the material as opposed of the rear
face.

Rivets
Strength of blind rivets (compared to solid rivets )

The strength of blind rivets as given in suppliers tables is generally the ultimate strength
at failure. In comparing the strength of blind rivets with conventional solid rivets (same
material0 the solid rivets are generally stronger than blind rivets for the blind rivets where
the blind rivet mandrel breaks off below the shear line. For the blind rivets where the
mandrel breaks off above the shear line the blind rivets are generally stronger.
As an example for a 4mm blind rivet the shear strength quoted is 3,1kN (mandrel not in
shear plane) and 6,7kN (mandrel in shear plane. The ultimate shear strength of a solid
rivet of 4mm dia (assuming a shear strength of about 336 MPa) = 4.2 kN.
It must be noted that a blind rivet is normally used for lighter structures with thinner
section plates. It is generally accepted that a solid rivet correctly installed is more reliable
compared to a blind rivet but considerably more expensive to fit.
Sites Providing Information On Rivets
1. Saphire Products..UK supplier with dimensional data

2. PTS_uk..Some useful dimensions of socket screws etc
3. Rivets..A very informative short paper
4. Hanson Rivets..Blind (Pop) rivet supplier -site includes technical information (mostly imperial)
5. Zygology..Blind (Pop) rivet supplier -site includes technical information (Metric)
This page is being developed
Home

Adhesives

ROYMECH
Home
Adhesives
Introduction.. (Refer also to notes Adhesive theories )
An adhesive is a substance that fastens or bonds materials using surface attachment. The
strength of an adhesive joint depends on the strength of the attachment of the adhesive to the
material surface (substrate) termed adhesion and strength of the adhesive termed cohesion.
Adhesives can also provide a sealing function.
There are many advantages in using adhesives compared to other fastening methods as
listed below.
● Fatigue - There are few, if any, stress concentrations associated with adhesive joints
● Surface Area - For a lap joint the stress is distributed over a relatively large area. This provides a strong joint with lower
specific stresses.
● An adhesive joint can provide a sealing function in addition to a fastening function.
● For a high production process an adhesive joint can be extremely economical.
● Compared to welding there are no high temperatures required.
● Adhesives are available for attaching a wide variety of different materials.
● Compared to bolted joints and rivetted joints there is less need for machined holes, and additional machined components.
● The is no weight penalty associated with adhesive joints.
● The stresses developed in an adhesive joint are almost entirely imposed by the operating conditions.
● For softer materials adhesive are the only real engineering option.
Theoretically an adhesive joint is the ideal joint for permanently /semi-permanently fastening
components together. Limitations of adhesive joints are listed below
● Certain adhesives are vulnerable to attack by chemicals /water.

● For the best joints surface preparation is important.
● Some adhesives require time to achieve design strength.
● An adhesive joint is intuitively not considered a sound joint.
● Many adhesives have a temperature limitation.
● For mass production, reliable joints jigs and fixture are important.
● Many adhesives are toxic and require care when being applied.
● Adhesive joints are often vulnerable to localised high stress due to peeling effect.
Adhesive Joints
When designing adhesives joint it is better the the operating load is transferred as a shear
stress as opposed to a tensile stress. Adhesives are also poor in withstanding peel and
cleavage loads. The most typical design of adhesive joints are the lap joint and the axial fit
joint. Normal adhesive joints are shown below. The double lap joint is preferred to a single
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Adhesives
lap joint as bending moments are reduced and , as a result peel loads are reduced.
a tensile
The sketches below indicate simple methods of providing improved adhesive joints be
reducing the peel load.
Co-Axial joints /Screw Threads
Co-axial joints are generally associated with fitted bearings shafts, splines and press fitted
components either permanent or semi-permanent. The anaerobic adhesive is ideally suited
for these applications. They can be formulated such to withstand high shear loads for
permanent assemblies or lower shear loads for assemblies that need to be dismantled.
For joints that where permanent press fits the use the the anaerobic adhesive provides many
advantages including the elimination of the need for high precision interference fits and the
risk of fretting causing progressive stress concentrations. Anaerobic adhesives will function

Adhesives
very satisfactory with normal diametrical clearances of 0,05mm. They also can be used to
supplement the performance of interference fits.
When used with screw threads anaerobic adhesives provide a very low cost convenient
alternative to the use of mechanical methods of locking screw threads (locknuts,
lockwashers, wiring etc.).
When used with taper threads used for sealing fluid pressures these adhesives can be used
to seal the threads against the vast majority of fluids used in vessels and piping systems.
When used on bearings and similar systems it is normally recommended that the length of
engagement should be approximately 2 x the diameter. However shorted engagement ratios
have been used with no loss of performance.
Surface Preparation
It is necessary to ensure that the substrate surfaces of the components being attached are
suitably prepared. For all adhesive joints the minimum surface preparation is to clean the
surfaces such that all loose substrate and grease is removed. The surfaces to be joined
should be flat, some adhesives are more capable of filling spaces, but the flatter the surface
the stronger the joint.
The important surface preparation routines are shown below..
● Degreasing with steam, organic solvents or alkaline cleaners

● Mechanical methods such as blasting, brushing or grinding with emery-paper.
● Dipping in boiling water after etching in caustic soda.
● Yellow or green chromate treatment
● Anodising in chromic, phosphoric or sulphuric acid.
● Applying a suitable primer.
When using cyanoacrylate adhesives it is necessary to ensure that chlorinated solvents are
not used for surface penetration. These solvents have acid stabilisers which prevent curing
of the particular solvent.
Materials which are often difficult to bond and which often require enhanced surface
protection include Aluminium (+alloys), Copper ( +alloys), Magnesium (+alloys), Nylon,
Polyacetal, Polyethylene, Polypropylene, PTFE, PVC and Zinc. Glass also generally requires
special preparation. It is often possible to greatly improve the strength of a bonded joint with
difficult surfaces using an adhesive primer. In all cases the adhesive manufacturers
literature should be consulted and followed to achieve the optimum bonding results.

Adhesives
Different Types of adhesive
Natural Adhesives..Natural Adhesives

Generally set by solvent evaporation. They are generally of low strength and are susceptible
to moisture and mould. Their use is restricted to the joining of low strength materials. Natural
adhesives include animal glues, fish glues, vegetable glues and casein.
Elastomer Adhesives...Rubber Adhesives

Based on natural and synthetic rubbers set by solvent evaporation or heat curing. They have
relatively low shear strength and suffer from creep and are therefore used for unstressed
joints. They are useful for flexible bonds with plastics and rubbers. ‘Contact adhesives’ use
rubber in a solvent and will join many materials. Elastomer adhesives include natural
rubbers, polychloroprenes (neoprene), acrylonitride butadiene (nitrile), butyl rubber
adhesives, styrene butadiene rubber adhesives, polyurethane adhesives, polysulphide
rubber adhesives and silicone rubber adhesives.
Thermoplastic Adhesives...Themoplastic Adhesives

In general, thermoplastic adhesives have low/medium shear strength and may suffer from
creep at high loading. They have good resistance to oils but poor resistance to water.
Thermoplastic adhesives include polyvinyl acetate (PVA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA),
polyacrylates, polyester acrylics, acrylic solvent cement, cyanoacrylates (superglue), silicone
resins, polyamides and acrylic acid diesters.
Thermoset Adhesives...Thermoset Adhesives

Thermoset adhesives set as a result of the build up of molecular chains to produce a rigid
crosslinked structure. They include epoxy resins, which are some of the most widely used
adhesives. There are many different thermoset adhesives available including phenolic
formaldehyde (PF) resins, phenolic neoprene, resorcinol formaldehydes (RF), polyesters,
polyimides and epoxy resins.
Toughened Adhesives
During the last 25 years a process known as 'toughening' has been developed. A toughened
adhesive has small, rubber-like particles dispersed throughout the glassy matrix. The
profound effect of these particles is to change the mechanical characteristics of the adhesive
making it much more resistant to crack propagation. This technology has only been
successfully applied to the acrylic and epoxy-based adhesives.
Shear and Peel Strengths of Generic Adhesive types

Adhesives
Important Note: The values below are random values obtain from general reference sources
and suppliers catalogues. They are often rounded values from imperial. They are only of use
to indicate the relative strengths of different adhesives. Links are provided below with much
better quality information. Always consult manfacturers literature when selecting and design
with adhesives
Shear Peel Operating

Strength Strength Temp.
Adhesive Type MPa (N/
N/mm Min oC
mm2)
Min Max Min Max Min Max
Rubber 2 7 1 3,5 -20 150
PVA (white glue) 1,4 6,9 0,88 1,8
Cyanoacrilate 6,9 13,8 0,88 3,5 80
Anaerobic 6,9 13,8 0,88 1,8 200
Polyurethene 6,9 17,2 1,8 8,8 -200 150
Rubber
13,8 24,1 1,8 8,8 -40 90
modified acrylic
Epoxy 10,3 27,6 0,35 1,8 200
Polyimide 13,8 27,6 0,18 0,88 350
Rubber
20,7 41,4 4,4 14,0 180
modified epoxy
Sites Providing
Relevant
Information
1. Saphire
Products..UK
supplier with
dimensional data
2. Bondmaster..
supplier of wide
range of
Adhesive
products..
Datasheets
3. Adhesives
Toolkit..The
Adhesives
Design Toolkit -
Very very useful

Adhesives
information
source
4. Polyimides as
Adhesives: -
Literature
review..
Interesting
Article -Provides
useful notes on
adhesive
science
5. Chap 4 Surface
Preparations..
Adheria.. A very
very informative
article..On
surface
preparation for
adhesives
Home

Screws Fastenings Index
ROYMECH
Home
Relevant Tables
Bright
Strength,
Hexagon Tensile/ Bolt Head
Cap Screws torques and
Screws/Nuts/ YieldStrength Clearances
Loads
Washers
Bolt Loading Bolted Joints Screw Thread
Screw Stress Studs/
( Preloading (Shear Loads Locking Concrete /wood
Areas Weldstuds
etc ) etc) systems
......................................................................................................
Suppliers sites with Screw sizes/Specs
1. Fuller metric.. Extensive range on DIN/ISO standard screws with dimensions

2. Pts-UK.. Sizes of various type of Screws
3. CorusConstruction..For details on Black Bolts and nuts etc. click Design > Fasteners
4. Maryland Metrics..Vast quantity of useful technical information on metric screws in downloadable acrobat pages
......................................................................................................
Sites Providing Information On Bolt/Screw Design
1. Bolt Science..A site dedicated to the Science & Technology of bolted joints
2. Threaded Fasteners..A Section of the Site DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF MACHINE ELEMENTS.
3. Bolted Joints..A paper published on the Web
4. Metric Bolt Strength..Bolt Sizes Strengths- American bias
5. Croberts Com..Very useful section on the consequence of Bolt Failure
6. Safety Bulletin...Failure of Attachment Bolts at the Rotating Bearing on a Crane
7. Fastener Design Manual...NASA GRC RP-1228 (9.6 Mbyte pdf file). Design info on bolt + rivet joints
8. Bolt Council...Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints.(6.7 Mbyte pdf file). Excellent ....
9. SEED Guide...UK based Design Guide for Bolted joints ...Excellent again
10. The yielding of fasteners during tightening...An article with surprising conclusions
11. Understanding the Bolted Joint...A useful article (not metric)
12. Keeping It All Together ...Practical notes on bolted joints from an enthuiast
13. Norbar Toque Calculator..Very useful calculator for calculating the torque for any screw
......................................................................................................
Note: on tapping holes:

I normally specify a tapped hole depth of 1.5 dia for a fully threaded hole in a blind tapped hole (steel male and female). The depth of threaded hole if
a plug tap is not used i.e for automatic one stage tapping would be deeper.
According to BS1936 the tapping drill should be have a depth greater than the tapped depth (clearance depth) as follows
Less than M6 = 0.25 x full thread depth...
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Screws Fastenings Index
M6 TO M12 = 0.2 x full thread depth...

Greater than M12 = 0.15 x full thread depth.
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Screws/index_screws.htm (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:13:04 AM

Steel Section Index

ROYMECH
Home
Tables providing information on steel sections
The tables below are for initial reference only. I have extracted the information from reference sources which may not be in
accordance with the latest Standards - as identified. I am in the process of checking this information....The links below provide much
safer information... Corus is definitive for the UK and the spreadsheets provided technouk are excellent
Universal BS 4-1:1971
Dimensions Properties.
Beams (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Universal
Dimensions/Properties BS 4 Part 1: 1993
Beams
Equal
BS 4-1:1971
Angles Dimensions Properties.
(Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
(Imperial)
BS 4848-4 :1972
Equal Angles
Dimensions/Properties (Superseded by BS EN
(Metric)
10056-1:1999)
Equal Angles
Dimensions/Properties BS EN 10056-1:1999
(Metric)
Unequal
BS 4-1:1971
Angles Dimensions....... Properties.
(Imperial)
Unequal BS 4848-4 :1972
Angles Dimensions/Properties (Superseded by BS EN
(Metric) 10056-1:1999)
Unequal
Angles Dimensions/Properties BS EN 10056-1:1999
(Metric)
BS 4-1:1971
Channels Dimensions Properties
Channels Dimensions/Properties BS 4: 1993
BS 4-1:1971
Joists Dimensions Properties
Joists Dim_Properties BS 4-1:1993
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Sections/steel_section_index.htm (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:13:06 AM

Steel Section Index
Universal BS 4-1:1971
Dimensions Properties
Columns (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Universal
Dimensions_Properties BS 4:Part1 1993
Columns
Tee BS 4-1:1971
Sections (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
L.S. Tee BS 4-1:1971
Sections (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
BS 4-1:1971
Tee Bars Dimensions Properties
Tees cut
from U. Dim_Properties BS 4: 1993
Beams)
Tees cut
Dim_Properties BS 4: 1993
from Joists)
Hollow
Square
Dimensions/Properties BS EN 10219:1997
Section -
Cold Formed
Hollow
Rectangular
Section -
Cold Formed
Hollow
Square
Section -
Hot Formed
Hollow
Rectangular
Section -
Hot Formed

Steel Section Index
Links to sites with

steel section
dimensions/
properties
1. Corus
Construction...
This site provides
all the
information you
need for
structural design
2. General
Structural
Engineering...
Links to all
aspects of
Structural
Engineering
Design
3. MW tech...->
Mechanical
Engineering ->
Material Sizes
4. xcalcs... Section
information and
Calculations
5. Europrofil...
Detailed Sections
Based on
European Codes
(german) -using
via google ->
translating
function helps
6. Technouk...
Various
Spreadsheet
Downloads-
including
comprehensive
section
properties tables
7. Statics...
University of
Winsconsin -
Good reference
an learning info
8. Cadoss...A site
dedicated to
structural design
- includes
downloads and
CD's

Steel Section Index
Home

Beam Index

ROYMECH
Home
Index for Beam Information
Introduction... dictionary definition.... "a long sturdy piece of squared timber or steel used
in house building "
For the notes on this site a beam is as a structural member considered because it is
primarily loaded in a tranverse direction to its length..
A column is a structural member compressively loaded along its length..
A beam is typically a structural member which has a constant section and has a length
dimension which is long compared to its section dimensions. It primarily support loads in
a tranverse direction to its length.
Beams are primarily used in construction of structures. In mechanical engineering shafts,

levers, springs, gear teeth are designed using beam theory..
This section only relates to beams subject to tranverse loads, it does not include notes on
beams withstanding axial or torsional loads
Links to Beam Notes
Shear/BM Singularity
Beam Theory Strain energy
diagrams Functions
Single Span Continuous
Curved Beams Energy Methods
Beams Beams
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Beam Index
Sites Providing
Relevant
Information
1. Shear Force
and Bending
Moment
Diagrams..
UMIST notes
2. Statics and
Strength of
Materials...U of
Wisconsin
Notes
including
section on
beams
3. 4 Beams...
Building
Principles a
very clear
download
document
4. Elasticity...
Short wide
rangining
paper
download
5. Mitcalc...Excel
based software
including
coded beam
calculations
6. ON LINE
ANALYSIS...
EPC server on
line structural
calculations
(Free at the
moment) -
Only USA units
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Beams/Beam_Index.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:13:09 AM

Lifting Pages

ROYMECH
Home
Index of Lifting Items
Important Note: All information on the linked pages is for guidance only: For actual lifting capacities, dimensions and safe use
requirements refer the the standards indicated and be advised by the equipment suppliers
Collar Eyebolts with Dynamo
Bow Shackle Dee Shackle
Eyebolt links Eyebolts
Links to Lifting
1. Frank O'Brien -EyeBolts... Lifting Equipment

2. Anglia Handling...Useful Information of Methods and regulations
3. LGH Group... General Lifting equipment
4. Lift Systems...High capacity lifting using hydraulics
5. Lifting Equipment Engineers Association...Includes downloadable directory of lifting equipment companies
6. Hoistquip ...A hoist equipment supplier with some relevant information
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Lifting/lifting_index.html10/24/2006 11:13:10 AM
Transport Vehicle

ROYMECH
Home
ISO Container Sizes
ISO containers, also referred to as intermodal containers, are used to transport freight
throughout the world. ISO containers are designed for transportation by more than just one
mode: such as road and rail, or rail and ship. They are spefically design for convenient lifting
and movement. The relevevant standard for ISO containers is ISO 668:1995 Series 1 freight
containers - Classification, dimensions and ratings
ISO containers are manufactured in standard sizes. The standard width of ISO containers is 8
feet (2.44m ), the standard heights are 8 feet 6 inches (2.59m), and 9 feet 6 inches (2.9m), and
the most common lengths are 20 feet (6.1m) and 40 feet (12.19m). The containers are also
manufactured in a number of different lengths from 24 feet (7.31m) to 56 feet (17.22m)
London Underground Rolling Stock Sizes
Typical recent London Underground Rolling STock is 2.63m Wide x 2.875m Wide x 17.77m
Long supported on 4 wheel pairs the wheels being 0.77m dia.
UK Reasonable Car Parking Space
At Roadside = 6.6m Long x 2.7m wide

Within a single bay = 4.8m long x 3.6m Wide
UK Road vehicle size Limitations
The authorities need to be notified if a road vehicle is over 3m wide and/or if a vehicle is over
18.75m long and/or if the weight distribution of the vehicle exceeds the following
1. 18,000kg 2 axle
2. 26,000kg 3 axle
3. 32,000kg 4 axle
4. 40,000kg 5 axle
5. 44,000kg 6 axle
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Lifting/Transport.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:13:12 AM

Transport Vehicle
Only Bridges with clearance height of less than 4.95m (16'-3") are indicated on road maps.
Typical Car dimensions
BMW 525 4d.... Length = 4.84m width 1.84m height 1.46m Mass 2195kg
Ford Fiesta (99-02).... Length = 3.82m width 1.84m height 1.46m Mass 2195kg
Fiat Seicento Hatchback.... Length 3.33m Width =1.79m Height 1.32m Mass = 1560kg .
Typical Vehicle Access Dimensions
1. Minimum garage access 2.15m wide

2. Minimum domestic drive width 2.5m
3. Minimum cycle lane width =1.25m (good width 1.5m)
4. Minimum vehicle lane width=2.75m .(good width 3m)
British Rail Freight Dimensions
The freight dimensions typically range in width of 2.5m to 2.7m and heights over tracks of
3.3m to 3.7m.
The British Rail Standard Rail Gauge width is the distance between the inner faces of the rails
on which the wagon coach wheel run = 4'-8.5" (1.435m)......This is the same dimension as
most of Europe and 60% of the world - including the US .. ( we did have an influence on the
world besides our language..
Links related to transportation
1. Tandemloc Useful information on ISO container lifting equipment.

2. Globalspec Useful information on ISO containers
3. Railway and Loading Gauges Railway freight vehicle dimensions
4. Network Rail British Rail Freight information
5. London Underground Stock London Underground
6. dft.gov.uk Guidance notes for small businesses on the Road Vehicles
7. Railway Technical Web Pages Site providing lots of technical information on Railway Systems
Home

Transport Vehicle

Seals

ROYMECH
Home
Index Of Seals
O rings Simple toroidal seals used for a wide rang of dynamic and
static applications
Rotary Elastomer lip seal variants, labyrinth seals etc
Mechanical Engineered mechanical seals used for high speeds
Packings Packings used for pump and valve glands
Gaskets Seals for a wide range of face and flange seals
Links to Seals
1. James
Walker Well
known UK
Supplier
2. Garlock A
supplier of a
wide range of
seal products
3. Supaseal -
Lots of
information
and seal
dimensions
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Seals/Seals_Index.html10/24/2006 11:13:14 AM
Pump Information
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use this
information at your own risk.
ROYMECH
Home
Fluids Page
Pump Notes
Table showing generic pump types
Note: Links to more details information are included in the rows below..
Pumps
Kinetic Positive Displacement
Rotodynamic- Rotary Positive Displacement-
Peripheral-link Reciprocating-link
link link
Radial Flow Diaphragm Plunger Single Rotor Multiple Rotor

Axial Flow Sliding Vane Gear
Mixed Flow Flexible Vane Screw
Mono Lobe
Peristaltic
Piston
Single Pump Systems
The system head generally consists of two parts:-
Static Head
The difference between the suction and final discharge static levels in an open system. This is usually independent of
flow.
Energy Loss in the Pipework.
This is essentially the friction head loss in the piping and is related to the flow . Under turbulent flow operating
conditions the friction loss may be assumed to be related to the flow velocity 2. Therefore a friction loss plot is a
parabola passing through the origin.
The system characteristic curve is generally drawn as the parabolic friction loss curve superimposed on the constant
head line.
Methods of Calculating the Head Loss are found on this site Head Loss Calculations
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Pumps.html (1 of 6)10/24/2006 11:13:17 AM

Pump Information
It is often the case that the static head is small compared the friction loss e.g. in close circuits.
For some systems the static head is important only for comparatively short periods when the system is filled with the
liquid. These are circuits where the piping rises and then falls to the same, or lower level compared to the pump
level. It is possible that if the final liquid outlet level is below the pump level then a syphon is generated and the static
head assists the pump in overcoming the friction losses.
Centrifugal pump curve.
A typical pump operating with a set impeller diameter and at a set rotational speed delivers a head related to the liquid
flow rate. The head is normally highest at when no flow is delivered (dead headed) and lowest when there is no
restriction to the flow and it is consequently at its maximum flow. Both these extreme conditions are very undesirable.
A dead headed pump will result in all of the energy supplied at the pump shaft being dissipated in the small closed
volume of liquid. -The fluid will rapidly heat up An open discharge pump is operating with very poor efficiency with a
risk of overloading the drive motor.
A typical motor characteristic curve is shown below.

Pump Information
A pump is generally selected for a duty such that when the pump curve is superimposed on the system characteristic
curve the curves cross over at the pump best efficiency point. (BEP)
It is impractical to obtain a perfect match of the Best Efficiency Point of the pump with the system characteristic curve
and generally the flow will be higher or lower than desired. This will result is some the pump not providing the desired
performance may result in pump instability. Methods of achieving a match include:
1. Adjusting the pump speed

2. Adjusting the pump impeller diameter
3. Changing the impeller design
4. Adjusting the system resistance
5. Modifying static head
6. Providing a system bypass flow route
There is a modern trend to provide electrical variable speed drives to pump to enable the performance of the pump to
be adjusted - on the run. The modern AC inverter controlled motor is a very efficient low cost method of varying the

Pump Information
motor speed.
Multi-Pump Systems
Centrifugal pumps in parallel provide additive flow conditions and when mounted in series provide additive head
conditions. Therefore three matched pumps mounted in series will provide the same flow at three times the head
(aprox.) compared to one pump. Three matched pumps in parallel wil provide the same head at three times the flow
compared to one pump. A very popular variation on this theme is to provide mult-stage pumps with up to twenty
stages mounted on a common shaft to provide a high head from a single pump.
Head
The energy imparted to a fluid by a pump is measured as the head (in metres)per unit weight of fluid.
dH = (Z2 - Z1) + ( P2 -P1 )/ (ρ g ) - (v22 -v12)/ (2 g )
dH = Fluid Head developed across pump ..m

Z1 = Fluid Supply Level..m
Z2 = Fluid Discharge Level..m
P1 =Pressure over Supply Fluid..N/m2
P2 =Pressure into which fluid is discharged ..N/m2
ρ = Fluid Density..kg/m3)
g = Accelaration due to gravity 9.81 m / s2
v12 Fluid velocity at pump inlet m/s
v22 Fluid velocity at pump discharge m/s
Normally the velocity head and the height head is ignored for initial selection of the pump.
The head developed is therefore approximated to the static pressure difference expressed as a column of the liquid
pumped in metres of fluid.
Note: For accurate calculations the difference in height of the pump suction and out discharge flanges and the
difference in velocity head should be considered.
To convert the differential head developed to pressure difference in N/m2
p (N/m2 ) = dH * ρ g
NPSH
As liquid flows from the pump inlet flange into the energy conversion region eg.impellor or piston chamber, the head
initially falls as the velocity of the fluid is increased. If the liquid is near it vapour pressure the drop in head may be
sufficient to cause the liquid to boil this results in "cavitation". Cavitation is detectable as a rattling noise and results in
low efficiency, and high risk of damage to the pump.

Pump Information
The head drop for any pump design at a selected flow is provided by the manufacturer as the NPSH required NPSHR
measured in metres of fluid pumped.
If the head of the fluid at the pump suction flange is not greater that the vapour pressure, at the pumping temperature,
plus the NPSHR then cavitation will occur.
The head at the pump inlet flange - the relevant vapour is called the NPSH available NPSHA.
The NPSHA must be at least 1-2m of fluid greater than the NPSHR to avoid cavitation.
Pi = Surface pressure of fluid (N/m2)

Pb = Barometric pressure (N/m2)
Pv = Vapour pressure of fluid (N/m2)
ρ = Fluid density (kg/m3)
Ve = Velocity of fluid at pump inlet (m/s)
Ze = Fluid Surface level above pump inlet. (m)
Fe = Friction loss is pipe to pump. (m)
Methods of Calculating the fluid friction loss are found on this site Head Loss Calculations
Note: 1 bar = 105 N/m2
Useful relevant links
1. 1MNO eng.. A site

containing a large
number of Fluid
Flow Calculations
and Calculators :
Some of the
calculators require
registration for a
fee;
2. Fluid Design .. A
Site with
information and
formulas related to
Pump calculation :
3. Uengineer.. A site
including fluid
calculations and
various data
sheets
4. The Engineering
Page.. A site
including various
Engineering
Calculators - Very
good pump
calculator
5. ER_Online..
Useful software
downloads - Very

Pump Information
good pump
calculator
6. CheResources..
Subscription
required $25/a but
is probably worth
it
7. McNally Institute ..
An excellent
reference site for
all matters
concerning pumps
8. Glossary of
Pumps.. Animated
pictures and
detailed sections
for most types of
pumps
9. Pumps Reference
Guide..
DownLoad (pdf)
document detailed
pump reference
document ..
Excellent
10. Variable speed
driven pumps -
Best practice
guide.. DownLoad
(pdf) Pump
information - with
variable speed
drives ..Excellent
Home
Fluids Page

Fluid Valve Notes
ROYMECH
Home
Fluids Page
Valve Notes
Note:
This page provides only limited outline information on valves.. Links are included below for obtaining more detailed
quality information. Over time further information will be added.
Introduction
Valves are integral components in piping systems they are the primary method of controlling the flow, pressure and
direction of the fluid. Valves may be required to operate continuously e.g. control valves, or they may be operated
intermittently e.g. isolation valves, or they may be installed to operate rarely if ever e.g. safety valves. A valve can be
an extremely simple, low cost item or it may be and extremely complicated, expensive item. In piping design the
valves probably require more engineering effort than any other piping component.
Valve Classifications
Isolation/Stop valve-
The isolation of the downstream system from the upstream system by use of and isolation /stop valve is a critically
important function..The prime requirements of this valve are tight shut off when closed and minimum restriction to flow
when open.
Valves used for this function include gate valves, globe valves, ball valves, plug valves, butterfly valves, diaphragm
valves and pinch valves
Regulation of flow
Many applications require the flow of the fluid be regulated (throttled) at some fixed or variable level between fully zero
and maximum flow limits. This is achieved by introducing resistance to flow, or by bypassing flow or by changing the
direction of the flow. An important feature for control valves is that the output variable (flow) is related to the input
variable (valve position). An ideal operating characteristic of a hand operated flow control valve is that the flow is
directly proportional to the position of the handwheel
Valve types for this function include globe, needle, ball, butterfly. Globe and needle valves are best suited for this duty
but ball valves are also easily adapted to give reliable flow control..
Back flow prevention

In some circumstances it is important to prevent reversed fluid flow. The type of valve for this duty is a non-return-
valve (NRV) or check valve. The important criteria when selecting these valves are, tight shut off against reverse flow,
low resistance to flow for forward flow, fast response. The valve can be operated to close by gravity, fluid flow , or
spring.
Two main valve types are available for this function lift check valves or swing check valves.
Pressure Regulation
In many applications, more generally associated with gases, there is a need to reduce the supply press to a set fixed
value. It is also necessary to maintain this reduced pressure over a range of fluid flow conditions. The pressure
regulator valve is engineered for this application. The valve is basically a globe valve biased open by an adjustable
spring force with the feedback pressure tending to move the valve to a closed position such that at the set pressure the
feedback pressure force just exceeds the spring force
The pressure regulator valve operates using the downstream fluid pressure as feedback. This is mostly taken from
within the valve (self acting). For more accurate control a feedback connection can be taken from the downstream
piping.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Valves.html (1 of 13)10/24/2006 11:13:23 AM

Fluid Valve Notes
The pressure regulation at low near zero flows is difficult and it is often necessary to include internal or external relief
valve functions to ensure no high pressures in the downstream system.
Pressure Relief Valves- Safety valves

A very important valve for safety is the pressure relief valve. This valve is used in applications where excessive
pressure in the system can cause damage or failure or can introduce a safety risk. Uncontrolled excessive pressures
can result in disastrous accidents e.g. when potentially explosive gases are being controlled. Relief valves are mainly
spring loaded but they can also be gravity operated and other more specialised designs are available.
The bursting /ruputure disc must be included under the general heading of safety valves. This is simply a disc which
ruptures when a set pressure is exceeded. The fluid then escapes through the ruptured disc. If the bursting disc
operates the system has be be closed down and vented and the bursting disc is then replaced
Relief valves when used for safety applications are engineered in line with safety regulations and require regular
inspections to confirm the settings and the operation. An important part of the relief valve installation is the routing of
the relieved fluid. This pipe route must be to a safe location and must be engineered such that it is always fully open.
Special and miscellaneous valves

There are a wide variety of special valves developed for specific industries.
Fluid Properties and operating conditions

The properties of the fluid be controlled have a major impact on the design and materials of constuction of the
valve. The piping industry, over the years, had developed a wide range of valve designs and material to handle
virtually all of the fluids being handled. The selection of the valve should take into account fluid viscosity,
temperature, density and flowrate. The valve must be suitable to withstand resulting corrosion and erosion and if
necessary the valve may have to be design for no internal hold up of fluids.
Important considerations include for absolute internal and external leak tightness when handling toxic or explosive
fluids. There regulations also include for the need for a firesafe valve to maintain its internal and external integrity
when the valve surrounded by flames from a fire..
Valve Connections
There are a number of methods of connecting valves into the piping systems- as follows
● Flanges .. The valve is provided with suitable rated flanges.

● Wafer .. The valve is provided with suitable sealing faces and is trapped between line flanges.
● Butt Welded ..The valve is provided with butt weld end and welded into the piping system using high integrity
joints.
● Socket Welded ..Socket welds allow and welded into the piping system using fillet welds.
● Screwed Ends .. Ends can be provided with female or male screwed ends . The threads can be taper or
parallel
● Compression Fittings .. Ends can be provided with compression fittings
Valve Containment
An important requirement in valve design is to minimise the leakage of fluids into the surrounding environment. This is
very important in the nuclear industry and when transferring toxic or flammable fluids. The possible leakage points on
valves are listed below
● The end connections with the piping.-

● The spindle gland seals -allowing axial and rotary motion.
● For top entry valves the sealed top closure joint
● For three piece ball valves - the two split joints
● Valve drain connections and vent connections
The best option for minimising risk of leakage from the pipe connections is to use butt welded joints which can be

Fluid Valve Notes
verified by non-destructive-testing(NDT). This option obviously eliminates the valve types which have to be removed
for maintenance.
The options for eliminating risk of gland leakage is to use bellows sealed valves. The risk can also be reduced by
incorporating dual seals with a test point between. Pinch valves and diaphragm valves do not include gland sealing
and are therefore not at risk of gland leakage.
Flow Factors
It is clear that different sized valves have different flow rate capacities and it is very important to be able to assess the
flow through a valve for a fluid at certain conditions. The flow characteristics for an on-off valve are fixed and can be
evaluated directly using the relevant flow factor. The flow through flow control valves, relief valves, pressure reducing
valves and check valves depend on the operating condition for the valve and require a more detailed evaluation..
The most general method of identifying the flow capacity of a valve is the C v Factor..
The C v factor based on american imperial units and is defined as follow
C v = The flow of water through a valve at 60 oF in US gallon/minute at a pressure drop of 1 lb/in2
The metric flow factor (K v) is used throughout outside of america and is defined as follows
K v = the flow of water through a valve at 20 oC in m3/hr with a pressure drop of (1 bar)
The conversion between the two factors is K v = 0.865 C v
Also kv is defined as follows...
k v = the flow of water through a valve at 20 oC in litres/min with a pressure drop of (1 bar)
The conversion between k v and C v is ...k v = 14.42 C v
Liquid Flow
To establish the flow ( Q ) in litres /m at a differential pressure ( ∆p )in bar for a liquid with a specific gravity relative to
water ( γw ).
Note: This relationship only applies for liquids similar to water at reasonable flows (sub-sonic).
Gas Flow
For gases and supersonic flows more complicated formulae are required....
The formulae below must be used only for rule of thumb estimates. The assumption that the critical ∆p is at P1 /2 does
not hold for all valves. For accurate flow calculations the valve manufacturers data sheets must be used
For gases flowing at sub-sonic velocities the following relationship holds..

Fluid Valve Notes
T1 = Inlet gas temperature deg K = Deg C + 273

γa =Gas specific gravity relative to air
q n = gas flow at normal conditions ...
P1 = Inlet Pressure (absolute)
For gases flowing at super-sonic velocities the following relationship holds..
Gas Reference conditions
Normal conditions: P=1013.25mb and

T=273.15K
Standard conditions: P=1013.25mb and
T=288.75K.
VALVE DESCRIPTIONS
Gate Valves
Gate valves are generally used in the process industry for on-off service. The design is not suitable for throttling duty
because the sealing surfaces can easily suffer from wire drawing (erosion) when low flows are being maintained
against high differential pressures and the design give very poor flow control characteristics..
The gate valve can be manufactured in a wide range of sizes from 5mm to above 2000mm dia. The designs are
proven and well tested. There is a tendency to move to butterfly valves as a lower cost option.
The valve can be based on a solid wedge, a wedge which can adjust to suit the seal faces, or a parallel faced based on
two discs which slide between parallel sealing faces with a mechanism form forcing the discs out on the last part of the
spindle travel. The valve can be based on a simple rising spindle design or a fixed spindle which screws into the gate..
There are a large number of gate valve variations including slide valves, knife valves, penstock valves, sluice valves,
and venturi valves.

Fluid Valve Notes
Fixed spindle Gate Valve

Rising Spindle Gate Valve
Globe Valves
The globe valve includes an orifice set into the body through which the fluid flows. A disc located on the end of the
spindle is engineered to move in and out along the axis of the orifice. When the disc is moved to sit in the orifice the
flow path is shut-off. The flow path is progressively increased as the disc is moved away from the orifice.
The surface of the orifice (seat) is generally engineering as a replaceable item made from erosion resistant material
with a polished surface finish. The disc can be fitted with a soft seat if a tight shut-off is required. For flow control
duties the disc is supplied with an engineered shape often with a contoured skirt.
For manually operated valves the spindle screwed so that rotation of the handle moves the disc in and out. For
actuated control valves the spindle is moved in and out using a linear actuator which can be pneumatic, hydraulic or
electric..
The fluid flow path through globe valves is such that there is normally a high fluid head loss through the valve. The
inline body design has the highest head loss, the angle pattern body design has a lower head loss. There are certain
designs of globe valves which have been engineered to have low head loss characteristics. (Ref Dynamic Controls
cartridge valves).. Globe valves are supplied in sizes from 3mm bore through 400mm and can be used, size limiting at
pressures up to 450 barg. Depending on the sealing systems the valves can be used at temperatures the 600 oC.

Fluid Valve Notes
Small Size Screwed Globe Valve
Needle Valves
The needle valve is used specifically for accurately controlling the flow of fluids at low flows. The valve is basically a
globe valve without the disc. It is generally used provided in small sizes of up to 20mm bore..
Needle Valve
Plug Valves
The plug valve is the oldest of the valves. Plug valves have been in use for over 2000 years. This valve has been in

Fluid Valve Notes
continuous development over recent years. The plug valve is basically and on-off valve based on a plug with a
rectangular hole through which the fluid flows. The plug is either tapered or cylinderical and is located in the valve
body and can be rotated through a quarter turn to line the hole up with the pipe when open or across the pipe when
closed.
The plug can be adapted for multi-port use allow the valve to be used for diverting flow. The valve can be engineered
with a lubricated plug which uses the lubricant to enable convenient operation over a wide range of pressures. The
lubrication film also provides a seal.
The unlubricated design includes seals in the plug and requires plastic bearing systems. The valve can include a
cage between the plug and the body which includes the bearing a sealing systems and allow convenient
maintenance. These valves have be specially developed for use in industries requiring high performance operation
under arduous conditions and allowing remote maintenance e.g. the nuclear industry.
The valve is a full bore and has virtually no internal cavities..
Lubricated Plug Valve
Ball Valves
The ball valve is basically a plug valve with a spherical plug and a round hole. Over recent years the materials of
construction of the ball valve have been developed such that the ball valve is becoming the most popular valve for most
process applications. There are two primary options for the ball valve design
● Floating Ball Design- This is low cost option for the lower duties
● Trunnion Ball Design- This is a more costly option for the higher duties
The ball valve is generally provided as a reduced bore design allowing a smaller body but still with relatively low head
loss compared to most other valve options e.g 25nb valve has a 20mm reduced bore,. The full bore option has a larger
body but provides zero restriction to flow. The valve can be supplies as a multi-port design for flow diverting but only
with the reduced bore option
The engineering of the ball valve has to include for fitting and removing the ball and seat system. Ideally this has to be
engineered to enable the valve to be maintained inline.. One method of achieving this is to use the top-entry version -
all of the internals are accessible by removing the top flange. Another method is to use a three piece body based on a
central piece sandwiched between two pieces connecting the valve to the pipework. The central piece can be released
and pivotted away from the two outer pieces allowing access to all of the valve components.

Fluid Valve Notes
The ball valve can be engineered as a multi-port valve for flow diverting duties.
An important advantage of all full bore valves is that the valve allows certain pipe cleaning operations e.g rodding . Ball
valves can also be used on branches to enable instruments to be fed into pipe systems during operating periods.
Ball valves are available in all materials in sizes from 5mm to over 600mm. The valves can be used at pressures up to
700 bar. The main components limiting the performance of ball valves are the ball seals and valves are available with
metallic seals.
Ball Valve Trunnion Mounted

Ball Valve - With Floating Ball
Butterfly Valves
The butterfly valve has head loss characteristics of a full bore valve. The design is based on use of an engineered
disc of the same dia as the bore of the pipe arranged to pivot such that when it is across the bore is closes off the flow
path. When turned through 90o the disc provides minimum resistance to the flow. The valve is a quarter turn valve.
The main variations for this valve are the methods of sealing the perimeter of the disc in its closed position. The
simplest variation is to use an elastomer lined bore which is an interference fit on the disc. The other variations are
based on offsetting the disc plane from the axis of rotation allow the disc to close against a circular face seal such that
the fluid pressure increases the seal effect. Metallic seals are available allowing the valve to be used for a wide range
of fluids at high temperatures
The butterfly valve has been developing such that for many duties it now provides optimum solution for a leak tight on-
off valve supplanting the gate valve. The butterfly valve can be engineered as a small valve of 25mm bore and can be
made for extremely large sizes above 5000mm bore. Depending on the valve size working pressures up to 100 bar
can be handled

Fluid Valve Notes
Butterfly Valve - Lined
Diaphragm Valves
The diaphragm valve has a significant advantage over most of the other available designs, apart from the pinch valve,
in that there is no gland seal requirement. The fluid flows straight through the valve via a chamber over which is an
elastomer diaphragm. This diaphragm is normally arranged to provide no resistance to the flow. The perimeter of the
diaphragm is simply clamped to a seal face of the valve body as a static seal.
To close off the valve the diaphragm is simply forced down into the chamber to block off the flow. The chamber can
include a weir across the flowpath against which the diaphragm can be pressed to affect a more efficient seal with
reduced diaphragm distortion.
The straight through variation is effectively a full bore valve design with all the associated benefits. However this
option results in a much more arduous duty on the diaphragm which has to be a softer material
This type of valve is manufactured in sizes from 6mm to 400mm and is generally limited to relatively low fluid pressures
(less than 7 barg). However in the smaller sizes (up to 50mm) valves can be specially engineered for use at pressures
up to 30barg. The diaphragm must be chosen to be compatible with the fluid. Whatever the fluid the diaphragms must
be replaced at regular intervals and it is advisable to operate the valves frequently.
These valves are often used for duties which require a high degree of cleanliness as they can be supplied lined, and
polished and can be very conveniently cleaned.

Fluid Valve Notes
Diaphragm Valve - straight

Diaphragm Valve - With weir
Pinch Valves
The pinch valve is a theoretically ideal solution for fluid on-off duties. The valve is simple a length of pipe made from an
elastomeric material with a mechanical system for squeezing the tube closed when a shut off is required. The valve is
a true full bore valve - there are no mechanical parts in contact with the fluid- The operation of the valve is ideally
simple- The valve can be easily engineered as a tight-shut off valve..
The valve is often supplied with the pinch tube contained within a outer pipe between the end flanges. This option
provides a method of monitoring for tube leaks and provides a degree of secondary containment
The valve has similar limitations to the diaphragm valve. The diaphragm valve is really a variation on the pinch valve
principles.. Pinch valves are supplied is for diameters 25 mm - 1000 mm, temperatures -50 C - +160 C, and pressures
0 - 100 bar.
Pinch Valve
Check Valves

Fluid Valve Notes
Check valves are automatic in operation and designed to prevent reversal of flow in fluid piping systems. The valves
are maintained open by the flow of fluid in the forward direction and are closed by back pressure of the fluid or by the
weight of the closing mechanism or by a spring force. Various designs are available as listed below..
● Swing check
● Tilting disc
● Ball lift type
● Disc lift type
● Piston check
● Stop check
The range of check valve sizes range from 6mm to massive units of 3000mm dia and more.
The swing check variation is a low pressure drop unit based on a hinged disc. This type of valve is suitable for low
velocity applications with infrequent velocity reversals. The valve can be fitted with external weights to allow faster
closure to reduce water hammer or shock pressure on flow reversal. External systems can also be included to force
the valve closed in the event of a local fire...
The lift check valve and piston check variation are used for higher duty applications. The valve is forced open by the
fluid flowing up through the valve and is closed on fluid reversal by gravity, back pressure or by spring force.
The tilting disc variation on the swing check valve provides improve speed of operation and pressure performance and
is probably the most popular design of check valve used in the process industry..
Swing Check Valve

Lift Check Valve
Useful Links
1. Velan Valves UK..

A company
supplying a wide
range of process
valves-
Downloadable
catalogue and
design info
2. Norgren .. A
major supplier
pneumatic
system control
valves
3. Swagelok ..
Supplier of wide

Fluid Valve Notes
range a specially
engineered
smaller valves -
site includes
downloadable
design
information
Swagelok-Valve
sizing information
4. Eurovalve.. Valve
Supplier
5. Northvale
Korting ..Process
Valve Supplier
6. Dezurik Valves..
Process Valve
Supplier .. Mainly
Butterfly Valves
Dezurik Valves-
Valve sizing
software
7. Crane Valves ..
Major Process
Valve Supplier
8. Hytork..Actuators
for Quarter Turn
Valves (ball/plug/
butterfly etc)
9. Worcester
Controls..Ball
Valves and
Pneumatic
Actuators
10. Larox..High
specification
Pinch Valves
11. Circle Seal
Controls ..Hoke
Valves etc etc.
12. Dynamic
Controls ..High
Integrity Cartridge
Valves
13. Eng-Software
Valve Sizing
Notes..Pipe sizing
software and
useful notes on
basis of
calculations
14. flow data flow
factor and orifice
size..ASCO
Joucomatic
Download ..Valve
flow calculations

Fluid Valve Notes
15. Butterfly-Valves.
org ..Directory of
Butterfly Valves
Manufacturers
(USA)
Home
Fluids Page

Fluid Power Hydraulics/Pneumatics
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use this information
at your own risk.
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Fluid Power Hydraulics / Pneumatics
Pneumatics
Compressed air systems are generally used to provide controlled motion using cylinder actuators for linear motion and
rotary actuators rotary motion.. Typical uses of compressed air drives include..
● Power tools
● Valve Operators
● Positioning cylinders
● Hammer drills.
● Paint Spray Guns
● Air driven Hoists
● Air Motors
● Packaging systems
● Pick and Place units
● Air lift pads
● Air Conveyor systems
● Fluid agitation systems
● Impact wrenches
The main disadvantage of pneumatic actuators compared with electrical and hydraulic actuators is that the motive fluid
(air) is compressible and hence accurate speed control and position control is difficult and often requires ancillary
systems..
The advantages of pneumatic systems are
● The low cost of the components

● The ease of design and implimentation
● The huge range of available components
● The use of air limits the force/torque that can be generated providing a safety feature
Compressed Air system Components

Operating Conditions.
Normal compressed air systems operate at a pressure of approximately 7 barg...
The compressor would need to be rated for some margin above the e.g. 10-12 barg.
The equipment would be rated for use at pressures 4 barg to 6 barg.
A compressed air systems generally includes the following components..
Air compressor..
This is either electric driven or driven by an internal combustion engine.. The compressor output has to be balanced
with the demand and can be operated on a variable displacement basis or, more normally, it is operated intermittently
under pressure control..
Air Receiver..
This is a vessel so sized that the pressure is maintained within set limits as the flow to the users varies.
Air Preparation
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/pneumatics_hydraulics.html (1 of 7)10/24/2006 11:13:27 AM

On a large system there may be a main air treatment system on the main header and a individual air treatment system
for each group of users. An air treatment system will include an Filter, Lubricator, Isolation Valve, and Pressure
Regulator (with gauge) as a minimum.
Air piping system

On normal systems the main air pipes will be suitably rated steel /galvanized iron /Wrought iron piping. The local piping
to users will be copper and plastic piping can be used for small bore connections. The piping should include the
necessary slopes down to separators for removing any moisture in the compressed air supply which forms in the piping
over time. The velocity of air within the air supply header should be limited to about 15m/s.
Air Consumption Data

Note: The following information represents crude first estimate data. Actual information from suppliers literature should
be used for detailed estimates..
Air Consumption
Appliance Size
litres/s
Air motor Up to 0.75kW 20/kW
0.75-4.0kW 18 /kW
over 4 kW 16 /kW
Drilling Machine mm hole in steel 10
9 mm hole in steel 12
18 mm hole in
15
steel
25 mm hole in
20
steel
30 mm hole in
25
steel
38 mm hole in
30
steel
50 mm hole in
40
steel
Spray Gun Small 1 at 4 bar

Medium 4 at 4 bar
Large 10 at 4 bar
Grinder 18 mm wheel 5
50 mm wheel 8
100 mm wheel 20
150 mm wheel 30
Flow of Compressed Air Through Pipes
Note: Table allows rough estimation of pressure drop along

Pressure Drop of Air in bars /100m at 7bar gauge and 15degC along Sched 40
Free air Compressed
compressed air pipes
Nm3/m @ m3/m @ Pipe sizes (nb sched 40) and ID (mm)
1,013bara 7barg 1/8"nb 1/4"nb 3/8" nb 1/2"nb 3/4"nb 1"nb 1.25"nb 1.5"nb 2"nb
40,9 52,5
@ 15 o C 6,8mm 9,2mm 12,5mm 15,8mm 21,0mm 26,6mm 35,1mm
mm mm
0,03 0,038 0,093 0,021 0,0045
0,06 0,0076 0,337 0,072 0,016 0,0051
0,09 0,0114 0,719 0,154 0,033 0,011
0,12 0,0152 1,278 0,267 0,058 0,018
0,15 0,019 1,942 0,405 0,087 0,027 0,0067
0,2 0,0253 3,357 0,698 0,146 0,047 0,011 0,0035
0,3 0,0379 7,554 1,57 0,319 0,099 0,24 0,0073
0,4 0,0506 2,71 0,458 0,170 0,041 0,012
0,5 0,0632 4,1 0,842 0,257 0,062 0,018
0,6 0,0759 5,9 1,19 0,37 0,88 0,26 0,066
0,7 0,0885 8,03 1,62 0,494 0,117 0,035 0,0086 0,0041
0,8 0,101 2,12 0,634 0,150 0,044 0,011 0,0053
0,9 0,114 2,64 0,803 0,187 0,055 0,014 0,0065
1,0 0,126 3,26 0,991 0,231 0,067 0,017 0,0079
1,25 0,158 4,99 1,55 0,353 0,102 0,026 0,012
1,5 0,19 7,2 2,19 0,499 0,147 0,036 0,017 0,0048
1,75 0,221 9,79 2,98 0,679 0,196 0,047 0,022 0,0064
2,0 0,253 3,82 0,871 0,257 0,062 0,029 0,0082
2,25 0,284 4,84 1,1 0,325 0,076 0,036 0,010
2,5 0,316 5,97 1,36 0,393 0,094 0,045 0,012
3,0 0,379 8,6 1,92 0,565 0,135 0,063 0,018
3,5 0,442 2,61 0,754 0,184 0,086 0,024
4,0 0,506 3,41 0,984 0,236 0,110 0,030
4,5 0,569 4,32 1,25 0,298 0,136 0,038
5,0 0,632 5,34 1,54 0,368 0,164 0,046
6,0 0,759 7,68 2,17 0,518 0,236 0,066
7,0 0,885 2,95 0,689 0,321 0,090
8,0 1,011 3,85 0,9 0,419 0,115
9,0 1,138 4,88 1,14 0,53 0,145
10,0 1,264 6,02 1,41 0,64 0,179
11,0 1,391 7,29 1,71 0,774 0,217
12,0 1,517 8,67 2,02 0,921 0,252
13,0 1,643 2,38 1,08 0,295
14 1,770 2,76 1,25 0,343
15 1,896 3,13 1,44 0,393

16 2.023 3,57 1,64 0,443

18 2,276 4,49 2,07 0,558
20 2,528 5,49 2,53 0,685
22 2,781 6,65 3,07 0,825
26 3,287 4,22 1,15
28 3,54 4,86 1,33
30 3,793 5,62 1,52
32 4,046 6,39 1,73
34 4,298 7,22 1,94
36 4,551 8,09 2,17
38 4,804 2,41
40 5,057 2,67
45 5,689 3,36
For other diameters
∆ P other = ∆ P. (ID/IDother ) 5
For other pressures than 7 barg and other temperatures then 15 oC..
∆ P other = ∆ P . (7 +1,013) / ( Pother +1,013) . (273+ t other) / 288
For other Lengths..Pressure drop is in proportion to length ..
Hydraulics
Hydraulics are used for providing high torques and high forces with a high level of control of the motion. Hydrualic fluid
is virtually incompressible so controlling the flow of fluid provides accurate control of the motion of the relevant
actuator.. Typical uses of Hydraulic drives include..
● Vehicle drives in agricultural and civil applications

● High power low weight motors (high speed and low speed)
● Elevators
● Aircraft motion control- wings - undercarriage etc
● Hydraulic Hoists
● Automation actuators
● Machine tool drives
● Flight Simulators- For training pilots
● Motion Simulators- For vibration seismic testing
The primary advantage of hydraulic systems compared to pneumatic and electric systems is that high forces and
torques can be developed with comparatively compact motors without the need for gearboxes. Very accurate motion
controls are possible using sophisticated servo valves.
The disadvantages of hydraulic systems include the relatively high cost of components and the need to condition and
contain the hydraulic fluid.
Hydraulic system Components

Hydraulic systems are generally confined to local areas e.g. a vehicle, a machine tool. They are not designed as
distributed systems as are pneumatic systems. However large distributed systems have been employed. In times

past, in cities, very extensive systems have been engineered to serve diverse hydraulic units elevators - bridges etc.
Hydraulic systems ...
Operating Conditions.
Hydraulic power systems systems use hydraulic fluids at pressures between 35 barg and 350 barg.
The hydraulic fluid must be maintained within safe temperature regime by use of coolers.
The hydraulic components have close clearances so the fluid must be filtered.
Suggested velocities in hydraulic systems are as follows
● Pump Suction...0,6 - 1,2 m/s

● Delivery flow...2,0 - 5,0 m/s
● Return flow...1,5 - 4,0 m/s
Power Pack
The hydraulic power pack impart the essential potential energy to the hydraulic fluid using appropriate pumps e.g.
Gear, Vane, Piston pumps are used. The power pack normally includes the following features
● Reservoir for hydraulic fluid - with instrumentation, air filter and strainer over outlet
● Protection for pump including filter
● Pump located below reservoir to minimise suction feed requirement
● Accumulator to maintain steady pressure against flow variations
● Cooler for removing waste heat from the system (Air cooler /Water cooler)
● Control valves, relief valve, unloading valve, isolation valves
● Provision for containing any leaks with suitable instrumentation
Typical power pack duties obtained from a suppliers literature

10 kW ....36 l/s......120 bar...3 kW Oil cooler
50 kW ....160 l/s.... 200 bar...15 kW Oil cooler
Interconnecting Pipework
The interconnecting piping on hydraulic systems feeds should include for pressurised piping from the power pack to the
equipment and also return piping from the equipment to the reservoir through the cooler. The interconnecting
pipework is very important in hydraulic systems because it is essential to have no fluid leakage against an environment
with a high degree of continuous vibration
Connections systems are available using compression fitting, o-ring fittings, and at the highest level welded fittings. It
is often necessary to include flexible hoses connecting to the actuators . These are generally the most unreliable part of
the system and must be carefully design in strict accordance with the suppliers instructions
Hydraulic Valves
Hydraulic valves are generally highly engineered components. Valve types include
● Pressure Control Valves - e.g Relief valves, unloading valves, pressure maintaining valves
● Flow Control Valves -
● Direction Control Valves -
● Servo Valves - providing high accuracy fast response control of pressures and flowrates.
The control valves are often controlled using electronic /computer control systems...
Hydraulic Actuators
Hydraulic actuators generally based on single or double acting cylinders and motors. Small cylinders of less than
10mm dia are available. At the other extreme hydraulic press tools are available capable of forces in excess of 5000 te.

The motors can be low speed (less than 0.5 rpm ) through to high speed (more than 10,000 rpm). Motors can be
provided with torque ranges for 1Nm (high speed)to 20000 Nm.(Low Speed)..
Useful Links
1. Fluid Power
Web.. Relevant
information and
Links
2. Nogren.. A
supplier of
components for
pneumatic
systems
3. Parker Europe..
Supplier of wide
range of hydraulic
and pneumatic
components
4. Hydraulics
Technical
Library.. Online
hydraulics library
containing
application
formulas, product
data,
maintenance tips
and "how-to"
tutorials.
5. Elements of a
basic pneumatic
system.. A short
downloadable
paper providing
basic information
6. Pneumatics
Online.. An

american based
site- providing
information and
links related to
pneumatic
systems
7. How stuff works
Hydraulics.. Clear
useful basic
information..
8. Eaton .. A
supplier of
hydraulic
equipment..
9. Lift Systems...
High capacity
lifting using
hydraulics
10. Hydraulics...A
detailed
document on all
aspects of
Hydraulics
11. Free Ed
Hydraulics...A
FREE online
course in
hydraulics.
"Excellent"
12. Quick disconnect
Couplings..Quick
Disconnect
Coupling and
Hose Coupling
Manufacturers -
(USA )
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Engineering Reference Links
Engineering Toolbox ... Resources, Tools and Basic Information for Engineering
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and Design of Technical Applications
2 Martindales;... A massive source of reference links and on-line calculators
Mechanical Engineers Calculators ;...Various online calculators, Statics,
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Efunda;
4 An Engineers reference site providing Formulas, Ref. Tables, Properties etc ..
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Limited access unless $6/month
Engineers Toolbox;
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engineers calculations.
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Engineering Techdata;... Tables, Formulas and useful engineering information
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mostly imperial units
Manufacturing Advisory Service 2.0 ...A Process/Material Selection Tool ..Well
8 worth a visit.. Takes time to download (Imperial)-No longer support but still
works
Hyperphysics....A site with lots of scientific information in simple laymans
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language. ;...
PDH Center....A site with online courses in a wide range of topics including all
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11 Engineering Resources ....A UK based providing "Engineering Resources. ;...
MechEngineer....A Site providing links, Free Resources and Reference
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13 iCrank ....Another Site providing links , and useful tables etc ;...
14 Edinburgh Engineering Virtual Library ....A very popular engineering site ;...
Maintenance Technology This site includes an number of interesting articles on
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plant maintenance and reliability
16 QBCBearings ....A design manual for bearings ;...
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Engineering Sites
Engineering Talk An engineering reference site with a number of trade news

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Conformance- Machinery Directive A site Providing information of the Machinery
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Directive...
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
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A university document providing extensive engineering theory-"Excellent"
Treasure-Troves Of Physics A comprehensive source of Physics information of
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a relatively advanced level
21 Lawrence D.Miles Reference Center A site for information on Value Engineering
Design InSite ..A class site providing information on Design processes and
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Sites Providing information on TRIZ/QFD/Taguchi.
23 Triz..TRIZ... QFD ....QFD.. Taguchi ....Taguchi
Triz-_2 ....Theory of inventive problem solving
Free Ed net..This site includes a number of on line courses - Many on
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Integrated Publishing..This site includes a number of Tutorial on Maths
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26 TUC ..TUC One Stop health and Safety. Useful health and Safety Information.
British Standards Institute...British Standards Site - Access to all British
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Standard Titles. (Subscription required for Full standards).
General Structural Engineering Links to all aspects of Structural Engineering
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Quality Network A Site providing Information on Quality /Engineering
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Virtual Engineer Design Information/Links For Structural Engineers + seismic
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iCivilEngineer iCivilEngineer.com is the gateway to quality Internet resources in
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32 Infomine Internet Links For Scholars
Knovel.com Online Library of Technical Books. Subscription expensive!! ( 24
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MITCalc... Excel Workbooks for Calculating Shafts, Springs, Beams, Limits etc .
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Surface Engineering Association...Surface Engineering is becoming extremely
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Engineering Sites
Quality Online... Quality Online is a Site devote to quality management and

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measurement
Dr R.B Standlers Homesite... Essays on Technical Writing, Creativity,
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Mathematical Skills, a bit of humour. I like this site.
Manufacturing-Engineer On a Disk ...A comprehensive document covering most
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Manufacturing processes in some detail
The Engineers Edge ...An excellent engineering reference site Highly
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recommended..
Science Gems ...Frank Potters Science Gems..An extensive source of science
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info and links
41 Mega Converter ...A converter and so much more....
42 UEngineer..Pump / Compressor/Pipe Calculations & Blank Data Sheets
43 Platonic Realms.... Very Extensive Mathematics Information...Excellent
Engineering Tips....Ask a question -get an answer or looking a other engineers
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questions/answers
45 Engineers-Online....Engineering Jobs and News etc
46 GoWelding.com....Excellent site devoted to Welding
Freestudy ... For engineers prepering for professional examinations- Tutorial
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notes - test exams and exam marking services
48 Basics Of Machine Design.... On line Reference
49 globalSpec.... Supplier Information and Mechanical Information
50 Constants .... Physic laboratory of NIST
Structural Analysis Reference Library .... A Wealth of Engineering Links and
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Information - High Quality
Scienceworld.wolfram .... Welcome to the best resource of Science and math on
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the Internet- Probably true
Mathcad Files .... Downloadable mathcad Files on various topics related to
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Engineering
SEED .... SEED Engineering design guide- A must for all practicing and student
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engineers
pandora .... This site has a massive quantity of useful mechanical engineering
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links.
tpub .... A source of downloadable pdf format engineering documents at very
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reasonable prices

Engineering Sites
Corrosion Doctors .... An excellent reference site for the very important topic of
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corrosion
The-Engineering_page .... Piping /Pumps/Heat exchangers - Useful links and
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calculation forms
Free Engineering Publications... .... Engineering Magazines..Free subscriptions
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available.
Spreadsheets ... .... MIT precicsion engineering group . A number of simple
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spreadsheets useful as basic design tools.
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Engineering Suppliers

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Home
Mechanical Suppliers Sites
I have included all of these sites as sources of engineering data, specifications and performance information. They are not shown for
selection of suppliers. I am updating this list on a regular basis
Directories
● Kellys ..General UK Industrial Search Directory (Registration Required)..

● Kompass..WorldWide Company Search Directory ..For detailed searches user has to subscribe...
● GlobalSpec..A Database of Engineering Companies with Technical Data. Very good product & Technical info.
● AskaChEn ..The ultimate chemical helpdesk + Equipment suppliers database..
● MacRae's Blue Book ..American Industrial Company directory..
● MotionNet ..Site with suppliers and information related to motion control..
● BVAA..British Valve & Actuators Association.. Suppliers Database
Industrial supplies
1. Kaiser Kraft ..Industrial Equipment

2. Key On line..Industrial Equipment
3. RS On-Line..Electronic & Industrial Equipment
Individual Companies
1. INA bearings ...Rolling Bearing

2. SKF ...Ball Bearings
3. Garlock ...Seals/Gaskets
4. Norgren ...Pneumatic equipment
5. Flexitallic ...Seals Gaskets
6. Renold..Chains /Transmissions
7. Loctite ...Engineering Adhesives
8. Huco..Drive couplings
9. Ingersol Rand ...Air Motors
10. Dresser Rand ...Air Compressers
11. Flowserve (was Dresser) ...Pumps
12. Timken/ Torrington/ Fafnir ...Bearings
13. British Gear Association ... This site is included as a link to gear suppliers
14. THK ...Linear Motion (Bearings Guides etc)
15. Fenner ...General Drive Components
16. Hytork ...Valve Actuators
17. Victaulic ...PipeLine Joints
18. QBCBearings ...Bearings
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Engineering Suppliers
19. metalastik ...Anti-Vibration Mountings

20. tpcdayton ...Anti-Vibration Mountings
21. Acxess Springs ...Information on Design, Materials etc (Imperial)
22. Reliance ...Stock Gears and Drive Components
23. Alfa Laval ...Plate Heat Exchangers etc
24. Lenze ...Drive components
25. Gestra ...Steam and Process Fluid Control
26. L.T.S ... Lifting Tackle Suppliers Limited
27. Walkers Magnetic Group ...Lifting Magnets etc.
28. WDS ... Standard Parts for Jigs, Fixtures Machines, etc
29. Seeger-Orbis ... Details on Circlips
30. bsc ... Details on Anderton Circlips
31. Automation co.uk ...A supplier of all components needing for building machanisms/small machines (Shoulder screws to air
motors)
32. Woven Wire ...Information on all mesh and woven wire products
33. J.W.Winco ...Standard dimensioned machine parts( U.S.A.)
34. Serapid ...Rigid Push-Pull Chains very versatile
35. SEW-Eurodrive ...Extensive information on gear boxes and drive components
36. Powerjacks ...Actuators Screw Jacks Actuators etc etc
37. ACE controls International ...Shock Absorbers Buffers etc -Lots of useful information
38. Garlock -Glacier Bearings ...Plain Bearings Information and Useful Downloads
39. WTI-Fasteners Ltd ... uk manufacturer of wire thread inserts and thread repair kits.
40. Spirax Sarco ... Uk manufacturer of components for handling Steam & Air Excellent Reference Site.
41. Textron ... Innovative fastening and assembly products
42. Springmasters ...Spring Supplier + comprehensive range of springs with sizes and ratings
Home
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Material Information

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Engineering Material Links
I have included these sites as sources information useful for the selection of engineering materials.
I am updating this list on a regular basis
1. Matweb.. American Site providing a searchable database of metals

2. Namtec.. UK Site providing a searchable database of metals - European Specification Information
3. Key-To-Steel An excellent site for steel classif'ns and properties.- registration required for full access
4. Key-To-metal An excellent site for non-ferrous metal class'ns and properties.- registration required for full access
5. IDES ... A database of Plastic material data sheets
6. ALFED... A Site devoted to Aluminium
7. outokumpu... Information, Tables and Specification References on Stainless Steels
8. CDA UK... Information, Tables and Specification References on Copper and its alloys
9. BSSA... Stainless Steel Reference Site
10. MSE Cornell... A tutorial On Selection and properties of engineering materials
11. MEMs Clearinghouse... An extensive database of materials
12. EAA1000... Useful Information about Corrosion /Galvanic Series etc
13. titanex... Information on Titanium.
14. Australian Stainless Steel Development Agency... Contains physical and mechanical properties
15. Claymore...Engineer on a disc..A complete materials online course
16. Steelspec ...The full access requires registration at some cost. Site includes a detailed list (UK +Euro)standards
17. West Yorkshire Steel Co Ltd ...Reputable UK Steel Supplier, Site includes Material specifications
18. Tufnol ...High performance plastic laminates
19. Metallic Materials Properties Development and Standardization) ...Massive amount (75MB PDF) of metal information from
USA Military-(imperial)
20. ADI Treatments Ltd ...Experts in Austempered Ductile Iron manufacturing, castings and uses. Substantial reference
information provided
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Engineering Standards and Regulations

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Standards and Regulations Useful to Mechanical Engineers(English)
Mechanical
Mechanical Components Pumps /Piping Symbols_Diagrams
Design
Materials Euronorm Steel Standards Euronorm Aluminium Standards
BSI...British Standards Site - Click on British Standards Online
Standards reference Sites
1. Industry Standards Online...Standards Directory Index

2. Standards Directories...Standards Directory Index
3. Ministry of Defence Standards...On line standards on every topic - Very useful
4. Techstreet...Download ANSI Standards and more
5. ISO Online...The official ISO Standards Site
6. UK Rail Safety and Standards Board...On line Railway Group Standards
7. Norsok Standards...On Line Norwegian Petroleum standards Useful info
Home
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Reference Books

ROYMECH
Home
Reference Books of Use to Mechanical Engineers (English)
Mechanical Engineering Reference..

Note: These are books I have found useful. The editions noted may not be the latest editions. The links to Amazon
provide information on the latest editions.. ..
1. Machinerys Handbook , 27th Edition 2004...... ISBN: 0831127007

Erik Oberg & F.D Jones (Machinery Publishing Co, Brighton).
Essential for Mechanical Engineers. (My graduation prize) (American /International)
2. Mechanical Engineers' Data Handbook ...1994...ISBN 0 7506 1960 0

by J.Carvill (Butterworth Heinemann).
Extremely useful - compact but comprehensive (British)
3. Newnes Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book... , 1993...... ISBN 0 7506 09192

by Timings , R and May, T (Butterworth Heinemann Ltd, Oxford).
Useful reference (European )
4. Kemp's Engineers ' Year Book (published annually)...... ISBN086382-252-5

(M-G Information Services Ltd, Tonbridge , UK)
Very useful for Mechanical Engineers (European )
5. Formulas for Stress and Strain...

by W C Young,.. 7th Ed. (McGraw Hill) 2002....ISBN: 0071210598
Essential for Mechanical Engineers. (American /International)
6. Mechanical Design Second Edition-2004..ISBN: 0750657715

by Peter R.N. Childs (Elsevier - Butterworth Heinmann)
Covers all aspects of mechanical design - (British)
7. Engineering Tables and Data,

by A.M.Howartson, P.G.Lund and J.D.Todd......(Chapman and Hall 11 New Fetter Lane London)
Very useful for Mechanical Engineers (European )
8. The Art Of Engineering Design An Online Book in the process of being written
Lawrence J. Kamm
9. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF MACHINE ELEMENTS A very useful Online Book

Douglas Wright..The University of Western Australia
10. Mechanical Engineering Design ..7th Ed. 2003.. ISBN 0-07-252036-1,

by J E Shigley and C R Mischke, ( McGraw Hill)
Excellent American based book - Mostly imperial
11. Theory of Machines and Mechanisms .. 2nd Ed...ISBN 0-07-056930-4,

by J E Shigley and John J Uicker Jr, ( McGraw Hill)
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Reference Books
Excellent American based book
12. Machine Design: Theory and Practice.. .. 1975..ISBN 0-02-329000-5,

by A.D Deutshman, W.E.Michels, C.E.Wilson, (McMillan Publishing Co Inc)
American based book..Mostly imperial.. I have used this book many times over the years
13. Machine Elements in Mechanical Design..3rd Ed. 1999..ISBN: 0 130618853

by R L Mott, (Prentice - Hall Inc.),
14. Design of Machinery . ..1999..ISBN: 007116605X

by R L Norton, (McGraw - Hill International Editions),
15. Engineering Design: A Materials and Processing Approach ..3rd Ed 1999 ISBN: 0073661368
by G.E Deiter, (McGraw-Hill Education ),
16. Engineering Mechanics , Dynamics: ..5th Ed 2002 ISBN: 0471406457

by J.L.Meriam, L.G.Kraige, (McGraw-Hill Education ),
Useful as concise reference. From USA but mainly metric, Poor student reviews.
Engineering Manufacturing
1. Metalwork: Technology and Practice .. ISBN: 0026764865 (McGraw-Hill Education ) 1993.

by Victor E.Repp, Williard J. DcCarthy
Very clear a wide ranging book from a basic level - from workbench to automation..sorry its american
Corrosion
1. Corrosion Engineering (Materials Science & Engineering S.) ..ISBN: 0071003606 (McGraw Hill Higher
Education)
By Mars G. Fontana, Norbert D. Greene
A recommended reference text on the subject.
Engineering Drawing
1. Manual of Engineering Drawing: To... .. ISBN 0 7506 5120 2 (Newnes / Elsivier) 2nd Ed, 2004.
by C.H.Simpson, D.E.Maguire
A very useful information source for Draughtsmen - Provides guidance to BS 8888:2002 (watch for decimal
points)
Thermodynamic /Heat Transfer
1. Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids SI units.........5th ed. 1994.. ISBN: 0631197036
by Rogers and Mayhew, (Basil Blackwell)
2. Process Heat Transfer..........SI Units 1950

by Donald Q. Kern, (McGraw Hill).. I think this is out of print (its a heat transfer bible)
Chemical Engineering
1. Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook... 7 th 1997 ISBN: 0070498415

by Robert H. Perry (Ed), Don W. Green (Ed), James O. Maloney (Ed) (McGraw Hill)
Human factors

Reference Books
1. Fitting the Task to the man - 4th Ed 1988 ISBN 0-85066-380-6

by Etienne Grandjean, (Taylor & Francis)
2. Human Factors in Engineering and Design... 1992 ISBN 10071128263

by Mark S Sanders , EJ McCormick, (Mcgraw-Hill International Editions)
3. Metric and Design Data Planning and Design Data ...Second Ed 2002 ISBN 0750608994
Edited by David Adler, (Architectural Press- Butterworth Heineman)
Home

Engineering_periodicals

ROYMECH
Home
Online Engineering Magazines and Periodicals
0.. EEVL E-Journals List
.. EEVL journal search facility....A comprehensive list of journals identifying UK and Non-UK categories
........................................................................................................................
1.. Design Products and Applications Controlled Circulation Journal
.. Email- imlgroup@dial.pipex.group
........................................................................................................................
2.. Engineering online....

Including Design Engineering , Production Engineering ,Information, Links, Diary, Jobs etc. etc.What else could you want?
........................................................................................................................
3.. Engineering....The magazine for innovators in technology, manufacturing and management.
.........................................................................................................................
4.. Profession Engineering Magazines....A number of Magazines (Being developed)
................................................................................................................................
5.. Mechanical Engineering....The ASME online Magazine Setting standards for all other online magazines
................................................................................................................................
6.. Gear Technology .... The gear industry journal Home Page (American Journal)
................................................................................................................................
7.. Machine Design.... An excellent site for machine design information
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Refer_Docs/Periodicals.htm (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:13:42 AM

................................................................................................................................
8.. Industrial Technology ....An UK based with lots of Relevant Current Info i.e UK Engineering Events Diary
................................................................................................................................
9 ..Intech Online....Instrument/Control and Automation.. ..look at features for interesting articles
................................................................................................................................
10 .. DesignNews Online.... Design News Online including News, Articles, Product directories etc. "Comprehensive"
................................................................................................................................
11 .. The TRIZ Journal ....Essential Reference Journal for all Innovative/Inventive Engineers
................................................................................................................................
12 .. Industrial Lubrication and Tribology .... Journal on tribology and related subjects
................................................................................................................................
13.. New Scientist... An excellent general scientific periodical
................................................................................................................................
14.. Drives And Controls....Magazine for Industrial Power Transmission and Motion Control
................................................................................................................................
15.. Reliability Magazine....On-Line Magazine on Reliability
................................................................................................................................
16.. Quality On Line.... An on line magazine devoted to quality management and measurement
................................................................................................................................
17.. Eureka .... Essential reading for Mechanical Design Engineers in UK
................................................................................................................................
18.. Science Mag ....American Science On Line Magazine.. Registration required to use many of the site facilities
................................................................................................................................

19.. Engineering Talk.... A email based weekly Newsletter .. I advise you to subscribe to this newsletter
................................................................................................................................
20.. Impeller Net .... An On line pump magazine and pump calculator
................................................................................................................................
21.. Assembly Magazine .... An On-line related to manufacuring and Assembly
................................................................................................................................
22.. Modern Machine Shop On-Line .... An american On-line Magazine related to machine shops
................................................................................................................................
23.. -Process and Control Today ... An online process and Control Periodical
................................................................................................................................
24.. Engineering Capacity ... Provides details on UK Manufacturers and sub-contractors in UK
................................................................................................................................
25.. Machinery Lubrication...A excellent source of current information on machine lubrication
................................................................................................................................
26.. Design News...A source of useful articles and current information engineering topics
Home

Electrical Information

ROYMECH
Home
Electrical
Electrical Units
The constant current which

when flowing through two
Ampere parallel wires 1 m apart would A
produce in vacua a force of 2
x 10 -7 N/m
The quantity of if electricity
Coulomb when a current of 1 ampere C
flows for 1 second
The electromotive force or
potential difference when a
constant current of 1 ampere
Volt V
produces a heat in resistance
at the rate of 1 newton-meter
(joule)/second
Is the electrical resistance of
a conductor in which a
Ohm constant curent of 1 ampere ω
flow under a constant voltage
of 1 volt
The inductance in which 1
volt is produced by a currrent
Henry H
changing at the rate of 1
ampere/second
The Capacitance in which 1
Farad couomb is stored for a F
potential difference of 1 volt
The unit of electrical
Siemens S
conductance S = A / V
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The unit of energy work and

quantity of heat. the work
done when the point of
Joule application of a force of 1 J
newton is displaced through a
distance of 1 metre in the
direction of the force
The unit of power = t Joule/
Watt W
second
The unit of magnetic flux. The
magnetic flux linking a circuit
of one turn produces in it an
Weber Wb
electromotive force of 1 volt
as it is reduced to zero at a
uniform rate in 1 second
The unit of magnetic flux
density. The tesla is equal to
Tesla T
1 weber per square metre of
circuit area
Ohms law
E = I x R = Sqrt (W x R)
=W/I General Form of Ohms
E = Voltage (Volts) I = E / R = Sqrt( W / R) law
I = Current (Amperes) =W/E R=ρ.L/A
R = Resistance (Ohms) R = E / I = W / I2 = E2 / L = Length (metres),
W = Power (Watts) W A = Area (metre2,
W = E x I = E2 / R = I2 x ρ = resistivity (ω /metre)
R
Additive Resistances
Resistors in Series Resistors in Parallel

R_total = R1 + R2 + R3... R_total = 1/ (1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3...)
Voltage across Resistors in Series The Voltage across Resistors in
V_total = V_R1+V_R2+V_R3.. Parallel is the Same= V
Alternating Current Supplies

Alternating Voltage
e = e_max. sin ω. t = e_max .sin(f.t)
e_max = maximum voltage,
t = time (seconds),
ω = angular velocity rads/sec,
f = frequency (cycles /sec)
The Average value of a sinusoidal alternating quantity is calculated at

0.637x maximum value
The Root Mean Square(RMS) value of a sinusoidal alternating quantity is
calculated at 0.707 x maximum value.
The form factor of a wave is the RMS value / Average Value = (for a
sinusoidal wave) 1.1
The Peak (Crest) Factor is the Peak Value / RMS value = 1.414
Kirchoffs Laws
Kirchoffs First law.

The total current flowing towards a junction is equal to the total current
flowing away from that junction.# i.e the algebraic sum of the currents
flowing towards a junction is zero
Kirchoffs Second Law

In a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the products of the current and the
resistance of each part of the circuit is equal to the resultant e.m.f in the
circuit.
Capacitors
I = V / Xc
Q = V x C therefore I = C dV/dt
Q = Charge (coulomb) Xc = Capacitive Reactance (ω )
V = Potential Difference (Volts) Xc = 1 / (2 π f C )
C = Capacitance (Farad)
f = frequency (Herz)
Capacitors in Parallel
C_total. V = Q_total = Q1+Q2+Q3... Capacitors in Series
C_total. V = V.C1+V.C2+V.C3... C_total = 1/ (1/C1+1/C2+1/C3...)
C_total = C1+C2+C3...
Inductances

I = V/ XL
V = L.dI/dt XL = Inductive Reactance (ω )
L = Inductance (Henry) XL =2 π f L
f = frequency (Herz)
Additive Inductances
Inductances in Series Inductances in Parallel

L_total = L1 + L2 + L3... 1 / L_total = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2 + 1 / L3 ...
Graphical Illustration of electrical Relationships

Useful relevant
Links
1. Alex's
Resource
Library... A site
containing lots
and lots of links
to Electrical
calculators,
tutorials and
information.
2. L.M.Photonics
Limited...
Useful Power
Calculations
3. Mathconnet...
Site includes
various
electrical
Calculators
4. Electricity In
The
woodshop ...An
electrical Primer
5. Electrical
machines &
Power Systems-
by C. S.
Indulkar ...Excel
Solved
Electrical
Power Problems
6. Metric Motors...
Information /
Dimensions of
metric Motors
7. Engineers
Edge... ->
Electrical
Equations
including 3
Phase power
8. Monachos... ->
A greek site
with some
useful electrical
calculators
9. Reliance...

General
Information on
Range of
Electric Motors
AC/DC etc
10. MotionNet...
Wide range of
supplier
information and
tutorials on
drive systems
Home

Thermodynamics Index
ROYMECH
Home
Thermodynamics And Heat Transfer Index
Important note: I have added the various thermodynamics /heat transfer pages to my website late june 06.. I will be developing these
pages until at least early august 2006.. Please excuse the incomplete content on some of the pages.
Introduction
[Thermodynamics ..From the Greek thermos meaning heat and dynamis meaning power].
Thermodynamics covers the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy, including the
general behaviour of physical systems in a condition of equilibrium or close to it. It is a fundamental
part of all the physical sciences.
Thermodynamics
Fundamentals Heat Transfer Thermodynamic Laws
Relationships
Thermodynamic
Steady Flow Equation Entropy Cycles
Properties
Four/Two stroke Air Compressers /
Heat Engines Steam Turbines
Engines Pumps
Boilers Combustion Condensers Steam Tables
Thermodynamics is an experimental science based on a small number of principles that are derived
from experience. Classical Thermodynamics is concerned only with macroscopic or large-scale
properties of matter and does not include the study of small-scale or microscopic structure of
matter. Statistical Thermodynamics ( not covered on this website) includes the study of the thermal
relationships of atomic sized particles
Thermodynamic /Heat Transfer Links
1. Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer Handbook..Lots of easily accessibly useful information (Imperial Units)
2. Thermodynamics..NASA - Glenn Research center at Series of informative notes on Thermodynamics
3. Second Law of Thermodynamics..Interesting Article
4. Spirax Sarco...Excellent Reference Site . Learning centre includes heat transfer reference information
5. Evitherm...Virtual institute for Thermal Metrology- Excellent site for thermodynamics/heat transfer info
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Thermos/Thermo_Index.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:13:47 AM

Thermodynamics Index
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Fluid Engineering Information
Disclaimer:
The
information
on this
page has
not been
checked by
an
independent
person.
Use this
information
at your own
risk.
ROYMECH
Home
Fluids
Pump Notes and Calculations Pumps

Valve Notes Valves
Fluid Power Notes Fluid Power
Reasonable Velocities of fluid in Pipes
Pressure
Medium Service Velocity (m/s) Notes
(bar)
Steam (sat) 0 - 1.7 Heating 20 to 30 + 100mm dia
Steam (sat) over 1.7 Process 30 to 50 +150mm dia
Steam (sup) over 14 Process 30 to 100 +150mm dia
Forced Air e.g. AC
Air 5 to 8
Flow Reheat
Water - General 1 to 3
Water Concrete Pipe 4.7
Water Pump Suction 1.2
Horizontal
Water 0.75 Minimum
Sewer
Pump
Water 1.2 to 2.5 Minimum
discharge
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Fluids.html (1 of 8)10/24/2006 11:13:54 AM

Hydraulic
Oil 2.1 to 4.6 Minimum
Systems
Compressor Max.
Ammonia 25
Suction Permissable
Compressor Max.
Ammonia 30
Discharge Permissible
Property Identifiers
Identifier Description Units (typical)

a Velocity of sound m /s
Specific Heat
cp Capacity at kJ/(kg K)
Constant pressure
Specific Heat
cv Capacity at kJ/(kg K)
Constant Volume
h Specific Enthalpy kJ/kg
Thermal
k W/(m K)
Conductivity
p Absolute Pressure N / m2
Prantl Number c Dimension
Pr
p. mu / k less
t Temperature oC
Absolute
T K
Temperature
Specific Internal
u kJ/kg
Energy
Work Output per
W kJ/kg
unit mass
Gas Constant = R
R kJ /kg.K
o/M
Heat Input per

Q kJ /kg
unit mass
ρ Density kg /m3
z Elevation m

gravitationalal
g 9.81 m /s2
acceleration
Fluid Flow Equations
Steady Flow Equation
Q - W = ( u 2 + 1/2 V 22 + g z 2 + p 2 / ρ 2) - ( u 1 + 1/2 V 12 + g z 1 + p 1 / ρ 1)
If Q = W = 0 and the fluid is incompressible and frictionless then the Bernoulli's

equation applies ..
p 2 / ρ g + V 22/ 2 g + z 2 = p 1 / ρ g + V 12/ 2 g + z 1
Simplified Drag Equation
Equation for Drag of any shape in any fluid subject to relative motion
Drag = C d A ρ V2 / 2
Consistent units to be used i.e Newtons, kg, m, sec.
C d = Drag coefficient (very approximate)
● = 1.42 for an open hemisphere

● = 1.12 for a circular flat plate
● = 1.05 for a cube
● = 1.00 for long cylinder
A = The resisting area or the area facing into the fluid
V = the fluid velocity or the velocity of the body through the fluid
Pipe Flow Calculations

In determining the head loss (pressure drop) along a pipe as a result of friction losses it is necessary to determine the
following
● Pipe Cross Section Area = A

● Pipe Length = L
● Volume flow Rate = Q
● Fluid Velocity = v
● Fluid Density = ρ
● Fluid Viscosity = μ
● Reynolds Number = Re
● Pipe roughness = r
● Pipe Friction Factor = f
The equation for the Reynold Number
Re = v D ρ
μ
Consistent units to be used i.e Typically ρ = kg/m3, v = m/s, D= m, μ = Ns/m2 ( 1 Ns/m2 = 103cP)
The value for the Reynold number is to be used to evaluate if the flow is laminar or turbulent and can be used to obtain
the friction factor "f" from a moody chart. The moody chart plots the friction factor against the Reynold number with a
number of different plotted lines for different values of absolute roughness/Diameter
Moody Chart

Various typical values of hydraulic roughness (K)
Type of Pipe K (mm)

Cast Iron 0.203

Galvanised Steel 0.152
Steel/Wrought Iron 0.051
Rivetted Steel 0.91 - 9.1
Asphalted Cast Iron 0.12
Wood-Stave 0.18 - 0.91
Concrete 3.0
Spun Concrete 0.203
Drawn Copper,
Smooth
Brass Steel,Glass
The head loss along the pipe can now be calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach
equation
h f= f. L. v 2
D2g
The losses through fittings are generally evaluated by obtaining equivalent values to the equivalent(L/D ) or equivalent
Lengths of piping.
Typical Values of L/D for Fittings
Fitting L/D
Globe Valve 340
Gate Valve 8
Lift Check Valve 600
Swing Check Valve 50
Ball Valve 6
Butterfly Valve 35
Pipe Entrance 0.5
Pipe Exit 1
Tee Through 20
Tee- Branch flow 60
Elbow-90 30
Elbow -45 16
Bend r/D=3 12

Bend r/D=6 17
Bend r/D=12 34
Bend r/D=20 50
The result of the calculation is in units of head of the fluid. This is a very crude calculation and takes not account of
head differences between the two ends of the pipe. It also assumes that the pipe is all one dia and the fluid is
incompressible
Useful Links
1. 1MNO eng.. A site

containing a large
number of Fluid
Flow Calculations
and Calculators :
Some of the
calculators require
registration for a
fee;
2. Fluid Design .. A
Site with
information and
formulas related to
Pump calculation :
3. Monachos.. A
greek site with a
calculator for fluid
flow head losses
in piping.
4. Uengineer.. A site
including fluid
calculations and
various data
sheets
5. The Engineering
Page.. A site
including various
Engineering
Calculators - Very
good pump
calculator
6. ER_Online..
Useful software
downloads - Very
good pump
calculator
7. CheResources..
Subscription
required $25/a but
is probably worth
it
8. Piping Toolbox a
wealth of
information on

piping design
9. Spirax Sarco...
Excellent
Reference Site .
Learning centre
includes fluid flow
reference
information
Home

Control Index

ROYMECH
Home
Control Notes Index
A number of pages simply to provide some background information.. For quality information you must refer to specialised
text, also the links provided are very useful. As time progresses I will try to improve the content
Laplace
Introduction Control System
Block Diagrams Stability Notes Transforms
Notes Response
Basics
Frequency Root Locus
Routh Criteria Bode Plots Nyquist Plots
Response Methods
Sites & Links

For Control
Information
1. Control Laws..
Paper
reviewing
control system
design related
to robotics
2. Theorem Net..
Site with
various links,
articles and
downloads
3. Lorien..
Multivariable
control , A PDF
download
4. Lorien..Some
Conventional
Control
Schemes, A
PDF download
5. Samson..A
number of
useful control
tutorials
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Control/Control_index.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:13:56 AM

Control Index
6. Software
Integration..
Web-Based
Control System
Design and
Analysis
7. Lecture 9:
Analysis of
Discrete
System
Response..
Daniel R.
Lewin,
Technion,
Haifa,- Very
clear and
practical notes.
..Page is being constructed..
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Control/Control_index.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:13:56 AM

Chemistry Index
ROYMECH
Home
Chemical Information Index
Chemistry Introduction
Chemistry can be broadly defined as the study of matter and its interactions. The chemistry webpages also include notes dealing with physical
phemistry which is concerned with the physical principles resulting in the chemical reactions between matter.
Important Note
The pages on this site only to provide outline information on chemistry which is useful to mechanical engineers. For more detailed, specific
information users are advised to use the links at the foot of each page..
Fundamentals Physical Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry Organic Chemistry

Metals-Non Metals Oxidation Acid Bases Electronegativity
Chemical Bonds Lewis Dot Structure Ions - Anions Chemical Reactions
Chemistry Sites..
1. Sheffield University Periodic Table this Site includes extensive Chemical information
2. Chemical Engineers Calculators...Loads of Information for Chemical Engineers
3. On-line Introductory Chemistry
4. Praxair...Information and Safety Data Sheets On Gases
5. Science Gems....Frank Potters Science Gems..An extensive source of science info and links
6. ProcessAssociates... Various Calculators and Tools for Shell & Tube HE;s -Excellent
7. Cheresources... Excellent site for Chemical Engineers
8. Introduction t atomic structure... Single page cover-all paper. (Very informative quick reference source
9. AP Chemistry -Study Cards... A set of chemistry study cards- Ideal look up revision aids
10. Data for General, Inorganic, Organic, and Physical Chemistry... A very comprehensive set of Useful Tables
11. Downloadable Chemistry Software- Schools and Lab....Useful and comprehensive package at reasonable cost
Home
Chemistry Index
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Chemistry/Chemical_Index.html10/24/2006 11:13:59 AM
Physics

ROYMECH
Home
Physics
Physics Definition... Branch of science dealing with the properties and interaction of matter and energy
Physics in it broadest definition deals with the fundamental constituents of the

universe the forces they exert on each other and the results of these forces.
Listed below are areas covered under the general physics label
● Mechanics ● Astrophysics
● Thermodynamics & Heat ● Quantum Mechanics
● Light ● Nuclear Physics
● Sound ● Solid State Physics
● Relativity ● Electricity and Magnetism
There are a wide range of specialised areas of physics within the above areas
and additional to the above areas. The linked pages include useful notes
related to specific areas of physics relevant to mechanical engineering...
Physics Information Notes
Mirrors / Atomic Nuclear

Light Sound
Lenses Physics Physics
Sites & Links For

Physicals Science
1. Hyperphysics....A
site with lots of
scientific
information in
simple laymans
language. ;...
2. Eric Wessteins
World Of Physics ....
Excellent site with
numerous articles
on all branches of
Physics.
3. Mark Fosters
Physics
Definitions ....
Glossary on a wide
range of Physics
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Physics.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:14:01 AM

Physics
subjects
4. The Physics
Hypertextbook ....
This book a very
very good Physics
reference text (In
construction)
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Physics.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:14:01 AM

BS 8888 TD-:Kit 1 : General principles kit

ROYMECH
Home
Drawing Page
BS8888:2002 Kit 1 Techical Drawing-: General principles kit
TD = Technical Drawing , GPP General Principles of Presentation, GPS = Geometrical Product Specification,
TPD = Technical Product Documentation.
TD-: General principles kit. Contains:
BS ISO 128 TD- GPP
BS ISO 128-20 TD- GPP - Basic conventions for lines
BS ISO 128-21 TD- GPP - Lines - Preparation by CAD systems
BS ISO 128-22 TD- GPP - Basic conventions and applications for leader lines and
reference lines
BS ISO 128-23 TD- GPP - Lines on construction drawings
BS ISO 128-24 TD- GPP - Lines on Mechanical Engineering drawings
BS ISO 128-25 TD- GPP - Lines on shipbuilding drawings
BS ISO 128-30 TD- GPP - Basic Conventions for views
BS ISO 128-34 TD- GPP - Views on mechanical engineering Drawings
BS ISO 128-40 TD- GPP - Basic Conventions for cuts and sections
BS ISO 128-44 TD- GPP - Sections on mechanical engineering drawings.
BS ISO 128-50 TD- GPP - Basic Conventions representing areas on cuts and sections
BS EN ISO 2162-1 TPD - Springs - Simplified representation
BS EN ISO 2162-2 TPD - Springs - Presentation of data for cylindrical, helical,

compression springs
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BS EN ISO 2162-3 TPD - Springs - Vocabulary
BS EN ISO 2203 TD- - Conventional representation of gears
BS EN ISO 3098-0 TPD - Lettering - General requirements
BS EN ISO 3098-2 TPD - Lettering - Latin alphabet, numerals and marks
BS EN ISO 3098-3 TPD - Lettering - Greek alphabet
BS EN ISO 3098-4 TPD - Lettering - Diacritical and particular marks for the Latin
alphabet
BS EN ISO 3098-5 TPD - Lettering -CAD lettering of the Latin alphabet, numerals and
marks
BS EN ISO 3098-6 TPD - Lettering - Cyrillic alphabet
BS 5070-1 Engineering diagram drawing practice - Recommendations for general

principles
BS 5070-3 Engineering diagram drawing practice - Recommendations for mechanical/

fluid flow diagrams
BS 5070-4 Engineering diagram drawing practice - Recommendations for logic diagrams
BS EN ISO 5455 TD- - Scales
BS EN ISO 5456-2 TD- Projection methods - Part 2 Orthographic representations
BS EN ISO 5456-3 TD- Projection methods - Part 3 Axonometric representations
BS ISO 5456-4 TD- Projection methods - Part 4 Central Projection
BS EN ISO 5457 TD- Sizes and layout of drawing sheets
BS 5775-0 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 0:General principles
BS 5775-1 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 1: Space and time
BS 5775-2 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 2: Periodic and related
phenomena
BS 5775-3 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 3: Mechanics
BS 5775-4 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 4: Heat

BS 5775-5 Specification for quantities, units and symbols -Part 5: Electricity and
magnetism
BS 5775-6 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 6: Light and related
electromagnetic radiations
S 5775-7 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 7: Acoustics
BS 5775-8 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 8: Physical chemistry and
molecular physics
BS 5775-9 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 9: Atomic and nuclear
physics
BS 5775-10 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 10: Nuclear reactions
and ionizing radiations
BS 5775-11 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 11: Mathematical signs
and symbols for use in physical sciences and technology
BS 5775-12 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 12: Characteristic
numbers
BS 5775-13 Specification for quantities, units and symbols - Part 13: Solid state physics
BS EN ISO 5845-1 TD- Simplified representation of the assembly of parts with fasteners
part 1: General Principles
BS EN ISO 6410-1 TD- Screw thread and threaded parts (STTP) Part 1: - General
conventions
BS EN ISO 6410-2 TD- STTP part 2 - Screw thread inserts
BS EN ISO 6410-3 TD- STTP part 3 - Simplified representation
BS EN ISO 6411 TD- Simplified representation of centre holes
BS EN ISO 6413 TD- Representations of splines and serrations
BS EN ISO 6433 TD- Item references
BS ISO 7200 TD- Title Blocks
BS EN ISO 8826-1 TD- Rolling bearings - General simplified representation

BS EN ISO 8826-2 TD- Rolling bearings - Detailed simplified representation
BS EN ISO 9222-1 TD- Seals for dynamic application - General simplified representation
BS EN ISO 9222-2 TD- Seals for dynamic application - Detailed simplified representation
BS EN ISO 10209-1 TPD - Vocabulary - Part 1: Terms relating to technical drawings:

general and types of drawing 1
BS ISO 10209-2 TPD - Vocabulary - Part 2: Terms relating to projection methods 1
BS EN 61082-2 Preparation of documents used in electrotechnology - Function-oriented

diagrams
BS EN 22553 Welded, brazed and soldered joints — Symbolic representation on drawings

1
Home
Drawing Page

BS 8888 TD: Kit 2 : Tolerancing and dimensioning kit

ROYMECH
Home
Drawing Page
BS8888:2002 Kit 2 : Technical Drawing: Tolerancing and dimensioning kit
TD: Tolerancing and dimensioning kit. Contains:
BS EN ISO 1 TD - Standard reference temperature for geometrical product specification

and verification
BS ISO 129 TD - Dimensioning - General principles, definitions, methods of execution

and special indications
BS ISO 406 TD - Tolerancing of linear and angular dimensions
BS ISO 1101 TD - Geometrical tolerancing - Tolerancing of form, orientation, location and

run-out - Generalities, definitions, symbols, indications on drawings
BS ISO 1302 TD - Method of indicating surface texture
BS EN ISO 1660 TD - Dimensioning and tolerancing of profiles
BS ISO 2692 TD - Geometrical tolerancing - Maximum material principle
BS ISO 3040 TD - Dimensioning and tolerancing - Cones
BS 4235-1 Specification for metric keys and keyways - Parallel and taper keys
BS 4235-2 Specification for metric keys and keyways - Woodruff keys and keyways
BS EN ISO 4287 Geometrical product specifications - Surface texture: profile method -

Terms, definitions and surface texture parameters
BS EN ISO 4288 Geometrical product specifications - Surface texture: profile method -

Rules and procedures for assessment of surface texture.
BS EN ISO 5458 Geometrical product specifications - Geometrical tolerancing -

Positional tolerancing
BS ISO 5459 TD - Geometrical tolerancing - Datums and datum-systems for geometrical

tolerances
BS EN ISO 6410-1 TD - Screw threads and threaded parts - General conventions
BS EN ISO 7083 TD - Symbols for geometric tolerances-Proportions and dimensions.
BS ISO 8015 TD - Fundamental tolerancing principle.
BS EN ISO 8785 - Geometrical product specifications -Terms definitions and parameters.
BS ISO 10578 TD - Tolerancing of orientation and location -Projected tolerance zone.
BS ISO 10578 Technical Drawings - Dimensioning and tolerancing - Non-rigid parts.
BS ISO 11562 GPS - Surface texture: Profile -Metrological characteristics of phase

correct filters.
BS ISO 12085 GPS - Surface texture: Profile -Metrological characteristics of phase

correct filters.
BS EN ISO 13565-1 GPS - Surface texture: Profile method - Motif parameters
functional properties - Filtering and general measurement conditions
BS EN ISO 13565-2 GPS - Surface texture: Profile method - Surfaces having stratified
functional properties - Height characterization using the linear material ration curve
BS EN ISO 13565-3 GPS - Surface texture: Profile method - Surfaces having stratified
functional properties - Height characterization using the material probability curve
BS EN ISO 14660-1...GPS - Geometrical features - General Terms and definitions.
BS EN ISO 14660-2...GPS - Geometrical features - Extracted median line of a cylinder

and a cone, extracted median surface, local size of and extracted feature.
BS EN ISO 20286-1...GPS - ISO system of limits and fits -Part 1 : Bases of tolerances ,
deviations and fits.
BS EN ISO 20286-2...GPS - ISO system of limits and fits -Part 2 : Tables of standard
tolerance grades and limits deviations for holes and shafts
BS EN 22768-1 General tolerances - Tolerances for linear and angular dimensions

without individual tolerance indications

PD 6461-1 Vocabulary of metrology- Part 1: Basic and general terms (international).
PD 6461-3 Vocabulary of metrology- Part 3: Guide to the expression of uncertainty in

measurement.
DD ENV ISO 14253- 2 GPS -Inspection by measurement of workpieces and measuring

instruments. -Part 2 : Guide to the estimation of uncertainty in GPS measurement, in
calibration of measuring instruments and in product verification.
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BS 8888 Technical Drawings: Kit 3 Computer aided engineering kit. Contains

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BS8888:2002 : Kit 3 Computer Aided Engineering Kit
Technical Drawings: Computer aided engineering kit. (Kit 3) Contains:
BS EN ISO 6428 Technical Drawings - Requirements for microcopying
BS EN ISO 11442-1 TPD - Handling of computer based technical information - Security

requirements
BS EN ISO 11442-2 TPD - Handling of computer based technical information - Original

documentation
BS EN ISO 11442-3 TPD - Handling of computer based technical information - Phases in

the product design process
BS EN ISO 11442-4 TPD - Handling of computer based technical information - Document

management and retrieval systems
BS ISO 16016 TPD - Protection notices for restricting the use of document and products
BS EN ISO 11442-4 TPD - Handling of computer based technical information - Document

management and retrieval systems
DD 16792 Technical Product Documentation (TPD) - Digital product definition - data

practices.
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BS 8888 BS 8888 kit 4 :Design Management

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BS8888 :2002 Kit 4 :Design Management
BS 8888 :2002 kit 4 :Design Management
BS 5760-14 Reliability of systems , equipment and components- Part 14 : Guide to

formal design review.
BS 5760-23 Reliability of systems , equipment and components- Part 23 : Guide to life

sytem costing.
BS 7000-1 DMS - Part 1 : Guide to managing innovation
BS 7000-2 DMS - Part 2 : Guide to managing the design of technical products.
BS 7000-10 DMS - Part 1 : Glossary of terms used in design management.
BS 8444-3 Risk Management - Part 3: Guide to risk analysis of technological systems.
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New standards Referenced in BS 8888:2004
Referenced Standards added in 2004 Edition of BS 8888
TD = Technical Drawing TPD = Technical Product Documentation.
BS ISO 31-0 Quantities and units
BS 5760-23 Reliability of systems , equipment and components- Part 23 : Guide to life

sytem costing.
BS ISO 31-1 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Space and time
BS ISO 31-2 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Periodic and related
phenomena
BS ISO 31-3 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Mechanics
BS ISO 31-4 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Heat
BS ISO 31-5 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Electricity and magnetism
BS ISO 31-6 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Light and related
electromagnetic radiations
BS ISO 31-7 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Acoustics
BS ISO 31-8 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Physical chemistry and
molecular physics
BS ISO 31-9 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Atomic and nuclear
physics
BS ISO 31-10 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Nuclear reactions and
ionising radiations
BS ISO 31-11 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Mathematical signs and
symbols for use in physical sciences and technology
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BS ISO 31-12 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Characteristic numbers
BS ISO 31-13 Specification for quantities, units and symbols. Solid state physics
BS ISO 129-1 Technical drawings. Dimensioning. General principles, definitions,

methods of execution and special indications
BS ISO 1000 Specification for SI units and recommendations for the use of their
multiples and of certain other units
BS EN ISO 1119 Geometrical product specification. Series of conical tapers and taper
angles
BS 1916-1 Limits and fits for engineering. Limits and tolerances
BS 1916-2 Limits and fits for engineering. Guide to the selection of fits in BS 1916:Part
1
BS 1916-3 Limits and fits for engineering. Recommendations for tolerances limits and
fits for large diameters
BS 2917-1 Graphic symbols and circuit diagrams for fluid power systems and
components. Specification for graphic symbols
BS 3238-1 Graphical symbols for components of servo-mechanisms. Transducers and

magnetic amplifiers
BS 3238-2 Graphical symbols for components of servo-mechanisms. General servo-

mechanisms
BS EN ISO 4063 Welding and allied processes. Nomenclature of processes and

reference numbers
BS 4500-4 ISO Limits and fits. Spec'n for system of cone (taper) fits for cones from
c=1:3 to 1:500, lengths from 6 mm to 630 mm & diameters up to 500mm
BS 4500-5 ISO Limits and fits. Spec'n for system of cone tolerances for cones from
c=1:3 to 1:500, lengths from 6 mm to 630 mm
BS EN ISO 6412-1 TD. Simplified representation of pipelines. General rules and

orthogonal representation
BS EN ISO 6412-2 TD. Simplified representation of pipelines. Isometric projection
BS EN ISO 6412-3 TD. Simplified representation of pipelines. Terminal features of

ventilation and drainage systems
BS 6615 Specification for dimensional tolerances for metal and metal alloy castings
BS EN ISO 7200 Technical product documentation. Data fields in title blocks and
document headers
BS ISO 13715 Corners. Indication on drawings
BS ISO 13920 Welding. General tolerances for welded constructions. Dimensions for
length and angles, shape and position
BS EN ISO 15785 TD. Symbolic presentation and indication of adhesive, fold and
pressed joints
BS ISO 16792 TPD. Digital product definition-data practices
ISO/TS 17450-1 GPS. Model for geometrical specification and verification
ISO/TS 17450-2 GPS. Operators and uncertainties
BS EN ISO 3952-1 Kinematic diagrams. Graphical symbols. Part 1
BS ISO 14617-1 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. General information and indexes
BS ISO 14617-2 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. Symbols having general application
BS ISO 14617-3 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. Connections and related devices
BS ISO 14617-4 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. Actuators and related devices
BS ISO 14617-5 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. Measurement and control devices
BS ISO 14617-6 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. Measurement and control functions
BS ISO 14617-7 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. Basic mechanical components
BS ISO 14617-8 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. Valves and dampers
BS ISO 14617-9 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. Pumps, compressors and fans

BS ISO 14617-10 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. Fluid power converters
BS ISO 14617-11 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. Devices for heat transfer and heat
engines
BS ISO 14617-11 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams. Devices for separating, purification
and mixing
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Paper Sizes
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Drawing Page
Paper Sizes.
The standard for drawing sheet sizes is the A series. The basic size in this series is the A0 size (1189mm x 841mm) which has an
area of about 1-m3. The sides of every size in the series are in the ratio Sqrt(2) = 1.414 : 1 and each size is half the area of the next
larger size.
Drawing Size in
Size in inches
Sheet Size millimetres
A0 1189 x 841 46.81 x 33.11
A1 841 x 591 33.11 x 23.39
A2 594 x 420 23.39 x 16.55
A3 420 x 297 16.55 x 11.69
A4 297 x 210 11.69 x 8.27
A5 210 x 148 8.27 x 5.84
A6 148 x 105 5.84 x 4.13
Preferred Scales For Drawings...
The preferred scales are
1:1, 1:2, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100
BS EN ISO 5457 Drawing Sheet Sizes
Drawing Space +/- Untrimmed sheet +/-

Designation Trimmed Sheet
0.5mm 2mm
Width Length Width Length Width Length
-
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
A0 841 1189 821 1159 880 1230
A1 594 841 574 811 625 880
A2 420 594 400 564 450 625
A3 297 420 277 390 330 450
http://www.roymech.co.uk/PaperSize.htm (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:14:14 AM

Paper Sizes
A4 210 297 180 277 240 330
Useful Links On Drawing Sheet Sizes
1. Paper sizes...Engineering Toolbox -Table

2. Drawing Scaled ISO Sheets ...Notes relating to selection of drawing sheet sizes with Autocad
3. The ISO 'A' Series ...Metrication.com . Background on the basis for the ISO drawing sizes
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Drawing Title Blocks
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Notes On Title Blocks
BS ISO 7200 Technical Drawings- Title Blocks identifies the title block requirements to be used on
engineering drawings.... The drawing sheet size should be in accordance with "BS EN ISO 5457 TD-
Sizes and layout of drawing sheets" Drawing Sheet Sizes
A title block is the form on which the actual drawing is a section. The title block includes the border and
the various sections for providing quality, administrative and technical information. The importance of
the title block cannot be minimised as it includes all the information which enables the drawing to be
intepreted, identified and archived.
The title should include sufficient information to identify the type of drawing e.g general arrangement, or
detail. It should also clearly describe in a precise way what the drawing portrays
The notes below relate to the title boxes included on in the title block to convey the necessary
information. The standard drawing sizes and layouts are described elsewhere.
The basic requirements for a title block located at the bottom right hand corner of a drawing are
1. The registration or ID number

2. The drawing title
3. The Legal Owner of the Drawing
These items should be written in a rectangle which is at the most 170mm wide.
The tile block should also include boxes for the legal signatures of the originator and other persons
involved production of the drawing to the required quality.
The drawing should also include a symbol identifying the projection. The main scale and the linear
dimension units if other than "mm".
Mechanical drawings should list the standards use for: indicating the surface texture: welds: general
tolerances and geometric tolerances, as notes referring directly the the relevant standards or a general
note referring to the BS 8888. (BS 8888 lists all of the relevant standards.) BS 8888 should really only
be referenced if the drawing is in full accordance.
The drawing title block should indicate the date of the first revision. In separate boxes to the title block
the current revision with an outline description of the revision should be indicated. On completion of
each drawing revision an additional revision box should be completed thus provide a detailed history of
the drawing.
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Typical Title Box
Typical Revision Box
Useful Links On Drawing
1. Cadinfo...Some notes on title blocks used with Visio
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Drawing Guide
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Drawing Guide
Projections
First angle and third angle projection methods are acceptable.
The symbol identifying the type of projection used should be placed in a space provided in the drawing block
Views Using Reference Arrows.
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Drawing Guide
Principal View
The principal view on which all of the other views are based should be selected as being the most informative. This may be the view which
is most recognisable during manufacture or use. i.e. the front view of a house or the side view of a car.
Lines Used on Drawings..
Line Types
Line Description.......... Application
Outline
Continuous Thick
Edge
Intersection..
Dimension..
Continuous Thin
Projection
Leader.. Hatching
Continuous Limits of Partial or
Freehand interrupted view
Continuous Thin
Shortened Sections
With Zigzags
Hidden Outlines
Dashed Thick
Hidden Edges
Hidden Outlines
Dashed Thin
Hidden Edges
Centre lines
Chain Thin
Lines of Symmetry

Drawing Guide
Chain Thick Special Surfaces
Chain Thin
Cutting Planes
Thick ends
Centroidal Lines
Chain Thin
Initial Outlines Prior to
double-dashed
Forming /Machining
FIGURE SHOWING LINETYPES
Line Thicknesses
Two thicknesses of line should be used on a drawing. The "thick" line should be at least twice as thick as the "thin" line. The thickness of
the line should be based on the sizes... 0,18mm 0,25mm 0,35mm 0,5mm 0,7mm 1,0mm 1.4mm and 2mm
Line spacing
The minimum space between parallel lines should always be greater than twice the thickness of the
heaviest line.
Leader Lines
Leader Lines terminate
● With a dot if they end within the outline of the item being identified.
● With an arrow if they end on the outline
● Without a dot or an arrow when pointing at a dimensions line
Lettering
Lettering should all be in capitals and underlining should be avoided. The lettering size should be at least 3mm on the finished drawing/
plot.
With the normal paper in landscape orientation and the title block on the bottom right and side, notes to be parallel with the bottom edge.
General notes shall be normally grouped together. Notes related to specific views may be located adjacent to the view.

Drawing Guide
Hatching
Hatching is used to show areas of sections.
In case of large areas the hatching may be limited to a zone following the contour of the hatched area

2. Engineering Graphics-Lines......Not European but useful
3. Dimensioning Notes......Not European but useful
4. Fastener......Not European but useful. How to draw screw threads. etc

Drawing Guide
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Dimensions/Surface Finish

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Dimensioning and Surface Finish
Dimensioning
Linear Dimensioning
Angular Dimensioning
CHAIN-PARALLEL DIMENSIONING
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Examples of chain and parallel dimensioning are above below. The advantage of parallel dimensioning is that there is no build-up of
tolerances.
Dimensioning Diameters

Dimensions of diameters are shown on view providing greatest clarity
Dimensioning Holes

Dimensioning Chamfers/Countersinks

Metric Screw Threads
Thread Designation
The complete designation of a screw thread gives
● the thread symbol e.g. M for Metric

● the thread size e.g. 6
● the thread pitch e.g. x 1
● the tolerance class e.g. 6H(Female) 6g (male)
● the length of thread if not dimensioned separately eg. x 30 LNG
Notes:
If the thread is standard course then the pitch need not be shown. However it is better that it is always shown
If the tolerance grade for the pitch diameter and the major diameter is the same then only one needs to be shown.
Threads right handed (clockwise turn to screw in) unless a -LH suffix is added to indicate left hand thread.
The Class of Fit is a measure of the degree of fit between mating internal and external threads.
Classes of Fit
Three main Classes of Fit are defined for metric screw threads :
● FINE: This has a tolerance class of 5H for internal threads and 4h for external threads.
● MEDIUM: This has a tolerance class of 6H for internal threads and 6g for external threads.
● COARSE: This has a tolerance class of 7H for internal threads and 8g for external threads.
If one class is shown for a male thread i.e 6g then the tolerance applies to the pitch dia and the
major diameter. A dual tolerance is shown (5h6g) when a different tolerance is applied to the
Pitch dia (5h) and the major dia (6h). The same principle applies to the female thread e.g. a

tolerance grade (6H ) applies to both pitch dia and the minor dia. A tolerance grade (6H7H)
refers to 6H for the pitch dia and 7H for the minor dia.
The typical designation for a thread on a drawing is as follows
● M8 - 6e..This is a M8 course male thread with a 6e external(male) tolerance (before coating)

● M8 x 1 - 6e.. This is a M8 course male fine thread with a 6e external(male) tolerance (before coating)
● M8 - 6H... This is a M8 course female thread with a 6H internal(female) tolerance (not coated)
● M8 - 6H - LH This is a Left hand M8 course female thread with a 6H internal(female) tolerance (not coated)
Pipe Threads
The typical designation for a Pipe Threads
● R 1/2 External Taper - Sealing on Thread (BS 21)

● Rc 1/2 Internal Tape - Sealing on Thread(BS 21)
● Rp 1/2 Internal Parallel- Sealing on Thread (BS 21)
● G 1/2 A,B or ext External Parallel - Not Sealing on Threads -Additional seal required(BS2779)
● G 1/2(F = full thread) Internal Parallel Not Sealing on Threads -Additional seal required (BS2779)
Useful Links On
Drawing/
Dimensioning
1. Volvo Drawing
Standards......
Document on
European-
Standard-based
drawing
procedures
2. Engineering
Graphics-
Lines......Not
European but
useful
3. Dimensioning
Notes......Not
European but
useful
4. Fastener......Not
European but
useful. How to
draw screw
threads. etc
5. Maryland
Metrics..Vast
quantity of
useful technical
information on
metric screws/

threads in
downloadable
acrobat pages
6. Tolerancing
screw threads..
Very informative
page on the
Boltscience site
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Drawing Guide WELD SYMBOLS
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Drawing of Weld Symbols
The British Standard for weld symbols is BS EN 22553. When identification of the weld process is required as part of the weld symbol the relevant
weld process code is listed in BS EN ISO 4063.
Basic Weld Symbol
The weld symbol always includes
1. An arrow line
2. A reference line
3. A symbol
Note: Weld symbols on the full reference line relates to welds on the near side of the plate being welded. Weld symbols on the dashed line relates
to weld on the far side of the plate. If the welds are symmetrical on both sides of the plate the dashed line is omitted. If the dashed line is above the
full line then the symbol for the nearside weld is drawn below the reference line and the symbol for the farside weld is above the dashed line
More Detailed Symbolic Representation of Weld
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Welding.....Weld process numbers.
Table of Weld Symbols
Complementary Symbols

Supplementary Indication
Dimensioning Welds


Links Providing information on Welding Symbols on Drawing

2. TWI Weld Notes Part 1...Notes on ISO Weld Symbols
3. TWI Weld Notes Part 2...Notes on ISO Weld Symbols
4. National Board Classics...An article on weld symbols with reference to ISO standards
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Drawing Engineering components
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Drawing Components
Threads
Gears
Splines & Serrations
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Dynamic Seals
Rotating Seals

Useful Links On Drawing components

2. Fastener......Not European but useful. How to draw screw threads. etc
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Tolerances and Limits
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Different methods of specifying tolerances
● Direct indication on Drawing

● Reference to general tolerance notes on drawing
● Reference to a standard containing tolerances
● Reference to another document
Examples of tolerance notes
Dimensioning of fits
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Dimensioning of acceptable deviation of dimensions
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Surface Texture Index Page
Drawing Page
Surface Finish (Texture) Symbols
Relevant Standard..
BS EN ISO 1302:2002 Geometrical product specifications (GPS). Indication of surface texture

in technical product documentation
General indication of surface texture on drawings
For notes on surface roughness use link Surface Roughness Notes
Requirement for machining
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Direction of lay
Machining Allowance

The Symbol indicates the surface finish requirements and shows a machining allowance
requirement of 3mm on all surfaces.
Symbol for surface texture all component surfaces
The Symbol indicates that all of the component surfaces are to be machined...
Location of Surface Texture Symbols

The shows typical locations for surface texture symbols...
Useful Links On
Drawing/
Dimensioning
1. Volvo Drawing
Standards......
Document on
European-
Standard-based
drawing
procedures
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Drawing Guide Notes
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Drawing Notes
The notes below are representative. The actual notes used will be selected based on the information being shown on the drawing
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Drawing Guide Notes

Drawing Guide Notes
Links Providing information on Welding Symbols on Drawing
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Drawing Guide Lettering
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Notes On Drawing Lettering
Lettering
The following Standards identify the recommended lettering requirements/geometry to be used on

engineering drawings....
● BS EN ISO 3098-0 TPD - Lettering - General requirements

● BS EN ISO 3098-2 TPD - Lettering - Latin alphabet, numerals and marks
● BS EN ISO 3098-3 TPD - Lettering - Greek alphabet
● BS EN ISO 3098-4 TPD - Lettering - Diacritical and particular marks for the Latin alphabet
● BS EN ISO 3098-5 TPD - Lettering -CAD lettering of the Latin alphabet, numerals and marks
● BS EN ISO 3098-6 TPD - Lettering - Cyrillic alphabet
The standards provide detailed lettering dimensions and methods of identifying the text used.
The text is identified by a nominal outside hieght size (h). The preferred text sizes are listed as used are
(in millimetres )
1,8 2,8 3,5 5 7 10 14 20

Note; I am using commas as the decimal marking in my attempt to adhere to the new BS ISO
requirements...) For lower case letters the letter height (height of say "a" ) = 10 / 14 x h. The height of
the tail (on say g) is 4/14 x h and the lower case stem (on say h) = 4 /14 x h.
The line thickness is set at 1/14 x h. A typical designation of the lettering used on a drawing is ISO 3098-
BVL - 5
B is lettering type ( A, B, CA, CB)

V is Vertical ( Can be S sloping)
L is Latin Font ( Can be G = Greek , or C=Cyrillic)
5 is the nominal size.
Note: The A and B types are intended for lettering drawing using stencils or tracing from a graphed
lettered sheet. The CA and CB are for CAD systems.
I have checked out the ISOCP.shx font that comes with Autocad 14 and it seems to conform pretty well
with the Font in the standards above for the Latin font. I include below this note a set of Latin characters
drawing using IntelliCaD Professional with the isocp.shx font.
Note: This is confirmed by the ISO link below which provides a full set of downloadable fonts for Autocad.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drawing/Lettering.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:14:52 AM

Drawing Guide Lettering
1. Survex.com...A useful paper on Fonts and Stencils

2. ISO Templates.....Free Downloadable Templates from ISO
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Simplified Representation of Bolt /rivet Holes

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Simplified Representation of Bolt /Rivet Holes
These notes relate to the method of drawing bolt / rivet holes using a simplified system as
described in the British Standard identified below;
BS EN ISO 5845-1 TD- Simplified representation of the assembly of parts with fasteners part
1: General Principles
The first figure shows the acceptable simplified representations of holes drilled for the purpose
of bolts or rivets in the view look directly at the holes ..
The second figure shows the acceptable simplified representations of holes drilled for bolts or
rivets-- Side view
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The third figure shows the acceptable simplified representations of holes with bolts or rivets--
Side view
The fourth view simply shows how to conveniently indicate the bolt or rivet designation..

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STANDARD SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS. TO BS8888
Abbreviation
Term
or Symbol
Across Flats AF
Assembly ASSY
Centres CRS
Centre Line ..On View
Centre line ..On Note CL
Centre Of Gravity CG
Chamfer of Chamferred..In a Note CHAM
Cheese Head CH HD
Countersunk/ Countersink CSK
Countersunk Head CSK HD
Counterbore CBORE
Cylinder or Cylinderical CYL
Diameter..in a note DIA
Diameter..preceding a dimension
Drawing DRG
Equally Spaced EQUI SP
External EXT
Figure FIG
Full Indicated Movement FIM
Hexagon HEX
Hexagon Head HEX HD
Insulated or Insulation INSUL
Internal INT
Least Material Condition..In a Note LMC
Least Material Condition..(Geom.Dim)
Left hand LH
Long LG
Machine MC
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Material MAT
Maximum MAX
Maximum Material Condition..In a note MMC
Maximum Material Condition..(Geom. tol)
Minimum MIN
Not to Scale (In a note and underlined NTS
Number NO.
Pattern Number PATT NO.
Pitch Circle Diameter PCD
Radius..In a note RAD
Radius..Preceding a dimension R
Reference REF
Required REQD
Right hand RH
Round Head RD HD
Screw of Screwed SCR
Sheet (Drawing Number) SH
Sketch (prefix to Drawing Number) SK
Specification SPEC
Spherical Radius..Preceding dim SR
Spotface SFACE
Square ..In a note SQ
Square ..Preceding dim
Standard STD
Taper.. On Dia or Width
Thread SQ
Thick THK
Tolerance TOL
Typically OR Typical TYP
Undercut UCUT
Volume VOL
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Flow Sheet Symbols

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Symbols For Process Flow Diagrams and Engineering Line Diagrams
The following symbols are generally in accordance with BS 1553-1...and BS 5070
Different Line Types.
Different Pipe Supports.
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Flow Sheet Symbols
Symbols for Fitting and Representations.
Symbols for Valves

Flow Sheet Symbols
Symbols for Valve Actuators.
Symbols for Instruments.

Flow Sheet Symbols
Instrument Indentifiers
Measured Variable Type of Conditioner Type of Component

F = Flow R = Recorder T = Transmitter
L = Level I = Indicator M = Modifier
P = Pressure C = Controller E = Element
Q = Quantity A = Alarm

Flow Sheet Symbols
T = Temperature
Symbols for Process Equipment.
The level of detail for the equipment relates to the type of schematic being produced. A Process Flow Sheet will only show the
basic level of information sufficient to show the essential process flowpaths. An Engineering Line Diagram of P & ID drawing will
show a much more detailed representation.

Flow Sheet Symbols
Line Tags and Equipment Identification.

Flow Sheet Symbols
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Process Diagrams and Documents
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Process Diagrams and Drawings
There are a number of diagrams & drawings associated with process engineering most of which are
involved to some level with mechanical engineering. BS 5070 Pt 1 :1988 provides useful guidance
on the different types of drawings.
A list of the diagrams covered by these notes is provided below
1. Block Diagram
2. Mass Flow Diagram (not Mentioned in BS 5070)
3. Process Flow Diagrams
4. Process Data Sheets
5. System and Piping Diagrams
6. Piping and Instrument Diagrams
7. Mechanical Flow Diagrams (not Mentioned in BS 5070)
8. Equipment Location Diagrams
9. Pipe Arrangement Drawings (not Mentioned in BS 5070)
10. Piping Isometrics (not Mentioned in BS 5070)
11. Installation Drawings
Block Diagram
This to show the essentials of an installation in sufficient block outline to indicate the main design
features. This will use lines and simple geometric shapes (Rectangle, Circles , Polygons ) with
notes inside or adjacent.
Mass Flow Diagram
This is a simple block diagram which identifies the mass flow of "all" matter through the process.
This document is essential in any process design and must be updated as the design progresses
Process Flow Diagram
The Flow diagram shows all the essential parts of the process and items of equipment in sufficient
detail to enable the analysis and calculation of the physical characteristics of the system to be
undertaken
A Process Flow Diagram is a diagram of a fluid flow system showing the equipment items
connected by the major process pipes and containing data on the essential process control circuits
or major process requirements. The drawing is not to scale and the the equipment items are
represented by symbols. The main equipment items and flow streams should be identified and
included in tables which identify process requirements in sufficient detail to enable production of the
Piping and Instrument Diagrams (Engineering Line Drawings).
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Process Data Sheets
The process data sheets (PSD) are generally A4 documents with a number of sheets. A PSD
relates to a single item of equipment and contains the essential process data for initiating the detail
design of an item. It includes the overall size, number, approximate geometry and identification of
the connections, material of construction and the full range of operating conditions. The Process
Data sheet generally includes a simple diagram.
The process design also generally includes for Instrument Process Data Sheets which provides a
similar level of detail.
Circuit Diagrams
The circuit diagrams are used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems to show the various control
valves, fluid pipeline equipment, and pneumetic /hydraulic line interfaces. The valve systems are
specific to the fluid power industry.
The system and piping diagrams
This show detailed connections between the components and items of equipment. The main
purpose of these diagrams are to identify pipe routings and initial pipe lengths for producing
estimates.
Piping and Instrument Diagrams
The P & I diagram (Engineering Line Diagram) allows the design to progress from the "Process
Flow Sheet / System and Piping diagram" to the final system design and installation stage. The
P&ID are definitive and comprehensive diagrams showing all of the equipment, piping, valves and
instrumentation. All items to be identified using a standard numbering systems. This normally
entails having a unique plant item number for each item of equipment, valve, instrument and line.
Ideally the line number should include a size, material and fluid contents identifier to enable the
anyone reading the drawing to obtain this information without having to refer to other documents.
An Engineering line should include
● Mechanical equipment with names and numbers

● Instruments with identification and necessary interfaces with control loops
● Interconnecting piping, sizes and identification
● Valves with identifications
● Vents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers and increasers
● Flow directions
● Interface tags to other ELD's
● Control interfaces, inputs and outputs.
● Main plant interlocks.
● Identification of symbols used
● Reference list including identification of relevant PFD's
The symbols used to be in accordance with identified standards and should clearly indicate the type
of component, the method of connection (screwed, flanged etc) and and the status (Valves -
Normally Closed, Normally Open). The method of operating equipment items should be clearly

identified (electric motor, pneumatic actuator). It is not generally necessary to identify services and
electrical supplies to the operators.
Mechanical Flow Diagram
This type of diagram is required to clearly show a system involving moving mechanical components
which need to be interfaced and interlocked. All sequenced movements have to be identified
including the method of initiating and terminating the movements. A mechanical flow diagram is
generally a block diagram.
Equipment Location Diagram
The design process includes for provision of equipment location diagrams which identify is some
detail the locations of all the equipment items used in the process. These diagrams also provide
local floor loadings, static and dynamic and proposed fastening arrangements. This information is
required to enable the structural design of the building to be progressed.
Piping Arrangement Drawings
These drawings are generally completed using 3 D Cad systems. They are either Isometric
drawings or orthographic or a combination of the two. These drawings are completed to identify, in
detail the pipe runs and to show the interfaces with the equipment and the various other services
and to identify the access allowances.
Piping Isometrics
Each pipe line is detailed by at least one isometric. This need not be to scale but should show all
material, size, weld, and fitting information. The isometric includes all pipe lengths and all
necessary datums identifying the pipe location in the region where it is to be installed. The
isometric is the pipe manufacturing drawing and includes a part list identifying all component parts
of the pipe being detailed.
Installation Drawings
These drawing provide instructions of the installation requirements and often are based on the
equipment location drawings and the piping arrangement drawings. The drawings often provide
information on the sequence of equipment and piping installation by provision of a number of
drawings of the same area at different stages of the installation.

Links Providing information on Drawing Diagrams and Symbols
1. Process Diagrams...An excellent downloadable paper

2. Piping Design Com...A very comprehensive site providing lots of information on piping design
3. Red-Bag...A complete set of design notes for all aspects of piping design
4. Design for Constructibility ...An excellent article on piping design
5. Pipedata.com... Reasonably priced software with 30 days free trial period - Detail design information
6. Delta Mines Training Centre...A Lesson identifying the various flow diagrams
7. Piping Toolbox... -> Piping Design strategy = Useful notes on Flow diagrams
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Mechanical Engineering Drawings
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Mechanical Drawings
There are a number of drawing types associated with the mechanical engineering design process.
A list of the Drawing Types covered by these notes is provided below
1. General Arrangement Drawings

2. Arrangement Drawings
3. Assembly Drawings
4. Detail Drawings
5. Fabrication Drawings
These notes also include comments on item identification identification
General Arrangement Drawings
This drawing shows overall views of the equipment and provides all of the information to produce
transportation, layout and installation drawings. The drawing includes a list of the arrangement
drawings. The drawing includes overall dimensions, installation details, overall weight/mass,
weights of sub systems, and service supply details.
The general arrangement drawing includes references to the design documents. The drawing
often also identifies relevant internal and external contract numbers. An example of a typical
general arrangement drawing is a roller conveyor system comprising a number of conveyors with
independent drives and guards.
The drawn separate assemblies and parts will be identified with leader lines to balloons which
include the arrangement reference number linking to the list of arrangement drawings.
Arrangement Drawing
Arrangement drawing represent self contained units used to make up the system drawn on the
general arrangement drawing. Examples of arrangement drawings include drawings of assembled
conveyers, drive systems, elevating units etc. The drawing should show in, at least three
orthographic views, clear details to show all of the components used to make up the equipment
items and how the component parts are located and fastened together.
Arrangement drawings include a table (parts list) identifying assemblies, fabrication drawings, detail
drawings and proprietary items used to make up the equipment. Arrangement drawings include
overall dimension, the weight/mass of the equipment drawn, the lifting points. All information
needed to construct, test, lift, transport, and install the equipment should be provided in notes or as
referenced documents.
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The arrangement drawing may be a standard internal drawing which is repeatedly called up on
different system general arrangement drawings.
The drawn separate assemblies and parts will be identified with leader lines to balloons which
include the item reference number linking to the parts list.
Assembly Drawings
The assembly /sub-assembly drawings are drawings of discrete sub-systems showing in some
detail how the component items fit together. Typical assembly drawings include gearbox drawings,
roller drawings, guard system drawings.
The assembly drawing will generally include at least three orthographic views with sections as
needed to clearly show all of the details and their relative positions. Overall and detail dimensions
will be shown. The weight/mass of the assembly/sub-assembly will be noted. The drawing will
include a parts list identifying all of the component details with quantities and materials and supply
details. The assembly drawing will include a list of reference drawings and notes identifying the
relevant codes and specifications and testing requirements.
The drawn separate items will be identified with leader lines to balloons which include the item
reference number linking to the parts list.
Detail Drawings
All individual items required to produce mechanical equipment need to be described in some detail
to ensure that they are manufactured in accordance with the designers requirements. Proprietary
items are selected from technical data sheets obtained from manufacturer /supplier. Items
manufactured specifically for the application need to be made to detail drawings which include the
geometry, material, heat treatment requirements, surface texture, size tolerances, geometric
tolerances etc.
The detail drawing should include all of the necessary information to enable procurement,
manufacture and should identify all of the relevant codes and standards. The item weight/mass
should also be included for reference.
Depending on the level of detail, a detail drawing can comprise one drawing on a sheet or a number
of separate drawings on one sheet. It is sometimes possible to combine the detail drawings onto
the assembly drawing. The detail drawing must cross reference, both ways,to the parent assembly
or arrangement drawing.
Fabrication Drawings
The fabrication drawing is a specific type of detail drawing. Some fabrication drawings are virtually
assembly drawing e.g. when a number of items are assembled together as a fabrication. The
fabrication drawing generally includes a material parts list identifying all of the materials used to
build up the fabrication. All weld details are included using the standard symbolic representation of
welds as shown in BS EN 22553. All of the materials should be identified in accordance with the
relevant standards and codes.

The fabrication drawing should clearly describe in notes or in referenced documents the heat
treatment and stress relieving requirements prior to, during and following the completion of the
fabrication processes. The dimensions and relevant linear and geometric tolerances should be
indicated.
A fabrication drawing sometimes only includes the fabrication details, the final machining details are
then shown on a separate drawing. It is equally acceptable to show all manufacturing information
on one drawing.
The items used to make up the fabrication will be identified with leader lines to balloons which
include the item reference number linking to the parts list. The listed items on a fabrication drawing
do not identify items which can be disassembled, as on assembly and arrangement drawings. The
numbering system should reflect this difference. Methods of numbering items on fabrication
drawings include using lower case alphabet letters e.g a,b,c or optionally as sub units of the
fabrication item number e.g 1/1, 1/2 1/3 ... or 1/a , 1/b, 1/c...
Item Identification
The method of identifying the parts must be clear and unambiguous. The equipment as represented
on the general arrangement drawing and the sub-assemblies as shown on the arrangement and
assembly drawing should be clearly identified with plant item numbers. The relevant drawing
numbers are obtained by reference to the plant items list. Plant items are annotated by leader lines
to a double balloon.
Typically a conveyor may have a plant item number e.g.H1040 and be shown on a drawing e.g.
drawing number A0 12500.
The detail drawings are sub items of the arrangement drawings and are identified on the
arrangement and assembly drawings. Typically an item say a conveyor frame may be identified
from the conveyor plant item number e.g. H1040/3 . Optionally it may be identified using the
arrangement drawing number e.g. A0 12500 /3. The frame will also have a discrete detail drawing
number e.g A2 12503
The fabricated items which are based on sub-parts welded together should be identified as details
but the individual sub-parts should be identified in a different way to avoid ambiguity. One option
is to number the fabricated sub-parts alphabetically e.g a, b, c ...or as a combination of the
fabrication detail number and the part number i.e 3/a , 3/b.... These sub-parts do not need to be
identified as separate parts because following fabrication they will not exist as separate parts. If
the sub-parts are complicated shapes or machined items and they cannot be described in sufficient
detail on the fabrication drawing they should be drawn as separate detail drawings but still identified
as sub-parts of the fabrication detail.

Links Providing information on Drawing Diagrams and Symbols

2. The Design Process...A review of the design process including drawing examples.( Not BS 8888 )
3. Drawing Tools...Notes on Drawing using CoralDraw
4. Cadalot...Lots of Advice and Lessons from a Drawing expert
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Electrical Control Diagrams

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The following notes relate to BS 7845:1996 ..Guide to the use of BS 3939 and BS EN
60617
There are a number of diagrams & drawings associated with Electrical /Control
engineering some of which are involved to some level with mechanical engineering.
A list of the diagrams covered by these notes is provided below
1. Block Diagram
2. Circuit Diagram
3. Connection Diagrams
4. Interconnection Diagrams
Block Diagram
A block diagram is a simple diagram in which an installation or equipment system

together with its functional relationships are represented by block symbols or outlines
with annotation without necessarily showing connections.
Circuit Diagram
Circuit diagrams are completed to show the full functioning of a circuit showing all its
essential components and connections by means of graphical symbols. It shows the
operations without necessarily showing the physical layout.
Connection Diagram
A connection diagram shows all of the connections between components. This diagram
assists in the actual wiring of circuits.
Interconnection Diagram
An interconnection diagram represents the connections between the different units of and
installation. Its purpose is to show the external connections of a unit. The internal
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connections are shown on a wiring diagram.
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Engineering Standards and Regulations .. Flowsheet Symbols

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Standards Index
Standards and Regulations Useful to Mechanical Engineers (English)
Reference Standards...Mechanical/Electrical/Process Diagrams
Note.. Items 1 to 20 relate to electrical /control diagrams
- Standard Reference Title

Standards
Guide to the use of BS 3939 and BS EN 60617.
1 BS 7845:1996
Graphical symbols for diagrams
Graphical symbols for diagrams. Symbol elements,
BS EN 60617-2:1996
2 qualifying symbols and other symbols having general
IEC 60617-2:1996
application
BS EN 60617-3:1996 Graphical symbols for diagrams. Conductors and
3
IEC 60617-3:1996 connecting devices
BS EN 60617-4:1996 Graphical symbols for diagrams. Basic passive
4
IEC 60617-4:1996 components
BS EN 60617-5:1996 Graphical symbols for diagrams. Semiconductors and
5
IEC 60617-5:1996 electron tubes
BS EN 60617-6:1996 Graphical symbols for diagrams. Production and
6
IEC 60617-6:1996 conversion of electrical energy
BS EN 60617-7:1996 Graphical symbols for diagrams. Switchgear, controlgear
7
IEC 60617-7:1996 and protective devices
BS EN 60617-8:1996 Graphical symbols for diagrams. Measuring instruments,
8
IEC 60617-8:1996 lamps and signalling devices
BS EN 60617-9:1996 Graphical symbols for diagrams. Telecommunications.
9
IEC 60617-9:1996 Switching and peripheral equipment
BS EN 60617-10:1996 Graphical symbols for diagrams. Telecommunications.
10
IEC 60617-10:1996 Transmission
BS EN 60617-11:1997 Graphical symbols for diagrams. Architectural and
11
IEC 60617-11:1996 topographical installation plans and diagrams
BS EN 60617-12:1999
12 Graphical symbols for diagrams. Binary logic elements
IEC 60617-12:1997
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BS EN 61082-1:1993 Preparation of documents used in electrotechnology.

13
IEC 61082-1:1991 General requirements
BS EN 61082-2:1994 reparation of documents used in electrotechnology.
14
IEC 61082-2:1993 Function-oriented diagrams
BS EN 61082-3:1994 1993Preparation of documents used in eletrotechnology.
15
IEC 61082-3:1993 Connection diagrams, tables
BS EN 61082-4:1996 Preparation of documents used in electrotechnology.
16
IEC 61082-4:1996 Location and installations
Specification for graphical symbols for general
17 BS 1553-1:1977
engineering. Piping systems and plant
Specification for graphical symbols for general
18 BS 1553-2:1950 engineering. Graphical symbols for power generating
plant
Graphical symbols for general engineering. Graphical
19 BS 1553-3:1950
symbols for compressing plant
Graphical symbols for electrical power,
BS 3939-1:1986
20 telecommunications and electronics diagrams. General
Withdrawn
information, general index
Engineering diagram drawing practice.
21 BS 5070-1:1988
Recommendations for general principles
22 BS 5070-3:1988
Recommendations for mechanical/fluid flow diagrams
23 BS 5070-4:1990
Recommendations for logic diagrams
Graphic symbols and circuit diagrams for fluid power
BS 2917-1:1993
24 systems and components. Specification for graphic
ISO 1219-1:1991
symbols
BS BS ISO 14617- Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 1: General
25
1:2002 information and indexes
Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 2: Symbols having
26 BS ISO 14617-2:2002
general application
Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 3: Connections
27 BS ISO 14617-3:2002
and related devices
Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 4: Actuators and
28 BS ISO 14617-4:2002
related devices
Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 5: Measurement
29 BS ISO 14617-5:2002
and control devices
Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 6: Measurement
30 BS ISO 14617-6:2002
and control functions

Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 7: Basic

31 BS ISO 14617-7:2002
mechanical components
Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 8: Valves and
32 BS ISO 14617-8:2002
dampers
Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 9: Pumps,
33 BS ISO 14617-9:2002 compressors and fans Graphical symbols for diagrams -
Part 8: Valves and dampers
BS ISO 14617- Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 10: Fluid power
34
10:2002 converters
BS ISO 14617- Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 11: Devices for
35
11:2002 heat transfer and heat engines
36
12:2002 separating, purification and mixing
37
13:2002 material processing
38
14:2002 transport and handling of material
BS ISO 14617- Graphical symbols for diagrams - Part 15: Symbols for
39
15:2002 use on installation diagrams and network maps
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Electrical Control Symbols

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Symbols used on electrical control diagrams
The symbols shown below are generally based on BS 7845:1996 , BS 3939 and BS EN
60617
The diagram are produced using symbols as building block combining functional symbols
with symbols for variability and operation and material.. The number of symbols are very
large and BS EN 60617 includes many fields from power generation to solid state
electronics. The symbols below are just a selection related to the fields related to
general engineering provided as a general guide/ For details showing proportions and
sizes reference to the standards are necessary
Symbols for conductors
Following are typical symbols associated with conductors..
Symbols for Earth
Following are typical symbols associated with Earth..
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Symbols for Variables
Following are typical symbols associated with Variables applied to conductors and
electrical elements..
Symbols for Resistors
Following are typical symbols associated with Electrical Resistors..

Symbols for Capacitors Inductances
Following are typical symbols associated with Capacitors & Inductances..
Symbols for Operators
Following are typical symbols associated with Operators ..

Symbols for Signals /Modifyers
Following are typical symbols associated with Operators ..

Symbols for Contactors /Controls
Following are typical symbols associated with Controlgear ..


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Electrical Power Symbols

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Power Symbols used on electrical diagrams
The symbols shown below are generally based on BS 7845:1996 , BS 3939 and BS EN 60617
The diagram are produced using symbols .. The number of symbols are very large and BS EN
60617 includes many fields from power generation to solid state electronics. The symbols
below are just a selection related to the fields related to general engineering provided as a
general guide/ For details showing proportions and sizes reference to the standards is
necessary
Building Block Symbols
Symbols for Motors /Generators
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Symbols for Transformers etc.

Basic Symbols for Power converters

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Flow Sheet Symbols

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Mechanical Symbols For Flow Diagrams
Mechanical Equipment Symbols
The following symbols are generally in accordance with BS 1553-1...
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Flow Sheet Symbols

Flow Sheet Symbols
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Flow Sheet Symbols

Hydraulic Pneumatic Circuit Symbols

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Symbols used in Pneumatic / Hydraulic Circuit diagrams
The symbols shown below are generally based on

BS 2917-1:1993, ISO 1219-1:1991.Graphic symbols and circuit diagrams for fluid power
systems and components. Specification for graphic symbols
Note: This is one standard identified by two numbers.
For information on production of circuit diagrams refer to

BS ISO 1219:1995..Fluid power systems and components. Graphic symbols and circuit
diagrams. Circuit diagrams
Diagrams of pneumatic and hydraulic components are produced using these symbols as
building block combining functional symbols with symbols for variability and operation ...
Basic Symbols
Following are examples of the basic symbols
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Valve Operators
Following are typical symbols associated with Valve Operators

Energy Conversion Devices
Following are typical symbols associated with Pumps and Motors

Instruments
Following are typical symbols associated with Instruments
Fluid Conditioning
Following are typical symbols associated with Air Conditioning Units

Fluid Cylinders
Following are typical symbols associated with Fluid Cylinders
System Pressurisation

Following are typical symbols associated with Fluid System Pressurisation
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Useful Dimensions

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Useful dimensions for general design Drawing
UsefulDimensions
Height Dimensions
Normal heel height 26mm

Vertical Space for foot 100mm
Stair Riser 200mm
Ladder Rung Space 300mm
Max Step height 380-400mm
W.C height 400mm
Stool height 650mm
Knee Clearance (min) 660mm
Table height 700mm-740mm
Panic Bar 840mm
Hand Rail- stairs 860mm
Work Bench 920mm -965mm
Hand Rails 920mm -1065mm
Door knobs 960mm
Counter 1020mm -1090mm
Telephone dial- Men sitting 1070mm
Push Bar 1150mm
Wall Switch 1220mm
Grab Bars 1380mm
Telephone dial-Men
1450mm
Standing
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Useful Dimensions
Instrument Dials-Men
1450mm
Standing
Mirror Centreline 1550mm
CatWalk ceiling (min) 1600mm
Highest Shelf 1830mm
Tel booth door 1930mm
Door height (min) 1980mm
Ceiling height (min) 2040mm
Std. Door height 2040mm-2100mm
Width Dimensions
Stair Tread Width-Min 280mm

Seat Width -Min 450mm
Seat Depth -Min 400mm
Internal door width =Min
750mm
-Clearance
Lift door width =Min
800mm
-Clearance
External door width=Min
800mm
-Clearance
Gangway width
760mm
-One man occasional
Clearance Round Main
1000mm
equipment
Gangway width
1070mm
-One man frequent use
Main Gangways 1830mm
1000mm
equipment
1000mm
equipment
Corridor Width-
1200mm
Unobstructed

Useful Dimensions
Corridor Width-
Allowing Wheelchair 1800mm
Passing
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Item Reference Numbers and Parts Lists

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Reference British Standards
BS EN ISO 6433:1995, BS 308-1.8:1995..Technical drawings. Item references

BS ISO 7573:1983...Technical drawings. Item list
Item References
Item references shall be placed outside the general outline of the drawing.
Each separate item and complete sub-assembly shall have a reference number.
Identical parts should have the same reference number
The item reference shall be a number, the number may be augmented by Capitals.
Item reference numbers shall be distinguishable from other e.g by making the text size
larger than the text used for dimensions and notes.
The reference numbers can also be clearly identifiable by including in balloons
Item reference numbers should be located in vertical or horizontal lines for clarity.
The item reference numbers for clearly grouped items can be combined with one leader.
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Technical Drawing - Item lists
The item list ( bill of materials) for an assembly drawing can be located on the drawing or
it can be provided on a separate dedicated drawing.
The item list should be clearly identified on the drawing as the Item List.
The item list should be orientated to suit the normal reading direction of the drawing.
As a minimum the item list should include vertical columns with the following headings
● Item
● Description
● Quantity
● Reference
● Material
Each item should be listed in a separate row separated by thick or thin lines
The item column should include the item number as shown on the drawing
The description column is for the item designation. Abbreviations, may be used if they
are clear. a typical description would be Bolt- Size- Grade and the relevant standard.
The quantity is the total quantity for one completed assembly.
The reference column identify parts which are not fully detailed on the assembly
drawing. This may be a detail drawing number, a proprietary part number, a code
number or a specification number.
The material column should identify clearly the material. It may be necessary to refer to a
noted if the material can not be identified in a concise manner***

The item list can additionally include other information necessary for the finished product
e.g. Supply information, item mass, remarks..
*** not in standard..
Note: The figure above is for guidance ..The column order proportions and general layout
are not clearly described in the standard and are therefore probably not important..
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Drawing Standards

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Checking Mechanical Drawings
The notes, on this page, are a collection of key points that can be usefully
applied to a checking process at virtually any level. However it is
recognised that there are many very small companies that produce high
quality engineering components without the need for highly formalised
drawings. "Measure twice cut once" is checking at its most basic level..
Introduction
Engineering drawings are used to facilitate the production of all engineering components
and systems. An engineering drawing is a only one document of a suite of documents
used including calculations,design specification, data sheets, material specifications etc.
etc. There is a strong economic motivation and often a vital (mandatory) safety
requirement that the drawings fit for their purpose. Standards including the ones
referenced in BS 8888 provide guidance on the preparation of drawings. Unfortunately
drawings are produced by humans or human substitutes (computers) and often include
errors. The checking function is an important function enabling the reduction of errors to
an acceptable level. Checking can be completed at various levels as listed below:
● Signing the check box to get the drawing through the system - useless
● Simple scan to check for neatness and presentation -virtually useless
● Detailed check of ones own drawing - Useful but not substitute for independent check- One is often blind to ones
own errors
● Detailed dimension check by the designer of drawings produced by subordinate draughtsmen. Useful but design
errors may be overlooked
● Detailed dimension check by independent engineer- Very useful but fundamental design errors may be overlooked
● Detailed design & dimension check by independent engineer- Very useful with some cost penalty
● Design review by diverse design team with follow up detailed independent design /dimension check- extremely
useful -expensive
Engineering production includes an intrinsic self correcting facility in that in the

manufacturing process drawings are used by number of downstream departments each
using the drawing for their own purpose. Each responsible person in these departments
seeing the drawing is able to feed back to the designer any errors noticed. In the various
production stages drawing errors may result in obvious errors in the components
produced resulting in scrap and then consequent correction of the offending
drawings. The inspection of finished components often identifies drawing errors which
are communicated to design department. The assembly and testing of produced
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Drawing Standards
components often uncovers problems resulting in correction of drawing errors. The end
user of the component will also have some impact on the design when complaining about
its low reliability. All of these feedback routes have progressively increased cost penalty.
Preparation for Checking

For a drawing check to be completed efficiently and correctly the following items must be
available.
● Checking pens/pencils three colours [ OK, Delete, Amend ]

● Approved design specifications
● Information on the service conditions if not include in above
● Approved process /mechanical data sheets
● Reports /minutes of relevant design review meetings
● Company Drawing Standards /Relevant standards e.g. BS 8888 referenced standards
● Company Material/Equipment Standards /Relevant Standards/Directives etc e.g Machinery Directive.
● All relevant component literature. e.g. Bearing design data, gearbox information etc
● Drawings of existing similar successful operating systems
● Full set of completed drawings to be checked
Checking guidance
New Designs
The check should make himself fully aware of the design requirements by review all
documents prepared prior and following production of the drawings. The checker should,
at this stage confirm that these documents are approved.
Layout /Arrangements
The layout /arrangement drawings should be checked for the following features
The drawings should clearly :
● Illustrate the complete system design with not ambiguity

● Position the system in the relevant world.e.g. Datum positions and Direction arrow pointing North
● Identify the space required by the system.
● Identify the access required for and to the system.
● Ensure that all sub- assemblies and details are correctly referenced
● Indicate floor static / dynamic / full/ empty loadings
● Indicate important lifting provisions
● Identify the relevant installation drawings.
The checker should, at this stage review in outline that the system will operate
satisfactorily and is aesthetically acceptable and that there are no obvious strength
problems. The checker should check the design against any similar successful systems.
Installation/ Assembly /Detail Drawings
Document presentation:
The drawing should be neat with bold outlines and clear hidden/centre lines The checker
should ensure that the drawing is unambiguous and conforms to the accepted company
standards ( Better to BS 8888 ref'd standards).

Drawing Standards
The title block should be correctly completed and the title should by clear and provide the
correct key words in the correct arrangement.
The text should be the sized in accordance with the relevant standard and should clear
without undue style
All elevations and sections should be made to show most clearly the shape of the items
and the machining production processes to be completed. The drawing should clearly
show the the complete shape and all necessary dimensions of the item.
All sub items should be completely identified against a component schedule. The
drawings should include sufficient notes to clearly identify all production stages, and
surface coatings..
If needed sub-views should be used to show parts not easily shown in the main
elevations.
Strength:
All parts should be checked for strength and rigidity by confirming that suitable strength
calculations have been completed and the drawing conforms with these calcs. The
check should include comparing the items with similar existing successful parts.
The check should confirm that the design has included consideration of fatigue. If
operating conditions include repeated/reversing loads it is important that sources of stress
concentration have been minimised and calculated strength levels have been suitably
adjusted
Materials:
All materials specified should be suitable for the functional requirements and the
operating environment.. In the UK, at this time, material specifications seem to be in
continuous flux. There is still a tendency to specify materials such as BS 970 EN8. This
is probably acceptable as it is definitive but it is much better to use the latest material
specification and the material should be specified as recommended in the relevant
standard.
The checker should provide an input on the suitability of the material form if a significant
design improvement or cost reduction results.i.e forged, cast, welded.
Dimensions
Ensure the drawing includes all dimensions and that the dimensions are correct.
Dimensions should be checked manually to confirm they are to scale. If any dimension is
out of scale ensure that, if it is correct, then it is marked appropriately..
Overall dimensions should be clear and unambiguous and machining allowances should
be identified.
Reference dimensions provided only for information should be so identified
All extension lines should go to the correct points on the drawings
All arrow points should point to the correct witness points
The geometric and linear tolerances and limits should be checked to ensure correct
clearances and tightness
Ensure there are no strings of dimensions where errors can accumulate

Drawing Standards
If the machining process includes a requirement for co-ordinate positioning the parts
should be dimensioned accordingly
Checking for assembly

Ensure all parts can be conveniently assembled with the associated parts
Male parts filets/chamfers and female part radii/ fillets to be sized so they do not interfere
on assembly .
Ensure bearings fits are correct to allow relative motion
The parts should include features to enable dismantling if required
Castings
It is important when checking items made from casting that the requirements of the
casting process are considered e.g. the method of supporting the cores, vent provisions,
and pattern split lines.
Cast items should be of uniform thickness - no adjacent thick and thin sections
Generous fillets should be used
Ensure that allowances included for core movement and swelling is providing in
machining allowances
ensure sufficient machining allowances are provided for distortion of the casting
Machining
Ensure that the correct machining symbols are used and they are located against the
correct surfaces or witness lines
When specific machining operations are required ensure that the requirements are
identified
Confirm that the correct drill, reamer,and tap sizes are included on the drawing
Ensure that all features required to ensure convenient machining are provided i.e.
clamping points
Ensure that where required suitable raised faces are included to allow clear machining
operations
Ensure clearances are provided for machining and fastening spanners
Handling
Ensure that all details include the weights
All heavy items than say > 300N should include provision for lifting
All lifting points should be clearly identified
Specific lifting features should include requirement for factory testing -e.g a note
The checker should confirm that the necessary calculations for the the lifting points have
been completed and approved
Identification
All components and main assemblies should be clearly identified either by an code
number which cannot easily be removed or a fixed on label

Drawing Standards
Heat Treatment
When needed the drawing should identify clearly that heat treatment is required and
should also identify the relevant specification
The checker should confirm that the specified heat treatment is appropriate
CAD drawings.
It is desirable that within a company all CAD drawings are produced to a common CAD
standard. This aspect of the drawing process is generally checked as a separate process
Checking CAD drawings includes confirming that the following tasks have been
completed correctly..
● Separating parts of the drawing onto separate layers (title blocks, Line Types, etc)
● Using standard fonts
● Using Designated line types
● Allocating colours to drawing features
● Using correct title blocks / labels /borders
● Drawing to scale when plotted at designated size
● Blocks correctly inserted and unused blocks purged
● Associated dimensions used
To Be continued
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ISO Units
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Units Index
S.I.Units
Note:
The fundamental units according to BS 5775-0:1993, ISO 31-0:1992 include length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature,
amount of substance and luminous intensity.
In mechanical engineering the fundamental required units are length, mass and time
Physical Unit Name Symbol

length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
temperature kelvin K
luminous intensity candela cd
*plane angle radian rad
*solid angle steradian sr
Quantity of Matter mole mole
* supplementary units
Units Index
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ISO Units
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Derived SI Units
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Units Index
Derived S.I.Units
Physical quantity Name Symbol Derivation

force newton N (kg m) / s2
power watt W ( kg m2 ) / s3
energy joule J ( kg m2 ) / s2
pressure pascal Pa kg / (m s2 )
electric charge coulomb C As
electric potential
volt V ( kg m2 ) / (A s3)
difference
electric resistance ohm W ( kg m2 ) / (A2 s3)
electric
siemens S ( A2 s3 ) / (kg m2)
conductance
electric
farad F ( A2 s4) / (kg m2)
capacitance
magnetic flux weber Wb ( kg m2 ) / (A s2)
inductance henry H ( kg m2 ) / ( A2 s2)
magnetic flux
density (magnetic tesla T kg / (A s2)
induction)
luminous flux lumen lm cd sr
illuminance lux lx ( cd sr ) /m2
absorbed dose gray Gy m2 / s2
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Derived SI Units
activity becquerel Bq 1/s

dose equivalent sievert Sv m2 / s2
acceralation - - m / s2
angular Velocity - - rad/s
area - - m2
current density - - A / m2
density - - kg m2
dynamic viscosity pascal second - Pa s
electric charge
coulomb/ metre2 - C / m2
density
electric field
volt /metre - V/m
strength
energy density joule / metre3 - J / m3
heat capacity joule / kelvin - J/K
heat flux density watt /metre2 - W / m2
kinematic viscosity metre2 / s - m2 / s
luminance candela /metre2 - cd / m2
magnetic field
ampere /metre - A/m
strength
Units Index
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Conversions
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Units Index
Conversions
Useful Sites for units conversion include
1. Dictionary of Measures... A large site with containing information on units
2. Online Conversions ... A conversion calculator for direct conversion from one system to another
3. Mega Converter ... A powerful converter and calculator +links !!!

4. Allmeasures ... Another powerful conversion site !!!
5. CRENG ... -A site with an applet based conversion sytem !!!
Conversion Factors...
Length.. Mass..
● 1 in = 2.540 0 cm ● 1 oz = 28.350 g
● 1 ft = 0.304 80 m ● 1 lb = 0.453 59 kg
● 1 yd = 0.914 40 m ● 1 cwt = 50.802 kg
● 1 mi = 1.609 3 km ● 1 ton =1.0161 tonne
Pressure...
Force...
● 1 N m-2 = 1 Pa
● 1 lbf = 4.448 2 N
● 1 bar = 105 Pa
● 1 kgf = 9.8065 N
● 1 lbs.inch-2 =6.89475 KPa
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Conversions
Energy...
● 1 ft lbf = 1.356 J Moment Of Force (Torque)

● 1 kW h = 3.600 0 MJ
● 1 therm = 105.51 MJ
● 1 lbf ft =1.355 8 N m
● 1 kcalorie (Calorie) =
4.1868 KJ
● 1 BTU = 1.0551 KJ
Volume..
● 1 in3 = 16.387 cm3

Power..
● 1 ft3 = 0.028 317 m3
● 1 yd3 = 0.746 56 m3
● 1 hp =0.745 79 kW ● 1 pint = 0.568 26 litre(dm3)
● ft.lbf /s = 1.356 W ● 1 UK gallon = 4.546 09
litre (dm3)
● 1 US gallon = 3.78541 litre
(dm3)
Dynamic Viscosity
Velocity
● 1 lbsf s / ft2 = 47.8803 Pa s

● 1 ft/s = 0.304 80 m/s
● 1 centipoise (cP) = 10-2
● 1 mi/hr = 1.609 3 km/hr
Poise (P) = 10-3 Pa s
Units Index
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Unit Multiples
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Units Index
Unit Multiples
Note: The multiples below are generally in accordance is BS 5775-0:1993, ISO 31-0:1992
Factor Prefix Symbol

1024 Yotto Y
1021 Zetta Z
1015 Peta P
1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deca da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
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Unit Multiples
10-21 zepto z
10-24 yocto y
Units Index
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Science Constants
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Units Index
Science Constants
Constant Symbol Value in SI units

acceleration of free fall g 9.806 65 m s-2
6.0221367(36) × 1026
Avogadro constant L, LA.
( kg-mole)-1
1.380658(12) × 10-23 J
Boltzmann constant k=R/NA
K-1
Permittivity Of Free e0 8.854187 817 × 10-12
Space F m-1
1.602 177 33 (49) × 10-
electronic charge e 19 C
me 9.1093897(54) × 10-31
electronic rest mass
kg
9.648 5309(29) × 107 C
Faraday constant F
( kg-mole)-1
8.314 510(70) × 103 J
gas constant R.
K-1 ( kg-mole)-1
6.672 59(85) × 10-11
gravitational constant G
m3 kg-1 s-2
2.686 763(23) × 1025
Loschmidt’s Number NL
m-3
magnetic constant m0 4 x (pi)× 10-7 H m-1
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Units/Science_constants.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:16:05 AM

Science Constants
mn 1.674 9286(10) × 10-27

neutron rest mass
kg
6.626 0755(40) × 10-34
Planck constant h
Js
mp 1.672 6231(10) × 10-27

proton rest mass
kg
2.997 924 58 × 108 m
speed of light c
s-1
Stefan-Boltzmann 5.670 51(19)× 10-8 W
s
constant m-2 K-4
Units Index
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Nomenclature
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Nomenclature
Nomenclature
Mathematics Dynamics Energy-Power Stress/Strain
Symbol Description Units

A Cross Section Area m2
a Acceleration m/sec2
D Diameter m2
e Energy Joule (N.m)
e Strain -
E Young's Modulus N/m2
F Force N
Shear Modulus .. Modulus Of
G N/m2
Rigity
Second Moment of Area of a
I m4
Section about its Neutral Axis
Mass Moment of Inertia of a body
I kg.m2
about its axis of Rotation
J Polar Moment of Inertia m4
Mass Moment of Inertia of a body
J kg.m2
about its axis of Rotation
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Nomenclature
m Mass kg
M Moment N.m
p Tensile/Compressive Stress N/m2
P Pressure N/m2
q Shear Stress N/m2
R Radius m
s Distance m
t Time sec
t Thickness m
T Torque N.m
v Velocity m/s
W Work Done Joule (N.m)
W Beam Load N
w Beam Distributed load N /m
x Distance x direction m
y Distance y direction m
α Angular Acceleration s-2
γ Shear Strain Radian
θ Angle Radian
ν Poisson's Ratio -
3.14159
π Circumference/ Diameter
(approx)
σ Stress N / m2
τ Shear Stress N/m2
ω Angular Velocity sec-1
Greek alphabet
may be obtained with symbol Font

Nomenclature
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Nomenclature

Mathematics Formulae
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Nomenclature
Hyberbolic Quadratic
Mensuration Trigonometry Expansions
Functions Equations
2nd M of I of Plane
Derivatives Indefinite Integrals Parallel Axis Theory
Figures
Mensuration
Area of a Triangle, (sides a,b,c).. Area = ( b . c sin A )/ 2
Area of a Triangle , s = (a + b + c)/ 2.. Area = Sqrt (s .(s - a). (s - b). (s - c))
Area of a Circle (r = radius).. Area = π . r 2
Area and Volume of a Cylinder
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Area and Volume of a Cone
Area and Volume of a Frustrum of a Cone

Area and Volume of a Sphere
Area and Volume of a Pyramid

Trigonometry...
Definitions...
Sin A = Opposite / Hypotenuse = a / c
Cosine A = Adjacent / Hypotenuse = b / c
Tangent A = Opposite / Adjacent = a / b
Cosecant A = 1 / sin = c / a
Secant A = 1/cosine = b / c
Cotangent A = 1/tangent. = b / a
Trigonometric Relations...
Sin (-A) = -Sin (A)

Cos (-A) = cos (A)
Sin (A)
2
+ Cos A
2
=1
Cos (A)
2
=(1 + Cos (2A) ) /2
Sin (A)
2
=(1 - Cos (2A) ) /2
Sin (A) Cos(A) = Sin (2A) /2
Sin (A + /- B) = Sin (A) Cos(B) +/- Cos(A) Sin(B)
Cos (A + /- B) = Cos (A) Cos(B) -/+ Sin(A) Sin(B)
1 + tan(A)
2
= sec(A)
2
1 + cot(A)
2
= cosec(A)
2
Hyperbolic Functions

sinh x = (e x - e - x) / 2
ejx = cos x + j sin x
cosh x = (e + e x - x) /2
ex = cosh x + j sinh x
tanh x = sinh x / cosh x = (e - e x - x) / (e x
+ e -x) sin x = (e jx - e -jx) /2.j
sech x = 1 / sinh x = 2 / (e x - e - x) cos x = (e jx + e -ix) /2
cosech x = 1 / cosh x = 2 / (e x + e - x) sin jx = j.sinh x
coth x = cosh x / sinh x = (e x + e - x) / (e cos jx = cohs x

x - e - x)
Quadratic Equation
A quadratic equation is generally of the form...
ax2 +b x + c = 0
The general solution of this equation is
x = (-b ± √ (b2 - 4 a c ) /2a
Expansions
sin x = x / 1 - x3/3! + x 5/5! - x 7 / 7! +
cos x = 1 - x 2/2! + x 4/4! -x 6/6!...
ex = 1 + x / 1 + x2/2! + x3/3! +x 4/4!...
sinh x = x / 1! + x 3/3! + x 5/5! + x7 / 7! +
cosh x = 1 + x 2/2! + x 4/4! +x 6/6!...
log(1+ x ) = x - x 2/2! + x 3/3! - x 4/4! + ...
( x + 1)n = 1 + n . x + n .( n - 1 ) x 2 / 2! + n .( n - 1 ). ( n - 2 ) x3 / 3! + ...(n / r ) x r +...

................................( for | x | < 1 and all real n; all x, n a positive integer)
Derivatives..
f (x) f '(x)= df(x) / dx
sin x cos x
cos x -sin x

tan x sec2 x
cotan x -cosec2 x
sec x sec x. tan x
cosec x ... -cosec x. cot x.
sinh x ... cosh x.
cosh x ... sinh x.
tanh x ... sech2 x.
cosech x ... - coth x cosech x
sech x ... - tanh x sech x
coth x ... - cosech 2 x
u .v u . dv/dx + v . du/dx
(v . du / dx - u . dv / dx ) /
u/v
v2
a. x n a. n . x n-1
eax a.eax
ax a x. ln a
xx x x /(1 + ln x)
ln x 1/x
log a x 1 / x . log a e
sin -1( x /a) 1 / Sqrt(a 2 - x 2 )
cos -1( x /a) - 1 / Sqrt(a 2 - x 2 )
tan -1( x /a) a / (a 2 + x 2 )
Indefinite Integrals..
f(x)
The constant of integration C is ommitted from the table of indefinite integrals below
xa x a+1 / (a + 1)

1 / (x 2 + a2) (1 / a) . tan -1 (x / a)
1 / (x 2 - a2) (1 /2 a) . ln ( ( x - a ) /(x + a))
( a + b x ) n (n not -1) (a + b x)n + 1 / b (n + 1)
(a+bx)-1 1 / b .ln ( a + b x )
x / (a x +b) (a x + b - b ln(ax +b) ) / a2
1/x ln x
1 / Sqrt (x 2 - a 2) cosh -1 (x / a)
1 / Sqrt (x 2 + a 2) sinh -1 (x / a)
ex ex
(1 / a). tanh -1 ( x / a ) = 1 /( 2. a) . log(a +

1 / ( a2- x2)
x/a - x )
ax ax / ln a
x ax (a x / ln a ) - (a x /( ln a ) 2 )
x ea x e a x (a x - 1) / a2
1 /(a + b e c x ) (x / a) - ln (a + b ec x ) / a c
ln x x (ln x - 1 )
( ln x )2 x [ (ln x )2 - 2 ln x +2 ]
1 / x ln x ln ( ln x )
sin x - cos x
cos x sin x
tan x - ln cos x

cotan x ln sin x
sec x ln ( sec x + tan x ) = ln (tan (x/ 2 + π/ 4) )
cosec x log | tan x/ 2 |
sinh -1( x / a ) = log ( (x/a) +Sqrt(x2 /a2

1 / Sqrt( x 2 + a 2)
+1))
1 / Sqrt( x2 - a 2) cosh-1( x / a )
1 / Sqrt( a2 - x 2) sin -1( x / a )
sinh x cosh x
cosh x sinh x
tanh x ln cosh x
cosech x ln tanh (x / 2 )
sech x tan -1 ( sinh x )
coth x ln sinh x
sinh 2 x ( -x + ( sinh (2 x)) /2 ) / 2
cosh 2 x ( x + ( sinh (2 x) ) /2 ) / 2
sech 2 x tanh x
cosech 2 x -coth x
tanh 2 x x -tanh x
Moments Of Inertia of Plane Sections
I = moment of Inertia about the identified axis.

J = Polar moment of inertia about the centroid of section

For More detailed information refer..
Properties of Plane Areas

Properties of solids
Parallel axis Theory..

If the second moment of an area (A) about an axis x-x = Ixx. Then the second moment of Area about a
parallel axis y-y which is distance x from x-x =
Iyy = I xx + A . x 2
1. Platonic Realms ...Very Extensive Mathematics Information /formulae.

2. The Maths Pages.. Easy to follow mathematics notes.
4. Karls Calculus Tutor .... This is an excellent site for learning Calculus
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dynamics Formulae
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Dynamics Formulae
Linear Motion
For constant velocity. Distance moved at constant velocity
s=v.t
For constant Acceleration from velocity v_o start.
v = v_o + a . t
s = v_o . t + 1/2 . a . t2
v2 = v_o2 + 2 . a . s
Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple Harmonic Motion is characterised by the relationship that the rate of acceleration of a body towards a central position is
directly related to the distance of the body from the central position.
The result is a cyclic motion with a frequency (Cycles/s) = ω / 2 . π Cycles/s. Note: ω = angular velocity in rads/s
f ''(x) = - ω2 . x
The solution for the displacement from and the velocity towards the central position is below;
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Form/Dynamics.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:16:20 AM

dynamics Formulae
x = a . cos ( ω. t + ε )
x ' = - ω . a . sin ( ω . t + ε )
Newtons laws of Motion
Newtons First Law;

Every body continues in a state of rest or of uniform rectilinear motion unless acted upon by a force.
Newtons Second law;

The time rate of change of linear momentum of a body is proportional to the unbalanced force acting on the body and occurs in the
direction in which the force acts.
Newtons Third law

To each action (or force) there is an equal and opposite reaction. The mutual force of the two bodies acting upon each other are
equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and are colinear.
Momentum
Momentum = m . v
Force
F=m.a
Mass Moment of Inertia
The mass moment of inertia of a body about an axis has been defined as the sum of the products of mass-elements and the square
of their distance from the axis
Mass Moment Of Inertia of Various Solids
Rotary Motion
For a mass rotating about a centre. The force tending to accelarate the mass towards the centre and restraining the mass to move
around the centre is the centripetral force. The reaction to this force tending the accelarate the mass away is the centrifugal force. (If
the string breaks the mass would fly away under the effect of the centrifugal force.

dynamics Formulae
Acceleration Torque
Angular acceleration α = (ω2 - ω1) / t
Acceleration Torque T = I . α
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Energy Power Formulae
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Nomenclature
The standardised acceleration due to gravity ;
gn = 9.80665 m /s2
The mass moment of inertia of a body about an axis has been defined as the sum of the products of mass-elements and the square
of their distance from the axis
Work and Power
The Work Done W (= Joules = N.m ) by constant Force F_x (N) applied for a distance x (m)
W = F_x . x
Power is the rate of doing Work P (= Watts = N.m / s ) by constant Force F_x (N) applied for a distance x (m) over t(seconds)
P = F_x . x / t
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Form/Energy_power.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:16:23 AM

also Power = Force F_x at a set velocity v ( N / s)
P = F_x . v
Rotation
The power transmitted by a rotating shaft = the torque T x the angular velocity.
P=T*π = T*2*π*n
P (kW) = T(Nm).n (rev/min) / 9549
Energy
The energy gained by a body during a displacement is equal to the work done by external forces acting upon the body. This includes
frictional and non friction forces.
The potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position relative to some datum level.
The change in potential energy (Joules) gained by a mass of M (kg) lifted through a height of h (metres)
ep = M . g n. h
The kinetic energy of a a body by virtue of its motion at uniform linear velocity
ek = 1/2 . m . v 2
The kinetic energy of a a rotating body
ek = 1/2 . I . π 2
Conservation of Energy..
In the absence of any dissipative forces i.e.friction , the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy remains constant.
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Beams Formulae
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Nomenclature
Stress/Strain Formulae
Strain = Change in length (dL)over original length (L)
e = dL / L
Stress = Force (F) divided by Area withstanding Force (A)
σ=F/A
Young's Modulus E = Stress ( σ ) / Strain(e). This is a property of a material
E=σ/e
Bending
General Formula for Bending
A beam with a moment of inertia I and with Young's modulus E will have a bending stress f at a distance from the Neutral Axis (NA) y
and the NA will bend to a radius R ...in accordance with the following formula.
M/I=σ/y=E/R
Important note
W and w as used below for beam concentrated load, total load and uniform distributed load
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Form/Stress_Strain.html (1 of 5)10/24/2006 11:16:27 AM

Beams Formulae
are assumed to be in units of force i.e. Newtons If they are provided in units of weight i.e kg
then they should be converted into units of force by mutliplying by the gravity constant g (9.81)
Simply Supported Beam . Concentrated Load
Simply Supported Beam . Uniformly Distributed Load
Cantilever . Concentrated Load
Cantilever . Uniformly Distributed Load

Beams Formulae
Fixed Beam . Concentrated Load
Fixed Beam . Uniformly Distributed Load
Torsion /Shear

Beams Formulae
Poisson's Ratio = ν = (lateral strain / primary strain )
Shear Modulus G = Shear Stress /Shear Strain
G = τ / γ = E / (2 .( 1 + ν ))
General Formula for Torsion
A shaft subject to a torque T having a polar moment of inertia J and a shear Modulus G will have a shear stress q at a radius r and
an angular deflection θ over a length L as calculated from the following formula.
T/J=G.θ/L=τ/r
Pressure Vessels - Thin Walled Cylinders
For a thin walled cylinder subject to internal pressure P the circumferential stress = p_c.
This stress tends to stretch the cylinder along its length. This is also called the longitudinal stress.
p_c = P . d / ( 4 . t )
For a thin walled cylinder subject to internal pressure P the tangential stress = p_t
This stress tends to increase the diameter). This is also called the hoop stress.
p_t = P . d / ( 2 . t )
The above two formulae are only valid if the ratio of thickness to dia is less than 1:20
Pressure Vessels - Thick Walled Cylinders

Beams Formulae
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Weld Stress Calculations
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Stress/Strain Formulae
The following notes are general guidance notes for the calculation of the strength of welds
Variables
1. Strength of deposited weld material

2. Type of joint and weld..important
3. Size of weld ..important
4. Location of weld in relation to parts joined..important
5. Types of stress to which the weld is subjected
6. Conditions under which weld is carried out
7. Type of equipment used for welding
8. Skill of welder
A generous factor of safety should be used (3-5)
Use the minimum amount of filler material consistent with the job requirement
Try to design joint such that load path is not not through the weld
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Form/Weld_strength.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:16:30 AM


1. Gowelding..A Real Find..this site has lots of Information on calculating the strength of Welds
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Nomenclature

Areas, Volumes, Centroids, & Moments of Inertia Plane Figures
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Properties of plane Shapes
Cx,Cy ...Centroid
The middle point of a geometric figure. The coordinates of a point in a figure, which are at the average distance from the coordinates of all points
on the surface of the figure. If the figure is 2-dimensional, the applicable term is, centre of area, if 3-dimensional the terms are, centre of volume, or
centre of mass. If figure is considered to be a particle then all of the mass or area is assumed to act at this point.
I... Moment of Inertia. /Second Moment of Area

When assessing the strength of beams to bending the "Area Moment Of Inertia" of a beams cross section indicates the beams ability to resist
bending. The larger the Second Moment of Area the less the beam will bend.
The Second Moment of Area is a geometrical property of a beam and depends on a reference axis ( which is in the plane of the area). The smallest
Second Moment of Area about any axis passes through the centroid. If the area is composed of an infinite number of small areas da the Second
Moment of Area around an axis is the sum of all these areas x (the distance of the area da from the axis) 2...This is a distance from a line
J.. Polar Moment of Inertia of a plane area

The polar moment of inertia relates to an axis which is perpendicular to the plane of an area.
If all of the area is assumed to comprise of infinitely small areas da then the polar moment of inertia is the sum of all of these areas x .r2
r = the radius of da from the perpendicular axis - for a plane area the perpendicular axis is a point
The polar moment of inertia is the sum of any two moments of inertia about axes at right angles to each other e.g.
J = Ixx + Iyy
When considering solids the Polar Moment of inertia is a measure of the resistance of a mass to angular acceleration.
Parallel Axis Theory

To determine the Second Moment of Area about an axis which is parallel to a centroid axis and at a distance k .
Iw = I + A.k2
Notes
Cx , Cy = Centroid Co-ordinates.
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I xx, I yy are the Moments of Area for axes through the centroid C in the direction x,y
Area Cx
I xx I yy
=A Cy
A.
b /2 b
b.h A.h 2 / 12 2/
h /2
12
A.
(b
2+
a.c. ( b + a.cosθ ) / 2 a
A.(a sin θ ) 2 / 12
sinθ sin
A.sinθ / 2
θ)
2/
12
A.
(b
2-
(a +b)/3
b. a.b
A.h 2/18
h/2 +
h/3
a.
2)/
18
h.(a
+ -
b)/2
a A.
π.a2 A.a 2 /4 a
a 2 /4

a A.
π. A.a 2 (9π 2 - 64 ) /
a
a2 /2 4.a /3.π 36.π 2 2 /4
a 2. 2.a.sin θ / 3.θ A.a 2 (θ -

--
θ 0 sinθcosθ ) /4.θ
A.
(h 4
+b
Sqrt(b2 + h2 ) /2 A.b 2.h 2 / 6.( h 2 + 4)/
b.h
0/ b2) 12.
(h
2+
b 2)
a A.
π.a.
A.b2 / 4 a
b b 2 /4
a A.
π.a. A.b 2 (9.π 2 - 64 ) /
a
b /2 4b / 3π 36 π 2 2 /4
Links to Properties of Figures
1. Wolfram - M.of I. of common solids..High quality information

2. Efunda - Common solids..Very clear comprehensive information on all important properties of solid shapes
3. Chapter 5= Moment on Inertia..Download of useful review notes
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Areas, Volumes, Centroids, & Moments of Inertia of Solids
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Properties of Solids Shapes
Cx, Cy, Cz ...Centroid /Centre of Gravity

Point at which the entire weight of a body may be considered as concentrated so that if supported at this point the body would remain in equilibrium
in any position. If body is considered to be a particle then all of the mass or area is assumed to act at this point.
I... Mass Moment of Inertia.

The Moment of Inertia quantifies the resistance of a physical object to angular acceleration. Moment of inertia is to rotational motion as mass is to
linear motion.
In general, an object's moment of inertia depends on its shape and the distribution of mass within that shape: the greater the concentration of
material away from the object's centroid, the larger the moment of inertia. The principal moments of inertia are miminum values with axes through
the centroid. The parallel axes rule can be used to determine moments of inertia relative to displaced axes of rotation.
k ..Radius of Gyration
The radius with reference to an axis is that distance form the axis at which the entire mass of a body may be considered as concentrating keeping
the moment of inertia unchanged.
I = m.ko2
Parallel Axis Rule

To determine the Moment of Inertia about an axis which is parallel to a centroid axis and at a distance d .
Iw = I + m.d2
Notes
Cx = centroid from yz plane....... Cy = centroid from xz plane....... Cz = centroid from xy plane..
I xx, I yy,I zz are the principal mass moments of inertia for axes through the centroid C in the direction x,y, & z.
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Cx
Area Cy I xx I yy I zz
Volume
Cz
-- l /2 ,
0, 0 m.l 2 / 12 m.l 2 / 12
-- 0
2.(a.b
+ a.c a/2 ,
m. (c 2 + a
+b.c) b/2 , m. (b 2 + c2 ) /12 2 ) /12 m. (a 2 + b2 ) / 12
c/2
a.b.c
--- 0,
m (4.b 2 + 3.h m (a 2 + b m .(4.a 2 + 3.h
h/4, 2 2 ) /20 2 ) /80
a.b.h /3 0 ) /80
0 0,
0, m.a 2 /2 m.a 2 /2 m.a 2
0 0
4.π .a2 0,
0, 2.m.a 2 /3
0 0

4.π .a 2
0,
4.π. (a 0, 2.m.(a 5 - b 5) / 5.(a 3 - b 3)
3-b 0
3)/3
4.π .a2
0,
0, 2.m.a 2 /5
4.π .a
3 /3
0
2.π.a2 0,
3.
-- 2.m.a2 /5 --
2.π .a a /8,
3 /3 0
2.π.a.
(h+ 0,
a) h/2 , m.(3.a 2 + h 2 )/12 m.a 2 /2 m.(3.a 2 + h 2 )/12
0
π.a 2 .h
π.a.
(Sqrt(a
2 + h 2) 0, 3.m.(4.a 2 + h 3.m.(4.a 2 + h
+a) h/4 , 2 3. m.a 2 / 10 2 )/80
0 )/80
π.a2 .
h /3

---
0,
0, m.(b 2 + c 2 )/5 m.(c 2 + a 2 )/5 m.(a 2 + b 2 )/5
2.π.a.b.
0
c /3
0,
2.π.r.h h/2, -- -- --
0
0,
h.(4.
a-
2. π.r.h
h)/
π.h2 (r 4.(3.
- h/3) a-
h),
a = radius of sphere 0
Links to Properties of Figures
1. Wolfram - M.of I. of common solids..High quality information

2. Efunda - Common solids..Very clear comprehensive information on all important properties of solid shapes
4. Hyperphysics - Moment on Inertia..This is an excellent site for useful information
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Matrices & Determinants
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Matrices and Determinants
Matrices
Matrix calculus is a mathematical tool used in connection with linear equations , linear transformations,
systems of differential equations etc. Matrices are important in physics, engineering, statistics etc.
The notes below include only basic rules for basic matrix manipulation...
Consider the linear transformation..
y 1= a 11 x1 + a 12x 2
y 2= a21 x 1 + a 22x 2
These equations can be expressed using Matrices as follows
1) A matrix is an array of numbers . A matrix with m rows and n columns is order m x n and is shown as
follows..
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Form/Matrices.html (1 of 8)10/24/2006 11:16:45 AM

2)A row matrix has one row of numbers as shown below:-
3) A column matrix has one column of numbers as shown below:-
4) A square matrix is one with an equal number of rows and columns i.e m = n
5) A diagonal matrix is a square matrix with all numbers zero apart from diagonal numbers as shown below:-
6) A unit matrix is a square matrix with all diagonal numbers = 1:-. The other elements being 0..

7) A Symmetric matrix is one with a ij = a ji
8)A null matrix has all elements = 0
9)The addition of matrices are completed as follows:-
10) The multiplication of matrices are completed as follows:-
11) A Matrix is transposed so that each row element becomes a column element and vice-versa:-
12 )The inverse of a matrix is defined as follows:-
The inverse can be defined only a for square matrix.. There are cases where even a square matrix cannot be
so defined.

Transormation from cylinderical co-ordinates to cartesian co-ordinates
An example of the use of matrices is the transformation of Cylinderical co-ordinates to cartesian co-ordinates
in vector algebra.. A transformation vector can be determined [A] such that the cartesian co-ordinate {V}cart =
[A]{V}cyl
Determinants
Determinants are Arrays which are very useful in the analysis and solution of systems of linear algebraic
equations. Generally the solutions are unmanageable when written at length. Using determinants the
equations become relatively simple expressions. As and example consider the equations
a1x + b1y + c1 =0
a2x + b2y + c2 =0
The solution is obtained in the form
x / (b1.c2 - b2.c1 ) = y / (c1.a2 - c2.a1 ) = 1 / (a1.b2 - a2.b1 )
The denominators of this solution can be expressed simply in the form of determinants e.g.
1) Determinant Order.
The order of the determinant equations refers to the number of rows/colums e.g.

2) Minor of determinant element

If the row and column of any element is deleted then a reduced order determinant remains which is called the
minor determinant of the element in question..e.g. considering the fouth order deteterminant above..
3) Co-Factor of Determinant element

Associated with each element is a sign (+ or -) this is established by counting the number of row and column
steps to get from the first element and if the steps are 0 or even the sign is (+ ) and if the steps are odd the
sign is ( - ). e.g.
The co-factor of and element is the minor of the element x the relevant sign. e.g.
4) Expansion of Determinant
The expansion of a determinant is completed by adding the product all of elements with their co-factors for any
row or column. eg
An example of the expansion of a determinant is provided below..

The expansion of the determinant is simplified by using the row or column with zero elements if any as the
relevant element-co-factor is zero..
4) Changing rows and columns

The value of a determinant is not altered if its rows are written as columns , in the same order..
5)Interchanging rows or columns.. Provided without proof

If any two rows or any two columns are interchanged the result is a change in sign of the determinant...
6) Equal Rows of Columns...Provided without proof

A determinant with two rows or columns equal has zero value..
7) Multiplying Determinant row or column by a constant...Provided without proof

If all the elements of one row (or one column) is multiplied by the same factor (say k) , the value of the
determinant is k x the value of the given determinant.
This can be used to simplify a determinant as follows..
8) Zero rows or columns in determinant...Provided without proof

If all of the elements of a row or a column is zero then the value of the determinant is zero.
9) Determinant Row or Column expressed as binomial ...

If the elements of a row or column are expressed as a binomial the determinant can be written as the sum
of two determinants...
Solution of linear simultaneous equations provided without proof

An example of solving 3 linear equations can be expressed as
a1x + b1y+ c1y + d1 = 0

a2x + b2y+ c2y + d2 = 0

a3x + b3y+ c3y + d3 = 0
Using determinants this is solved by the following relationship<
Example
Solve the equation..
5x - 6y + 4z = 15
7x + 4y - 3z = 19
2x + y + 6z = 46
This equation is rewritten as
5x - 6y + 4z - 15 = 0
7x + 4y - 3z - 19 = 0
2x + y + 6z - 46 = 0
Expressing this in determinant form
On evaluating the denominators.
( x /-1257 ) = ( y /-1676 ) = ( z / -2514 ) = ( -1 /419 )
Dividing each denominator by 419 results in
( x /--3 ) = ( y /-4 ) = ( z / -6 ) = -1
This results in
x = 3: y =4: z =6

Links to Matrices
1. A first course in Matrices..A downloadable tutorial

2. Refresher Vectors & Matrices Algebra..A Powerpoint Presentation
3. Matrix Operations..A downloadable lecture
4. Determinants..General Information on determinants
5. Determinants-Wolfram.com.. A high quality review of determinants
6. Introduction to Determinants-.. SOS maths Useful Notes
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Vectors and Forces
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Introduction to Vectors and Forces
Introduction
At the most basic level in mechanics we deal with displacements, velocities, accelerations and
forces.
A vector quantity is a quantity which is fully described by both magnitude and direction. A
scalar quantity is a quantity which is fully described by its magnitude. Examples of vector
quantities include displacement, velocity, acceleration, force and moments.
Vector quantities are often represented by scaled vector diagrams. Vector diagrams depict a
vector by use of an arrow drawn to scale in a specific direction. Vectors are used to depict the
forces acting upon an object; such diagrams are known as free-body diagrams.
Co-ordinate systems
When completing one dimensional work only magnitude and direction is required e.g 5 miles
along a road north.
For two dimensional systems on plane surfaces, two co-ordinate systems are available.
● The Cartesian System with an horizontal (x) axis and a vertical (y) axis
● The Polar Co-ordinate System with a radius (r) and an angle θ from the x axis in the direction of the y axis
For other surfaces the above co-ordinate systems are suitably adapted. e.g. a sphere can
have Latitude and Longitude.
For Three dimensional systems three co-ordinate systems are available
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Mechanics/Vectors.html (1 of 6)10/24/2006 11:16:49 AM

Vectors and Forces
● The Cartesian System with an horizontal (x) axis and a vertical (y) axis and a projecting (z) axis
● The Cylinderical Co-ordinate System with a radius (r) and an angle θ from the x axis towards the y axis and a z co-ordinate
(length of cylinder)
● The Spherical Co-ordinate System with a radius (r) and an angle θ from the x axis towards the y axis and angle φ from the
xy plane towards the z axis
Vectors
A vector has magnitude and direction. A free vector is not defined as regards position. A
localised vector is defined relative to the co-ordinate origin.
Vectors can be manipulated graphically or using algebraic methods. Generally for 2

dimensional work graphical solutions are more convenient. For 3 dimensional work it is more
convenient to use algebra.
Graphical Methods
Typical methods of adding vectors are shown below..
Two or more vectors are added to form a RESULTANT. A single vector can be replaced by
separate vectors called COMPONENTS by RESOLUTION of the vector.

Vectors and Forces
The figure above shows how vectors can be obtained, using different methods, to obtain
resultant vectors. It is clearly possible to derive component vectors from a single vector..
Algebraic Methods
It is convenient to represent a vector as a single bold letter e.g. A. It is also convenient to

separate the magnitude of the vector from its direction. This is done by use of a unit vector e.
g. e which has unit magnitude and has direction. A is then written as Ae. The modulus A
written as | A | is the size of the vector and is positive.
In the cartesian co-ordinates the unit vectors in the x,y & z directions are identified as i, j & k.
Therefore a vector A can be broken down into its components...
A = A x i + A y j + A z k<
The modulus | A | 2 = A x2 + A y2 + A z2
Adding two vectors A + B is conveniently done by adding the components in the x, y, & z
directions.
A + B = (A x + B x) i + (A y+ B y) j + (A z + B z ) k.
It is clear that for free vectors A + B = B + A
Multiplying a vector by a scalar does not alter it direction
x .A = x. A x i + x. A y j + x. A z k
The scalar product of two vectors A and B is formally defined as |A| .|B| Cos θ where θ is the
smallest angle between the vectors..
....An example of a scalar product is when an angled force moves a load. The work don is the
scalar product of the vector of the force and the vector of the distance moved by the load
The cross product of two vectors A and B is formally defined as |A| x |B| Sin θ where θ is the
smallest angle between the vectors... The resultant vector is in a direction orthogonal to plane
of containing the two manipulated vectors as defined by the right hand rule.
.... An example of a cross product is when a couple results from applying a force at a distance
from a point. The resulting torque is identified vectorially as the cross product of the force and
distance vectors.

Vectors and Forces
The right-hand rule states that the orientation of the

vectors' cross product is determined by placing A and
B tail-to-tail, flattening the right hand, extending it in the
direction of A, and then curling the fingers in the
direction that the angle B makes with A. The thumb
then points in the direction of A x B.
To consider a cross product in cartesian co-ordinate form
A x B = (Ax i + Ay j + Az k ) x (Bx i + By j + Bz k )
It can be proved that
ixj=k=-jxi
jxk=i=-kxj
kxi=j=-ixk
ixi=jxj=kxk=0
This reduces the cross product to
A x B = (A y . B z — Az . B y).i + (A z . B x — A x . B z).j + (A x . B y — A y . B x).k
This is most compactly expressed as a determinant

Vectors and Forces
General Notes on Vector Operations
Commutative Operations ..... A + B + C = B + C + A = C + B + A

Associative Operations.... (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
Distributive Operations.... a.(A + B + C) = a.A + a.B + a.C
Triple Scalar Products.... (AxB).C = C.(AxB).. Note . Brackets are really not necessary..
Triple Vector Products.... (AxB)xC = -Cx(AxB)= Cx(BxA)...Note .Brackets and essential
The following relationships are provided
AxB)xC = C.AB - C.BA

Ax(BxC) = A.CB - A.BC... Note:..A.CBis interpreted as a scalar dot product A.C multiplied by a vector B
Differentiation of Vectors
In general the differentiation of vectors follows the same rule as the differentiation of scalar
quantities.
Links to Vectors & Forces
1. Vector Methods..U of Nebraska ..The rules for vector manipulation

2. Vector components and addition..NASA..Short review
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Vectors and Forces

Statics
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Introduction to Statics
Introduction
Statics deals equilibrium of stationary bodies and bodies moving at constant velocity.
The notes on this page include use of vectors. The necessary background information is provided on
page Vectors
Forces
A force identified as a localised vector it requires point of application, magnitude and direction.
The contents of this page are listed below
1. Basics
2. Forces & Moments
3. Rigid Body Equilibrium
4. Structures
5. Distributed Forces
Basics.
Free body diagram

A free body diagram is an extremely useful tool for assessing the interaction of forces on bodies
This is essentially a sketch of a body which is in equilibrium and is entirely separate from the
surroundings. The only rule for drawing free-body diagrams is to depict all the forces which exist for
that object in the given situation. Below is shown a typical 2- dimensional free body diagram of a
cantilever beam
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Statics
The free body diagram includes external forces applied to the body and external reaction forces
resulting from the method of supporting the body. Some reactions are shown in the 2-dimensional
figure below.
Forces & Moments
Force
A force can be represented by a localised vector defined by magnitude, direction and point of
application . A number of forces applied to any point can be replaced by a single resultant force
using the principles of vector addition as shown on the vector page of this website.. From Newtons's
first law it is is known that a particle will remain at rest if all the resultant force on the particle = zero .
This called the equilibrium condition.. Using cartesian co-ordinate system this may be states as
follow;
or
This is simplified by by considering only the scalar identities..

Statics
Since there are three equations of equilibrium for the three dimensional case, there can be at the
most three unknowns which can be determined from these equations..
Moments
A moment applied to a body creates a tendency for the body to rotate.. The moment of a force about
a point equals the product of a distance (say r ) = the lever arm and the force (F) acting perpendicular
to the lever arm..
The moment of a force is defined in vector form using determinant algebra (in 2 dimensional and 3
dimensional cases) as
( refer to notes on Matrices/Determinants Matrices /Determinants

If a number of concurrent forces are applied to a point P and r is the position vector from 0 to P. the
moment caused by these forces =
Mo = r x (F1 + F2 + F3...) = r x F1 + r x F2 + r x F3...
That is the moment due to several concurrent forces is equal to the sum of the moments of the
indivual forces.
Couples
If two forces are equal in magnitude (F), parallel in line of action on opposite in direction they result in
a couple. The magnitude of the moment of the couple is the distance between the force (e) multiplied
by one force. The direction of the couple is identified by the right hand rule....
Couple = e x F
It can be proved that the moment of the couple is the same magnitude at any location...
If a number of forces are applied to a body resulting in a number of moments the moments can be
combined algebraically to a resultant moment with a force.. An example below shows how two offset
forces and a single moment can be combined to a resultant force and moment..

Statics
Rigid Body Equilibrium
Rigid Body Equilibrium

A particle is in equilibrium if the resultant force acting upon it is zero... A rigid body is in equilibrium if
the resultant force is zero and if the resultant moment = 0...
There are therefore at the most 6 independent equations of equilibrium. The six equations are
obtained from the free body diagram showing all of the applied forces and moments and also all of
the resulting reaction forces and moments. From these six equations it is possible to solve for six
unknowns.. If there are more than six unknowns then the system is statically indeterminate...
For the special case of 2 dimensional equilibrium which is most often applied for beams and simple
structures the equilbrium equation as below is used...
A number of support systems with the resulting reactions are shown below...

Statics
Structures
Any assemblage of materials whose function is that of supporting loads is a structure.. The term may
be applied to a bridge, and aeroplane wing a building or a dam. The component parts of a loaded
structure are in a state of stress and the laws which govern the distribution of the stress are used to
calculate the design a material to enable the structure to safely support the loads.
Structures are classified into two general groups : framed structures and mass structures. The former
is based on a number of separate bars or plates pinned, rivetted or welded together as a lattice.
These depend upon the geometric properties of the arrangement to withstand the load. Mass
structures depend upon the mass of material in the structure to withstand the resistance to the load e.
g a masonary damn. The notes following relate only to framed structures.
The notes that follow relate to frameworks or trusses. These are arrangements of bars connected at
pin joints which do not transmit moments. The connecting bars are only allowed to transmit tensile
forces (Ties) or compressive forces (struts). It is assumed that the struts and ties experience virtually
zero deformation.
For a plane frame (2- dimensional) the number of bars (N) required with J joints.
N = 2.J -3
For a space frame (3- dimensional) the number of bars (N) required with J joints.
N = 3.J - 6
There are three methods of assessing frameworks
● Method of Joints
● Graphical Method
● Method of Sections
Method of Joints As applied to a plane framework

The steps in this procedure are listed as follows.

Statics
1. Label all pin joints joints - A, B , c etc.

2. Draw and label a free body diagram for the whole framework.
3. Calculate the reaction forces using the three equations for static equilibrium aplied to the whole framework
4. Draw a free body diagram for each pin assembly. This may be one free body diagram showing all the pin details
5. Apply the two equations of static equilibrium (related to Fx and Fy - no moments at joints ) at each joint to identify the forces in the
attached bars..
Graphical Method As applied to a plane framework

Note: this method is convenient for simple frames but is very complicated for larger frames and
cannot be used for space frames (3 -dimensions). The steps in this procedure are listed as follows.

4. Draw a free body diagram for each pin assembly. This may be one free body diagram showing all the pin details
5. Produce a force vector polygon for each joint starting with a joint which has no more than two unknowns
6. The force polygons can be combined into a single diagram called a Maxwell diagram
An simple example is provided below..
The steps 1,2 & 3 above have been ommited as they are relatively obvious
1) below includes a free body diagram for the each of the joints
2) below is a polygon of forces for joint A. The forces in the bar directions are drawn to scale.
3) below is a polygon of forces for joint B. the forces in the bar directions are drawn to scale.
4) below is a polygon of forces for joint C. The forces in the bar directions are drawn to scale.
5) below is a combined force diagram (Maxwell diagram ) for the truss..

Statics
Method of Sections As applied to a plane framework

Note: This method can be used to determine the forces in selected bars more rapidly then with the
method of joints in some cases.. The steps in this procedure are listed as follows.

4. Draw a free body diagram for a selected part of the frame which can include two joints and breaks the bars under consideration
5. Calculate the forces in the bars to one side of the cut using the 3- equations for static equilibrium
An example illustrating the method of sections is shown below; The object is to determine the forces
in members AB and JI
A section line is drawn through the members under consideration and a free body diagram is drawn

Statics
for the part of the structure to the left of the section line...
The unknown forces are shown in tension.

Taking moments about joint A eliminates Forces FAI and FAB leaving only the force FJI.
Sum Moments about A to zero.
0 = 100.(1,5) - FJI.(1.5) therefore FJI = +100kN (tension)
Taking moments about joint I outside of the free body, eliminates FAI and FJI leaving only FAB
Sum Moments about I to zero.
0 = 50.(1,5) - 14.(1,8) +33,67.(1,8) + FAB therefore FAB. (1,5) = -73,60kN (tension)
Summing moments vertically to zero eliminates both FJI and Force FAB leaving only FAI
0 = 33,67 -14 - FAI (5 / 7.81) therefore FAI = +30,72 (tension)
FJA = -33.67kN (compression) by expansion
Distributed Forces
Forces are represented as vectors with magnitude direction and point of application.. In reality most
forces are applied overspecified areas. If the area over which the force is applied in relatively large
the force is considered to be a distributed force. In these cases the method of approach is to reduce
these distributed forces to single point which is the resultant of the distributed forces. An example of
this is the weight of a component which is considered to act at the centre of gravity of the component.
Links to Statics
1. Engineering Statics..U of Nebraska ..Concise but clear Notes

2. MIT Statics Java demonstations -Excellent illustration of frames and beams
3. Phil. U statics..Some examples of using Autocad graphic solutions
4. Cornell- Structural Elements - StaticsStatics Notes
5. Wisconsin U Statics & Strength of Materials..Statics Information Notes
6. Structural Analysis Lecture Notes..U of Toronto - Lots of useful notes

Statics
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Mechanics Index

Kinematics
ROYMECH
Home
Mechanics Index
Introduction to Kinematics
Introduction
Kinematics deals with the motion of bodies and requires consideration of the geometry and
time. The forces involved in the motion of body are not considered in this area of work.
The notes on this page include use of vectors. The necessary background information is
provided on page Vectors
1. Basics
2. Particle Kinematics
1. Linear Motion
2. Angular Motion
3. Circular Motion
4. Absolute and Relative Motion
5. Rotating Unit Vector
6. Vector in a rotating reference frame
7. Velocity of a Particle in a moving reference frame
8. Acceleration of a Particle
3. Kinematics of Rigid Bodies in One Plane
1. Instantaneous Centre of Rotation
4. Kinematics of Rigid Bodies in Three dimensions
1. Theorems
2. Translation Motion
3. Rotation about a fixed axis
4. Rotation about a fixed point
5. General Motion
Basics
1. Time..The absolute measure of the orderly succession of events. Unit of time is the second
2. Particle..a body is assumed with negligible dimensions
3. Rigid body..A body with all internal points fixed relative to each other
Nomenclature
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Kinematics
● s = distance travelled in time -(m)

● v = average velocity - (m/s)
● a = acceleration - (m/s2)
● t = time - (s)
● u = initial velocity - (m/s)
● v = final velocity - (m/s)
● θ = Rotation angle - (radians)
● ω 1 = Initial angular velocity -rads/s
● ω 2 = final angular velocity - rads /s
● n = angular speed revs/min
● α = Angular Acceleration rads/s 2
Particle Kinematics.
This discipline of mechanics deals with the displacement of particles over time without
reference to the forces that cause the motion, velocity and acceleration of the particle.
Linear Motion..
Considering a particle moving along a path is space from position A to position B over a time
interval. The position vector r locates the particle relative to the reference frame (say
cartesian xyz) . The distance the particle moves along the path is designated s. The change
in position of the particle over the time is its linear displacement and is identified by the vector
(rB-rA)
The speed of the particle over a time period = (s 2 - s 1 ) /(t 2 - t 1 ) = the speed of the particle
As the time interval reduces to zero the change in position ∆ r /∆ t = ( rB - rA ) / (t2 - t1 ) => dr/dt
= v = the instantaneous velocity The instantaneous velocity is tangential to the particle path
The derivative (with respect to time) of the instantaneous velocity is d 2r /dt 2 = the
instantaneous acceleration.
Textbook formulae..Linear motion subject to uniform acceleration.
v = u + at
s = ut + a.t2 /2
s = (u + v) /2
v 2 = u 2 + 2.a.s
Using vector algebra....

Kinematics
As an example of straight line motion consider a particle moving

with a constant acceleration in the x direction.
C1 is a constant determined from the velocity at t = 0:

Normally assuming initial velocity = u then C1 = u
C2 is a constant determined from the displacement at t = 0:

Normally assuming initial displacement = 0 then C2 = 0
Angular Motion..
A point rotates from A to B around a center C through a small angle θ in a time t . As the time
interval approaches zero the instantaneous angular velocity d θ /dt = ω . This angular velocity
is a vector cross product and is shown in the direction as indicated below..
The velocity of the point is obtained as a vector product of the angular velocity and the radius
v=ωxr
Angular velocity vectors are free vectors but they are not commutative..
Textbook formulae.. Angular motion subject to uniform acceleration

Kinematics
ω = 2.π .n /60
ω2=ω1+α.t
θ = ( ω 2 + ω 1 ) . t /2
ω 22 = ω 12 + 2 . α . s
θ= ω 12 + α . t 2 /2
Motion in a circle..
A particle moving in a circle of radius (r) at a constant velocity (v) and constant angular velocity
of ω = v /r is accelerating towards the centre of the circle at a constant rate of v 2 /r = ω 2 . r.
The acceleration is primarily due to the rate of change of angular position of the particle...
An example of linear motion is that of a particle moving at a fixed velocity in

a circular motion..
Differentiate with respect to time
Differentiate again with respect to time using ( d(uv) = u.dv + v du )
Relating the Tangential velocity to the x an y velocity.

Kinematics
Introducing velocity into equation
Finally establishing formula for accelaration
Absolute and relative motion..
A reference frame can be fixed or relative. In Newtonian mechanics the fixed reference frame
is the primary inertial system in which there is zero absolute motion in space. This is entirely
impractical because it would have to take into account the movements of the earth relative to
the sun and the sun in the universe etc. A reference frame based on the sun is called a
Heliocentric reference frame and this again is impractical for normal mechanical engineering.
A practical reference frame is one based on the earth. This is called a geocentric reference
frame and is sufficient as an inertial frame for normal engineering. Therefore when we identify
the velocity of a vehicle or the acceleration of an object they are generally relative to the earths
motion.
When an object is moving relative to a fixed reference frame it is called absolute

motion. When it is moving relative to a reference frame that is moving it is called relative
motion. An example of relative motion is someone moving in a travelling train or car.
Rotating unit vector
Consider a rotating unit vector e..

Kinematics
Vector of Point in a rotating reference frame
A point P with a vector position r is moving in the xy plane. The position of this vector is
identified in respect to unit vectors e 1 and e 2 fixed to a reference frame rotating at and
angular velocity ω .. r 1 and r 2 are components of the motion in the e 1 and e 2 directions.
The position is expressed as follows..
The derivative of this equation with respect to time results in.
It is shown above that de/dt = ω x e therefore

Kinematics
Rewriting the equation
Velocity of a point in a moving reference frame
A point P moving in the xy frame as shown below has a position vector of
r p = r o' + r
ro' locates O' relative to the fixed xy axes and r locates the point P relative to a axes (x 1,x 2)
If the moving frame is not rotating ω = 0

Kinematics
Acceleration of a Particle
Differentiating (with respect to time) the equation for velocity (v) results the equation for
accelaration (a)
Following the principles established above...
Note : The term ..... ..... is called the coriolis acceleration .

This represents the difference between the acceleration of P relative to O' as measured from
the rotating and the non-rotating axes.
Rigid Body Kinematics in one plane.
Rigid body..A body with all internal points fixed relative to each other. Three co-ordinates are
required to determine the position and orientation of a body in plane motion. A rigid body has
three degrees of free in plane motion.
Definitions..

Kinematics
● Rectilinear Translation...All point on a rigid body move in a straight line

● Curvilinear Translation... The orientation of all points in a rigid body remain fixed while the body moves along a curved path
● Rotation about a fixed line.. All points in a rigid body move in a circular motion about a fixed line
● Plane motion...Each point in rigid body moves in a path parallel to a fixed plane
Plane motion for a rigid body can be easily developed from the equations for motion of a
particle. They are the same equations for the motion of a point but as all points are fixed
relative to each other the term involving velocities and accelerations of points relative to each
other are zero.
The equations for velocity and acceleration when the reference axes x',y' are fixed to the rigid
body ,are as follows...
Important Note: It can be easily proved that whichever position on the rigid body is selected for
the reference position O' the angular velocity and angular acceleration vectors are not
changed.
Instantaneous Centre of Rotation

For any body moving in space the motion can be defined from the position, velocity,
acceleration of any point on the body with the angular velocity and acceleration. There is a
point for this body for which the instantaneous translational velocity is zero i.e only rotation of

Kinematics
the body about the point is occuring. This point is called the instantaneous center of rotation
and its location relative to the body is dependent on the relative values of the linear and
angular velocities For near zero angular velocities (near translation motion) the location is at
near infinity.
The location of the instantaneous centre of rotation is easy to locate if the velocity and angular
velocity of a point are known
If the location of a point and its velocity and angular velocity are known.
Considering point A the point C is on a line passing through A normal to the direction of the
velocity. rA = VA / ω
If the location of two points and their velocities

The point C is at the intersection of the lines drawn normal to the velocities of each of the
points.
If the lines are co-incident then radius is established by geometry.. AC = AB.(VA) /(VA-VB)
Rigid Body kinematics in 3 Dimensions
Introduction
A particle requires three points to specify its position relative to the selected coordinate system
and is therefore identified as having 3 degrees of freedom . For a rigid body the location of
three separate points of the body relative to the selected co-ordinate system are required.
Because the points are fixed relative to each other only six independent co-ordinates are
required to locate the body is space and a unrestrained rigid body is therefore said to have six
degrees of freedom. e.g. A rigid body may be positioned by locating the position of one point
of the body ( 3 co-ordinates), then positioning a line on the body (2 co-ordinates) and finally
identifying a rotation about the line (1 co-odinates). This sums up to 6 co-ordinates
The motion of a rigid body in three dimension can have a number of modes..
● Rectilinear Translation...All points on the rigid body move in a straight line

● Rotation about a fixed axis.. All points in a rigid body move in a circular motion about a fixed axis
● Rotation about a fixed point.. All points in a rigid body move in a circular motion about a fixed point

Kinematics
● General motion...The rigid body motion includes translation and rotation about
Rotation Notes.
If a rigid body is rotated from a position "A" through an angle of π/2 about the x axis and then
rotated π/2 about the y axis it has been moved to a certain position "B". If the same rigid body
is rotated from a position "A" through and an angle of π/2 about the y axis and then is rotated
π/2 about the x axis it has been moved to a position "C" which is not the same as "B". Finite
rotation does not obey the laws of vector addition
Euler & Chasles;'s Theorems
Euler's Theorem
If a point on a rigid body does not change its position then any series of successive rotations can be
compounded to a rotation about a single axis
Chasles's Theorem
Any displacement of a rigid body may be compounded from a single rotation about any selected point plus a
translation of that point.
A third theorem ( Poinsot's Central axis theorem) is also provide..
Any finite displacement of a rigid body may be reduced to a single rotation about an axis plus a translation
parallel to the same axis. This theorem only relates the displacement and not to the paths taken by points.
These theoerems can be applied to angular velocities
Any motion of a rigid body can be described by a single angular velocity plus a translational velocity parallel to
the angular velocity vector.
Any motion of a body about a point may be represented by a single angular velocity about an axis through that
point.
Any motion of a rigid body my be represented by the velocity of a point plus the angular velocity about an axis
passing through the points...
Rectilinear Translation.& Curvilinear Translation

Kinematics
All points on the body will move in parallel straight or curve lines. There is no relative velocity
or acceleration between any points on the body.
Position... r P = r Q + r PQ
Velocity...v P = v Q + v PQ
Acceleration...a P = a Q + a PQ
Rotation about a fixed axis.
Rotation of a rigid body about fixed axis is shown in the diagram. The vector of the rotary
motion has sense and direction in accordance with the right hand rule which is fixed along the
direction of the axis. There is zero velocity due to rotation at the axis.
Rotation about a fixed Point.

Rotation of a rigid body about a fixed point can always be reduced to rotation of a body about
an instantaneous axis of rotation.
Considering for example a rigid body (cone) which is rotating about a horizontal axis (shaft),

Kinematics
angular velocity = ω1,and the shaft is itself rotating about a vertical axis, angular velocity =
ω2.
If ω2 = 0 then the axis rotation is the centre line of the shaft and the velocity of any point on the
shaft is proportional to the radius (max = r)from the shaft. If the rotation about the vertical axis
is increased to a certain value the the velocity of the shaft axis is proportional to ω2 x the shaft
length (max = l) from the axis (radius). If the two angular velocities are the same and the
radius of the cone r = l then at any instant the velocity of top surface of the cone is zero. i.e the
top surface is the instantaneous axis of rotation.
This grossly simplified representation illustrates the principle .. if ω2 is increased the body
cone representing the path of the instantaneous axis of rotation will obviously be larger than
the actual surface of the cone.
For the model illustrated there is also a space cone which is the path the instantaneous axis or
rotation follows in space- (an inverted cone centered the vertical axis )..
For the example above the instantaneous angular velocity of the cone =
ω = ω1 + ω2 = ω1i + ω2j
In the real world the motions and shapes are not as shown but the interaction between the
body rotation on its axis and its angular motion is space still results in an instantaneous axis of
rotation between a instantaneous body cone and an instantaneous space cone. The body
cone may rotate outside or inside the space cone

Kinematics
One determining the instantaneous angular velocity the angular acceleration α is tangential to
the contact point of the two cones as shown. The velocity and acceleration at any point is
simply determined as shown below
General Motion.
The general case of 3D motion of rigid bodies reduces to translation + rotation about a fixed
axis. This is basically a generalisation of the theorems provided above.
For a body possessing linear plus angular motion it is often not possible to have an
instantaneous axis of rotation because all points may have non-zero velocities. The most
convenient method of kinematic analysis of rigid bodies in space 3 dimensions is by using the
principles of relative motion. The primary (absolute)reference system XYZ are supplemented
with a reference system(xyz) attached to some point on the rigid body.
The attached reference system may be a translating one or a rotating one.
Translating reference system

This motion simply develops the motions already studied in the previous section for particle
motions and rigid body motions. The basic motion equations are :
r P = r Q + r PQ
v P = v Q + v PQ
a P = a Q + a PQ

Kinematics
The above equations are sufficient if the angular velocity ω is zero however if this is not the
case the following equations for velocity and acceleration are more definitive;
Rotating reference system

A more general form of the relative reference axis method uses rotating reference axes. The
reference axes xyz are rotating with an angular velocity of Ω. The rigid body has a rotation
velocity ω as before
The basic motion equations are as above. The expression for velocity and acceleration of
point P are provided below. The derivation is a simple extension of that provided above for 2
Dimensional motion with a rotating relative axis with the third dimension (z) added.
v r and a r = are the velocity and acceleration of P relative to the rotating xyz axis.

Kinematics
Note:
The equations above are based on the general case of the angular velocity of the rigid body
(ω)is different to the angular velocity of the axis ( Ω). If the reference axis is fixed to the body
then ω will equal Ω and vr and a r will equal zero... For this case the formula will be the same
as for the translating reference axis above..
Links to Kinematics
1. Physics_school -kinematics..Very easy to follow notes

2. Introduction to Physics- mechanics..A complete course online
3. Physics - Kinematics..An unusual but useful information source
4. Dynamics of Rigid Bodies..Brown U Notes - Very detailed - Mainly Plane motion
5. Lecture D22 - 3D Rigid Body Kinematics..MIT .. Short paper providing necessary essential relevant information
6. Rigid body dynamics..Chris Hecker.. Set of articles for designers of realistic games - Good dynamics analysis info.
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Kinetics
ROYMECH
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Mechanics Index
Dynamics / Kinetics
1. Basics
2. Particle Kinetics
3. Rigid Body Kinetics
4. Impulse & Impact
5. Work Energy & Power
Basics.
Definitions..
● Rigid body ...An arrangement of particles in which the distance of between any two particles is fixed.
● Rectilinear Translation...All point on a rigid body move in a straight line
● Rotation about a fixed line.. All points in a rigid body move in a circular motion about a fixed line
● Plane motion...Each point in rigid body moves in a path parallel to a fixed plane
It is assumed that all motions are within the plane and rotations are around axes perpendicular
to the plane. Infinitesimal counterclockwise rotations are positive and are therefore
represented by vectors perpendicular to the plane as indicated by the right hand rule- If the
plane is the x-y plane then angular velocities are in the positive z direction. It should be noted
that large rotations and angular velocities do not follow vector rules..
Free Body Diagram

A free body diagram is an extremely useful tool for assessing the interaction of forces on
bodies This is essentially a sketch of a body which is in equilibrium and is entirely separate
from the surroundings. The only rule for drawing free-body diagrams is to depict all the forces
which exist for that object in the given situation.
Particle Kinetics.
Newtons laws
Newtons First Law;

Every body continues in a state of rest or of uniform rectilinear motion unless acted upon by a force.
Newtons Second law;

The time rate of change of linear momentum of a body is proportional to the unbalanced force acting on the body and occurs in the
direction in which the force acts.
Newtons Third law
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Kinetics
To each action (or force) there is an equal and opposite reaction. The mutual force of the two bodies acting upon each other are
equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and are collinear.
Momentum
The momentum is defined simply as the product of mass and velocity..The first law states that
if a body changes its velocity then a force must have been applied. The second law
establishes a relationship between the magnitude of the force and the change in momentum..
Force = k. d(momentum)/dt = k.d(mv)/dt = k.m dv/dt = k.m. a
In the metric ISO system the unit of force of 1 Newton (N) on a mass of 1 kg results in a linear
acceleration of 1 m/s 2 therefore k = 1.
Newtons third law states that if two bodies collide the total momentum after impact must equal
the total momentum after impact. For two colliding masses (m1 & m2 ) with initial velocities ( u
1 & u 2 ) and final velocities ( v 1 & v 2 ) ..
m 1. u 1 + m 2. u 2 = m 1. v 1 + m 2. v 2 ... therefore m 1 . ( v 1 - u 1 ) = m 2( v 2 - u 2 )
Equations of Motion for a particle under different force regimes
1) Force = constant value.. F = C= constant = mass x acceleration..
m. dv/dt = C
dv = C/m dt
Falling masses under the effect of gravity provides an example of this condition
The motion of the particle can be determined by integration provided the initial conditions are
known..
2) Force is a function of time F = F(t)
m.dv/dt = F(t)
dv = 1/m F(t)dt
Using F(t) the equation for the velocity can be determined by integration, and again the
displacement can be found from ds = vdt.
3) Force is a function of velocity.
m. dv/dt = F(v)
dt = m.dv / F(v)
Example: The resistance to motion of drag or viscous damping when the force = C x velocity
where c = the damping coefficient..
4) Force is a function of Displacement.

Kinetics
m. dv/dt = F(s)
because a.ds = v.dv then m. v.dv = F(s).ds
Example : The force developed by spring = k x s where k is the stiffness of the spring.
Circular motion ..
A mass rotating in a circle is accelerating towards the centre of the circle at a rate of
acceleration of v2 /r. The force pulling the body into the centre of the circle is the centripetal
force. (if the mass is spinning on a string the centripetal force is the tension in the string). The
reaction force at the centre of the circle is the centrifugal force. There is no force pulling
outwards on the circling body there is only a force pulling in
Rigid Body Kinetics.
Considerations of rigid objects are simplified if ...

M = The mass of the object which is concentrated at a point which is at the mathematical
centre of mass
rG = The position of the centre of Mass relative to the co-ordinate origin.
The vector sum of the external forces acting on a set of particles (rigid body) equals the total
mass times the accelaration of the centre of mass, irrespective of the motion of the separate
particles.
The moment of Inertia of a particle of mass dm at a radius r from a axis through the centre of
gravity G is dm.r 2. The moment of inertia of the whole body about the axis through G =
This is generally written as
Where k is termed the radius of gyration.
The angular motion of a mass of inertia IG is related to an applied torque as follows

Kinetics
T= applied torque and α = angular acceleration..
Impact- Impulse
The relationship between force and the motion of a mass as shown above can be written as..
This can be integrated to..
Impulse = change in momentum
The impulse is effectively the area under a plot of the force-time relationship
The angular impulse of a constant torque T acting over a time t is the product of Tt. (If the
torque varies the angular impulse is the integral or the area under plot of Torque-time
relationship. )
The result of this torque on a mass of inertia IG

Kinetics
That is the impulse of torque = change in angular momentum..
Work Energy and Power
Work
The transfer of energy expressed as the product of a force and the distance through which its
point of application moves in the direction of the force. ... It should be noted that work only
results if the point of application of the force moves. There is no work done if a weight is
supported without movement.
If a force is acting on a particle as it move from A to B . The work done as the particle moves a
small distance dr = F. dr . The work done is the product of the Force vector and the
displacement vector. Only the force component in line with the displacement component
contributes to the work done. Work is a scalar quantity and is measured in N.m (ISO units)
The work performed by a force F (N) when the point of application moves S (m) with angle θ
between the force and the direction of motion .
Work (U) = F.cosθ .S
The work performed by a couple M turning an object through an angle θ is
Work (U) = Mθ
Work is a scalar quantity..
The work done by a force extending/compressing a spring (in the x direction) is calculated as
follows:

Kinetics
Conservative Forces
If the work done by a force is independent of the path the force is called a Conservative
force. Examples of conservative forces include spring forces and gravitational forces.
Conservative forces are generally recoverable ; that is if work is done in lifting an object
against gravity through a vertical height h , the work is is recovered by lowering the weight
back to the original level.
Non-Conservative Forces
When force is required to move an object to overcome friction the energy dissipated cannot be
conveniently recovered as work The work done against friction is not available as kinetic or
potential energy. The work done by a non-conservative force is dependent on the path taken
by the point of application of the force..
Energy
At its simplest level energy is defined as the ability to do work. Energy takes many forms
including kinetic energy, potential energy, thermal energy, chemical energy, electrical energy,
and atomic energy.
kinetic energy -translation ..

The field of mechanics includes kinetic energy which is energy possessed by a body due to its
motion and potential energy which is energy possessed by a body because of its position in a
field force (gravity /elastic force).
The kinetic energy increase of a mass subject to a force is derived as follows..

Kinetics
The term m.v 2 / 2 is called the kinetic energy of the mass and hence the derivation above
results in
Work Done by a force on a mass = change in kinetic energy.
Angular kinetic energy ..
A body is rotating about and axis through O.

Kinetics
Total kinetic energy ..

If the centre of gravity of a body is moving with a velocity v and is rotating with and angular
velocity of ω about the centre of gravity.
The total K.E. = K.E. of translation + K.E. of rotation
Equivalent Mass of a Rotating Body ..

When considering motions of machines with comprising masses in linear motion and masses
with and angular motions it is often required to find the equivalent mass of a rotating body.
This occurs often with vehicle dynamics. In considering a body of mass ( m ) rotating about an
axis through O with a tangential force at radius ( r ) producing a linear accelaration at this point
of ( f ) with and a resulting angular accelaration of (α ).
The quantity m.( k / r ) 2 is the equivalent mass of the body referred to the line of action of P.
This relationship can be used to convert a system with rotating masses and linear mass e.g. a
vehicle into a system comprising equivalent linear motions only.
Potential energy..
In general terms potential energy identifies some form of stored energy which can be
converted into some other form of energy. Potential energy take many forms including

Kinetics
mechanical, chemical, electrical nuclear etc. These notes only consider mechanical potential
energy which is energy stored by a body because of its position with respect to a datum is a
conservative force field. The two most common forms of potential energy in mechanical
engineering are gravitational potential energy and elastic strain energy..
The force on an object in the earths gravitational field is directly related to the mass of the
earth and the object and is inversely related to the square of the distance between the centre
of the earth and the object. For normal mechanical considerations close to the earths surface
the force is simply express as follows
FG = m.g
where g = the gravitional constant (acceleration due to the attraction of the earth) ..This is
generally approximated to 9.81 m/s2 but can vary at due to variations resulting due the fact
that the earth is not a perfect even sphere and due to the effect of other celestial bodies.
At it simplest level the Potential energy change due to gravity for a mass m moving from h1 to
h2 =
PE = g.m (h2 -h2 )
An example of the elastic strain potential energy is the extension or compression of a spring
as noted above..
General Energy Principle

The principle of conservation of energy in it simplest form states
[ The total amount of energy in the universe is constant: energy cannot be created or
destroyed although in may be converted into various forms..]
.
In the field of mechanics the general energy principle is simplified to consider only the energy
related to motion and position..
[If a system of bodies in motion is only under the action of conservative system of forces , the
sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the bodies is constant.]
In its more general form the general energy principle may be stated as
[The work done on a system is equal to the change in kinetic energy + potential energy +
losses ]

Kinetics
Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
Power = P = dW/dt = F. dr /dt = F.v
Power is a scalar quantity with units N.m/s
Links to Dynamics /Kinetics
1. Work and Energy-TOC Glenbrook High School Notes - Very clear and easy to follow
2. Work Energy & Power..Hyperphysics ..Excellent reference site
3. Physics Notes - Dynamics..Batesville Area Schools - Useful Notes
4. Work and Energy..U of Winnipeg- useful notes on mechanics. very clear
5. Physics- Kinematics..An informative website - with lots of interlinked notes.
Home
Mechanics Index

Linkages
ROYMECH
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Mechanism Notes
Simple Linkages
Introduction... Mechanism types... Mobility... Grashof's Law... Mechanical Advantage... Freudenstein's Equation... Velocity Vectors... Acceleration
Vectors...
Introduction
Linkages include garage door mechanisms, car wiper mechanisms, gear shift mechanisms. They
are a very important part of mechanical engineering which is given very little attention...
A link is defined as a rigid body having two or more pairing elements which connect it to other
bodies for the purpose of transmitting force or motion . In every machine, at least one link either
occupies a fixed position relative to the earth or carries the machine as a whole along with it during
motion. This link is the frame of the machine and is called the fixed link.
An arrangement based on components connected by rotary or sliding interfaces only is called a

linkage. These type of connections, revolute and prismatic, are called lower pairs. Higher pairs are
based on point line or curve interfaces. Examples of lower pairs include hinges rotary bearings,
slideways , universal couplings. Examples of higher pairs include cams and gears.
Kinematic analysis, a particular given mechanism is investigated based on the mechanism

geometry plus factors which identify the motion such as input angular velocity, angular acceleration,
etc. Kinematic synthesis is the process of designing a mechanism to accomplish a desired task.
Here, both choosing the types as well as the dimensions of the new mechanism can be part of
kinematic synthesis.
Examples of Lower Pair Links with associated Degrees of Freedom
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Linkages
Planar, Spatial and Spherical Mechanisms
A planar mechanism is one in which all particles describe plane curves is space and all of the
planes are co-planar.. The majority of linkages and mechanisms are designed as planer systems.
The main reason for this is that planar systems are more convenient to engineer. Spatial
mechanisms are far more complicated to engineer requiring computer synthesis. Planar
mechanisms ultilising only lower pairs are called planar linkages. Planar linkages only involve the
use of revolute and prismatic pairs
A spatial mechanism has no restrictions on the relative movement of the particles. Planar and
spherical mechanisms are sub-sets of spatial mechanisms..Spatial mechanisms / linkages are not
considered on this page
Spherical mechanisms has one point on each linkage which is stationary and the stationary point of
all the links is at the same location. The motions of all of the particles in the mechanism are
concentric and can be repesented by their shadow on a spherical surface which is centered on the
common location..Spherical mechanisms /linkages are not considered on this page
Mobility
An important factor is considering a linkage is the mobility expressed as the number of degrees of
freedom. The mobility of a linkage is the number of input parameters which must be controlled
independently in order to bring the device to a set position. It is possible to determine this from the
number of links and the number and types of joints which connect the links...
A free planar link generally has 3 degrees of freedom (x , y, θ ). One link is always fixed so before

Linkages
any joints are attached the number of degrees of freedom of a linkage assembly with n links =
DOF = 3 (n-1)
Connecting two links using a joint which has only on degree of freedom adds two constraints.
Connecting two links with a joint which has two degrees of freedom include 1 restraint to the
systems. The number of 1 DOF joints = say j 1 and the number of joints with two degrees of
freedom = say j 2.. The Mobility of a system is therefore expressed as
mobility = m = 3 (n-1) - 2 j 1 - j 2
Examples linkages showing the mobility are shown below..
A system with a mobility of 0 is a structure. A system with a mobility of 1 can be fixed in position my
positioning only one link. A system with a mobility of 2 requires two links to be positioned to fix the
linkage position..
This rule is general in nature and there are exceptions but it can provide a very useful initial guide
as the the mobility of an arrangement of links...
Grashof's Law
When designing a linkage where the input linkage is continuously rotated e.g. driven by a motor it is
important that the input link can freely rotate through complete revolutions. The arrangement
would not work if the linkage locks at any point. For the four bar linkage Grashof's law provides a
simple test for this condition
Grashof's law is as follows:
For a planar four bar linkage, the sum of the shortest and longest links cannot be greater
than the sum of the remaining links if there is to be continuous relative rotation between
two members.
Referring to the 4 inversions of a four bar linkage shown below ..Grashof's law states that one of the
links (generally the shortest link) will be able to rotate continuously if the following condition is met...
b (shortest link ) + c(longest link) < a + d

Linkages
Four Inversions of a typical Four Bar Linkage
Note: If the above condition was not met then only rocking motion would be possible for any link..
Mechanical Advantage of 4 bar linkage
The mechanical advantage of a linkage is the ratio of the output torque exerted by the driven link to
the required input torque at the driver link. It can be proved that the mechanical advantage is
directly proportional to Sin( β ) the angle between the coupler link(c) and the driven link(d), and is
inversely proportional to sin( α ) the angle between the driver link (b) and the coupler (c) . These
angles are not constant so it is clear that the mechanical advantage is constantly changing.
The linkage positions shown below with an angle α = 0 o and 180 o has a near infinite mechanical
advantage. These positions are referred to as toggle positions. These positions allow the 4 bar
linkage to be used a clamping tools.

Linkages
The angle β is called the "transmission angle". As the value sin(transmission angle) becomes
small the mechanical advantage of the linkage approaches zero. In these region the linkage is
very liable to lock up with very small amounts of friction. When using four bar linkages to transfer
torque it is generally considered prudent to avoid transmission angles below 450 and 500.
In the figure above if link (d) is made the driver the system shown is in a locked position. The
system has no toggle positions and the linkage is a poor design
Freudenstein's Equation
This equation provides a simple algebraic method of determining the position of an output lever
knowing the four link lengths and the position of the input lever.
Consider the 4 -bar linkage chain as shown below..
The position vector of the links are related as follows
l1+l2+l3+l4=0
Equating horizontal distances
l 1 cos θ 1 + l 2 cos θ 2 + l 3 cos θ 3 + l 4 cos θ 4 = 0
Equating Vertical distances
l 1 sin θ 1 + l 2 sin θ 2 + l 3 sin θ 3 + l 4 sin θ 4 = 0

Linkages
Assuming θ 1 = 1800 then sin θ 1 = 0 and cosθ 1 = -1 Therefore
- l 1 + l 2 cosθ 2 + l 3 cosθ 3 + l 4 cos θ 4 = 0
and .. l 2 sin θ 2 + l 3 sin θ 3 + l 4 sin θ 4 = 0
Moving all terms except those containing l 3 to the RHS and Squaring both sides
l 32 cos 2 θ 3 = (l 1 - l 2 cos θ 2 - l 4 cos θ 4 ) 2
l 32 sin 2 θ 3 = ( - l 2 sin θ 2 - l 4 sin θ 4) 2
Adding the above 2 equations and using the relationships

cos ( θ 2 - θ 4 ) = cos θ 2 cos θ 4 + sin θ 2sin θ 4 ) and sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
the following relationship results..
Freudenstein's Equation results from this relationship as
K 1 cos θ 2 + K2 cos θ 4 + K 3 = cos ( θ 2 - θ 4 )
K1 = l1 / l4 K2 = l 1 / l 2 K3 = ( l 32 - l 12 - l 22 - l 2 4 ) / 2 l 2 l 4
This equation enables the analytic synthesis of a 4 bar linkage. If three positions of the output
lever are required corresponding to the angular position of the input lever at three positions then this
equation can be used to determine the appropriate lever lengths using three simultaneous
equations...
Velocity Vectors for Links

The velocity of one point on a link must be perpendicular to the axis of the link, otherwise there
would be a change in length of the link.
On the link shown below B has a velocity of vAB = ω.AB perpendicular to A-B. " The velocity vector
is shown...

Linkages
Considering the four bar arrangement shown below. The velocity vector diagram is built up as
follows:
● As A and D are fixed then the velocity of D relative to A = 0 a and d are located at the same point
● The velocity of B relative to a is vAB = ω.AB perpendicular to A-B. This is drawn to scale as shown
● The velocity of C relative to B is perpedicular to CB and passes through b
● The velocity of C relative to D is perpedicular to CD and passes through d
● The velocity of P is obtained from the vector diagram by using the relationship bp/bc = BP/BC
The velocity vector diagram is easily drawn as shown...
Velocity of sliding Block on Rotating Link

Consider a block B sliding on a link rotating about A. The block is instantaneously located at B' on
the link..
The velocity of B' relative to A = ω.AB perpendicular to the line. The velocity of B relative to B' = v.
The link block and the associated vector diagram is shown below..
Acceleration Vectors for Links

The acceleration of a point on a link relative to another has two components:
● 1) the centripetal component due to the angular velocity of the link.ω 2.Length
● 2) the tangential component due to the angular acceleration of the link....
The diagram below shows how to to construct a vector diagram for the acceleration components on
a single link.
The centripetal acceleration ab' = ω 2.AB towards the centre of rotation. The tangential component
b'b = α. AB in a direction perpendicular to the link..

Linkages
The diagram below shows how to construct an acceleration vector drawing for a four bar linkage.
● For A and D are fixed relative to each other and the relative acceleration = 0 ( a,d are together )
● The acceleration of B relative to A are drawn as for the above link
● The centripetal acceleration of C relative to B = v 2CB and is directed towards B ( bc1 )
● The tangential acceleration of C relative to B is unknown but its direction is known
● The centripetal acceleration of C relative to D = v 2CD and is directed towards d( dc2)
● The tangential acceleration of C relative to D is unknown but its direction is known.
● The intersection of the lines through c1 and c 2 locates c
The location of the acceleration of point p is obtained by proportion bp/bc = BP/BC and the absolute
acceleration of P = ap
The diagram below shows how to construct and acceleration vector diagram for a sliding block on a
rotating link..
The link with the sliding block is drawn in two positions..at an angle dω
The velocity of the point on the link coincident with B changes from ω.r =a b 1 to ( ω + dω) (r +dr) = a
b2
The change in velocity b1b2has a radial component ωr d θ and a tangential component ωdr + r dω
The velocity of B on the sliding block relative to the coincident point on the link changes from v = a b
3 to v + dv = a b 4.
The change in velocity = b3b4 which has radial components dv and tangential components v d θ

Linkages
The total change in velocity in the radial direction = dv- ω r d θ
Radial acceleration = dv / dt = ω r d θ / dt = a - ω2 r
The total change in velocity in the tangential direction = v dθ + ω dr + r α
Tangential acceleration = v dθ / dt + ω dr/dt + r d ω / dt

=vω+ωv+rα=αr+2vω
The acceleration vector diagram for the block is shown below
Note : The term 2 v ω representing the tangential acceleration of the block relative to the coincident
point on the link is called the coriolis component and results whenever a block slides along a
rotating link and whenever a link slides through a swivelling block

Linkages
Links to Linkage Design
1. Introduction to Mechanisms ..useful Information Mechanisms

2. Basic Machines & their Components..DTEach at U of Texas at Austen. Very Clear Notes on mechanisms
3. Linkage mechanisms..Very good graphics to illustrated different linkage types
4. Mechanisms -Brief Notes..U of Texas at Austen - Very good notes certainly not brief
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Mechanism Notes

Simple Machines
ROYMECH
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Simple Machines
Definitions
Any mechanical or electrical device that transmits or modifies energy to perform or assist in
the performance of human tasks..
A mechanical device that transmits, modifies, or changes the direction of force in order to help
people do work..
A apparatus in which work is done on the machine by applying a force (Effort) at one part
which results in work being done by the machine in overcoming an external force (Weight or
Resistance). The advantage of using a machine is that a small force can be used to overcome
a larger resisting force. Optionally a small movement can be used to cause the machine to
generate a larger movement.
There are six basic simple machines..
1. Incline
2. Wedge
3. Lever
4. Wheel and Axle
5. Pulley
6. Screw
The Mechanical Advantage of a machine is the ratio of Force being moved W to the Effort F
Mechanical Advantage = W /F
The Velocity Ratio of a machine is the ratio of the distance moved by the Effort and the
distance moved by the Force being overcome.
Velocity Ratio = Distance moved by Effort/ Distance moved by force
In the ideal frictionless/weightless machine
Velocity Ratio = Mechanical Advantage
The efficiency of a simple machine
Efficiency = Work done by the machine / Work supplied to machine
The only parameter that can be determined from the machines dimensions is the velocity
ratio.
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Simple Machines
Machines generally follow the linear rule..
F = a + b. W
Incline Plane
One of the simplest of machines is the inclined plane..
The force Force (F) is the effort required to move the Weight (W) up the slope. A movement
of the weight a distance x along the incline will result in a vertical displacement of x Sin(θ)).
Assuming that the incline is frictionless the F required to move the weight up the slope = W
Sin(θ)).
Velocity ratio = 1 /Sin(θ)
Wedge
Velocity ratio (Single Wedge) = 1 /Tan(θ)

Velocity ratio (Double Wedge) = 2 /Tan(θ/2)
Lever

Simple Machines
Velocity Ratio (First Class Lever) = B /A
Velocity Ratio (Second Class Lever) = (A+B ) /A
Velocity Ratio (Third Class Lever) = A / (A+B )
Wheel and Axle
Velocity ratio = R / r
Pulley

Simple Machines
Simple Pulley..
Differential Pulley..
Velocity ratio = Number of ropes
Velocity ratio = 2.R /(R-r)
Note: A very simple 2-rope pulley is
shown. In practice there can be a Note:Requires use of chain with
number of rotating pulleys on the engaging sprockets to prevent slip
top and bottom blocks increasing
the number of vertical ropes.
Screw
Velocity ratio = R. 2.π / p
Links to Simple Machines
1. Simple Machines..University Of Arkansas

2. Physical Science..Very clear pictures
3. Introduction to Mechanisms .A useful developing document from Carnegie Mellon Un'y

Simple Machines
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Loading
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Mechanics Index
Machine Loading
The primary loading regimes include
● Direct (tensile/compression)
● Shear
● Bending
● Torsion
Many components, in use, are subject to at least one of the above loading regimes. The
stresses resulting from the loads are generally combined using the principle of superposition
The effect of the loading on the component is significantly affected by the mode of application
of the loading e.g.
● Static -slowly applied and removed

● Static continuous load
● Suddenly applied load
● Repeated Load
● Repeated reversing load
All of the loads result in forces in the component material. The result of the forces are
deformations related to the type of force. The majority of materials used in engineering are
essentially elastic and conform to Hookes law within the relevant elastic limits. The
deformations generate forces which resist the loads causing the strains.
The internal forces within materials are generally averaged as stresses which are dimensioned
as Force /unit area.
Stress = σ = Force(N) / Area (m2 )
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Loading
The resulting deformations are identified as strains. Strains can linear, shear or
volumetric. Linear strains are dimensioned as deflection/original length, volumetric strains are
measured as change in volume/original volume, engineering shear strains are measured as
linear movement on one plane (x,y, or z direction)relative to another plane divided normal
distance between the planes
Linear Strain = εx = dx(m) / L (m)
Volumetric Stain = εv= dV (m3 ) / V (m3 )
Shear strain = εs= dx (m ) / h (m )
Stresses and strains can also result from other causes than external loads including
● Thermal expansion/contraction
● Sudden accelaration/decelaration
● Prestressing
● Chemical Action/Corrosion
Component performance in withstanding Force

Normally a component or assembly of components is engineered to behave in a predictable
way when subject to a force within the design range.
● The component may distort a minimum amount to support the load e.g.Crane hook, stairs, car seat.
● It will extend a significant amount in proportion to the load e.g a spring.
● The component may fail e.g. a shear pin
● Often the component will transmit the force, causing movement
At some load a component will fail. A load causing failure in would most probably be a high
load in excess of that allowed for in the design. However failure could occur simply as a
result in a statistical abnormality in the material. The failure may be that the resulting
distortion exceeds the elastic limit and is not recoverable. This is the general case for ductile
materials. For brittle materials the failure is more likely a sudden tensile failure if the loading
is tensile or a shear failure if the loading is compression.
It is important to note that components normally fail to operate normally because the strength
of the component has been reduced as a result of one of the following
● Chemical deterioration e.g Corrosion

● Progressive wear or erosion
● Internal damage to material structure as a result of fatigue
● Damage as a result of unforseen loading e.g. vandalism
The performance of most materials is predictable and progressive under normal conditions of
static loading. However there are a number of loading scenerios where a cliff edge condition
can occur when the failure is sudden and not easily predictable.
● Fatigue loading
● Whirling of Shafts
● Axial compressive loading of long thin shafts

Loading
● Vibratory loading at or near harmonic frequency
Material Strength measurement

Most engineering materials are provided with strength specifications resulting from tests
completed under strictly controlled conditions in laboratories. The most important of these
tests is the simple uniaxial tensile test. This provides information on the proof strength, the
yield stength, the ultimate strength and the elongation.
Penetration hardness tests ( Brinnel, Vickers, Rockwell ) provide information on the surface
hardness and also provide indirect indications of the material strength properties.
Strain gauges are used for determining the strains of components under load.
Stress / Strain Relationship

The ratio of direct stress to direct strain is called Young's Modulus
Youngs Modulus = E = σ / εx
The ratio of shear stress to shear strain is called the shear modulus
Shear Modulus = G = τ / εs
The ratio of hydrostatic pressure to volumetric strain is called the bulk modulus
Bulk Modulus = K = p / εv
Links to Machine Loading
1. Machine Design - Repeated Loading..U of N Iowa - Fatigue considerations
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Mohr's Circle
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Mohr's Circle
In considering plane stress i.e. stress in the x-y plane the z plane is assumed to be stress free Three
dimensional stress analysis is similar in principle but a bit more complicated. The diagram below
represents a small point in a solid which is under stress in the x and the y direction. The point is in
equilibrium so forces in the x direction are balanced as are forces in the y direction. Also clockwise
(cw) moments balance counter clockwise moments(ccw). Therefore τ xy = τ yx The figure below
represents a two dimensional loading regime with a tensile stress (+ ve) σx in the x direction and a
tensile stress (+ve) σyin the y direction. A counterclockwise (-ve)shear stress τ xy on the x surface
and a balancing clockwise shear stress (+ve)shear stress τ xy on the y surface..
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Mohr's Circle
If the x-y axes is rotated the various stress will also change. There is an angle θ at which normal
stresses will be a maximum and minimum. At this angle there will be zero shear stress. These
stresses are called the principal stresses.
The principles stresses are identified as σ1, σ2 and σ3... ( σ1 > σ2 > σ3 ).
If a two dimensional stress regime is under consideration it is important that the missing principal
stress should be assumed to be zero.
Mohr's Circle is a simple graphical method of showing stresses and strains within objects subject to
loading enabling convenient visualisation and evaluation of developed stresses and strains at different
axes to the generating loads. i.e. The graphical representation of the variation of the stress and strain
components resulting from rotating coordinate axes. Mohr's circle can be used for convenient
representation of 3 dimensional stress strain distributions.
A typical Mohr's circle diagram is shown below:

Mohr's Circle
Mohr's circles representing different stress regimes are shown below:
Three Dimensional Systems

When completing two dimensional assessments it should be recognised that solids are actually three
dimensional and the stress distribution is actually as shown below..

Mohr's Circle
There are always three principal stresses - (though one of the principal stress may be zero). Some
typical three dimensional mohr's circle diagrams are shown below..
Theory
The following Trigometric relationships apply.
Cos θ2 =(1 + Cos (2θ) ) /2
Sin θ2 =(1 - Cos (2θ) ) /2
Sin θ Cosθ = Sin (2θ) /2
Analysing the resulting stresses when rotating the axes

Mohr's Circle
Consider a rotated small element
A x = A . Cos (θ )
θ
A y = A . Sin (θ )
θ

Mohr's Circle
By differentiating σ with respect to θ and equating to zero the conditions for the maximum and
θ
minimum stress can be determined
The the two solutions satisfying this condition are illustrated in the figure below.
By comparing equations 4 and 5 above it is clear that at the angle resulting in the principal stresses
(max and min) the shear stresses are 0...
Substituting the values for Sin 2θ and Cos 2θ into equation 3 results in formulas for the principles
stresses σ1 and σ2..

Mohr's Circle
Links to Mohr's Circle
1. Structural Mechanics Calculators..A number of Calculators including one for Mohr's Circle
2. Tech.Plym..Lecture notes useful for Mohr's Circle in 3D
3. Efunda..Very good notes on Mohr's Circle
4. Wiki Free Books - solid mechanics ..An excellent online text- you can edit yourself
5. U of Nebraska ..Mechanics of elastic bodies ..An excellent online text
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Failure Theories
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Failure Theories
When a component is subject to increasing loads it eventually fails. It is comparatively easy

to determine the point of failure of a component subject to a single tensile force. The strength
data on the material identifies this strength. However when the material is subject to a
number of loads in different directions some of which are tensile and some of which are shear,
then the determination of the point of failure is more complicated...
Metals can be broadly separated into DUCTILE metals and BRITTLE metals. Examples of
ductile metals include mild steel, copper etc . Cast iron is a typical brittle metal.
Ductile metals under high stress levels initially deform plastically at a definite yield point point
or progressively yield. In the latter case a artificial value of yielding past the elastic limit is
selected in lieu of the yield point e.g 2%proof stress. At failure a ductile metal will have
experienced a significant degree of elongation.
Brittle metals experience little ultimate elongation prior to failure and failure is generally
sudden.
A ductile metal is considered to have failed when it has suffered elastic failure, that is when a
marked plastic deformation has begun. A number of theories of elastic failure are recognised
including the following:
● Maximum principal stress theory ..... Can be used -with caution for brittle metals
● Maximum shear stress theory
● Shear strain energy theory......Favoured for ductile metals
● Constant distortion energy theory
The maximum principal stress theory ..The theory associated with Rankine.
This theory is approximately correct for cast iron and brittle materials generally.
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Failure Theories
According to this theory failure will occur when the maximum principal stress in a system
reaches the value of the maximum stress at elastic limit in simple tension. For the two
dimensional stress case this is obtained from the formula below (ref page on Mohrs circle).
The design Factor of Safety for the two dimensional case=
FoS = Elastic Limit from tensile test / highest principal stress.
The maximum shear stress theory ..The theory associated with Tresca and Guest.
This is very relevant to ductile metals. It is conservative and relatively easy to apply. It
assumes that failure occurs when a maximum shear strength attains a certain value. This
value being the value of shear strength at failure in the tensile test. In this instance it is
appropriate to choose the yield point as practical failure. If the yield point = Sy and this is
obtained from a tensile test and thus is the sole principal stress then the maximum shear
stress Ssy is easily identified as Sy /2 . (ref to notes on Mohrs circle)..
Ssy = Sy /2
In the context of a complicated stress system the initial step would be to determine the
principle stress i.e. σ1, σ1 & σ3-
in order of magnitude σ1 > σ2 > σ3..
then the maximum shear stress would be determined from
Maximum Shear Stress = τ max
= Greatest of ( σ1 - σ2 ) / 2 : ( σ2 - σ3 ) / 2 : ( σ1 - σ3 ) / 2 = ( σ1 - σ3 ) / 2
The factor of safety selected would be
FoS = Sy / ( 2 . τ max ) = Sy / ( σ1 - σ3 )
The theory is conservative especially if the yield strength is more then 50% of the tensile
strength..
For the simple case of a tensile stress σx combined with a shear stress τ xy . The design FOS
+
FoS = Sy / ( σx 2 + 4. τ xy 2 )1/2

Failure Theories
For a case of a component with σ 1 > σ2 both positive (tensile) and with σ3 = 0 then the
maximum shear stress = ( σx - 0 ) / 2
Shear strain energy theory This theory is also known as the Von Mises-Hencky theory
Detailed studies have indicated that yielding is related to the shear energy rather than the
maximum shear stress..
Strain energy is energy stored in the material due to elastic deformation. The energy of strain
is similar to the energy stored in a spring. Upon close examination, the strain energy is seen
to be of two kinds : one part results from changes in mutually perpendicular dimensions , and
hence in volume, with no change angular changes: the other arises from angular distortion
without volume change. The latter is termed as the shear strain energy , which has been
shown to be a primary cause of elastic failure..
It can be shown by strain energy analysis that the shear strain energy associated with the
principal stresses σ1, σ1 & σ3 at elastic failure, is the same as than in the tensile test causing
yield at direct stress Sy when:
( σ 1 - σ 2) 2 + ( σ2 - σ3) 2 + ( σ1 - σ3 ) 2 > = 2 Sy2
In terms of 3 dimensional stresses using cartesian co-ordinates
( σx - σy) 2 + ( σy - σz) 2 + ( σz - σx ) 2 + 6. ( τ xy2 + τ yz2 + τ zx2 ) >= 2 Sy2
In terms of plane stress this reduces to..
(σx2 - σx . σy + σy2 + 3 .τ xy2 ) >= Sy2
In terms of simple linear stress combined with shear stress..
Factor of Safety FOS = Sy / ( σx2 + 3 .τ xy2 ) 1/2
The maximum strain energy theory ..The theory associated with Haigh.
This theory is based on the assumption that strains are recoverable up to the elastic limit, and
the energy absorbed by the material at failure up to this point is a single valued function
independent of the stress system causing it. The strain energy per unit volume causing
failure is equal to the strain energy at the elastic limit in simple tension..
The following relationship can be derived from this theory. (Sy is the yield point in simple shear
and ν = poissons ratio. )

Failure Theories
(σ1 - σ2) 2 + (σ2 - σ3) 2 + (σ1 - σ3 ) 2 + 2 ν. (σ1.σ2 + σ2.σ3 + σ1.σ3 ) > = Sy
Links to Failure Criteria
1. 2-Strains Stresses and Failure Theory..A detailed but very informative downloadable document
2. Steady load Failure Theories..U of Tennesse at Martin lecture- Clear and informative download
3. DSGN 205 - Failure Theories ..F of Technology Plymouth - Useful review of failure theories
4. Wiki Books - Solid mechanics ..An excellent online text
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Mechanics Index

Struts
Disclaimer:
The
information
on this
page has
not been
checked by
an
independent
person.
Use this
information
at your own
risk.
ROYMECH
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Mechanics Index
Simple Struts
Introduction
A long structural member subject to a compressive load is called a strut. Struts with large
cross sections compared with the length generally fail under compressive stress and the
conventional failure criteria apply. When the cross section area is not large compared to the
length i.e the member is slender, then the member will generally fail by buckling well before
the compressive yield strength is reached.
The notes below relate to uniform straight members made from homogeneous engineering
materials used within the elastic operating range. It is assumed that an end load is applied
along the centroid of the ends. The strut will remain straight until the end load reaches a
critical value and buckling will be initiated. Any increase in load will result in a catastrophic
collapse and a reduction in load will allow the strut to straighten. The value of the critical load
depends upon the slenderness ratio and the end fixing conditions. The slenderness ratio is
defined as the effective length / the least ratio of gyration of the section The principal end
fixing conditions are listed below
● Pinned (hinged) at both ends

● Fixed (built-in) at both ends
● Fixed at one end and free at the other
● Fixed ant one end and pinned at the other
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Struts
Eulers Theory
The simple analysis below is based on the pinned-pinned arrangement. The other
arrangements are derived from this by replacing the length L by the effective length b.
For the pinned-pinned case the effective length b = L.

For the Fixed -Fixed case the effective length b = L/2.
For the Fixed-Free case the effective length b = L x 2.
For the Fixed-Pinned case the effective length b approx. L x 0,7.
Curvature
Quick derivation for curvature (1/R)

Struts
Beam equation
M/I=σ/y=E/R
When x = 0 y = 0 and 0 = A cosμ0 + B.0 = A therefore A = 0

When x = b , y = 0 and so B sin μb = 0.
B cannot be 0 because there would be no deflection and no buckling which is contrary to
experience.
Hence sin μb = 0. therefore μb = 0, π, 2π, 3 π etc
(W/EI) b 2 = π 2, 4.π 2, 9.π 2 etc

therefore W = π 2 E.I / b2 , π 2 E.I / (b / 2) 2, π 2 E.I / (b / 3) 2,

Struts
As the moment of inertia I = A.k 2 and the end force W = σ A. The formula can be rewritten
W = σ A = π 2 E A k 2 / b2
Therefore
σ = π 2 E / (b / k)2
Validity of eulers theory

This theory takes no account of the compressive stress. For a metal with a compressive
strength of less than 300 N/mm2 and a Young's Modulus of about 200 kN/mm2. The strut will
tend to fail in compression if the slenderness ratio (b/k) is less than 80. Therefore for steel
Eulers equation is not reliable for slenderness ratios less than 80 and really should not be
used for slenderness ratios less than 120.
Rankine - Gordon Criteria

This criteria is based on experimental results.
This criteria suggests that the strut will fail at a load given by.
1 / W = 1 / Wc + 1 / We
Wc = Compressive failure Load

We = Euler Load
Substituting c = σ c / ( σ 2 E) - A constant for each material

Struts
This design criteria provides more accurate buckling loads than the euler theory especially at
lower slenderness ratios. At higher slenderness ratios the two methods yield similar results.
The experimental values for c are not in direct agreement with the theoretical values. BS 449-
2:1969 includes tables for the safe working stresses for all slenderness ratios and a range of
steel specifications.
Links to Struts
1. DANotes - Buckling ..Relevent detail reference document

2. Buckling tests on eccentrically loaded beams /columns..A very informative downloadable document
3. Buckling of Slender Struts ..Faculty of Technology Plymouth -Lecture Notes
4. MITcalc ..A vey useful Excel based software suite which includes and excellent section on buckling
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Ergonomics General Notes
ROYMECH
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Human Factors Home
This page provides a few general guidance notee relating to the information provided on this site and its relevance to mechanical engineers
This website contains various values and dimension obtained from a variety of sources
relating to ergonomics or human factors - the relationship between man and machines. I
have tried to provide links which include better quality information and in the reference book
section of this site I have identified books which are useful. If the information you seek is
important please use these sources of information.
Engineers are responsible for the safety of those using the equipment they design, make or
maintain and and should reference the relevant regulations
It must be stressed that man comes in so many variations that it is not possible to provide set
values for sizes and strengths of men to be used for the design of equipment and access
spaces. A individual person starts as a child and ends as a old person and within that period
can be fat or thin, strong or weak, well or ill. Throughout the world there is significant variation
in the normal strength and sizes of individuals.
In designing equipment it is desirable that the majority of relevant indivuals should be able to
operate the controls and the equipment should be strong enough and large enough to
withstand and support the biggest, strongest and heaviest persons. Equipment should be
specified for the weakest,the strongest, smallest, the largest users.
Statistics
When looking at a range of strengths and sizes individuals it is necessary to use statistics.
The individuals are assumed to be distributed in a normal distribution. In a normal
distribution all three statistics, the mean, median, and mode are the same.
The confidence interval of a normal distribution is the middle percentage of the total
population. A CI of 95% of a population excludes the bottom 2.5% and the top 2.5% of the
collection. The confidence interval of a population may be obtained from the mean and the
SD using the following:
● Confidence interval 66% = Mean +/- 1.SD

● Confidence interval 90% = Mean +/- 1,65.SD
● Confidence interval 95% = Mean +/- 1,95.SD
Example:
In a population the mean = 50 and the SD = 5
Therefore 45-55 ( 50 +/- 5) include = 66% of the population.
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http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Human/Ergo_Notes.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:19:05 AM

Ergonomics
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Human Factors Home
Ergonomics
This page provides links to sites providing data on human strength and endurance.
Safety Note
The following data is for guidance and is not for detailed design.
In designing any equipment requiring manual handling one is advised to refer the the relevant regulations. Ref. HSE Info
Human Strength / Endurance Notes.
Strength Categories
There are three basic categories of strength:
● Static strength(isometric strength), which is steady force exerted while the limbs are in a stationary or static position.
● Dynamic strength, which is a force exerted by limbs moving in a smooth manner over time, such as while lifting an object
● Explosive strength (impulsive strength), is the application of peak amounts of strength for short periods of time, usually periodically,
such as in running or sprinting.
Obviously a person can exert the maximum forces with impulsive strength and the minimum forces
with static strength.
The strength of males increases steadily until approx 30yr. old. This increase is most rapid beween the ages of 12 and 19. Similarly
womens strength peaks at 30. However the strength of women increases more uniformly between the ages of 9 and 19yrs
Women are approx. 35% to 85% as strong as men depending upon the muscles used
The left hand and arm are generaly 10% weaker than the right hand and arm
Strength means a momentary , single task maximum exertion, or a sustained effort. Endurance refers to a sustained effort. Findings show
that endurance is enhanced by exercise, rest, food,and increased atmospheric pressure. However endurance is reduced by fatigue,
hunger, low atmospheric pressure, high temperature accompanied by high humidity and tobacco. Muscular power is also reduced by
excitement and mental work. Males have greater endurance than females >
Recovery Rate after a standard excercise has been found to be 40% after 1 mins rest, 65% after 2 mins rest, 85% after 4 mins rest and 96%
after 8 mins rest
Selected Strength Values
Below are presented sone strength values.. These must be used with extreme caution and are
provided as easy look-up values to give the feel of the forces related to certain tasks. They are not
intended to be statistically justifiable. The links below include quality information to be used for
important work..
Gripping Strength persons..... age 31 - 50; gripping a test handle 50mm wide x 100mm long
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Ergonomics
Sex Mean (N) S.D (N) Range (N)

43,10 -
Male 54.03 7.04
64.40
21,50 -
Female 31.42 4.99
37,30
Turning Circular Knob persons.. age 31 - 50; Smooth 40 dia x 20 Dp horizontal axis
Range
Sex Mean (Nm) S.D (Nm)
(Nm)
Male 4,48 1,69 2,56 -6,08
Female 3,89 1,32 1,45 – 6,13
Twisting Lid.... persons age 31 - 50; knurled Lid 65mm dia

Range
(Nm)
Male 7,94 1,67 5,29 - -11,5
Female 4,75 1,72 1,22 – 6,93
Pulling Horizontal Bar.... age 31 - 50; Horizontal bar 20mm dia x 300 Lng 1-handed
Range
(Nm)
408,48 -
Male 477,3 213,75
647,03
189,75 -
Female 294,87 96,29
460,09
Pushing Horizontal Bar.... age 31 - 50; Horizontal bar 20mm dia x 300 Lng 1-handed
Range
(Nm)
290,65 -
Male 457,22 99,37
543,61
215,91 -
Female 314,47 136,42
500,26
Pressing Pedal .... age 31 - 50; A pedal 400mm length and 30mm wide, placed inside a 55mm wide
space to restrict the amount of the foot that can be placed onto the pedal.
Range
(Nm)

Ergonomics
173,00 -
Male 329,183 129,99
579.70
121,50 -
Female 237,99 106,80
435,60
Arm Strength values. (From USA - Adjusted (reduced) values based on tests on young men 80% of
(5th percentile group) - Better info in link 4 below
A B C D E F G
L(N) R(N) L(N) R(N) L(N) R(N) L(N) R(N) L(N) R(N) L(N) R(N)
180o 177.6 184.8 149.6 177,6 32 49,6 46,6 60,8 46,6 71,2 28,8 49,6
150o 149,6 199,2 106,4 149,6 53,6 64 64 71,2 53,6 71,2 28,8 53,6
120o 120,8 149,6 92,8 128 60,8 85,6 74,4 92,8 71,2 78,4 36 53,6
90o 113,6 132 78,4 128 60,8 71,2 74,4 92,8 56,8 64 36 56,8
60o 92,8 85,6 78,4 120,8 53,6 71,2 60,8 71,2 42,4 60,8 L R
Lifting Height
With ample work space 95% of young fit men can lift these weights to the heights indicated.
180 N to a lifted height = 1.5m... 280 N. to a lifted height of 0.9m... 590 N to a lifted heigh of 0.6m...
680N to a lifted height of 0.3m.
Leg Strength
People use legs when standing, walking running and when cycling and operating foot controls....
The legs are generally capable of lifting and supporting high loads. When standing with the legs

Ergonomics
locked the legs can support very high loads. I've reviewed the various data sources and there is
such a scatter of information that anything I include at this basic level could be misleading..The links
below provide quality information on this topic To give intuitive guidance a couple of values are
provided below .
Pedal torque on a bicycle..

maximum torque on one pedal is the weight of the cyclist x radius . For a 82 kg man. with a pedal
radius of 160mm this results in a maximum torque of 129 Nm.
Standing from a sitting position.

Knee joint at 90o. A normal person (e.g. me weighing 13 stone) can just stand slowly using one
leg therefore the leg can exert a force of about 800N.
Standing Strength
Links to Ergonomic Sites providing strength information
4. Building Regulations ...ODPM - Regulations providing useful UK building access requirements
6. 4 HUMAN PERFORMANCE CAPABILITIES...NASA Man Systems Integration Standards. Lots of strength and size data
7. British Powerlifting Records.. Exercise Description ...Squat, Benchpress, Deadlift to give maximum strength criteria
Home
Human Factors Home

Human Controls and man/machine interfaces
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use
this information at your own risk.
ROYMECH
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Controls
This page provides notes on man machine interface controls
Machine Interfaces & Associated Controls
Size of lettering and Symbols

Below are list suggested for sizes of letter and symbols to be used on controls and machines used in well
illuminated areas..
Black letters against white background are clearer to read in normal daylight conditions. In relatively dark
conditions white letters on a dark background are better.
Distance from Eye (mm) Height of Letters or Figures (mm)

Less than 500 2.5
501 to 900 5.0
901 - 1800 9.0
1801- 3600 18.0
3601 - 6000 30.0
Control Directions
Rotary Controls.. The accepted direction for rotary controls is Clockwise motion of control to increase the
variable. Anti-clockwise motion to decrease the variable...
In direction controls Anti-clockwise motion results in a turn to the left in forward motion and clockwise motion
result in turning to the right in forward motion..
Lever controls.. The accepted direction for linear controls is movement forward,to right or up to increase variable
and movement towards you, to left or down to reduce variable...
Relationship Between Controls & Displays
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Control Type Notes
Push Buttons..
A push button can be arranged for operation by finger or by hand..
Suggested dimensions..
Diameter..(finger operation) 12 -15 mm
Diameter..(emergency stop ) 30 -40 mm
Travel....(finger operation) 03 -10 mm
Resistance.to motion.(finger) 2.5 - 5.0 N
Diameter...(hand operation) 60mm
Travel...(hand operation) 10mm
Resistance.to motion.(hand) 10 N
Toggle Switches
Toggle switches should only have two positions "on" and "off" they should preferably be located on vertical
panels with vertical toggle motion.
The angle of motion should be about 45o
Diameter.. 3 - 25mm
The length..12- 50mm
Resistance to movement..2.5 - 15N
Levers
Large levers are sometimes used where significant operating forces are required.
Maximum forward and back motion 90ototal.
Maximum forward and back motion 350mm total.
Maximum lateral motion 45o total.
Maximum lateral motion 150mm total.
Maximum operating force 130N forward and back.
Maximum operating force 90N sideways.

Rotating Knobs
Rotating knobs provide a convenient method of controlling variables. They should conveniently fit the hand , be
easy to rotate, and should not impair viewing.
Two options are available knobs 1) Rotating Switches with indented motion (click stops) and 2) continuous
motion knobs.
Rotating Switches.
Successive positions should not be less than 15o apart if the knobs are controlled by a pointer in view.
Successive positions should not be less than 30o apart if the knobs are controlled by a feel.
Suggested Design Parameter.

Diameter.. 35 -75 mm
Height 20-50mm
Continuous resistance 0.15Nm
Maximum torque) 320 Nm
Resistance (at clicks)... 12-18N
Angle for each step... 15o to 40o
Continuous Motion Knobs

Continuous motion knobs allow precise regulation and allow control using finger or hand grip i.e delicate
movement or rough movement..
Suggested design parameters

Diameter..(finger operation) 10 -30 mm
Diameter..(whole hand ) 35 -75 mm
Height....(finger operation) 15 - 25 mm
Height ...(Hand Control) 30 - 50 mm
Diameter...(hand operation) 60mm
Max turning torque...(small
0.8Nm
knobs)
Max turning torque...(large
3.2Nm
knobs)

Pointed Bar Knobs

Arrow shaped , pointed bar knobs allow settings to be made quickly and conveniently...

Length.. 25mm min.
Thickness 25 mm max.
Height.. 12 - 70 mm
Handwheels
Handwheels allow large forces to be applied because two hands can be used and gearing can be included for
slow movement.

Diameter 180- 530mm
Dia of rim 20 to 50mm
No of Spokes Minimise
Resistance (min) 20N
Resistance (max) Single Handed 135N
Resistance (max) Two Handed 225N
Cranked Handwheel
Rotating cranked wheels allow for operating of machines over long movements using continuous rotation of the
crank. The gearing between the crank and the motion may be fine or coarse and may be switched between
ratios. A crank handle allows fast motion and the handwheel can be used for more precise motion.

Radius of crank for low toque ( up to

60 - 120mm
200 RPM)
Radius of crank for high toque ( up to
150 - 220mm
160 RPM)
Radius of crank for quick setting up to 120mm
Resistance Torque (120mm rad.
0.5 to 2.5 Nm
Crank)
Resistance Torque (240mm rad.
3.0- 4.0 Nm
Crank)
Handle diameter 25-30mm
Handle Length (one handed) 80 to 120mm
Handle Length (two handed) 190 to 250mm
Angular Mounting of Monitors
These sketches are very dated and should only be used for general guidance

Links to Relevant Sites
1. Bad Designs ..Many interesting examples of bad ergometric designs.

3. DOE-HDBK-1140-2001 .. 3.0 USA DOE -Pt. 3 Workspace, Stroage and Workshop Design- Access and equipment design data (1.3MB
pdf)
4. HUMAN ENGINEERING DESIGN DATA DIGEST ...Department of Defense Design Criteria Standard.
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Human work and energy notes
ROYMECH
Home
Human Factors Home
This page provides notes and information on human work and energy levels
Human Work and Energy Notes
The normal uses energy at a standard rate when lying down with an empty stomach. The rate
is called the basal metabolism and for a 70 kg man this is about 7000kJ per 24 hours.
A person also consumes energy (leisure joules) for everyday activities not associated with
work rate required to do normal tasks. The average leisure joules for a man is about 2400kJ
per day.
Energy is also consumed for occupational activities which differ relative to the type of
occupation.
Men Women
Type of Work Example
kJ /day kJ /day
Light Work-
Accountant 9 600 8 400
Sitting
Normal Production
12 500 9 800
Manual Work Engineer
Moderate
Bricklayer 15 000 12 000
bodily work
Heavy manual
Miner 19 500
work
Extreme effort Lumberjack 20 500
Specific activities consume energy at different rates as shown below;
Energy
Activity consumption kJ/
min
Mowing Lawn 30
Level Walking (5
17
km/hr)
Light Gardening 12-15
Digging Soil 33
Walking uphill 32-40
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Swimming 20-40
Sawing Wood 28
Cycling (20 km/hr) 40
Bowls 16
Jogging (10 km/
40-48
hr)
The human energy efficiency in completing task is illustrated below:
Activity Efficiency
Shovelling Soil
3
(stoop)
Screw Driving 5
Shovelling Soil
6
(upright)
Lifting weights 9
Turning a
13
Handwheel
Carrying a load
on back (level)-
17
Returning without
load
Carrying a load
on back -
20
Returning without
load
Up and Down
19
ladders
Turning a Handle
21
or a Crang
Walking up and
23
down stairs
Pulling a cart 24
Cycling 24
Pushing a cart 27
Level walking 27
Walking uphill 30

Links to relevant sites
design info
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Man access requirements
ROYMECH
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Human Factors Home
Controls
This page provides notes on Human Access Space Requirements
Man Access Space Requirements
Man Access Space Requirements
This page includes a number of figures illustrating approximate man access requirement. The
dimensions are only for guidance and are based on USA adult male (95% percentile).
Minimum Area Entry Widths
● 0.330m to 0.45m .... Difficult For 1 Man

● 0.450m to 0.6m .... Reasonable For 1 Man
● 0.6m to 0.9m .... Good For 1 Man
● > 0.9m .... Good For 2 Men
Body clearance for prone access
Body clearance for kneeling man
Body clearance for crawling man
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Body clearance for squatting man
Maintenance reach levels
Ramp Access
Stairs

Step Ladders
Ladders

Miscellaneous
Links to Ergometric Sites

2. DOE-HDBK-1140-2001 .. 3.0 USA DOE -Pt. 3 Workspace, Stroage and Workshop Design- Access and equipment design data (1.3MB
pdf)
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Anthropometrics Notes
ROYMECH
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Human Factors Home
Anthropometric Information....
This page provides notes relating to human sizes and links to sites providing data on human measurements and interfaces.
Safety Note
The following data is for guidance and is not for detailed design.
In designing any equipment requiring manual handling one is advised to refer the the relevant regulations. Refer to. HSE Info
Anthropometric Notes
Useful Dimensions ..A page on this website with some useful human related dimensions
Anthropometric Data Standing Person
Note: The table relates to British person.

The 5% percentile indicates that 5% of people are smaller than the sizes given. The 95%
percentile indicates that 95% of people are smaller than the sizes given. Therefore the size
range show the mid 90% range of people sizes in the UK.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Human/Human_sizes.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:19:32 AM

Man (Percentiles) Women (Percentiles)

Dimension s
5% 95% 5% 95%
1- Height 1625 1855 1505 1710
2-Eye 1515 1745 1405 1610
3-Shoulder
1315 1535 1215 1405
Height
4-Elbow Height 1005 1180 930 1085
5-Hip Height 840 1000 740 885
6-Knuckle Height 690 825 660 780
7-Fingertip Height 590 720 560 685
8-Sitting Height 850 965 795 910
9-Sitting Eye
735 845 685 795
Height
10-Sitting
540 645 505 610
Shoulder
11-Sitting Elbow
195 295 185 280
Height
12-Thigh
135 185 125 180
Thickness
13-Buttock-Knee
540 645 520 620
Length
14-Buttock-
440 550 435 530
popliteal length
15-Knee Height 490 595 455 540
16-Popliteal
395 490 355 445
Height

17-Shoulder
420 510 355 435
Breadth
18-Shoulder
365 430 325 385
Breadth
19-Hip Breadth 310 405 310 435
20-Chest Depth 215 285 210 295
21-Abdominal
220 325 205 305
Depth
22-Shoulder-
330 395 300 360
Elbow Length
23-Elbow
440 510 400 460
Fingertip Length
24-Upper Limb
720 840 655 760
Length
25-Shoulder Grip
610 715 555 650
Length
26-Head Length 180 205 165 190
27-Head Breadth 145 165 135 150
28-Hand Length 175 205 160 190
29-Hand Breadth 80 95 70 85
30-Foot Length 240 285 215 255
31-Foot Breadth 85 110 80 100
32-Span 1655 1925 1490 1725
33-Elbow Span 865 1020 780 920
34-Vertical Reach 1925 2190 1790 2020
35-Vertical
1145 1340 1060 1235
Reach (sit)
35-Forward Grip
720 835 650 755
Reach
Hand capacities

Maximum height of reach-
Note: As a very general rule the maximum height of reach = 1,24 x Body Length..
To Fingertip Grasping Height

Sex Stature Percentile
(mm) (mm)
Male Tall 95 2310 2190
Male Average 50 2180 2060
Male Short 5 2040 1920
Female Tall 95 2120 2020
Female Average 50 2000 1900
Female Short 5 1890 1790
Links to Sites releated to anthropometry
1. ergonomic Notes ...A site providing notes on ergonomic design...

2. Systems Concepts ...A popular ergonomic reference site....
3. Vanderbilt ..A Number of Tables providing relative anthropometric data
4. St Clair College Cal. ..USA based anthropometric information
design info
7. Anthrokids...Database of anthrometric/strength of US children 4 to 18 years old. (Massive quantity of information)
8. Product Safety and Testing Group...Documents published by the DTI / UK. To provide accessible ergonomics data.
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Availability Reliability Maintainability

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Reliability /Safety Index Page
Availability, Reliability, Maintainability
Note: The information below is provided as an overview of Availability, Reliability and Maintainability and .. More detailed and reliable
information is provided at the sites linked at the bottom of this page...
General
An item or system is specified, procured, and designed to a functional requirement
and it is important that it satisfies this requirement. However it is also desirable that
the the item or system should be predictably available and this depends upon the its
reliability and availability. For some disposable products in our modern society the
availability requirement may be acceptably low. For a large range of consumer
products the availability, based on high reliability, is an important selling point. For
items and systems used in critical areas including military equipment, process plant ,
and the nuclear industry, the availability, reliability and maintainability considerations
are vital.
The economic justification for a project is generally based on the lifetime cost of the
project. A major contribution to this cost involves an evaluation of the availability
reliability and maintainability of the equipment..
Availability
The ability of an item to be in a state to perform a required function under given
conditions at a given instant of time or during a given time interval, assuming that the
required external resources are provided.
At its simplest level..
Availability = Uptime / (Downtime + Uptime)
The time units are generally hours and the time base is 1 year . There are 8760
hours in one year.
From the design area of concern this equation translates to ..
Availability(Intrinsic) A i = MTBF / (MTBF + MTTR)
MTBF = Mean time between failures..
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MTTR = Mean time to repair / Mean time to replace.
Operational availability is defined differently
Availability (Operational) A o = MTBM/(MTBM+MDT).
MTBM = Mean time between maintenance..

MDT = Mean Down Time
Reliability
The ability of an item to perform a required function under given conditions for a
given time interval.
The reliability is expressed as a probability (0-1 or 0 to 100%). Thus the reliability of

a component may be expressed as 99% that it will work successfully for one year.
The reliability is essentially an indication of probability that a the item will not fail in
the given time period.
A very generalised curve for the failures rates of components over time is the bathtub
curve. This shows that in the early period a number of failures result from
manufacturing, assembly, commissioning, setting to work problems. When all of the
teething problems have been eliminated the remaining population has a useful life
over which the items fail at a relatively low rate. After a long operating time interval
the items will fail at an increasing rate due to wear and other time related functions.
This curve applies mostly to electronic components which is why electronic products
are operated continuously for set times (burn-in) prior to delivery to users..
The bathtub curve for mass produced mechanical items is controlled to minimise the
initial early failure period by use of quality control to ensure uniformity of production

of high reliability items. Before items are introduced onto the market they are
rigorously tested to identify and correct design and manufacturing problems. A
prime target of design, manufacturing and operation is to ensure that the useful life is
extended by attention to the following factors
● Strength/ Life safety factors

● Tribology considerations (Prevention of wear and lubrication )
● Corrosion prevention
● Protection against environment effects (temperature /humidity)
● Fatigue
● Vibration
● Regular servicing (or elimination) of short life components (filters /brakes pads etc)
For systems with items in series the overall reliability is the product of the reliabilities
of the individual components..
For systems with active items in parallel the resulting reliability is improved. For
example if there are two items in parallel A (Reliability Ra) and B (Reliability
Rb). The overall reliability is = 1-(1-Ra)*(1-Rb)
Maintainability
The ability of an item under given conditions of use, to be retained in, or restored to,
a state in which it can perform a required function. When maintenance is performed
under given conditions and using stated procedures and resources.
When a piece of equipment has failed it is important to get it back into an operating
condition as soon as possible, this is known as maintainability. To calculate the
maintainability or Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) of an item, the time required to
perform each anticipated repair task is multiplied by the relative frequency with which
that task is performed(e.g. no. of times per year). MTTR data supplied by
manufacturers will be purely repair time which will assume the fault is correctly
identified and the required spares and personnel are available. The MTTR to the
user will include the logistic delay as shown below. The MTTR should also include
factors such as the skill of the maintenance engineers
MTTR User factors...
● Detection of fault
● Start Up mainenance team
● Diagnose fault
● Obtain Spare parts
● Repair (MTTR-Manufacturers information)
● Test and accept repair
● Start up equipment

Links providing
relevant
information
1. r2A ... A
comprehensive
Site on Risk &
Reliability and
MTBF
2. Baringer1 ...
Reliability Links
and Information
3. Reliability
Magazine ...
Magazine
devoted to
reliability
4. Coxmoor ...
Publishers of
Condition
Monitoring /
Reliability
Magazines
5. Weibull ...
Reliability
analysis articles
and software
6. SRC ...Center of
Reliability and
Maintainability .
An Useful
reference site
7. Reliability
Direct ...
Reliability and
Condition
products.
8. ACUSAFE ...An
internet resource
for Safety and
Risk
Management.
Home

Factors of Safety

ROYMECH
Home
Safety Factors..
Basic Notes on Factor of Safety

The factor of safety also known as Safety Factor, is used to provide a design margin
over the theoretical design capacity to allow for uncertainty in the design process.
The uncertainty could be any one of a number of the components of the design
process including calculations, material strengths, duty, manufacture quality. The
value of the safety factor is related to the lack of confidence in the design process.
The simplest interpretation of the Factor of Safety is
FoS = Strength of Component / Load on component
If a component need to withstand a load of 100 Newtons and a FoS of 4 is selected

then it is designed with strength to support 400 Newtons...
The selection of the appropriate factor of safety to be used in design of components

is essentially a compromise between the associated additional cost and weight and
the benefit of increased safety and/or reliability. Generally an increased factor of
safety results from a heavier component or a component made from a more exotic
material or / and improved component design
The factors of safety listed below are based on the yield strength..
Factor of Safety Application

Material properties known in detail. Operating
conditions known in detail Loads and resultant
stresses and strains known with with high degree of
1.25 - 1.5
certainty. Material test certificates, proof loading,
regular inspection and maintenance. Low weight is
important to design.
Known materials with certification under reasonably
constant environmental conditions, subjected to loads
1.5 - 2 and stresses that can be determined using qualified
design procedures. Proof tests, regular inspection
and maintenance required
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Factors of Safety
Materials obtained for reputable suppliers to relevant

standards operated in normal environments and
2 - 2.5
subjected to loads and stresses that can be
determined using checked calculations.
For less tried materials or for brittle materials under
2.5 - 3
average conditions of environment, load and stress.
For untried materials used under average conditions
3-4
of environment, load and stress.
Should also be used with better-known materials that
3-4 are to be used in uncertain environments or subject to
uncertain stresses.
Repeated Cyclic loads :

The factors established above must be based on the endurance limit ( fatigue
strength ) rather than to the yield strength of the material. The strength calculations
should also include for stress concentration factors.
Impact Shock forces :

The factors given in items 3 to 6 are acceptable, but an impact factor (the above
dynamic magnification factor) should be included.
Brittle materials :
The ultimate strength is used as the theoretical maximum, the factors presented in
items 1 to 6 should be approximately doubled.
Impact Shock forces :

The higher factors of safety given above (2.5 to 4) may be used but based on stress
levels calculated based on the resulting dissipated energy at impact.
Where higher factors might appear desirable, a more thorough analysis of the
problem should be undertaken before deciding on their use.
Extreme care must be used in dealing with vibration loads, more so if the vibrations
approach resonant frequencies. The vibrations resulting from seismic disturbances
are often important and need to be considered in detail.
Use of Standards and Codes

A convenient method of ensuring safe confident design is to use design codes; A
good standard used by mechanical engineer is
BS 2573-Pt 1:1983 Rules For Design of Cranes. Specification for Classification,

stress, Calculations and design criteria for structures.
This standard (together with BS 2573 part 2) includes rules for completing

Factors of Safety
calculations and applying factors and the relevant allowable stresses to be used for
the different grades of materials. This standard is primarily used for design of
cranes and associated equipment but it is used widely for design of similar
mechanical systems. When designing systems based using the rules from this
standard it is not generally necessary to include additional margins of safety.
.
When design engineering structures using structural steel section a useful standard
is..
BS 5950-1:2000-Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for design.

Rolled and welded sections.
This standard together with BS 5950-Part 2,3-1,4,5,6,7,8 & 9 provide service factors
and design stresses relevant to structural design.
In designing many equipment items including vessels, pumps, valves, piping

systems there are equivalent standards and codes which should be followed. These
documents generally identify the necessary design procedures and the safety
margins to be included.
Use of Proprietary Items

A mechanical design often includes rolling element bearings, gearbox units, shaft
couplings, belt /chain drives etc. When using these items it is necessary to strictly
follow the design rules provided in the suppliers technical documents. The operating
duties and service factors to be used are generally clearly specified. It not correct to
simply use oversized equipment for convenience. It is also recommended that the
supplier is consulted on the duty.
Links on Safety
Factors
1. STRESS,
STRENGTH
AND
SAFETY ...
DANotes -
Very useful
notes of
safety ...
Home

Factors of Safety

Failure Distributions

ROYMECH
Home
Note: The information below is provided as an overview of failure distributions.. More detailed and reliable information is provided at
the sites linked at the bottom of this page...
Introduction
In determining the lifetime reliability of a population of components (bearings, seals,

gears etc.) sample information is obtained from testing programmes and operational
feedback on the failure history of components belonging to the population. From the
information obtained it is possible to produce a graph of the probability density
function f(t). This is a plot of the frequency at which components fail as a function of
time divided by the whole population.
The pdf function has the property
Associated with the pdf is the Cumulative Density Function F(t). This is simply a plot
of the cumulative fraction of the failure population against time. It is the integral of
the f(t) against time (t).
The CDF has the properties
This effectively means that at time 0 no failures have occurred.
At infinity the whole population of components will have failed.
Reliability
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The reliability may be expressed that.. for time = a ( e.g 10 years ) there is a 90%
chance of the item surviving (not failing)... = 1 in 10 is likely to fail.
Hazard Rate
The hazard rate may be expressed as... the failure rate will be 2 x 10 -4 (failures /unit
time) or 2 failures per 10 4 time units
Mean Life Function

The mean life provides the average life to failure of components is also called the
Mean Life Between Failures (MLBF) and the Mean Time to Failures (MTTF)

The MTTF /MTBF may be expressed as say 1,000 hours at which 50% of units have
failed
The pdf curve can take many forms....Some of the different distributions are listed
below
Normal Distribution
One curve representing purely random events is the normal (gaussian) curve.
This is shown below with the associated CDF.
The equation for the normal distribution is :
● µ = The mean (MTTF , MTBF)

● σ = The standard Deviation
Both of these parameters are estimated from the data, i.e. the mean and standard
deviation of the data. From these parameters f(t) is fully defined enabling evaluation
of f(t) from any value of t.
Note: The standard deviation is a measure of scatter of the information. A small

standard deviation is a thinner higher bell and a large standard deviation is a wider

flatter bell.
Normal Distributions are appropriate in the following conditions
● There is a strong tendency for the variable to take a central value;

● Positive and negative deviations from this central value are equally likely;
● The frequency of deviations falls off rapidly as the deviations become larger.
The Lognormal Distribution

The lognormal distribution is commonly used for general reliability analysis, cycles to
failure in fatigue and material strengths and loading.
The data follows the lognormal distribution when the natural logarithms of the times-
to-failure are normally distributed.
● σT1 = Standard Deviations of the natural logarithm of times-to-failure
● µ' = Mean of the natural logarithm of times-to-failure
Weibull Distribution
The Weibull distribution is a general-purpose reliability distribution used to model
material strength, times-to-failure of electronic and mechanical components,
equipment, or systems. In its most general case, the three-parameter Weibull pdf is
defined by:
with three parameters, where :
● β = shape parameter
● γ = location parameter
● η = scale parameter

If the location parameter γ is assumed to be zero then the distribution is known as

the two-parameter Weibull distribution...
The β = shape parameter gives indications on the prevalent failure modes.
● β < 1 indicates 'infant mortality' due to poor production quality or insufficient burn-in
● β = 1 indicates random failures which are independent of time. Human errors , natural events etc.
● β = 1 to 4 indicates early wear out i.e. erosion, corrosion, early fatigue 1
● β > 4 indicates old age and rapid wear out. bearing failures, corrosion, erosion, fatigue etc.

The Exponential Distribution

The exponential distribution is a commonly used distribution in reliability
engineering. Mathematically, it is a fairly simple distribution, which sometimes leads
to its use in inappropriate situations. This distribution is used to model the behavior
of units that have a constant failure rate.
An exponential distribution can easily be described as follows...

If a thousand items have a constant failure rate of 10% per month. After the first
month 100 items have failed (0.1 x 1000) leaving 900 items. After the second month
90 items will have failed (0.1 x 900) leaving 810 items... After 12 months 31 items
will fail leaving 282 items.
● λ = Scaling factor=Failure Rate

● γ = Location factor
The mean time to failure of this distribution is
If the location parameter γ is assumed to be zero then the distribution is called the
one parameter exponential distribution.
The mean time to failure and the reliability of this distribution is

Links to Failure
Distributions
1. Baringer1 ...
Reliability Links
and Information
2. Weibull ...
Reliability
analysis articles
and software
3. r2A ... A
comprehensive
Site on Risk &
Reliability and
MTBF...
4. Reliability
Magazine ...
Magazine
devoted to
reliability
5. Coxmoor ...
Publishers of
Condition
Monitoring /
Reliability
Magazines
6. Weibull
Databases ...Very
useful reference
information
7. SRC ...Center of
Reliability and
Maintainability .
An Useful
reference site
8. Reliability
Direct ...
Reliability and
Condition
products.
9. ACUSAFE ...An
internet resource
for Safety and
Risk
Management.
Home


Risk Assessments

ROYMECH
Home
Risk- Safety assessments
Basic Notes on Risk Assessments

The risk is the probability or chance that the hazard will lead to injury. A hazard is sometimes
unavoidable i.e. a vee belt drive, a chain drive, a furnace.... all present hazards. The risk of harm
from these hazards is however controllable.
It is a HSE requirement and a requirement of all European directives that workers in industry and
the public are protected from harm and it is a designers responsibility to ensure that machines are
design to be safe. An important part of the design process is to complete a risk assessment. The
Machinery Directive "98/37/EC" (ref link below) identifies requirements in this direction.
The hazard analysis / risk assessment is outlined in the standard BS EN 1050:1997 "Safety of
machinery. Principles for risk assessment" . The purpose of this standard is to provide guidance
for the safety of machinery and the type of documentation required in verifying a risk assessment.
This standard also describes procedures for identifying hazards, estimating and evaluating risk.
The following methods of completing risk assessments are define..
● What-If method
● Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
● Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOPS)
● Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)
● Delphi technique
● Defi method
● Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA)
● Method Organised for a Systematic Analysis of Risks (MOSAR)
Two standards providing guidance on machine safety provisions including guards and controls are
listed below
● BS EN 953:1998 Safety of machinery. Guards. General requirements for the design and construction of fixed and movable guards
● BS EN 954-1:1997 Safety of machinery. Safety related parts of control systems. General principles for design.
This standard provides
Risk assessment is a series of logical steps in conducting the examination of the hazards
associated with machinery. Risk assessment is followed, whenever necessary, by risk reduction.
Risk analysis provides information required for the risk evaluation, which allows an evaluation to be
made on the safety of machinery.
Fault Tree Analysis
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Risk Assessments
The notes below are outline only ..More detailed information is provided in the links below..
A fault tress is a graphic model of the pathways within a system that can lead to a foreseeable,
undesirable fault event. The pathways interconnect contributory events and conditions, using
standard logic symbols. Numerical probabilities of occurrence can be entered and in the model to
evaluate probability of the foreseeable,undesirable event.
Symbols..
Symbols are used in fault tree analysis to represent envents and the logical interface between the
events. Most fault tree analyses can be carried out with just four symbols..
● Top Event...This is the undesirable event towards which the fault tree logic paths flow
● Intermediate Event...System state following previous logic events
● Or Gate...Logic gate producing an output if there are any inputs
● And Gate...Logic gate producing an output only if all inputs co-exist
● Basic Event...Basic fault identifying limit of analysis. Lower level generating faults are not included
Typical Diagram
In the above fta logic diagram the intermediate event "B" results if basic events E or F or G
occur. The intermediate event D results if basic events H and J and K occur simultaneously. The
top fault event results if events B or C or D occur.
● At each logic gate input the identified faults should be independent.

Risk Assessments
● The identified basic /intermdeiate must be sufficient to immediately cause the resulting higher level event.
Quantifying Failure probabilities
For system based on an "OR" gate with two initiating fault events A & B the probability of a system
failure Pf = PA +P B - P A . P B
For system based on an "AND" gate with two initiating fault events A & B the probability of a system
failure Pf = P A.PB
Example;
An "OR" gate with two initiating events A with a probability of failure of 10-3 per year and B with a
probability of failure o 10-2 per year will result in a system failure probability of 11 * 10-3 per year
An "AND" gate with similar events will result in a system failure probability of 10-5 per year
Example fault tree with failure data included...
Additional Symbols

Risk Assessments
● The exclusive "OR" produces an output occurs when only one input occurs
● The ordered "AND" produces an output occurs all inputs occur in an ordered sequence
● The undeveloped event is simply an failure event at a very simple level which could be developed in a separate fta tree
● The external event is normal event which could cause a fault
Links providing
relevant
information
1. Europa EU ...
Machinery
Directive
Download
Page ...
2. Risk
Assessments ...
( HSE )..Five
Steps to Risk
Assessement
3. Bara Safety
downloads ...
(BARA)..Link to
Risk
Assessement
Notes download
4. NUREG-0492
Handbook ...US
Nuclear
Regulatory
Commission-Fault
Tree Handbook
5. Fault Tree
Analysis ...Jacobs
Sverdrup ..
Excellent paper
by P.L. Clemens
Home

Hazops and Hazans

ROYMECH
Home
Hazops
This page provides outline information and links to information on HAZOP studies and their purpose.
Hazops Introduction
The implementation Hazard and Operability Studies are completed at an early stage
in the design project to ensure that if the plant is operated away from the design
intent there are no unacceptable safety or the operailityy consequences. Hazops
were initially 'invented' by ICI in the United Kingdom. Through the general
exchange of ideas and personnel, the system was then adopted by the petroleum
industry, which has a potential for major disasters. A number of industries now use
this system including the water industry , the nuclear industry, the food industry to
note just a few. The procedures used are most conveniently applied to the chemical
industry but, with only minor modifications can be applied to any industry.
Hazops Team
A hazop study is generally completed by a team which includes the designers, safety
representatives and a number of members with expertise in a range of related
fields. The team should also include individuals who have knowledge of operating
similar equipment and plant.
Information presented to for HAZOP Study
The design process generally includes a number of HAZOP studies (HAZOP 1, 2 3)
The first (HAZOP 1) study would be based on the design specification and the
resulting process flow diagrams / block diagrams.
The second (HAZOP 2) study would be based on the design specification and the
more detailed Engineeering Flow Diagram / Mechanical Flow diagrams.
The later HAZOP studies would be based on actual Production and Operating
document
Key Words
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Hazops and Hazans
The HAZOP study is based on the use of Primary and Secondary Keywords
Primary Keywords which focus attention upon a particular aspect of the design intent
or an associated process condition or parameter.
Secondary Keywords which, when combined with a primary keyword, suggest

possible deviations.
Typical Primary Keywords
Hazard
Flow Temperature Pressure
Level Compositions Composition
React Mix Reduce
Absorb corrode erode
Operatibility
Start-up Shut-down Isolate
Vent Purge Maintain
Wash-Down
Typical Secondary Keywords
Hazard
No Less More
Also Other Variation
Early Late Reduce
HAZOP methodology
The Hazop study process involves applying in a systematic way all relevant keyword
combinations to the plant in question in an effort to uncover potential problems. The
each flow sheet is reviewed on a line by line, item by item basis. The results are
recorded systematically in tabular form. Relevent Headings for the table are
provided below:
Deviation Cause Consquence Safeguards Action
● The deviation may be, for instance, High level.

● The cause would be considered and may include various causes for the high level including valve jammed
open, level instrument failed, control failure.etc etc.

Hazops and Hazans
● The consequence of the high level would have to be identified..This may include vessel overflow, vessel vent
blockage, uncontrolled fluid transfer to unnacceptable route etc.
● Existing safeguards which prevent of mitigate the problem are identified.
● If the consequence is negative and the safeguards are insufficient then an action is registered. This is place
on the relevant members of the team to provide a solution to the problem.
On completion of the HAZOP review activity a detailed list of HAZOP table is

produced and actions are identified. The actions are completed and are circulated
and accepted by the full team or the actions are reviewed at a follow-up meeting.
Links providing
relevant
information
1. HAZARD &
OPERABILITY
STUDIES (1 of
2) ... Notes on
HAZOP studies
and relevant
software
2. Note on Hazard
and Operability
Studies ...RoyaL
society of
Chemistry Paper
3. Reliability
Direct ...
Reliability and
Condition
products.
4. The HAZOP
(Hazard and
Operability)
Method ...A
relevant
ACUSAFE Paper
Home

Failure Rates

ROYMECH
Home
Failure Rates..
Basic Information on Failure Rates

The following tables includes a number a mechanical items and representative
failure rate information. The tables also include qualifying factors. The information
included is of limited value and is not current and is in no way representive a specific
products. The failure rate of one companies product could be an order less than
another companies.
The only real value of this table is in providing realistic relative reliabilities of different
components. For most of the components in the table below more accurate reliability
information is provided in the suppliers literature.
Note: 106 hours = 114 years continuous operation....
Failure Rate Fo = Fr. C1 .C2 .C3
Failure Rate =
Mechanical item Modifier Fr
/ 106 hours
Ball Bearing Heavy Duty 20
Ball Bearing Light Duty 10
Roller bearing 5
Journal Bearing 5
Shafts Highly Stressed 0.2
Shaft Lightly Stressed 0.02
Pins 15
Pivots 1
Couplings 5
Belt Drives 40
Spur Gears 10
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Failure Rates
Helical Gears 1
Friction
3
Clutches
Magnetic
6
Clutches
Springs Highly Stressed 1
Springs Lightly Stressed 0.2
Hair Springs 1
Calibration
Creep 2
Springs
Calibration
Breaking 0.2
Springs
Vibrations
9
Mounts
Mechanical
0,2
Joints
Grub Screws 0,5
Nuts 0,02
Bolts 0,02
Rack and
Pinion 2,0
Assemblies
Knife Edge
10
fulcrums
Bellows 5
Diaphragms Metal 5
Diaphragms Rubber 8
Gaskets 0,5
Rotating Seals 7
Sliding Seals 3
O Ring Seals 0,2
Filters Blockage 1
Filters Leakage 1
Fixed Orifices 1
Variable
5
Orifices
Restriction 5

Failure Rates
Pipes 0,2
Pipe Joints 0,5
Unions and
0,4
Junctions
Heavily
Hoses 40
stressed
Hoses Lightly stressed 4
Ducts 1
Pressure
General 3
Vessels
Pressure
High Standard 0,3
Vessels
Relief Valves Leakage 2
Relief Valves Blockage 0,5
Hand Operated
15
Valves
Ball Valves 0,5
Solenoid Valves 30
Control Valves 30
Pistons 1
Cylinders 0,1
Jacks 0,5
Pressure
10
Gauges
Pressure
15
Switches
Bourdan Tubes Creep 0,2
Bourdan Tubes Leakage 0,05
Nozzle/Flapper
Blockage 6
assembles
Nozzle/Flapper
Breaking 0,2
assembles

Failure Rates
Environment C1 Rating % C2 Temperature C3

Factor
of Normal (Degrees C)
Ideal Static 0,1
140 4 0 1,0
Vibrations
0,5 120 2 20 1,0
Free
100 1 40 1,3
Ground based 1,0
80 0,5 60 2,0
Ship 2,0
60 0,3 80 4,0
Road 3,0
40 0,2 100 10,0
Rail 4,0
20 0,1 120 30,0
Aircraft 10,0
Links providing
relevant
information
1. Weibull
Databases...A
table of failure
rates.
Probably more
reliable than
above
Home

Properties of Solids
ROYMECH
Home
Matter Index
Properties of solids
Specific Young's Poissons Thermal Melting Ultimate. Specific

Solid
Gravity Modulus Ratio Conductivity Point Strength Heat
x1010 Pa W /m/K Deg K x106 Pa KJ/Kg/K
Alumina 3,9 20-40 0,24 21 2323 140-200 1,05
Bone 1,8 2,8 - ~150 0,8
Brass 8,45 10,5 0,35 120 1200 330-550 0,37
Brick 1,4-2,2 1-5 0,6 0,4-0,8 0,8
Concrete 2,4 1,0-1,7 0,1-0,2 1,0-1,5 1,1
Constantan 8,9 16,3 0,33 22 1593 400-570 0,41
Diamond 3,3 120 900 ~3820 0,5
Dry Ground ~1,6
Dural 2,8 7 0,33 150 913 230-500 0,9
Glass 2,4-3,5 5-8 0,2-0,27 0,4-1,1 ~1373 30-90 0,5-0,8
Granite 2,7 4-7 2-4 0,8
Manganin 8,5 12,4 0,33 22 1233 465 0,4
Mica 2,8 ~0,5 0,84
Nichrome
8,36 18,6 0,38 13 170-900 0,43
(80/20)
Nylon 6 1,14 0,1-0,25 0,25-0,3 473-493 70-85 1,6
Paper Dry ~1,0 0,06
Perspex 1,2 0,27-0,35 0,2 353-388 50-75 1,45
Phosphor
8,92 10 0,38 ~75 1323 330-750 0,38
Bronze
Polystyrene 1,06 0,25-0,4 0,1 353-378 35-60 1,3
Polythene 0,93 0,01-0,1 0,25-0,5 338-403 7-38 2,2
PTFE 2,2 0,04-0,06 0,23-0,270 ~600 17-28 1,05
PVC (Plas.) 1,7 0,03 0,16-0,19 343-353 14-40
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Properties of Solids
Porcelain 2,4 0,8-1,85 1823 1,1

Quartz (Fibre) 2,65 7,3 9 2293 0,73
Quartz (fused) 2,2 1,3 2293 0,73
1626-
Steel 7,8 21 0,3 50 480 0,45
1733
Rubber 1,1 -1,2 0,001-0,1 0,46-0,49 ~0,15 398 14-40 1,6
Sandstone 2,4 1,1-2,3 1 0,9
Timber 0,4 -0,8 0,8-1,3 ~0,15 20-110 1,6
Specific Young's Poissons Thermal Melting Ultimate. Specific
Solid
Gravity Modulus Ratio Conductivity Point Strength Heat
x1010 Pa W /m/K Deg K x106 Pa KJ/Kg/K
Links Providing similar information
1. Properties Of Solids ...Various Properties Of Solids

2. Mark-Rosens...Mark Rosens Liquid /solid Links
3. Watlow- Refdata ...Download link to Properties of Non_metallic Solids
4. Allmeasures Properties of Materials with associated formulae
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Properties Of Liquids
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Properties are generally at (293 K, 1 atm)
Latent Coef
Spec. Dynamic
Bulk Heat Thermal of
Gas density Freezing Boiling Heat cp Viscosity
Modulus of Conduct. Vol
(at_293K) P
Boiling exp
x103 x109 kg/ 10-3/
K K KJ/kg W/m K J/kg K 10-2 P -
kg/m3 m2 K
Mercury 13,5 25 234 630 292 8 139 0,18 1,55
Sodium 371 1156 85*
Water 1,00 2,3 373 100 2260 0,61 4180 0,21 1
Sea Water 1,03 2,3 270,5 376 3930
0,7-
Mineral Oil ~,0,9 1-2 0,13** 1700
0,9
Carbon
1,6 1,1 250 350 215 0,11 840 1,22 0,97
Tetrochloride
Acetone 0,79 1,2 178 330 560 0,16 2210 1,43 0,32
Ethyl
0,79 1,3 153 351 850 0,17 2500 1,08 1,2
Alchohol
Benzene
(C6H6) 1,049 1,1 279 353 400 0,14 170 1,22 0,647
Glycerol
(C3H803) 1,262 4,03 293 563 830 0,27 240 4,7 1495
* at 403 K, ** at373K
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1. Physiochemical Properties Of Liquids ...Properties Of Liquids - Make sure pop up windows are allowed on browse
2. Mark-Rosens...Mark Rosens Liquid /solid Links
3. Watlow- Refdata..Download link to Properties of Liquids-Imperial
5. Properties of Liquids Purdue U. Properties of Liquids
Start
6. WebElements An excellent source of information on all materials
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Properties Of Gases
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Properties Of Gases
Properties are generally at s.t.p (273 K, 1 atm)
Coef
Spe. Ratio of
Crit. Crit. Crit. Thermal of Dynamic
Gas density Freezing Boiling Heat Specific
Temp pressure Density Conduct. Vol Viscosity
Cp Heats
exp
kJ/kg. 10-3/
- kg/m3 K K K x105 Pa kg m-3 mW/m.K - 10-6 P
K K
Air 1.293 - 83 132 37.7 24.1 1,004 1.4 3.67 181
Oxygen 1.429 54 90 154 50.4 430 24.4 0.915 1.4 ~ 3.7 200
Nitrogen 1.25 63 77 126 33.9 311 24.3 1,039 1.4 3.67 174
Hydrogen 0,09 14 20 33 13,0 31 168.4 14.2 1.41 3.659 88
Carbon
Dioxide 1.977 216 242 74,0 460 14.5 0.819 1.3 3.72 146
(CO2)
Carbon
Monoxide 1.250 81 134 35,0 23.2 1,05 1.4 167
(CO2)
Helium 0.178 4 5 2.3 69 141.5 5.19 1.63 3.658 194
Neon 0.900 24 27 44 27.2 484 46.5 1.64 3.66 310
Argon 1.784 84 87 151 48.6 531 16.2 .52 1.67 222
Acetylene 1.173 189 309 61.4 18.4 1.59 1.26 93.5
Ammonia
(NH3) 0.771 240 405 113 21.8 2.190 1.31 91.8
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Properties Of Gases
1. Air Liquide Gases Properties Of Gases + Wide range of useful application data
2. Mark-Rosens Mark Rosens Liquid /solid Links
3. Watlow - Refdata..Download link to Properties of Gases -Imperial
4. Gas Data..Airliquide- Very comprehensive and detailed data
5. Purdue U... Notes on Gases..
Start
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Properties of Metals
ROYMECH
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Important Note:
I have included the steel in this table of elements. The properties of all the elements, but especially steel, should be used only a rough estimates. Alloying and heat
treatment can significantly affect the values
Young's Shear Linear Proof/

Specific Bulk Poisson's Thermal Melting Ultimate. Electrical
Metal Modulus Modulus Expansion Yield
Gravity Modulus Ratio Conductivity Point Stress Resistivity
(E) (G) Coefficient Stress
x10-6/ deg x x10-8
- GPa GPa GPa W/(mK) Deg K x 107Pa
C 107Pa ohm/m
Aluminium 2,7 68,95 26 75. 0,33 237 25 933 3-14 6-14 2,655
Antimony 6,69 77,91 18,5 9 903 41,8
Beryllium 1,85 289,6? 0,027 218. 12 1558 4,0
Bismuth 9,75 31,72 0,33 8,4 13 544 115
Cadmium 8,65 55,16 92 30 594 7,4
Chromium 7,2 248,2 91 6 2133 13
Cobalt 8,9 206,8 69 12 1768 9
Copper 8,96 117,2 46 130 0,36 398. 16,6 1357 4,7-32 20-35 1,673
Gold 19,32 74,46 28. 167 0,42 315 14,2 1336 0-21 11-23 2,35
Iridium 22,42 517,1 147 6 2723 5,3
Iron 7,87 196,5 76 0,3 80,3 12 1809 16 35 9,7
Lead 11,35 13,79 6 0,43 35,2 29 600,7 1,5-1,8 20,6
Magnesium 1,74 44,13 0,35 156 25 923 4,45
Manganese 7,34 158,6 22 1517 185
Mercury 13,546 8,39 234,29 98,4
Molybdenum 10,22 275,8 0,32 138 5 2893 5,2
Nickel 8,9 213,7 79. 176 0,31 90,5 13 1726 14-66 48-73 6,85
Niobium 8,57 103,4 53 7 2740 13
Osmium 22,57 551,6 61 5 3298 9
Platinum 21,45 146,9 61. 240 0,39 73 9 2043 1,5-18 12,5 -20 10,5
Plutonium 19,84 96,53 0,18 8 54 913 141,4
Potassium 0,86 0,39 99 83 336,5 7,01
Rhodium 12,41 289,6 150 8 2238 4,6
Selenium 4,8 57,92 0,5 37 490 12,0
Silicon 2,33 110,3 83,5 3 1684 100000
Silver 10,50 72,39 28. 100 0,37 427 19 1234 5,5-30 14-38 1,59
Sodium 0,97 134 70 370,98 4,2
1630-
Steel (Mild) 7,8 210 80 0,3 50 12 20-40 30-50 10
1750
Tantalum 16,6 186,2 0,35 57,5 6,5 3253 34-93 12,4
Thorium 11,7 58,61 v 0,27 41 12 2023 18
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0,9-
Tin 7,31 41,37 17. 52 0,33 67 20 505 1,5-20 11,0
1,4
Titanium 4,54 110,3 41. 110 0,3 22 8,5 1943 2-50 25-70 43
Tungsten 19,3 344,7 140 0,28 178 4,5 3673 100-400 5,65
Uranium 18,8 165,5 0,21 25 13,4 1405 30
Vanadium 6,1 131. 60 8 2173 25
Zinc 7,0 82,74 36. 100 0,35 121 35 692,7 11-20 5,92
1. Chapter 6 Mechanical Properties of Metals s.. U Virigia document

2. Watlow- Refdata..Download link to Properties of Metals-Imperial
3. ChemocoolA periodic table with associated reference links
4. Metals About Lots of useful links on metal properties
Start
6. WebElements An excellent source of information on all metals and materials
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Atom, Molecules, Crystals, Grains
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Matter from Atoms to Grains
Atoms.......Molecular Bonds.... Atomic Arrangements /Crystals...Strength of Metals.... Dislocations.....Grains
Introduction
This page includes notes reviewing the principles determining the properties of engineering
materials. The notes will progress quickly from the atoms to grains and will try to describe how
engineering materials acquire the properties which make them useful...
Atoms:Description .... Additional notes on atoms
In conventional theory all matter is made of atoms

An atom is a nucleus comprising protons and neutrons and surrounding shells of electrons..
Hydrogen has one proton and no neutrons
The proton is a positive charged particle an electron is a negatively charged particle and a neutron
has no charge
The neutron has a similar mass to the proton and and electron mass = 1/1836 x the mass of the
proton
The element atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom and defines its
chemical properties
The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons + neutrons in an atom.
The relative atomic mass of an element is the mass measured in comparison with carbon-12 which
has a Relative Atomic mass of 12
A neutral atom has an equal number of protons and electrons
The chemical properties of an atom are not affected by the number of neutrons.
Elements of atoms with the same atomic number but different number of neutrons are called
isotopes
There are about 115 different elements of which 92 occur naturally
Atoms:Electronic Structure
The electrons of an atom are arranged into a number of shells depending on the Atomic number
Hydrogen has only one Shell (K shell). Uranium has a fully quota of shells (K,L,M,O,P and Q)
These shells have associated Quantum numbers (K = 1, L = 2, M = 3, N = 4, O = 5, P = 6, Q = 7)
Within the shells electrons can have certain energy levels ( s, p d, f, g h ).
These energy levels have associated Azimuthal quantum numbers s = 0, p = 1, d= 2, d = 3, g = 4, h
= 5.
The ability of an element to form compounds is directly related to the population of electrons in
these shells
The shorthand notation for iron ( Fe = 1s 22s 2 2p 63s 23p 63d 64s 2 )
Within each shell of an atom the maximum number of electrons at each azimuthal level is as follows;
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Shell s p d f g h
K 2
L 2 6
M 2 6 10
N 2 6 10 14
O 2 6 10 14 18
P 2 6 10 14 18 22
The sketch below illustrates the directional nature of the s and p electrons based on the principle of
wave mechanics and identify regions in which electron are very likely to occur. At the most 2
electrons can be present in any orbital
Element
An element is is a pure substance which cannot be split by chemical means into other substances
Periodic Table Periodic Table

The atoms have been arranged in a table called the Periodic Table.
In this table the atoms have been arranged in vertical columns based on the similar chemical
properties due to their electron configuration
Molecule
Elements can combine physically in fixed proportions to form molecules of compounds
Compounds are entirely different to the constituent elements with their own chemical and physical
properties
Many simple molecules are made up from only one type of atom H2, I2
There are two principle types of molecules organic and inorganic.
Organic molecules are based on Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Hydrogen.
Molecules associated with living matter, oil etc are organic.
Inorganic molecules include minerals, ceramics etc.
Valency
The valence of an atom is related to the ability of the atom to enter into chemical combination with
other elements and is most often determined by the number of electrons in the outermost combined
s,p level.
The atomic stability of atoms relates to the valency- If an atom has a valency of zero (He, Ne, Ar, Kr,
Xe, Rn) there are no electrons or electron voids in the outer shell to create a chemical bond and the
element is inert. Argon has an electronic structure 1s22s22p63s23p6 The M shell has its full

complement of 8 electrons(3s23p6 ).. On the opposite end of the valency scale are those elements
with a valency of seven (F, Cl, Br,I, At) as an example Chlorine (Cl) with an electronic structure
1s22s22p63s23p5 contains seven electron in its outer M shell ( 3s23p5 ). This is very reactive
because it has a strong tendency to fill its outer shell with an electron - It is electronegative..
Molecular Bonds
Covalent Bond
Covalent bond occur when two atoms share a pair of outer electrons (Valence electorns). This type
of bond is hard to make but when made is rigid and strong. This type of bond occurs in organic
compounds and sometimes ceramics. The ideal covalent bond where the valence electrons are
shared equally is between identical atoms. The silicon atom has 4 electrons in its outer shell. It fills
it outer shell by forming a covalent bond with four surrounding atoms each contributing 1 electron.
This is a very strong bond but it is directional.
For material with a covalent bond to distort the bond must be broken it cannot easily re-orientate
itself. Materials with covalent bonds are often brittle and are poor conductors.
Ionic Bond
The bond between two different atoms when one atom (the cation) donates its valence electrons to
another atom (the anion). The resulting electrostatic charge bonds the two atoms together
Metallic Bond
The electrostatic charge between the positively charge cores of the atoms and the collective
valence atoms. The metallic elements have a low valence, easily give up their valence electrons to
form a "sea" of electrons surrounding the atoms. The valence electrons are free to move and form a
negatively charged soup. The positively charged atom cores are held within the electron soup by
their charge, thus producing the metallic bond.
The metallic bond allows electrons to move freely in the electron soup under the effect of external
electrical potential difference. Thus metallic bond thus allows metals to be good conductors.
The metallic bond has no directional preference..
Van der Waals Bond

These are weak electrostatic bonds between molecules or groups of atoms. They can often be
broken when the material changes state i.e. heating water to its boiling point breaks the weak Van
der Waals and converts the water to steam. The primary covalent bond however is not affected
and the water molecule remains in tact.
Binding Energy
The atoms arrange themselves within a bonding regime such that they are at a minimum energy
level. This is when there is a balance between the attractive and the repulsive forces. The spacing
at this low energy level equilibrium distance is called the Interatomic spacing

Binding energy levels for different bonding regimes are listed below
Strong Primary Bonds

● Ionic Bond ..625 to 1550 kJ/mol
● Covalent Bond ..520 to 1200 kJ /mol
● Metallic Bond..100 to 800 kJ /mol
Weaker Secondary Bonds

● Van der Waals ..0,02 to 40 kJ/mol
● Hydrogen Bond ..10 to 40 kJ /mol
● Dipole-dipole ..0 to 20 kJ /mol
The Modulus of elasticity is related to the slope of the force distance curve
Atomic Arrangements
In matter atoms arrange themselves in a variety of ways. Depending on the conditions and the
properties of the matter. A number of the possible atom arrangements are listed below;
No order with large spaces between the atoms relative to the atom cross section - This occurs
in gases
● Short range order- Water has a short range order in that each molecule consists of one Oxygen and two Hydrogen atoms bound
with covalent bonds. These molecules have only loose ties with other water molecules. Glass materials most often are arranged
in short range order i.e. he molecules are generally spaced throughout the material in a no order i.e. and amorphous arrangement.
● Long range order - Metals, semiconductors and some ceramics and polymers arrange themselves in long range order. The atoms
form into gridlike lattice structures through the entire material. These materials can form into large crystals based on the natural
geometry of the lattice
The arrangements of the atoms has a significant affect on the property of the material.. The diagram
below indicates the more important crystalline lattice arrangements of atoms. This diagram is a
diagrammatic representation. In fact when multitudes of atoms are in crystals together the cubic or
hexagonal arrangement will not be apparent.

The diagram below indicates the simple dimensions used to dimension different types of lattice
structure. A simple cubic structure requires only one dimension "a".
Certain parameters can be easily allocated to the lattice structures.
Lattice Points
● The SC lattice has 8 lattice points each shared by 8 cubes there are thus 1 lattice points per cube
● The BCC lattice has 9 lattice points,8 are shared each by 8 cubes and one is not shared: there are thus 2 lattice points per cube
● The FCC lattice has 14 lattice points,8 are shared each by 8 cubes: 6 are shared each by 2 cubes: there are thus 4 lattice points
per cube
Packing Factor. This is the fraction of the space occupied by the atoms assuming each atom is a
solid sphere..
The radius of an atom is r & there are 4 atoms per cube

The volume of an atom is (( 4 π r 3 / 3 )
The volume of the unit cell is a3
It can easily be proved that for a FCC a = 4.r / √2
Therefore the packing factor = (4)( (4/3) πr3 / (4 r / √2 )3)= 0,74

Table of Atomic Radius

Note: 1 angstrom (Å) - 10-10m
m
Atomic Radius
Metal
Angstron Units
Aluminium 1,431
Cadmium 1,490
Chromium 1,249
Cobalt 1,253
Copper 1,278
Gold 1,442
Iron 1,241
Lead 1,750
Molybdenum 1,263
Nickel 1,246
Platinum 1,387
Silver 1,445
Titanium 1,445
Tungsten 1,371
Coordination number..The number of atoms adjacent to any particular atom i.e the number of
neighbours is termed the coordination number. In crystalline lattice structures the coordination
number is one indication of how tightly the atoms are packed together. The simple cubic has a
coordination number = 6, the Body Centred Cubic (BCC) has a coordination number = 8 and the
Face centred cubic (FCC) has the theoretical maximum coordination number = 12..
Characteristics of common metallic crystals

Coordination Packing
STRUCTURE a vs r Atoms/Cell Metals
Number Factor
Simple Cubic
a = 2r 1 6 0,32 None
(SC)
Body Fe, Ti, W,Mo,
Centered a = 4r /√3 2 8 0,68 Nb,Ta,K,Na,V,
Cubic(BCC) Cr,Zr
Face Centered Fe, Cu, Al,Au,
a = 4r /√2 4 12 0,74
Cubic(FCC) Ag,Pb,Ni,Pt
Hex Close a = 2r Ti, Mg, Zn,Be,
2 12 0,74
Packed(HCP) c= 1,633a Co,Zr,Cd
Calculation of Density of Iron (BCC) based of lattice parameters

The atomic radius of iron = 1,24 Angstrom units. For a BCC structure the lattice characteristic value
a = 4r / √3 . a= 2.864
The atomic mass of iron is 55,85 a.m.u (see table below)
The number of atoms per cell = 2.
Avogadros number = 6,02 x 10 26 atoms / kg mole
For Iron with a BCC structure a = 2,864 Angston units = 2,864 x 10 -10m
The density of iron = (2).(55,85) / [(2,864x 10 -10m )3.6,02 x 10 26 ] = 111.70 /141,422 .10 -4 = 7898
kg/m 3
Planes in the unit cell

Certain planes of atoms in a crystal are important in considering the mechanical properties of the
material e.g. metals deform along planes that are most tightly packed. Miller indices are used to
identify planes in unit cells of the crystals.
The simple rules for designating the planes are as follows
● If the plane passes through the origin select a new origin

● Identify the points, in terms of the cell side "a", that the plane intersects the x ,y,z axes
● Take the reciprocal of the intercepts
● Clear fractions but do not reduce to lowest integers
● Enclose resulting numbers in brackets ( a,a,a ). Negative numbers should have a bar over the number
Directions in the unit cell

As for planes, important direction have to be identified in a crystal .. The simple rules for designating
the directions in the unit crystal are as follows
● In the Right Hand Coordinate system determine the coordinates of 2 point in the considered direction
● Subtract the coordinates of the tail point from the head point
● Take the reciprocal of the intercepts
● Clear fractions or reduce to lowest integers
● Enclose resulting numbers in brackets ( a,a,a ). Negative numbers should have a bar over the number

Anisotropy due to Atomic arrangement of crystals

The atoms are arranged with different packing densities in different directions, the mechanical
properties also vary. Crystalline materials are therefore fundemenatally anisotropic. This is not
apparent in manufactured metal products because the crystal are arranged in grains which are
themselves randomly orientated. Below is a table showing the variation modulus of elasticity of
metals in crystal in different directions.>
Young's Modulus (E) in GPa

Material [100] [111] Random
Al 64 77 70
Cu 68 195 127
Fe 134 283 210
Interstitial Atoms
In any crystal structure there are small voids between the atoms called interstitial sites. These sites
can be partly filled with small atoms of other elements. These atoms may be impurity atoms or they
can be atoms included deliberately to create metal alloys. Steel is created as a result of carbon
atoms in the interstitial sites.
The interstitial atoms have coordination numbers which relate to the main crystalline structure and
the relative size of the atoms..An interstitial atom can be a close fit in the interstice, it can be a tight
fit resulting in tension in the main crystal bonds, and it can be a loose fit which is not allow and the
interstitial atom will tend to move to a tighter space.
Strength of Metals
The theoretical strength of a pure metal in a crystalline arrangement in far higher than the strength
experienced in real life. For example the theoretical tensile strength of iron is about 10 GPa ( 10^4 N/
mm2 ). In reality pure iron has a tensile strength at yield of about 20 MPa (20 N/mm2 ). This
discrepancy occurs in all engineering materials. Premature failure occurs by a number of

mechanisms the two most important being brittle failure as a result of high localised stresses at
surface crack locations, and ductile failures resulting from dislocations moving along slip planes
. It has been possible to produce on a laboratory scale very fine threads of materials which have no
surface cracks and have virtually no internal imperfections which have strengths approaching 95%
of the theoretical strength of substance under test.
Dislocations
In a normal crystal arrangement the atoms are in fixed repeated locations relative to each other and
high stresses are required to break the numerous bonds and cause the atoms to move from one
crystal position to another. However in nature, dislocations occur where a plane of atoms are
inserted to distort the lattice structure as shown (simplified in 2D) below. The result of this effect is
that under relatively low shear stresses the dislocation moves along in the direction of the imposed
stress.
Edge Dislocation
The edge dislocation is the simplest type of dislocation. This dislocation, in theory destroys itself
when the dislocation plane arrives at the crystal bounary.
Screw Dislocation
The screw dislocation shown diagrammatically below is a type which is, to some extent, self
propagating - it does not destroy itself at a crystal boundary..

Mixed Dislocation
A mixed dislocation is a combination of the above two dislocation types. In practice the vast
majority of dislocation systems are mixed vectors
Controlling dislocations
Dislocations occur naturally and they increase in number as a result of stress and strain. The slip
occurring as a result of dislocations is along defined directions called slip planes and is a shear
phenomena. Ductile metals are ductile because of the action of dislocations. It is clear that the
strength of a ductile metal is improved if the free movement of dislocations can be restricted. There
are a number of methods of restricting the movement of dislocations as listed below
● Straining and distorting the crystal structure by introducing interstitial, substitutional atoms ..Alloying
● Reducing the size of crystals by generating smaller grains...Hardening, Heat treatment
● Increasing the number of dislocations such that they interfere with each other ...Work hardening

Grains
The microstructure of metals and many other solids consists of grains. A molten metal is poured
into a sand mold and allowed to air cool slowly will result in the production of coarse grains.
Pouring a molten metal into a metal mold with enhanced cooling produces finer grains. Introducing
forced circulation of water /oil in the metal mold produces even finer grain structures (Die casting.
Within each grain the structure is considered to be entirely crystalline in natures. Grain surfaces
are highly stressed regions because the crystalline structures are interrupted and the local atoms
interatomic distances are compressed or stretched. It is clear that if the average grain size is
increased then the strength of the material is reduced. The energy associated with the surface area
is reduced and the dislocation paths are reduced. A significant proportion of the heat treatment
processes related to the refining of the grains to developed increased strength and control the
ductility.
Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture occurs with virtually no plastic flow or reduction in area. Separation takes place along
cleavage planes and appears as bright granular surfaces. Brittle fracture will show the fracture
planes to be generally perpendicular to the acting tensile force. The normal stress on the plane of
fracture will be higher than the stress on any other plane
All solid materials distort due to external forces. Internal stresses are created, as a result of the
stretching or compressing of atomic bonds. These stresses balance and support the external
forces. Real materials include a number of microscopic/ macroscopic cracks. In materals under
stress the depth /sharpness of these cracks result in regions of high stress concentrations. Ductile
materials included mechanisms to reduce/ disperse the local stresses (dislocations ) and therefore
the high localised stresses are not catastrophic. In brittle materials the the stress concentrations

which can be over 100 times the average stress cause the crack depths to increase. The increased
crack depth results in an increase of the stress concentration. This leads to progressive crack
growth leading to possible failure unless. Thus a brittle fracture results from two important factors :
the presence of cracks and the absence of a mechanism for dispersing the high localised stresses.
A number of common materials (glass, carbon etc.) made with a surfaces having no microscopic
cracks has proved immensely strong. Carbon steels which have been heat treated such that the
grain size is so small that dislocation movement is very limited is relatively brittle compared to the
same steel which has been annealed to increase the grain size
1. Crystals: More Than Meets the Eye by..Yale U. Useful set of Notes covering same topics as this page
2. Crystals ..Powerpoint lecture from York U (USA). A very easy to follow lecture
3. Behavior and Manufacturing Properties of Material..Very clear and wide ranging presentation .(Same format as my page but better)
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Shear Strength of Metals
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Shear Stress vs Tensile Stress
Relationship between Shear stress and tensile Stress
Ultimate Tensile Strength = Su, Ultimate Shear Strength = Ssu, Tensile Yield Strength = Syp, Shear yield point = Ssyp
Note: The relationships below are very approximate for use only as an rule of thumb estimate if no other source of information is available...
Material Tensile-Relation Yield-Relation

Wrought Steel & alloy steel Ssu = Approx 0,75 x Su Ssyp = Approx 0,58 x Syp
Ductile Iron Ssu = Approx 0,90 x Su Ssyp = Approx 0,75 x Syp
Malleable iron -Pearlitic Ssu = Approx 1,0 x Su -
Wrought iron Ssu = Approx 0,83 x Su -
Cast Iron Ssu = Approx 1,3 x Su -

Copper/ & alloys (See Note Ssu = Approx 0,65 x Su -
below)
Aluminium/ & alloys Ssu = Approx 0,65 xSu Ssyp = Approx 0,55 x Syp
References: Machine design Theory and Practice .A.D.Deutschman, W.A Michels & C.E. Wilson.. MacMillan Publishing 1975.
Machinery's Handbook 27 th ed.
Note: The original data is based generally on the reference above and I have completed a very crude review to confirm the information. The copper
information is however very suspect..
For copper the reference above gives a value of Ssu = Approx 0,9 x Su...On reviewing a number of copper alloys there is a wide spread from about
0,5 to 0,9 the 0.9 applied to one leaded brass cast alloy. I am tempted to remove copper from the table but as a very crude average I have simply
changed the value to 0,65 please use with care or better still do not use...
Links containing Strength of Metals Information
1. Ductile Iron Org ...Very useful information on ductile iron properties

2. outokumpu ...Some concise copper properties.
3. Copper Development Association ...Large quantity of information on copper
4. AZom.com ...Lots of information on a large range of materials
5. Cast metal information
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Shear Strength of Metals
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Hardness testing
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Hardness Measurement
Brinell ...... Vickers ...... Rockwell ...... Superficial Rockwell...... Scleroscope...... Knoop...... Jominy...... Moh...... Shore (Durometer)
Equivalent Hardness Table (harder scales)...... Equivalent Hardness Table (softerr scales)
Hardness Comparison chart...... Typical component Surface Hardness......
Methods of Measuring Hardness
Brinell Hardness Test

In this test a hardened steel ball is pressed into the surface of the test material using a prescribed ball. The
ball and load have to be selected to suit the material being tested.
The Brinell hardness test consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or
carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kgf (29 430 N). For softer materials the load can be reduced to
1500 kgf (14 715 N) or 500 kgf (4 905 N ) to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied
for 10 to 15 seconds for harder ferrous metals and for 30 seconds or more for other metals softer metals.
The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a microscope.
The Brinell hardness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the
indentation.
BHN = 2.F / (π.D .(D - √(D2-D1)
D = Diameter of Ball
D1 = Diameter of indentation
F = applied force
Vickers Hardness Test

In this test a Diamond Indenter is pressed into the surface of the material being tested. Standard loads
used include 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, and 100 kgf. (49,05, 98,1 196,2 490,5 and 981 N).
The load is stated in specifying the hardness number i.e HD(10) = 100. the indenter is a square based
pyramid (136o included angle )to suit the material being tested
The Hardness Number HD = 1.844 x Load/ Average diagonal length of indentation
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Hardness testing
Rockwell Hardness Test

In this test a Hard Steel Ball or a Diamond Cone Indenter is pressed into the surface of the material being
tested/ The result of the test is read directly from machine.
The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary minor load (98N)and after equilibrium are
achieved an indicating device, which follows the movements of the indenter, is set to the datum position.
An additional major load is then applied with resulting increase in penetration. The conditions are then
allowed to stabilise and then the additional major load is removed,leaving the minor load in place. The
resulting permanent penetration esulting from the application and removal of the additional major load is
used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number.
HR = E - e
F1 = additional major
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load , measured in units of 0.001 mm
Major Load
Scale Indenter F1 E Applications
N
Sheet steel ; shallow
A 120oDiamond cone 490.5 100
case hardened
Copper, Aluminium
B 1/16" steel ball 882.9 130 alloys, Low Carbon
Steel
Most Widely Used -
C 120oDiamond cone 1373.4 100 Hardened Steels, Cast
irons etc
Thin but hard steels,
D 120oDiamond cone 882.9 100
Ductile Iron (Pearlitic
Cast Iron, Aluminium,
E 1/8" steel ball 882.9 130
Bearings alloys
Annealed copper
F 1/16" steel ball 490.5 130
alloys , Soft thin metals
Phosphor bronze,
beryllium copper,
G 1/16" steel ball 1373.4 130
malleable irons, Lead
etc
H 1/8" steel ball 490.5 130 Soft Metals Plastics etc
K 1/8" steel ball 1373.4 130

Hardness testing

L 1/4" steel ball 490.5 130
M 1/4" steel ball 882.9 130
P 1/4" steel ball 1373.4 130
R 1/2" steel ball 490.5 130
S 1/2" steel ball 882.9 130
V 1/2" steel ball 1373.4 130
Superficial Rockwell Hardness Test

A more surface sensitive measurement of hardness than for the regular Rockwell scales. This technique
is useful for samples with hardness gradients at the surface, to test small areas, and for thin samples.
Superficial Rockwell hardness scales are N and T for metals and W, X, and Y for non-metallic materials
and coatings. The Superficial Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a
diamond cone (N scale) or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material
under a preliminary minor (29.43N) and the conditions are allowed to settle. Then the indicating device
that follows the movements of the indenter is set to a datum position. An additional major load, is applied
with resulting increase in penetration . The conditions are allowed to settle again and then the additional
major load is removed. The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application
and removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell Superficial hardness number.
HR = E - e
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1, measured in units of 0.001 mm
Major
Scale Indenter Load E Application
(N)
Similar to C
scale, but
for thin
materials
Same as
15N

Hardness testing
Same as
45N 120o Diamond cone 412 100
15N
Similar to B
scale, but
15T 1/16" steel ball 117.72 100
for thin
materials
Same as
30T 1/16" steel ball 264.87 100
15T
Same as
45T 1/16" steel ball 412 100
15T
For very
materials
For very
materials
For very
45W 1/8" steel ball 412 100 soft
materials
For very
materials
For very
materials
For very
45X 1/4" steel ball 412 100 soft
materials
For very
materials
For very
materials
For very
45Y 1/2" steel ball 412 100 soft
materials
The Shore (Scleroscope ) Hardness Test
The Scleroscope test consists of dropping a diamond tipped hammer, which falls inside a glass tube under
the force of its own weight from a fixed height, onto the test specimen. The height of the rebound travel of
the hammer is measured on a graduated scale. The harder the material, the higher the rebound. The
scale of the rebound is arbitrarily chosen and consists on Shore units, divided into 100 parts, which

Hardness testing
represent the average rebound from pure hardened high-carbon steel. The scale is continued higher than
100 to to allow for metals having greater hardness.
The shore scleroscope test does not normally mark the material under test. The Shore Scleroscope
measures hardness in relation to the elasticity of the material.
Advantages of this method are portability and non-marking of the test surface.
Knoop
The Knoop indenter has a polished rhombohedral shape with an included longitudinal angle of 172° 30’
and an included transverse angle of 130° 0’. The narrowness of the indenter makes it ideal for testing
specimens with steep hardness gradients and coatings. Knoop is a better choice for hardness testing of
hard brittle materials.
Jominy Hardenability
The Jominy test involves heating a test specimen of steel 25mm diameter and 100mm long to an
austenitising temperature and quenching from one end with a controlled and standardized jet of water.
After quenching, the hardness is measured at intervals taken form the quenched end. The hardness
gradient along the test surface provides an indication of the material’s hardenability.
Moh's Hardness Scale

The Moh's hardness scale consists of 10 minerals arranged in order from 1 to 10. Diamond is rated as
the hardest and is indexed as 10; talc as the softest with index number 1. Each mineral in the scale will
scratch all those below it as follows:
Diamond 10
Corundum 9
Topaz 8
Quartz 7
Orthoclase
6
(Feldspar)
Aptite 5
Fluorite 4
Calcite 3
Gypsum 2
Talc 1

Hardness testing
Shore (Durometer) test

The hardness testing of plastics is most commonly measured by the Shore (Durometer) test. This test
measures the resistance of the plastic toward indentation. The scale provide an empirical hardness value
that doesn't relate directly to the mechanical properties of the material being tested. Shore Hardness,
using either the Shore A or Shore D scale, is the preferred method for rubbers/elastomers and is also
commonly used for 'softer' plastics such as polyolefins, fluoropolymers, and vinyls. The Shore A scale is
used for 'softer' rubbers while the Shore D scale is used for 'harder' rubbers.
The Shore hardness is measured with an apparatus known as a Durometer and consequently is also
known as 'Durometer hardness'. The hardness value is determined by the penetration of the Durometer
indenter foot into the sample. If the indenter completely penetrates the sample, a reading of 0 is obtained,
and if no penetration occurs, a reading of 100 results. Because of the resilience of rubbers and plastics,
the hardness reading my change over time - so the indentation time is sometimes reported along with the
hardness number. The test method is identified in standard ISO 868.
The results obtained from this test are a useful measure of relative resistance to indentation of various
grades of polymers. However, the Shore Durometer hardness test does not serve well as a predictor of
other properties such as strength or resistance to scratches, abrasion, or wear, and should not be used
alone for product design specifications.
Tables showing the comparative hardness numbers between scales is provided at site the following sites.....
1. Gordon England.....
2. Corrosion Products Handbook
Equivalent Hardness Conversion Tables
Harder Scales

VPN BRINELL
DPH BHN BHN
HV/10 500kg 3000kg
Softer Scales


Hardness testing
DPH BHN BHN

HV/10 500kg 3000kg
234 60 97 19 77 92 80 69 181 218 34 738
230 59 96 18 76 92 80 68 179 214 33 731
226 59 96 17 75 92 80 68 177 210 33 717
222 58 95 16 74 92 79 67 175 208 32 703
217 58 95 15 73 92 79 67 171 205 31 690
213 58 94 14 73 91 79 66 169 203 31 683
208 57 93 13 71 91 78 66 167 200 30 676
204 57 92 12 70 100 91 78 65 163 195 30 662
200 56 92 11 69 100 91 77 64 162 193 29 655
196 56 91 10 68 100 90 77 64 160 190 28 641
192 56 90 9 66 99 90 76 63 157 185 27 627
188 55 89 8 64 98 90 76 62 154 180 26 607
184 54 88 7 63 97 90 75 61 151 176 26 593
180 54 87 6 61 97 89 75 60 148 172 26 579
176 53 86 5 59 96 89 74 59 145 169 25 572
172 53 85 4 58 95 89 74 58 142 165 25 558
168 52 84 3 56 94 88 73 57 140 162 25 545
164 51 83 2 54 93 88 72 56 137 159 24 538
160 51 82 1 53 92 88 72 55 135 156 24 524
156 50 81 0 51 91 87 71 54 133 153 24 517
152 50 80 49 91 87 70 53 130 150 503
148 49 79 48 90 87 70 52 128 147
144 49 78 46 89 86 69 51 126 144
141 48 77 44 88 86 68 50 124 141
139 47 76 43 87 86 68 49 122 139
137 47 75 100 41 86 85 67 49 120 137
135 46 74 99 39 85 85 66 48 118 135
132 46 73 99 38 85 85 66 47 116 132
130 45 72 98 36 84 84 65 46 114 130
127 45 71 100 98 35 83 84 64 45 112 127
125 44 70 100 97 33 82 84 64 44 110 125
123 44 69 99 96 31 81 83 63 43 109 123
120 43 68 98 96 30 80 83 62 42 107 121
118 43 67 98 95 28 79 83 62 41 106 119
116 42 66 97 95 27 78 82 61 40 104 117
115 42 65 96 94 25 78 82 60 39 102 116
114 42 64 96 94 24 77 82 60 38 101 114

Hardness testing
113 41 63 95 93 22 76 81 59 37 99 112
112 41 62 95 92 21 75 81 58 36 98 110
111 40 61 94 92 19 74 81 57 35 96 108
110 40 60 93 91 18 73 81 57 34 95 107
108 39 59 93 91 16 72 80 56 32 94 106
107 39 58 92 90 15 71 80 55 31 92 104
106 38 57 91 90 13 71 80 55 30 91 102
105 38 56 91 89 12 70 79 54 29 90 101
104 38 55 90 88 10 69 79 53 28 89 99
103 37 54 90 88 9 68 79 53 27 87
102 37 53 89 87 7 67 78 52 26 86
101 36 52 88 87 6 66 78 51 25 85
100 36 51 88 86 4 65 78 51 24 84
100 35 50 87 86 3 65 77 50 23 83
99 35 49 87 85 64 77 49 22 82
98 35 48 86 85 63 77 49 21 81
97 34 47 85 84 62 76 48 20 80
96 34 46 85 83 61 76 47 19 79
95 33 45 84 83 60 76 46 18 79
95 33 44 84 82 59 75 46 17 78
94 32 43 83 82 58 75 45 16 77
93 32 42 82 81 58 75 44 15 76
92 31 41 82 81 57 74 44 14 75
91 31 40 81 80 56 74 43 13 74
90 31 39 80 79 55 74 42 11 74
90 30 38 80 79 54 73 42 10 73
89 30 37 79 78 53 73 41 9 72
88 29 36 79 78 100 52 73 40 8 71
88 29 35 78 77 100 52 72 40 7 71
87 28 34 77 77 99 51 72 39 6 70
87 28 33 77 76 99 50 72 38 5 69
86 28 32 76 75 99 49 71 38 4 68
86 27 31 76 75 98 48 71 37 3 68
85 27 30 75 74 98 47 71 36 2 67
85 26 29 74 74 98 46 70 36 1 66
84 26 28 74 73 97 45 70 35 66
84 25 27 73 73 97 45 70 34 65
83 25 26 73 72 97 44 69 33 65
83 24 25 72 71 96 42 69 33 64

Hardness testing
82 24 24 71 71 96 42 69 32 64
82 24 23 71 70 96 41 68 31 63
81 23 22 70 70 95 40 68 31 63
81 23 21 70 69 95 39 68 30 62
80 22 20 69 69 95 38 68 29 62
80 22 19 68 68 94 38 67 29 61
79 21 18 68 67 94 37 67 28 61
79 21 17 67 67 93 36 67 27 60
78 21 16 67 66 93 35 66 26 60
78 20 15 66 66 93 34 66 26 59
77 14 65 65 92 33 66 25 59
77 13 65 65 92 32 65 24 58
76 12 64 64 92 32 65 24 58
76 11 64 64 91 31 65 23 57
75 10 63 63 91 30 64 22 57
75 9 62 62 91 29 64 22 56
74 8 62 62 90 28 64 21 56
74 7 61 61 90 27 63 20 56
73 6 61 61 90 26 63 20 55
73 5 60 60 89 26 63 19 55
72 4 59 60 89 25 62 18 55
72 3 59 59 88 24 62 17 54
71 2 58 58 88 23 62 17 54
71 1 58 58 88 22 61 16 53
70 0 57 57 87 21 61 15 53
DPH BHN BHN
HV/10 500kg 3000kg
Figure comparing hardness scales

Hardness testing
Table of Components showing relevant surface Hardness values
Important Notes Values below are typical of high specification components.. Lower values are likely in
more general applications...
Component Hardness Scale
Hardened Track
670-840 HV
for Roller
Hardened
Machine 70-75 HS
slideway
Surface
Hardened Gear 58-63 RC
(High spc'n)

Hardness testing
Modern Rails
(Used for 300-340 HV
Normal traffic)
Modern Rails
340 -420 HV
(High Duty)
Shear Blades 81-85 RC
Carbide Dies
(Drawing , 80-92 RA
Forming etc)
Mild steel
120 HV
components
Wrought iron 102 HV
Axe 600 HV
Fork/Rake 700 HV
Kitchen knife 680 HV
Stainless table
550 HV
knife
Hammer Face 660 HV
Chisel 600 HV
File 60-61 RC
Drill Bit HSS 63-65 RC
Drill Bit Cobalt 66-67 RC

VPN BRINELL
DPH BHN BHN
HV/10 500kg 3000kg
1865 92 80 87 97 92 87
1787 92 79 86 96 92 87
1710 91 78 85 96 91 86
1633 91 77 84 96 91 85
1556 90 76 83 96 90 84
1478 90 75 83 95 89 83
1400 89 74 82 95 89 82
1323 89 73 81 95 88 81
1245 88 72 80 95 87 80
1160 87 71 80 94 87 79
1076 87 70 79 94 86 78 101
1004 86 69 78 94 85 77 99
940 86 68 77 93 84 75 97

Hardness testing
900 85 67 76 93 84 74 95
865 85 66 75 93 83 73 92
832 84 65 75 92 82 72 739 91
800 84 64 74 92 81 71 722 88
772 83 63 73 91 80 70 705 87
746 83 62 72 91 79 69 688 85
720 82 61 72 91 79 68 670 83
697 81 60 71 90 78 67 654 81 2206
674 81 59 70 90 77 66 634 80 2137
653 80 58 69 89 76 64 615 78 2069
633 80 57 69 89 75 63 595 76 2000
613 79 56 68 88 74 62 577 75 1944
595 79 120 55 67 88 73 61 560 74 1889
577 78 120 54 66 87 72 60 543 72 1834
560 78 119 53 65 87 71 59 523 71 1772
544 77 119 52 65 86 70 57 512 69 1689
528 77 118 51 64 86 69 56 496 68 1648
513 76 117 50 63 86 69 55 481 67 1607
498 75 117 49 62 85 68 54 469 66 1565
484 75 116 48 61 85 67 53 455 64 1524
471 74 116 47 61 84 66 51 443 63 1496
458 74 115 46 60 84 65 50 432 62 1462
446 73 115 45 59 83 64 49 421 60 1420
434 73 114 44 59 83 63 48 409 58 1379
423 72 113 43 58 82 62 47 400 57 1351
412 72 113 42 57 82 61 46 390 56 1317
402 71 112 41 56 81 60 44 381 55 1289
392 71 112 40 55 80 60 43 371 54 1255
382 70 111 39 55 80 59 42 362 52 1220
372 70 110 38 54 79 58 41 353 51 1193
363 69 110 37 53 79 57 40 344 50 1165
354 69 109 36 52 78 56 38 336 49 1138
345 68 109 35 52 78 55 37 327 48 1103
336 68 108 34 51 77 54 36 319 47 1076
327 67 108 33 50 77 53 35 311 46 1048
318 67 107 32 49 76 52 34 301 44 1014
310 66 106 31 48 91 76 51 33 294 43 993
302 66 105 30 48 91 75 50 31 286 42 965
294 65 104 29 47 89 75 50 30 279 41 945

Hardness testing
286 65 104 28 46 88 74 49 29 271 41 917

279 64 103 27 45 87 73 48 28 264 40 889
272 64 103 26 45 86 73 47 27 258 39 869
266 63 102 25 44 85 72 46 26 253 38 855
260 63 101 24 43 84 72 45 24 247 37 834
254 62 100 23 42 83 71 44 23 201 240 36 814
248 62 99 22 42 81 71 43 22 195 234 35 793
243 61 98 21 41 79 70 42 21 189 228 35 772
238 61 97 20 40 78 69 42 20 184 222 34 752
2. Hardness Testers..Equipment supplier with detailed information on Hardness Testing / Corrosion
3. Materials Co UK - Rubber Hardness Testing..Useful Notes and references
4. NPL -Hardness Teating..Authoritative source of information on hardness testing
5. Cambridge U. Jominy Test..Jominy test example with not
6. Material Hardness..A very detailed document covering most hardness testing methods
Home
Matter Index Page

Steel Hardening Processes
ROYMECH
Home
Matter Index
Iron-steel Page
Heat Treatment Processes
Introduction
Steel often requires heat treatment to obtain improved properties e.g increase hardness or strength, or to
neutralise negative effects resulting from previous manufacturing processes e.g.remove internal stresses
generated by fabrication processes.
The various heat treatment processes include
● Normalising
● Anealing
● Hardening
● Tempering
● Refining
● Sub-critical Anealing
Normalising
Normalising involves heating the steel to about 40oC above its upper critical limit. The steel is then held
at this temperature for a period of time and is then cooled in air.. It is desireable that the temperature of
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Hardening.html (1 of 7)10/24/2006 11:25:53 AM

the steel shall be maintained for a time period more than 2 minutes per mm of section thickness and shall
not exceed the upper critical temperature by more than 50oC.
The structure produced by this process is pearlite (eutectoid) or pearlite in a ferrite matrix (hypoeutectoid)
or pearlite in a cementite matrix (hypereutectoid). Because the steel is cooled in air the process results in
a fine pearlite formation with improved mechanical properties compared to the full annealing process
below
Normalising is used to
● To refine the grain structure and to create a more homogeneous austenite when a steel is to be reheated for quench hardening or full
annealing
● To encourage reduced grain segregation in castings and forgings and provide a more uniform structure
● To provide moderate hardening
Full Anealing
Anealing is reheating steel followed by slow cooling. It is completed
a) to remove internal stress or to soften or
b) to refine the crystalline structure (This involves heating to above the upper critical temperature ).
The steel is heated about 25oC above the upper critical temperature, held for a set time and then cooled
slowly in the furnace. This process is used to remove internal stresses built up as a result of cold
working and fabrication processes. Following annealing the dislocations are rearranged in to a lower
energy configuration, new strain free grains are formed and grain growth is encouraged.
Hardening
Hardening involves heating a steel to its normalising temperature and cooling (Quenching ) rapidly in a
suitable fluid e.g oil, water or air.
Steel is basically an alloy iron and carbon some steels alloys have have various other elements in
solution. When steel is heated above the upper critical temperature (about 760oC), the iron crystal
structure will change to face centered cubic (FCC), and the carbon atoms will migrate into the central
position formerly occupied by an iron atom. This form of red-hot steel is called austentite (γ iron). If this
steel form cools slowly, the iron atoms move back into the cube forcing the carbon atoms back out,
resulting in soft steel called pearlite. If the sample was formerly hard, this softening process is called
annealing.
If the steel is cooled quickly (quench) by immersing it in oil or water, the carbon atoms are trapped, and
the result is a very hard, brittle steel. This steel crystal structure is now a body centered tetragonal(BCT)
form called martensite.
Stress Relieving/Recovery (Process Anealing )

This process involves heating the metal to a temperature in the range 550oC to 650oC and held at this
temperature before being cooled at a controlled rate. This also reduces stresses resulting from cold
working and fabrication by allowing dislocations to rearrange to a lower energy configuration.
This process is used to allow further forming operations and to prevent distortion of the steel components

as a result of subsequent machining operations
Spheroidising
The process applies more to the hypereutectoid steels (above 0,8% C). The process involves heating the
metal to between 600oC and 650oC and holding it at at the selected temperature for a period of time the
cementite changes from a lamella formation to a formation based on an alpha ferrite matrix with particles
of spheroidal cementite (Fe3C) are embedded. This resulting steel has improved ductility and toughness
compared to the original steel with reduced hardness and strength.
Tempering
Tempering is the process of reheating the steel leading to precipitation and spheroidisation of the
carbides. The tempering temperature and time are generally controlled to effect the final properties
required of the steel. The benefits resulting are the increase in the metal toughness and elongation.
The negative effects are the reduction of the martensite (BCT) structure and the progression towards a
spheroidal carbide + ferrite matrix structure.
Hardenability
The hardenability of a steel is broadly defined as the property which determines the depth and distribution
of hardness induced by quenching. Hardenability is a characteristic determined by the following factors
● Chemical composition
● Austenite grain size
● Structure of alloy before quenching
The hardenability is the depth and evenness of hardness of a steel upon quenching from austenite.
Thickness Considerations
The properties of heat treated steel are significantly affected by the thickness of the section. Hardening
consist of heating the steel through and just above its critical range to obtain the condition of solid
solution and quenching with sufficient rapidity to retain this condition. If a steel has a large thickness it is
practically impossible to obtain an even temperature throughout and the middle of the section is always at
a lower temperature compared to the outside surfaces. On quenching the heat is absorbed rapidly from
the outside and it is impossible even with the most drastic quench processes to remove heat from the
core region sufficient to obtain the desire structure. For thin sections it may be possible to obtain the
desire structure throughout the section with a comparative mild quenching process.
Quenching Medium
There are a number of fluids used for quenching steels listed below in order of quenching severity
● Brine
● Water
● Oil
● Special liquids
● Air
Note: Agitation of medium increases its quenching severity

Soft distilled water is the preferred medium when using water for quenching carbon steels. The water
should have no impurites such as oil, grease or acids as they could result in uneven hardening if they
stick to the surface of the steel being hardened an provide local thermal insulation. Hard water is
unsatisfactory because it may release scale as the temperature is raised. Soap is sometimes added to
adjust quenching rates. Cold brine or water is used to provide the most severe quench with the
consequent maximum hardness. Extreme care is require in the selection of sections shapes hardened as
the process result in severe thermal shock with consequent cracking and distortion.
Oil bath quenching is used where extreme hardness is not required and where freedom from quenching
shock is needed. Oils used are mainly mineral oils with the viscosity selected to suit the type of steel to
be quenched. Oil cooling systems are required when significant quenching capacity is required to
prevent the oil from breaking down and to maintain the quenching conditions. Air cooling is used for mild
hardening process when a tough hard pearlitic structure is required.
Vacuum Treaments
Many of the heat treatment processes can be completed in vacuum furnaces at very low pressures (high
vacuums). The advantages of using vacuum furnaces are listed below
● No surface oxidation or discolouration

● Minimal distortion
● No post cleaning operations
● Near finished, machined shape prior to treatment
● Normally improved control of processes
Flame Hardening
This process involves direct an oxy acetylene flame on the surface of the steel being hardened and
heating the surface above the upper critical temperature before quenching the steel in a spray of water.
This is also known as the shorter process.
This is a surface hardening process resulting in a hard surface layer of about 2mm to 6mm deep. The
main difference between this process and other surface hardening processes is that the composition of
the steel being hardened is not changed. The steel must itself have sufficient hardenability . This limits
this process to steels having carbon contents of above 0,35%. Steels with carbon contents of 0,4%-0,7%
are most suitable for this process. Steels with higher content and high alloy steels may not be suitable as
they a liable to cracking. This process produces similar result to the conventional hardening process but
with less hardness penetration.
Induction Hardening:
Induction hardening provides a similar surface treatment regime to flame hardening . The steel
component is located inside a water cooled copper coil which has (AC) alternating current through it.
This causes the outer surface of the component to heat up. Depending on the AC frequency and

current, the rate of heating as well as the depth of heating can be controlled. This process is well suited
for surface heat treatment.
Case Hardening
The primary purpose of case hardening is to produce a surface which is resistant to wear while
maintaining the overall toughness and strength of the steel core. This type of process is normally used
on a steel with a low carbon content and introduces carbon by diffusion (carburising) into the local
surfaces requiring treatment.. Subsequent heat treatment develops the desired combination of high
surface hardness and internal toughness. Another process called Nitriding consists of the diffusion of
nitrogen.
Notes on three primary carburising processes (Pack Carburising, Gas Carburising and Liquid Carburising
are provided below.
Pack Carburising
This process is the simplest and earliest carburising process based on placing the components to be
treated in metal containers with the caburising mixture, based on powdered charcoal and 10% barium
carbonate, packed around the components. The containers are then heated to a constant temperature
(850oC to 850oC )for a time period to ensure an even temperature throughout and sufficient to enable the
carbon to diffuse into the surface of the components to sufficient depth.
Because this process is difficult to control case depths of less than 0,6mm are not viable and the normal
case depths produced are 0,25mm to 6mm.
Gas Carburising
Gas caburising allos is accurate control of the process temperature and caburising atmosphere. The
components are brought to a uniform temperature in a neutral atmosphere. The caburising atmosphere is
introduced only for the required time to ensure the correct depth of case. The carbon potential of the gas
can be lowered to permit diffusion avoiding excess carbon in the surface layer.
Gas carburising uses a gaseous atmosphere in a sealed furnace usually containing propane (C3H8) or
butane (C4H10). Sometimes the generted carbon dioxide, water vapour, and oxygen are controlled at
low levels by purifying using activated carbon filters at high tempertures.
An alternative carburising atmosphere is sometime generated by using a drip feed system by feed an
organic fluid based on methyl , ethyl or isopropyl achohol + benzene or equivalent is fed into the
carburising chamber at a controlled rate. In this process there are generally internal fans working to
ensure and even gas in the chamber.
After carburizing, the work is either slow cooled for later quench hardening, or quenched directly into
various liquid quenches. Quench selection is made to achieve the optimum properties with acceptable
levels of dimensional change. Hot oil quenching is preferred for minimal distortion, but may be limited in
application by the strength requirements for the product.
Liquid Carburising
This process is mostly used for producing shallow case depths in thin sections. The components are
heated quickly in a bath containing a suitable sodium cyanide salts and sodium carbonate. The proportion

of NaCN being maintained 20% to 30% by controlled feed strong NaCN.
The normal case depths for this process are about 0,25mm with bath strengths of 20% to 30% NaCN.
High bath strengths 40% to 50% NaCN are required for case depths of 0,5mm. The case resulting from
this process includes carbon and nitrogen. The nitrogen does provide a hard surface but can also
encourage retained undesireable austenite in the surface layer. The bath is sometimes convered with a
graphite material to reduce the nitrogen content.
This process normall works with bath temperatures of 800oC to 950oC for immersion times from 2 to 7
hours depending on the depth required.
For thicker case depths (up to 1,6mm) activated salt baths are used these are based on cyanide and
alkaline earth chlorides which act as the activators.
Components are normally jigged and pre-heated to about 350oC before being introduced into the bath.
Heat treatment following carburisation

The time of heat treatment post carburisation relates to the condition of the steel. If the steel is prepared
as a fine grain steel it is possible to complete a single quench operation following case hardening. If the
steel does not have a fine grain structure a normal process is to quench from about 870oC the quench
again from about 790oC . This ensures reasonable mechanical properties in case and core.
Nitriding
Certain steel alloys can absorb nitrogen with a resulting extremely hard surface layer. The process
consists of maintaining the steel component at a carefullly controlled temperature of 490oC to 530oC
under the action of nascent of active nitrogen produced on the surface of the component by the
decomposition of gaseous ammonia. The resulting surface is extremely hard and extremely thin but very
brittle. An nitrides based on steel alloys are less brittle and more stable than straight iron nitrides and
therefor this process is only used for certain alloy steels..
The process time is relatively long compared to the carburising process at about 90 hours. The
temperature of the furnace has to be maintained within ±5oC and therefore electrical heating is generally
used. The components are generally stacked in gas-tight boxes supported on nickel mesh trays. The
boxes include a inlet and outlet pipes for the ammonia gas circulation flow.
Quenching is not normally required following nitriding and therefore is normal to machine the components
to size before nitriding. Nitriding does involve small dimension increases of up to (0,05mm) on diameters
and smaller amounts on individual flat surfaces and lengths.
Nitrided surfaces retain hardness even if cycled for short periods at temperatures of up to 500oC.
Carburised hardened surfaces lose their hardness under similar circumstances.
Steel subject to nitriding is generally hardened and tempered and finished machined. The components
are often stress relieved prior to final machining. The nitriding process is also often followed by surface
grinding to remove the most brittle outer layer.

Relevant Steel Links
1. Virtual Machine Shop Heat Treating A basic practical treatment of the subject
2. Anvilfire A resource for Blacksmiths & metalworkers
3. West Yorkshire Steel Steel /Heat Treatment Specialist. Site includes Useful information
Home
Matter Index
Iron-steel Page

Mechanical Properties

ROYMECH
Home
Matter Index
Definition Of Mechanical Properties
This is the ability of a material to withstand tensile loads

Tensile Strength
without rupture when the material is in tension
This is the ability of a material to withstand Compressive
Compressive Strength (squeezing) loads without being crushed when the material is
in compression .
This is the ability of a material to withstand offset or traverse
Shear Strength
loads without rupture occurring .
This is the ability of a material to withstand shatter. A material
Toughness which easily shatters is brittle. Toughness indicates the ability
of a material to absorb energy
This is the ability of a material to deform under load and
Elasticity return to its original size and shape when the load is
removed. The property is required for springs
This is the property of a material to deform permanently
Plasticity under the application of a load. Plastacine is plastic. This is
the exact opposite to elasticity.
This is ability of a material to stretch under the application of
tensile load and retain the deformed shape on the removal of
Ductility the load. A ductile material combines the properties of
plasticiy and tensile strength. All materials which are formed
by drawing are required to be ductile
This is the property of a material to deform permanently
Malleability under the application of a compressive load. A material which
is forged to its final shape is required to be malleable
This is the property of a material to withstand continuously
Fatigue Strength varying and alternating loads
Fatigue Information Link
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Mech_prop.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:25:55 AM

Mechanical Properties
This is the property of a material to withstand indentation and

surface abrasion by another hard object. It is an indication of
Hardness the wear resistance of a material.e.g Diamonds are very
hard. Information on hardness measurement is found on
page Hardness measurement information link
-->
Home
Matter Index
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Mech_prop.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:25:55 AM

Metal Costs
ROYMECH
Home
Matter Index
Metal Costs
Link to Page Typical Plastics Costs.... Link to Page Typical wood Costs
Important note ..I have provided this reference information in good faith that it is only used in initial design assessments. Material costs
for detail design must be obtained by contacting suppliers.
Introduction
This page is includes information on the costs of different metals used in mechanical engineering. When
producing mechanical components the material costs is generally of limited significance . Other costs
should be included when comparing materials including design, procurement, production control, forming,
machining, finishing, distribution, etc etc. A component lifetime costs include maintenance, corrosion
protection and recovery (scrap).
The raw material cost for a particular component may be 20 times the cost if made from one material
compared to another on a weight to weight basis. However the lifetime costs may be very similar if all of
the other factors are also taken into consideration.
The material cost of a mass produced investment casting item may be 80% of the final cost. The material
cost of a single complicated machined item may be less than 10% of the final cost..
It is not possible to provide cost comparisons between different metals to any level of accuracy. Each
metal is varying in price on a day to day basis and different alloys of the same metal can have
significantly different costs. A grade 7 titanium alloy costs twice as much as pure titanium (grade 1,2 or
3).
Comparing costs should only be based on final installed costs. eg. for a domestic, industrial piping
system a screwed steel system would cost about 40% more than a copper piping system...
Example :
The price of a titanium /titanium alloy products results from a number of factors:
● Alloying grade .some grades e.g with Pd alloying component, can significantly increase the price of the alloy.
● The purity of the grade... the more pure the higher the cost
● The test and inspection requirements;
● The procured quantities. The more ordered the lower the specific cost
● The geometry ..rolling or forging affects prices per volume or weight
● Demand ..e.g High defence demand for aerospace industry can result in higher metal prices
● Local economy.. Metal availability
In year 2000 the price of titanium was about £13 000 to £43 000/tonne..
In 2002 the price of raw titanium was about to £8960/tonne.
In 2005 to-date the price of titanium has varied between £6000 and £9000 /tonne
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Costs.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:25:58 AM

Metal Costs
Table showing relative metal costs
The table below can only really be used to give broad relative initial material costs. The figures are based
on a reference source originating about 2002
Cost/
Density Relative Cost /m3 Relative
tonne
Material
£/
kg/m3 £/tonne £/m3 -
tonne
Carbon Steel 7820 550 1 4301 1,0
Alloy Steels 7820 830 1,51 6490,6 1,5
Cast Iron 7225 830 1,51 5996,75 1,4
Stainless Steel 7780 4450 8,1 34 621 8,0
Aluminium/
2700 2220 4,0 5994 1,4
alloys
Copper /Alloys 8900 5550 10,1 49 395 11,5
Zinc alloys 7100 2220 4,0 15 762 3,7
Magnesium /
1800 4000 7,3 7200 1,8
alloys
Titanium / 17
4500 30,9 76 500 17,4
alloys 000
18
Nickel alloys 8900 32,7 160 200 36,8
000
Current Metal Prices.. November 2005

I have tried to obtain some current material prices from various internet sources and I list them below..
These sometimes differ considerably from the table above
Cost/tonne
Material
£/tonne
Steel (Hot Rolled
400
Plate)
304 Steel (Hot
2768
Rolled Plate)
316 Steel (Hot
1628
Rolled Plate)
Tin- LME 3588
Aluminium Alloy -
1044
LME
Aluminium - LME 1257
Copper - LME 2576
Zinc - LME 991

Metal Costs
Nickel - LME 7644

Lead - LME 635
Titanium 9000..
Comparison of costs above with actual metal stock prices
I have obtained from the internet (ref link 7 below) a typical cost for a 50mm dia mild steel bar 0,3m Long.
(actually 2in. dia x 1 foot). The price for 2in dia x 1 foot long hot rolled mild steel round A36 as of Dec
2005 is $13,89 which is approximately £8. The price falls as the quantity ordered is increased. This
stock has an approximate volume of 0,0006m3. Using the value of £4301 /m2 (from the illustration table
above) results in a price of about £2,53. I provide this information to reinforce the note that the table
above is useful only for indicating relative raw metal prices..
Relevant Links
1. LME ... Daily metal prices

2. Titanium -Steel cost comparison ... Article on Titanium
3. MEPS World Carbon Steel Prices ...Carbon steel metal prices
4. MEPS World Stainless Steel Prices ...Stainless Steel Metal Prices
5. USGS Minerals Industry Survey ...Download paper on titanium
6. Manufacturing Advisory Service 2.0 ...A Process/Material Selection Tool includes material costs information
7. Onlinemetals.com ...A supplier providing costs of metal products
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Matter Index

BS 970 steels
ROYMECH
Home
Matter Index
BS 970 steels..
Important Notes:
1) BS 970 has been generally superseded by European based standards Notes on European Standards
2) All information on this page has been interpreted from the relevent Standard, Books eg Newnes Mech. Eng Pocket Book, Kempe's, Other Web
Sites, and Leaflets. This information is of a general nature for initial guidance. Selection of materials for use must be by communication with the
suppliers and by reference to the appropriate codes - The best standards to use are the European EN based standards -
Basic Steel Selection Based on BS 970
Typical selection of steels and useful notes
STEEL Notes
Carbon Steel
A low carbon, free cutting, mild steel suitable for machining
BS 970 230M07
using automatic and CNC machines. Available as rolled or
(EN1A)
normalised in round, flat or hexagon form
A mild steel used for general purposes. Suitable for lightly
stressed fasteners ,shafts etc. Can be easilty machined and
BS 970 070M20
welded. Available hot rolled, normalised, cold drawn or turned.
(EN3A)
Supplied in Black round or square , bright round square, flat
and hexagon.
A medium strength steel. Used to make, shafts, racks, pinions,
BS 970 080M30
studs, bolts, nuts, rollers, etc. Supplied as square bar, or round
(EN5/EN6)
bar or flat.
A medium strength steel. Suitable for stressed pins, shafts
BS 970 080M40
studs, keys etc. Available as rolled or normalised. Supplied as
(EN8)
square bar, or round bar or flat.
A hard wearing medium carbon steel which can be hardened.
BS 970 070M55 Available as hot rolled, normalised, Cold drawn or turned.
(EN9) Sections available black round, black square, bright round and
black flat.
A case hardening mild steel suitable for general engineering
BS 970 080M15 applications. When case hardened results in a hard surface
(EN32) with a tough core. Used for making gears cams and rollers etc.
Supplied as black round bar and sections
Alloy Steel
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BS 970 steels
A manganese molydenum steel with good ductily and

BS 970 605M36 mechanical strength. Available in heat treated condition e.g (R,
(EN16) S,T).Supplied as black round or square bar and bright round or
square, and hexagons.
A 1% typical chromium molybdenum steel with higher
molybdenum. Can be induction hardened. Used for gears, and
BS 970 709M40 high strength shafts etc. Suitable for higher strength
(EN19) applications when resistance to shock is required. Available
annealed. Supplied as black round or square bar and bright
round or square, and hexagons.
A nickel chromium molybdenum steel with high strength and
toughness. Used for gears axles and high strength studs.
BS 970 817M40
Supplied as rolled, annealed and hardened and tempered.
(EN24)
Supplied as black round or square bar and bright round or
square, and hexagons
A high quality nickel chromium case hardening steel. Can be
BS 970 655M13 hardened to provide hard surface with a strong tough core.
(EN36) Used for high duty gears and shafts. Supplied in as-rolled
condition in black square and round bar and bright round.
A 3% chromium molybdenum nitriding steel. Provide good
BS 970 722M24 tough core strength with a hard nitrided surface for wear
(EN40B) resistance. Supplied in as-rolled, annealed and hardened and
tempered condition in black square and round bar.
Stainless Steel
Martensitic (Magnetic), can be hardened and tempered to give
BS970 416S21 improved tensile strength. FM** grade. Typical applications
(EN56) include cutlery, surgical instruments, fasteners, valves,
spindles and shafts.
Martensitic (Magnetic). Supplied heat treated with a high
BS 970 431S29
tensile strength. Typical applications include cutlery, surgical
(EN57)
instruments, fasteners, valves, spindles and shafts.
Ferritic. Low Strength but good ductility. Used food processing
BS 970 430S15
and catering equipment and automotive trim,car exhaust
typ (EN60)
systems etc.
Austenitic (Non-Magnetic)Cannot be heat treated but work
hardens. Readily formed and welded,used mainly in domestic,
dairy and decorative appliances general purpose grade for
BS 970 Grade 304S15 corrosion resistant applications. This grade is the most widely
(EN58-) used of all stainless steels. Its chemical composition,provide
the best all-round performance S.S. at relatively low cost. It
has excellent low temperature properties. Lower Carbon
grades (S15 and less) have improved weldability.

BS 970 steels

hardens. It offers high resistance to corrosion. Generally
machined components and pipe fittings. This grade is almost
BS 970 Grade 316S16
as popular as the 304 grade the increased Mo content makes
(EN58J)
the steel more suitable for resisting pitting and crevice then
304 Grade. Lower Carbon grades (S15 and less) have
improved weldability.
BS 970 Grade 321S12
hardens. Titanium stabilized, which offers improved welding
(EN58B-C)
properties.
Austenitic (Non-Magnetic). Pocesses good resistance to
BS 970 Grade 310S31 scaling at high temperatures. For continuous high temperature
service in the range 850 - 1000oC.
Sample Steels Specifications
Typical steels with general specifications notes
Important Note:
The values below are not comprehensive and must be used with extreme care.
The strength values e.g. the proof stress and yield stress, reduce as the section increases. In the tables below the relevant sections are often thin
and so the strength values are maximum values. Please refer to the relevant standards for important work..
Yield Tensile
BS Spec Composition %
Type Of Steel Condition Stress x Stress Elongation %
BS 970 C-Mn-Ni-Cr-Mo
106 Pa MPa
Low Carbon Steel 230M07 0,15C% 1,1%Mn Hot rolled 215 360 21
Low Carbon Steel 230M07 0,15C% 1,1%Mn HR -> CD (thin) 340 480 6
Low Carbon Steel 070M20 0,2C% 0,7%Mn Normalised 215 430 21
Low Carbon Steel 070M20 0,2C% 0,7%Mn HR->CD (thin) 440 560 10
Constructural Steel 080M40 0,4%C 0,8%Mn Normalised 280 550 16
Constructural Steel 080M40 0,4%C 0,8%Mn HR -> CD (thin) 530 660 7
Low Manganese 150M28 0,28%C 1,5%Mn Heat Treat(P) 355 587 20
0,4%C -0,9%
Nickel Manganese 503M40 Heat Treat(R) 525 700 min 17
Mn 1,0%Cr
Manganese 0,38%C 1,5%
608M38 Heat Treat 1000 1130 19
Molybdenum Mn 0,5%Mo
0,31%C 0,60%
Nickel Chromium 633M31 Mn 3,0%Ni Heat Treat(U) 755 927 23
1,0%Cr
0,4%C 0,55%
Nickel-Chrom-Mo 817M40 Mn 1,2%Cr Heat Treat (W) 940 1075 11
0,3%Mo

BS 970 steels
0,3%C 0,55%
Mn 4,25%Ni
Nickel-Chrom-Mo 835M30 Hard'n +Temp 1470 1700 14
1,25%Cr 0,3%
Mo
0,38%C 1,4%
Mn 0,75%Ni
Mang-Ni-Chr-Mo 945M38 Heat Treat (V) 850 1040 2
0,5%Cr 0,20%
Mo
0,08%C 1,0%
Steel Ferritic 403S17 Mn 13%Cr Softened 280 420 20
0,5%Ni
Stainless 0,3%C 0,5%
420S45 Heat Treat (R) 525 700 15
Martensitic Mn 13,0%Cr
0,12%C 0,8%
18/8 Stainless
302S25 Mn 8,5%Ni Softened 278 618 50
Austenitic
18,0%Cr
0,12%C 0,8%
18/8 Stainless
302S25 MN 8,5%Ni Cold work 803 896 30
Austenitic
18,0%Cr
0,05%C 0,8%
18/8 St. (No Weld
321S20 Mn 8,5%Ni Softened 278 649 45
Decay)
18,0%Cr 1,6Ti
0,05C 0,8%
18/8 St. (No Weld
321S20 Mn 8,5%Ni Cold Worked 402 803 30
Decay)
18,0%Cr 1,6Ti
BS970 Numbering system explained
The BS970 code number is constructed as follows;
a) The first three symbols are a number code indicating the type of steel:
000 to 199 Carbon and carbon-manganese steels. The number represents the manganese content x 100
200 to 240 Free cutting steels. The second and third number indicate the sulphur content x 100
250 Silicon Manganese valve steels
300 to 499 Stainless and heat resisting steels
500 to 999 Alloy Steels
b) The fourth symbol is a letter code .
A The steel is supplied to a chemical compostion determine by analysis of the batch sample.

BS 970 steels
H The steel is supplied to a hardenability specification
M The steel is supplied to a Mechanical Property specification.
S The steel is a stainless steel
c) The fifth and sixth symbol is a number is the actual mean carbon content x 100
In addition to the above coding a condition coding may be applied. indicating the tensile strength range after heat treatment. This is used in
conjunction with a limiting section designation.
Table of BS 970: 1955 EN equivalents
* Steel No Relate to European Numbering system BS EN 10027-2 - I will add numbers as I locate them
BS970 1955 EN steel Equivalent

EN No BS 970 Name Note. *Steel No
39A 659M15 4.0% Ni/Cr
BS970 1955 EN steel Equivalent 34 665M17
EN 35A 665A22 1.5% Ni/Mo
BS 970 Name Note. * Steel No
No 35 665M23 1.5% Ni/Mo
Low Carbon 35B 665A24 1.5% Ni/Mo
1A 230M07 Free Cutting 1.0715 361 805M17 0.5% Ni/Cr/Mo
C
362 805M20 0.5% Ni/Cr/Mo
Low Carbon
363 805M25 0.5% Ni/Cr/Mo
1B 240M07 Free Cutting -
C 353 815M27 1.5% Ni/Cr/Mo
3A 070M20 '20' C 1.0402 1.75% Ni/Cr/
354 820M27
Mo
5 080M30 '30' C 1.1178/1.1179
355 822M17 2.0% Ni/Cr/Mo
5A 080A27 '30' C
36C 832M13 3.0% Ni/Cr/Mo 1.6657
5B 080A30 '30' C 1.0528
351 635M15 0.75% Ni/Cr
8 080M40 '40'C 1.0503/1.0511
352 637M17 1% Ni/Cr
8A 080A35 '35'C
36A 655M13 3.25% Ni/Cr
8B 080A37 '37'C
39A 659M15 4.0% Ni/Cr
8C 080A40 '40'C 1.1186
34 665M17 1.75% Ni/Mo
8D 080A42 '42'C
35 665M23 1.75% Ni/Mo
9 070M55 '50'C 1.1209/1.0535
361 805M17 0.5% Ni/Cr/Mo
43A 080A50 '50'C 1,1206
362 805M20 0.5% Ni/Cr/Mo 1.6522'3
43B 080A47 '47'C
363 805M25 0.5% Ni/Cr/Mo
43C 080A52 '52'C
353 815M17 1.5% Ni/Cr/Mo
43D 080A62 '62'C 1.1221

BS 970 steels
43E 080A67 '67'C 1.75% Ni/Cr/

354 820M17
Low Carbon Mo
1A 220M07
FC** 355 822M17 2.0% Ni/Cr/Mo
Low Carbon 36C 832M13 3.5% Ni/Cr/Mo 1.6657
1B 240M07
FC** 39B 835M15 4.0% Ni/Cr/Mo
8M 212M36 '36' C FC** 1.0726 43 080A22 '52'Carbon
15AM 216M36 '36' C' FC** 43E 080A67 '67'Carbon
8BM 212A37 '37' C FC** 42 070A72 '52'Carbon
8DM 212M44 '42' C FC** ?1.0727 44 060A96 '96'Carbon 1.1274
8M 212M44 '44' C FC** Silico-
12 503M40 1% Ni 45 250A53 Manganese 1.0904
12B 503A37 1% Ni '53'Carbon
12C 503A42 1% Ni 45A 250A58 '58'Carbon
11 526M60 1% Cr 45A 250A61 '61'Carbon
18 530M40 1% Cr 1.7035 47 735A50 1.0% Cr 1.8159
18A 530A30 1% Cr 1.8401 48 527A60 0.75% Cr/Va
18B 530A32 1% Cr 1.7033 Stainless Steels
18C 530A36 1% Cr CrNi 18/9 C
58A 302S25 1.4828
0,12 ..Aust
18D 530A40 1% Cr 1.7035
CrNi 18/9 S
31 534A99 1.5% Cr
58M 303S41 bearing FM**..
31 535A99 1.5% Cr Aust
1.5% Mn/Mo CrNi 18/19 C
16D 605M30 (Water 58E 304S15 1.4301
0,06 ..Aust
Hardening)
CrNiMo
16 605M36 1.0% Mn/Mo 1.7006 58H 315S16 17/10/1,5 C
16B 605A32 1.0% Mn/Mo 0,07 ..Aust
16C 605A37 1.0% Mn/Mo 1.5432 CrNiMo
1.5% Mn/Mo 58J 316S16 17/11/2,5 C 1.4401
16M 605A32 0,07 ..Aust
(FC**)
111 640M40 1.25% Ni/Cr CrNiMo
58J 316S17 17/12/2,5 +Ti 1.4401
111A 640M40 1.25% Ni/Cr
C 0,08 ..Aust
23 653M31 3.0% Ni/Cr
CrNi 18/9 +Ti
19A 708M40 1.0% Cr/Mo 1.7223 58B/58C 321S12 1.4541
C 0,08 ..Aust
19B 708A37 1.0% Cr/Mo 1.7220 CrNi 18/9 +Ti
19C 708A42 1.0% Cr/Mo 58B/58C 321S20
C 0,12 ..Aust
1.0% Cr/Mo CrNi 18/9 +Ti
19 709M40 1.7225 58M 325S21 1.4305
(Higher Mo) +S FM** ..Aust
3.0% Cr/Mo NiCrW
40B 722M24 1.7361
(Nitriding) 54 331S40 14/14/2,5..
Valve

BS 970 steels
1.5% Mn/Ni/ NiCrW

13 785M19
Mo 54A 331S42 14/14/2,5 +
1.0% Ni/Cr/ Mo ..Valve
110 816M40 1.6582
Mo (Low Mo) Cr/Ni 18/9/Nb/
58F/58G 347S17 1.4550
1.0% Ni/Cr/ C 0,08 ..Aus
24 817M40 1.6582/1.6565
Mo Si/Cr 3/8 ..
52 401S45
2.5% Ni/Cr/ Valve
25 826M31 Mo (Medium 13CrC0,12
56A 410S21 1.4006
C) Mart
2.5% Ni/Cr/ 13Cr C 0,12 S
26 826M40 1,6746 56AM 416S21 1.4005
Mo (High C) FM** ..Mart
3.0% Ni/Cr/ 13Cr C 0,12
27 830M31 56AM 416S41
Mo Se FM** ..Mart
4.0% Ni/Cr/ 13Cr C 0,17 S
30B 835M30 1.6747 56BM 416S29
Mo FM** ..Mart
3.25% Ni/Cr/ 13Cr C 0,24 S
40C 897M39 Mo/Va 56C 416S37 bearing FM** ..
(Nitriding) Mart
1.5% Cr/Al/ 13Cr C 0,17..
56B 420S29 1.4024
41A 905M31 Mo (Nitriding) 1.8509 Mart
(Medium C) 13Cr C 0,24 ..
56C 420S37 1.4021
1.5% Cr/Al/ Mart
41B 905M39 Mo (Nitriding) 13Cr C 0,32..
(High C) 56D 420S45 1.4028
Mart
1.5% Mn/Ni/ 17Cr C 0,10....
100 945M38 60 430S15 1.4016
Cr/Al/Mo Fer
1.5% Mn/Ni/ 17Cr 2,5NI C
100C 945A40 1.6546 57 431S29 1.4057
Cr/Al/Mo 0,10....Mart
351 635M15 0.75% Ni/Cr CrNiSi
352 637M14 1.0% Ni/Cr 59 443S65 20,1.5,2..
36A 655M13 3.25% Ni/Cr 1.5752 Valve
36A 655M13 3.25% Ni/Cr 1.5752
Stainless Steels ...Aus = Austenitic, Mart = Martensitic, Fe = Ferritic. FC** = Free Cutting..
FM** = Free machining

BS 970 steels
1. British Stainless Steel Association ..Properties /Relevant Standards for Stainless Steels
2. Plymouth College ..Notes On Steels
3. Grade Alternatives... Mikra metal Stainless Steel Grades
4. Material Cross Reference List..Coromant- Sandvik Comprehensive list of steels
5. Australian Stainless Steel Development Agency ..Contains physical and mechanical properties
6. Key-To-Steel ..An excellent reference site for steel classifications and properties.- registration required for full access
7. Casti Metals Black Book ..Download Document. A comprehensive reference text on european metals including Ref to latest Standards
Home
Matter Index

Strength Of Steels
ROYMECH
Home
Matter Index
Steel Selection Based on European Standards
Outline data on steels selected from BS EN Standards
Important Note: All information on this page has been interpreted from the relevant Standard, Books, Other Web Sites, and Leaflets. This information is of a general nature for initial
guidance. Selection of materials for use must be by communication with the suppliers and by reference to the appropriate codes
BS EN 10079.... BS EN 10027.... BS EN 10025.... BS EN 10028.... BS EN 10083.... BS EN 10088.... BS EN 10130.... BS EN 10213.... BS EN 10277.... BS EN 10293
Introduction
Since 1988 a new series of 'mandatory' European standards (EN = Europaischen Normen) has been created, to replace national
standards, such as BS, DIN, SS and NF, throughout 18 countries of Western Europe. EN are a part of the 'Single Market'
legislation, designed to give equal opportunities for firms to compete throughout Europe, by harmonising the technical requirements
between countries. The national standards bodies, of which BSI is one, are required to officially withdraw their national standards,
when an EN is created with the same scope of application.
Consistent pattern of Standards

The aim is to produce a logical, common pattern,in which items are standardised in one document only, reference being made to
this document from other standards. For example, tensile testing methods are standardised in a different document to material
property values, and dimensional tolerances in other separate standards. Thus, changed requirements need only to be written into
one document.
Implementation of EN
The fact that BSI and the other national bodies publish EN does not compel people to use them. (Note the continued use of the BS
'Emergency Number' (also EN) series of steels years after they have been officially replaced}. Only when suppliers and customers
fully accept and understand European Standards, will it actually happen.
Review of Standards
BS EN 10079:1992- Definition of steel products..

This standard is essentially a reference standard which defines steel products according to : a) Their shape and dimensions : b)
Their appearance and surface condition. The standard simply provides agreed definitions of steel products and typically includes
sections on ingots and semi-finished products, flat products, electrical steels, long products.
BS EN 10027-1:1992 Designation systems for steel. Steel names, principal symbols
This is a steel material designation system based on names. These names consist of alpha numerical characters and defines two
main groups of steels
Steels Designated On The Basis Of Their Use And Their Mechanical Properties.
A number of letters with there mechanical property identifiers are listed below
Letter Steel Use Mechanical Property...
S Structural Steel Minimum Yield Strength
P Pressure Purposes Minimum Yield Strength
L Line Pipe Minimum Yield Strength
E Engineering Minimum Yield Strength
B Reinforcing Steel Characteristic Yield Case
Y Pre-stressing Steel Minimum Yield Case
R Rails Minimum Yield Case
H High Strength Cold Rolled Minimum Yield Case
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Steel_Europe.html (1 of 14)10/24/2006 11:26:08 AM

Strength Of Steels
Flat Products for Cold

D C, D or X followed by two numbers characterising steel
Forming
T Tinmill Products Nominal Yield Case
Number = 100 x specific loss in W/kg, "—"
M Electrical Steel Number = 100 x nom thick in mm
Letter for type of steel (A,B,E,N,S or P)
e.g. S420 designates a structural steel(S) with a specified yield strength of 420MPa(420)
Steels Designated On The Basis Of Their Chemical Composition ....
—Non alloy Steels ..The relevant coding consists of a C followed by two numbers = 100 x Carbon content.
—Non alloy Steel with Manganese content => 1%, non alloy free cutting steels and alloy steels except HSS whoses where content of
all alloys =< 5%... The relevant coding consists of 100 x Carbon % content then Chemical symbols indicating most important alloys
then number indicating the associated % contents.
—Alloy Steels.. The relevant coding consists of an X then 100 x Carbon % content then chemical symbol indicating most important
alloys. then numbers indicating the associated % contents. e.g. X2CrNi18-9 designates a stainless steel whose average contents in
carbon, Chromium and Nickel are about 0,02%, 18% and 9% respectively.
BS EN 10027-2:1992 Designation systems for steels. Steel numbers
The other system is a numerical system. The steel numbers consist of 1 followed by a point and 4 figures. As an example the
steels numbers of the above-mentioned steels are 1,8836 and 1,4307. The steel numbers are allocated by a European Registering
Office. The registering authority has been given to VDEh in Dusseldorf.
Vraious number ranges identifying the general number trends are listed below
Note: XX numbers (01-99)are allocated sequentially
Carbon Steels
Number = 1.00XX (& 1.90XX )..Base Steels

Number = 1.01XX(& 1.91XX )..Quality Steel (General structural steels with Rm < 500MPa )
Number = 1.02XX(& 1.92XX )..Other Structural Steels (Not intended for heat treatment with Rm < 500MPa )
Number = 1.03XX(& 1.93XX )..Steels with average C< 0,12% or Rm < 400 MPa
Number = 1.93XX..Steels with average C< 0,12% or Rm < 400 MPa
Number = 1.04XX(& 1.94XX )..Steels with average C >= 0,12% < 0,25% or Rm ≥ 500 MPa
Number = 1.05XX (& 1.95XX )..Steels with average C >= 0,25% < 0,55% or Rm ≥ 500MPa < 700 MPa
Number = 1.06XX(& 1.96XX )..Steels with average C > 0,55% or Rm ≥ 700 MPa
Number = 1.07XX (& 1.97XX )..Steels with higher P or S content
Special Carbon Steels
Number = 1.10XX (& 1.90XX ) ..Special steels (Steels with special physical properties )
Number = 1.11XX ..Special steels (Structural Pressure vessel and engineering steels with C < 0,5% )
Number = 1.12XX(& 1.90XX ) ..Special steels (Structural Pressure vessel and engineering steels with C ≥ 0,5% )
Number = 1.13XX ..Special steels (Structural Pressure vessel and engineering steels with special requirements
Number = 1.14XX..Special steels
Number = 1.15XX to 1.18XX..Tool steels
Number = 1.19XX..Special steels
Alloy Steels
Number = 1.08XX(& 1.98XX )..Steels with special physical properties

Number = 1.09XX(& 1.99XX )..Steels for other applications
Number = 1.2000-1.2999-..Tool Steels Number = 1.20XX..Tool Steels-Cr
Number = 1.21XX..Tool Steels-(Cr-si , Cr-Mn ,Cr-Mn-Si,
Number = 1.22XX..Tool Steels-(Cr-V , Cr-V_Si ,Cr-V-Mn,Cr-V-Mn_Si
Number = 1,23XX..Tool Steels .. (Cr-Mo, Cr-Mo-V, Mo-V )
Number = 1,24XX..Tool Steels .. (W, Cr-W)
Number = 1,25XX..Tool Steels .. (W-V, Cr-W-V)
Number = 1,26XX..Tool Steels .. (other W)
Number = 1,27XX..Tool Steels .. (with Ni)
Number = 1,28XX..Other Tool Steels )
Number = 1,29XX..Other Tool Steels )
Number = 1.3000-1.3999..Special Steels -Miscellaneous Steels

.........

Strength Of Steels
Number = 1,35XX..Miscellaneous Steels.. (Bearing Steels)

.........
Number = 1,39XX..Steels with special physical properties with Ni
.........
Number = 1.4000-1.4999..Special Steels -Stainless and Heat Resisting .........

Number = 1.43XX..Stainless Steels ( >= 2.5% Ni but without Ni, Mo & Ti)
.........
Number = 1.44XX..Stainless steel with <= 2,5% Ni and Mo, but without Nb and Ti)
.........
Number = 1.5000-1.8999..Special Steels -Structural, pressure vessel and engineering steels .....
Number = 1.51XX..Structural,Pressure Vessel,Engineering Steels . (Mn-Si, Mn-Cr Steels)
.....
Number = 1.61XX..Special steels, structural, Pressure Vessel and Engineering steels
.....
Number = 1.70XX..Cr, Cr-B
.....
BS EN 10025-1:2004 - Hot rolled products of structural steels. General technical delivery conditions
BS EN 10025-2:2004 - H.r.p.o.s.t. Technical delivery conditions for non-alloy structural steels
BS EN 10025-3:2004 - H.r.p.o.s.t. T.d.c.for normalized/normalized rolled weldable fine grain structural steels
BS EN 10025-4:2004 - H.r.p.o.s.t. T.d.c. for thermo-mechanical rolled weldable fine grain structural steels
BS EN 10025-5:2004 - H.r.p.o.s.t. T.d.c. for structural steels with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance
BS EN 10025-5:2004 - H.r.p.o.s.t. T.d.c. for flat products of high yield strength structural steels in the quenched and tempered
condition
These standards are the latest European standards for structural steel.
They replace BS 4360, BS EN 10025:1993, BS EN 10113:1993, BS EN 10155:1993 BS EN 10137:1996.
Steel Names according to EN 10027-1 in form of ....X(1) nnn(2) Xn (3) Xn(4).....Example S355J2G3
1) X = Letter identifying use i.e S= Structural Steel, E = Engineering steels without requirements for toughness and weldability
2) nnn = Number identifying minimum yield Strength(N/mm 2)
3) Xn = Information on impact property

Testing Temperature = 20 o C, JR = 27Joule, KR = 40Joule
Testing Temperature = 0 o C, J0 = 27Joule , K0 =40Joule
Testing Temperature = -20 o C, J2 = 27Joule, K2 = 40Joule
4) Xn = Symbols for special requirements

Deoxidation Method ...G1= Rimming Steel, G2 =Rimming Steel not permitted,
Delivery conditions...G3 = Normalised/ Normalised Rolled, G4 = Manufactures Discretion.
Metals in BS EN 10025-2
Name Number Name Number Name Number Name Number
S185 1.0035 S275JR 1.0044 S355JR 1.0045 E295 1.0050
S235JR 1.0037 S275J0 1.0143 S355J0 1.0553 E335 1.0060
1.0144-
S235J0 1.0114 S275J2 S355J2 1.0570-7 E360 1.0070
45
1.0116'-
S235J2
7
S275N 1.0490 S355N 1.0545 S420N 1.8902 S460N 1.8901
S275NL 1.0491 S355NL 1.0546 S420NL 1.8912 S460NL 1.8903

Strength Of Steels
S235J0W 1.8958 S355J0WP 1.8945 S355J0W 1.8959 S355K2W 1.8967
S235J2W 1.8961 S355J2WP 1.8946 S355J2W 1.8965
S460Q 1.8908 S500QL1 1.8984 S620QL 1.8927 S890Q 1.8940
S460QL 1.8906 S550Q 1.8904 S620QL1 1.8987 S890QL 1.8983
S460QL1 1.8916 S550QL 1.8926 S690Q 1.8931 S890QL1 1.8925
S500Q 1.8924 S550QL1 1.8986 S690QL 1.8928
S500QL 1.8909 S620Q 1.8914 S690QL1 1.8988
BS EN 10028-1:2000 - Flat products made of Steel for Pressure Purposes:General Requirements
BS EN 10028-2:2003 - F.p.m.o.S.f.P.P:steels with specified elevated temperature properties
BS EN 10028-3:2003 - F.p.m.o.S.f.P.P:Weldable fine grain steels, normalized
BS EN 10028-4:2003 - F.p.m.o.S.f.P.P:Nickel alloy steels with specified low temperature properties
BS EN 10028-5:2003 - F.p.m.o.S.f.P.P:Weldable fine grain steels, thermomechanically rolled
BS EN 10028-6:2003 - F.p.m.o.S.f.P.P:Weldable fine grain steels, quenched and tempered
BS EN 10028-7:2000 - F.p.m.o.S.f.P.P:Stainless steels
Steel Names generally in accordance with BS EN 10027-1 in the form of ........X(1) nnn(2) X (3) Xn(4)....Example. P265GH,
P275NL1, S355NL, S355ML
1) X = Letter identifying use i.e S= Structural Steel, P = Steel for Pressure purposes
2) nnn = Number identifying minimum yield Strength(N/mm

2
)
3) X = Letter identifying condition
N = Normalised
G = Other Characteristic follows
M = Thermomechanically Rolled
4) Xn identifies property information
H = Elevated Temperature Property. Possible requirements for tensile test at high temperature.
L = Low temperature property, Impact testing at -10 Deg. C
L1 = Low temperature property, Impact testing at -50 Deg. C
L2 = Special low temperature property, Impact testing at -50 Deg. With enhanced requirements

Strength Of Steels
P235GH 1.0345 16Mo3 1.5415 13CrMo4-5 1.7335 X12CrMo5 1.7362
13CrMoS15-
P265GH 1.0425 18MnMo4-5 1.5414 1.7336 13CrMo9-10 1.7703
5
P295GH 1.0481 20MnMoNi4 1.6311 10CrMo9-10 1.7380 12CrMoV12-10 1.7767
15NiCuMoNb5- X10CrMoVNb9-
P355GH 1.0473 1.6368 12CrMo9-10 1.7375 1.4903
6-4 1
Name Number Name Number Name Number
P275NH 1.0487 P355N 1.0562 P460NH 1.8935
P275NL1 1.0488 P355NH 1.0565 P460NL1 1.8915
P275NL2 1.1104 P355NL1 1.0566 P460NL2 1.8918
P255NL2 1.1106
11MnNi5-3 1.6212 15NiMn6 1.6228 X12Ni5 1.5680
13MnNi6-3 1.6217 12Ni14 1.5637 X8Ni9 1.5662
X7Ni9 1.5663
P355M 1.8821 P420M 1.8824 P460M 1.8826
P355ML1 1.8832 P420ML1 1.8835 P460ML1 1.8837
P355ML2 1.8833 P420ML2 1.8828 P460ML2 1.8831
P355Q 1.8866 P460Q 1.8870 P500Q 1.8873 P690Q 1.8879
P355QH 1.8867 P460QH 1.8871 P500QH 1.8874 P690QH 1.8880
P355QL1 1.8868 P460QL1 1.8872 P500QL1 1.8875 P690QL1 1.8881
P355QL2 1.8869 P460QL2 1.8864 P500QL2 1.8865 P690QL2 1.8888
BS EN 10083-1 :1991 Quenched and Tempered Steels - Technical Delivery Conditions for Special Steels
BS EN 10083-2:1991 Technical Delivery conditions for Quenched and Tempered Steels - Unalloyed Steels
BS EN 10083-1
The scope of this standard relates to

Strength Of Steels
● Semi-finished products including blooms, billets and slabs

● bars
● rods
● wide flats
● hot rolled sheet, plates & strip
● hammer and drop forgings
Steels supplied to this standard are suitable for hardening and in the quenched and tempered condition have good toughness at a
given tensile strength.
The steels are named according to BS EN 10027-1 and numbered in accordance with BS EN 1027-2.
The steel is designated by the purchaser as follows:
Term steel.
The standard number...BS EN 10083-1
Name or number of steel grade..C45E
Symbol for hardenability req. if appropriate. ..+H ,HH
Symbol for restricted hardenability . if appropriate... +HL
Designation for heat treatment required .. if appropriate. +N (Normalised), Q = Quenched, QT = Quenched and tempered
Example designation..
Steel BS EN 1083-1-C45E+N or Steel BS EN 1083-1-1.1191+N
The normal condition on delivery of this steel is untreated (hot worked).
Table of steels included in BS EN 10083-1..

C22E 1.1151 C45E 1.1191 38CrS2 1.7023 25CrMoS4 1.7213
C22R 1.1149 C45R 1.1201 46Cr2 1.7006 34CrMo4 1.7220
C25E 1.1158 C50E 1.1206 46CrS2 1.7025 34CrMoS4 1.7226
C25R 1.1163 C50R 1.1245 34Cr4 1.7033 42CrMo4 1.7225
C30E 1.1178 C55E 1.1203 34CrS4 1.7037 42CrMoS4 1.7227
C30R 1.1179 C55R 1.1209 37Cr4 1.7034 50CrMo4 1.7228
C35E 1.1181 C60E 1.1221 37CrS4 1.7038 36CrNiMo4 1.6511
C35R 1.1180 C60R 1.1223 41Cr4 1.7035 34CrNiMo6 1.6582
C40E 1.1186 28Mn6 1.1170 41CrS4 1.7039 30CrNiMo8 1.6580
C40R 1.1189 38Cr2 1.7003 25CrMo4 1.7218 36NiCrMo16 1.6773
51CrV4 1,8159
Table of steels included in BS EN 10083-2..
The scope and steel naming conventions and the designations are similar to those for BS 10083-1
Name Number Name Number Name Number Name Number Name Number
C22 1.0404 C30 1.0528 C40 1.0511 C50 1.0540 C60 1.0601
C25 1.0406 C35 1.0501 C45 1.0503 C55 1.0535

Strength Of Steels
BS EN 10087 Free Cutting Steels- Technical Delivery conditions for semi-finished products , hot rolled bars and rods
Issued 1999
Steels are regarded as free cutting in the sulfur content is at least 0,1%.
The steels are designated in accordance with BS EN 10027-1 and the steel numbers are allocated in accordance with BS EN
10027-2.
The Standard includes material designations, chemical compositions and mechanical properties
In accordance with this standard the information to be supplied by the purchases includes the following...
a) The quantity to be delivered. e.g. 20 off
b) The product form e.g. round or square.
c) The Standard of for dimensions e.g EURONORM 59 (HR Square Bars for General Purposes) / EURONORM 60 (HR Round Bars
for General Purposes) etc
d) The dimensions and tolerances on dimensions and shape if applicable (Letters denoting the tolerances)
e) The number of the European Standard e.g BS EN 10087
f) Steel name (in accordance with BS EN 10027-1 (chemical composition) or number in accordance with BS EN 10027-2.
e.g. 35S20 (0.35% carbon, 0,2% Sulpher - average %'s) or 1.7026
g) The standard designation for the test report.
Example...
20, round, EURONORM 60, 40 x 8,000;
BS EN 10087, 35S20,
EN 10204 2.2
Table of steels included in BS EN 10087
11SMn30 1.0715 10S20 1.0721 35S20 1.0726 36SMn14 1.0764 44SMn28 1.0762
11SMnPb30 1.0718 10SPb20 1.0722 35SPb20 1.0756 36SMnPb14 1.0765 44SMnPb28 1.0763
11SMn37 1.0736 15SMn13 1.0725 38SMn28 1.0760 46S20 1.0727
11SMnPb38 1.0737 38SMnPb28 1.0761 46SPb20 1.0757
BS EN 10088 Stainless Steels
BS EN 10088-1 Stainless Steels -Part 1 : List of Stainless Steels

BS EN 10088-2 Stainless Steels Part 2: Technical Delivery conditions for sheet/plate and strip for general purposes
BS EN 10088-3 Stainless Steels -Part 3 Technical delivery conditions for semi-finished products, bars, rods and sections for general purposes.
The three parts of EN 10088 were published in October 1995.
BS EN 10088-1 Stainless Steels -Part 1 : List of Stainless Steels (not for ordering)
Part 1 is a new idea, a reference list of 83 stainless steels, giving chemical composition, various physical properties, including
density and a general description of the various classes of stainless steels. It is not intended for the direct placing of orders. The
intention is that the steels required in the various steel product standards and application standards shall be selected from this list,

Strength Of Steels
as far as possible. They should not be defined slightly differently unintentionally, nor without a technical reason for different
chemistry. Eventually the list in part 1 will be expanded to include corrosion resistant, hot oxidation resistant and creep resistant
stainless steels, for general and pressure vessel use, with a cross-reference matrix showing which steels are in which standards,
including the main application standards. At the moment there are frequent additions to this information.
BS EN 10088-2 Stainless Steels Part 2: Technical Delivery conditions for sheet/plate and strip for general purposes
This part of EN 10088 gives the properties and other delivery conditions for flat products for general purposes, i.e. not for pressure
vessels nor for aerospace or other specialised applications, such as springs, It is used for ordering purposes. It contains 68 steels,
more than BS1449-2 which it largely replaces.
It is based on a steel naming and numbering system, developed from the German Werkstoff system, which was the most suitable
system available at the time the first EN standards were created.
Steel grades are classed as 'standard' or 'special' depending on how widely available they are, and how wide is their scope of
application. 'Special' grades are likely to be more difficult to obtain, although the technical requirements are not different in kind
between the two classes. There should be at least one grade listed, suitable for each general application. Mechanical properties are
significantly more demanding than in BS 1449:2 but quite attainable in practice, with generally higher strength values,
demonstrating the very useful properties of stainless steels.
Proof stress values at elevated temperatures are included and properties in the work hardened condition.
Table of steels included in BS EN 10088-2

Ferritic Steels
X2CrNi12 1.4003 X6Cr13 1.4000 X6Cr17 1.4016 X3CrNb17 1.4511
X2CrTi12 1.4512 X6CrAl13 1.4002 X3CrTi17 1.4510 X6CrMo17-1 1.4521
X2CRNiTi12 1.4516
Special Grades
X2CrTi17 1.4520 X6CrNiNi17-1 1.4017 X6CrMoNb17-1 1.4526 X2CrTiNb18 1.4509
X1CrNb15 1.4595 X5CrNiMoTi15-2 1.4589 X2CrNbZr17 1.4590 X2CrMoTi29-4 1.4592
X6CrMoTi17-1 1.4513
Martensitic and Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels
X12Cr13 1.4006 X30Cr13 1.4028 X38CrMo14 1.4019 X39CrMo17-1 1.4122
X15Cr13 1.4024 X39Cr13 1.4031 X55CrMo14 1.4110 X3CrNiMo13-4 1.4313
X20Cr13 1.4021 X46Cr13 1.4034 X50CrMoV15 1.4116 X4CrNiMo16-5-1 1.4418
Special Grades (Martensitic)
X1CrNiMoCu12-
X1CrNiMoCu12-5-2 1.4422 1.4423
7-3
Special Grades (Precipitation Hardening steels)
X5CrNiCuNb16-4 1.4542 X7CrNiAl17-7 1.4568
Austenitic Steels
X10CrNi18-8 1.4310 X5CrNi18-10 1.4301 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 1.4404 X2CrNiMo17-12-3 1.4432
X2CrNiN18-7 1.4318 X8CrNiS18-9 1.4305 X2CrNiMo17-11-2 1.4406 X2CrNiMo18-4-3 1.4435
X2CrNi18-9 1.4307 X6CrNiTi18-10 1.4541 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 1.4401 X2CrNiMoN17-13-5 1.4439
X6CrNiMoTi17- X1NiCrMoCu25-20-
X2CrNi19-11 1.4306 X4CrNi18-12 1.4303 1.4572 1.4539
12-2 5
X2CrNiN18-10 1.4311
Special grades (Austenitic)

Strength Of Steels
X6CrNiMoNb17- X1NiCrMoCu31-27-
X5CrNi17-7 1.4319 1.4580 XiCrNiSi18-15-4 1.4361 1.4563
12-2 4
X2CrNiMoN17- X11CrNiMnN19- X1CrNiMoCuN25-
X5CrNiN19-9 1.4315 1.4429 1.4369 1.4537
13-3 8-6 25-5
X12CrMnNiN17- X1CrNiMoCuN20-
X1CrNi25-21 1.4335 X3CrNiMo17-13-3 1.4436 1.4372 1.4547
7-5 18-7
X2CrNi Mo N18- X2CrMnNiN17-7- X1CrNiMoCuNW24-
X6CrNiNb18-10 1.4550 1.4434 1.4371 1.4659
12-4 5 22-6
X2CrNi Mo18-15- X12CrMnNiN18- X1NiCrMoCuN25-
X1CrNiMoN25-22-2 1.4468 1.4438 1.4373 1.4529
4 9-5 20-7
X1CrNiMoCuN24- X8CrMnCuNB17- X2CrNiMnN25-18-6-
1.4652 1.4597 1.4565
22-8 8-3 5
Austenitic Ferritic
X2CrNiMoN22-5-
X2CrNiN23-4 1.446
3
Special grades (Austenitic Ferritic)
X2CrNiMoN25-7- X2CrNiMoCuN25-
X2CrNicuN23-4 1.4655 1.4477 1.4507 X2CrNiMoN25-7-4 1.4410
2 6-3
X2CrNiMoCuWN25- X2CrNiMoSi18-5-
1.4501 1.4424
7-4 3
BS EN 10088-3 Stainless Steels -Part 3 Technical delivery conditions for semi-finished products, bars, rods and sections for
general purposes.
This is the corresponding standard for long products, but unlike BS970:1 which is replaces it does not cover forgings. Forgings are
being covered in a separate standard being developed.

Ferritic Steels
X2CrNi12 1.4003 X6Cr17 1.4016 X6CrMo17-1 1.4113
X6Cr13 1.4000 X6CrMoS17 1.4105 X6CrMoTiS18-2 1.4523
Martensitic and Precipitation Hardening Steels
X5CrNiMoCuNb14-
X12Cr13 1.4006 X39Cr13 1.4031 X17CrNi16-2 1.4057 1.4594
5
X12CrS13 1.4005 X46Cr13 1.4034 X3CrNiMo13-4 1.4413 X29CrS13 1.4029
X20Cr13 1.4021 X50CrMoV15 1.4116 X4CrNiMo16-5-1 1.4418 X70CrMo15 1.4109
X30Cr13 1.4028 X14CrMoS17 1.4104 X5CrNiCuNb16-4 1.4542 X105CrMo17 1.4125
X39CrMo17-1 1.4122 X7CrNiAl17-7 1.4568 X90CrMoV18 1.4112
Austenitic Steels
X10CrNi18-8 1.4310 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 1.4404 X2CrNiMoN17-13-5 1.4439 X6CrNiCuS18-9-2 1.4570
X2CrNiMoN17- X3CrNiCuMo17-
X2CrNi18-9 1.4307 1.4406 X3CrNiCu18-9-4 1.4567 1.4578
11-2 11-3-2
X1NiCrMoCu31-
X2CrNi19-11 1.4306 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 1.4401 X1NiCrMoCu25-205 1.4539 1.4563
27-4
X6CrNiMoTi17- X1NiCrMoCuN25-
X2CrNiN18-10 1.4311 1.4571 X6CrNiNb18-10 1.4550 1.4537
12-2 25-5
X6CrNiMoNb17-12- X1NiCrMoCuN20-
X5CrNi18-10 1.4301 X2CrNiMo17-12-3 1.4432 1.4380 1.4547
2 18-7

Strength Of Steels
X2CrNiMoN17- X1NiCrMoCuN25-
X8CrNiS18-9 1.4305 1.4429 X2CrNiMo18-15-4 1.4438 1.4529
13-3 20-7
X6CrNiTi18-10 1.4541 X3CrNiMo17-13-3 1.4436 X1CrNiSi18-15-4 1.4361
X4CrNi18-12 1.4303 X2CrNiMo18-14-3 1.4435 X3CrNiCu19-9-2 1.4560
Austenitic- Ferritic Steels
X3CrNiMoN27-
1.4460 X2CrNiN23-4 1.4362 X2CrNiMoN25-7-4 1.4410 X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 1.4462
5-2
X2CrNiMoN22- X2CrNiMoCuN25- X2CrNiMoVuWN25-
1.4462 1.4507 1.4501
5-3 6-3 6-4
BS EN 10130:1999 Cold Rolled low-carbon steel flat products for cold forming - Technical delivery conditions
Issued 1999
The standard covers cold-rolled not coated low-carbon steel flat products in rolled widths equal to or over 600mm for cold forming
with minimum thickness of 0,36mm and generally less than 3mm thicknes. The material is supplied in sheet, coil, slit coil or cut
lengths -from slit coils or sheet
The information to be supplied by the purchases includes
a) The word sheet, coil,slit coil or cut length
b) The reference of this Standard BS EN 10130 + A1
or the number according to BS EN 10027- 2.
d) The symbol referencing the required surface quality (A or B)
e) If necessary the symbol relating to the surface finish. (b = Bright, g = sem-bright, m = normal, r = rough.
Example: - sheet EN 10130+A1 -DC02 - A - m
Table of steels included in BS EN 10130:1999
DC01 1.0330 DC03 1.0347 DC04 1.0338 DC05 1.0312 DC06 1.0873
BS EN 10213-1:1996 Technical delivery conditions for steel castings for pressure purposes. General
BS EN 10213-2:1996 T.d.c.f.s.c.f.p.p. Steel grades for use at room temperature and at elevated temperature
BS EN 10213-3:1996 T.d.c.f.s.c.f.p.p.. Steels for use at low temperatures
BS EN 10213-4:1996 T.d.c.f.s.c.f.p.p.. Austenitic and austenitic-ferritic steel grades
These standards replace BS 1504: 1976. They include materials for parts subject to pressure vessel construction codes.
The standards applies to castings joined by weld only when the welding is done at the foundry and not when the castings are
welded to wrought steels.
The castings grades are named generally in accordance with BS EN 10027-1 and numbered in accordance with BS EN 10027-2

GP240GR 1.0621 G20Mo5 1.5419 G12MoCrV5-2 1.7720 GX8CrNi12 1.4107

Strength Of Steels
G17CrMoV5-
GP240GH 1.0619 G17CrMo5-5 1.7357 1.7706 GX4CrNi13-4 1.4317
10
GP280GH 1.0625 G17CrMo9-10 1.7379 GX15CrMo5 1.7365 GX23CrMoV12-1 1.4931
GX4CrNiMo16-5-
1.4405
1

G17Mn5 1.1131 G18Mo5 1.5422 G17NiCrMo13-6 1.6781 GX3CrNi13-4 1.6982
G20Mn5 1.6220 G9Ni10 1.5636 G9Ni14 1.5638

GX2CrNi19-11 1.4309 GX2CrNiMo19-11-2 1.4409 GX2NiCrMo28-20-2 1.4458 GX2CrNiMoCuN25-6-3-3 1.4517
GX5CrNi19-10 1.4308 GX5CrNiMo19-11-2 1.4408 GX2CRNiMoN22-5-3 1.4470 GX2CrNiMoN27-7-4 1.4469
GX5CrNiNb19-11 1.4552 GX5CrNiMoNb19-11-2 1.4581
BS EN 10277-1:1999 Bright Steel Products Technical delivery conditions. General

BS EN 10277-2:1999 Bright Steel Products Technical delivery conditions. Steels for general engineering purposes
BS EN 10277-3:1999 Bright Steel Products Technical delivery conditions. Free cutting steels
BS EN 10277-4:1999 Bright Steel Products Technical delivery conditions. Case-hardening steels
BS EN 10277-5:1999 Bright Steel Products Technical delivery conditions. Steels for quenching and tempering
Note: Steel products are defined in BS EN 10079:1992
These standards cover bright steel bars in drawing, turned or ground conditions. They do not cover cold rolled products and cut
lengths from strip or sheet produced by cutting
Part 1 ..General
Drawn products:
These are products of various cross section shapes which are obtained after descaling, by drawing of hot rolled bar or rod on a
draw bench. This involves cold deformation without removing material. This operation gives the product special features with
respect to shape, dimensional accuracy (BS ISO 286 IT11 or better) and surface finish. This process results in cold working on the
material.
Turned products
Round bar produced by turning on a lathe of Cold Drawn steel (Turning Hot rolled steel is not part of this standard). The turning
removes surface defects and carburisation.
Ground /Polished Bar
Cold Drawn and/or Turned bar is ground or polished to improve the surface quality and dimensional accuracy.
This steel is classified in accordance with BS EN 10020 and identified in accordance with the relevant Standard BS EN 10277 parts
2-5.
The steel designation is in accordance with BS EN 10027 -1 and the number is in accordance with BS EN 10027-2

Strength Of Steels
In accordance with this standard the information to be supplied by the purchases includes the following...
a) The quantity to be delivered (mass/number of bars) . e.g. 2t
b) The product shape (round, square, hexagon, flat ) e.g. round
c) The dimensional Standard e.g BS EN 10278
d) The dimensions and tolerances e.g 20mm dia , tolerance h9, stock length 6 000mm
e) Reference to European Standard e.g BS EN 10277-3
f) Steel name -in accordance with BS EN 10027-1 (chemical composition) or number in accordance with BS EN 10027-2. e.g.
38SMn28 (1.0760)
(0.38% Carbon, 0,28% Sulphur - average %'s) or 1.7021
g) Delivery condition e.g +C
h) Class of surface quality e.g class 3
Example...
2t, rounds, BS EN 10278-20h9 x stock 6 000
BS EN 10277-3, 38Smn28 +C-class 3

S235JRG2 1.0122 S355J2G3C 1.0569 C16 1.0407 C45 1.0503
E295GC 1.0533 C10 1.0301 C35 1.0501 C50 1.0540
E355GC 1.0543 C15 1.0401 C40 1.0511 C60 1.0601

No Heat Treatment
11SMn30 1.0715 11SMnPb30 1.0718 11SMn37 1.0736 11SMnPb37 1.0737
Case Hardening
10S20 1.0721 10SPb20 1.0722 15SMn13 1.0725
Direct Hrdening
35S20 1.0726 36SMnPb14 1.0765 44SMn28 1.0762 46SPb10 1.0757
35SPb20 1.0756 38SMn28 1.0760 44SMnPb28 1.0763
36SMn14 1.0764 38SMnPb28 1.0761 46S20 1.0727

17NiCrMoS6-
C10R 1.1207 16MnCrS5 1.7139 16NiCrS4 1.5715 1.6569
4
C15R 1.1140 16MnCrB5 1.7160 15NiCr13 1.5752

Strength Of Steels
20NiCrMoS2-
C16R 1.1208 20MnCrS5 1.7149 1.6526
2

C35E 1.1181 C45E 1.1191 C60E 1.1221 25CrMoS4 1.7213
C35R 1.1149 C45R 1.1201 C60R 1.1223 42CrMoS4 1.7227
C40E 1.1186 C50E 1.1206 35CrS4 1.7037 34CrNiMo6 1.6582
C40R 1.1189 C50R 1.1241 41CrS4 1.7039 51CrV4 1.8159
BS EN 10293:2005. Steel castings for general engineering uses
This standard replaces BS 3100:1991 and includes steels in according to the naming convention in BS EN 10027.
The standard includes cast steels for use in general engineering including machinery , automotive, armament , agriculture etc.
Suffixes are included with the name to identify the heat treatment requirements. i.e +N, +QT etc.
Table of steels included in Standard..

GE200 1.0420 G20Mn6 1.6220 G17CrMo5-5 1.7357 G35NiCrMO6-6 1.6579 G30NiCrMo14 1.6771
GS200 1.0449 G24Mn6 1.1118 G17CrMo9-10 1.7379 G9Ni14 1.5638 GX3CrNi13-4 1.6982
GE240 1.0446 G28Mn6 1.1165 G26CrMo4 1.7221 GX9Ni5 1.5681 GX4CrNi13-4 1.4317
GS240 1.0455 G20Mn5 1.5419 G34CrMo4 1.7230 G20NiMoCr4 1.6750 GX4CrNi16-4 1.4421
GE300 1.0558 G10MnMoV6-3 1.5410 G42CrMo4 1.7231 G32NiCrMo8-5-4 1.6570 GX4CrNiMo16-5-1 1.4405
G17Mn5 1.1131 G15CrMoV6-9 1.7710 G30CrMoV6-4 1.7225 C17NiCrMo13-6 1.6781 GX23CrMoV12-1 1.4931
Outline data on steels selected from BS EN Standards

S275M 1.8818 S355M 1.8823 S420M 1.8825 S460M 1.8827
S275ML 1.8819 S355ML 1.8834 S420ML 1.8836 S460ML 1.8838
Steel Selection links
1. British Stainless Steel Association...Properties /Relevant Standards for Stainless Steels

2. Molybdenum Page...Information on Molybdenum steels
5. Hendrix Group..General Material Information Available
6. Key-To-Steel...An excellent reference site for steel classifications and properties.- registration required for full access
8. Casti Metals Black Book ..Download . A comprehensive reference text on european metals including Ref to latest Standards
9. Introduction to Comparing World Steel Standards ..Download .Useful Notes from ASTM (No equivalent only comparable)
10. Numbering Systems for Metals and Alloys...WNR (German/european) & UNS Numbering system lookup data
11. Namtec... UK Site providing a searchable database of metals -
European Specification Information" European Standard EN 10
12. European structural steel standard EN 10025 : 2004... Corus downloadable technical leaflet
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Matter Index

Strength Of Steels

Strength Of Steels
at your own risk.
ROYMECH
Home
Matter Index
Notes on Steel Standards
Information On Selected British Standard Steels
Important Notes:
All information on this page has been interpreted from the relevent Standard, Books, Other Web Sites, and Leaflets. This information is of a general nature for initial guidance. Selection of
materials for use must be by communication with the suppliers and by reference to the appropriate codes
The values below are not comprehensive and must be used with extreme care.
The strength values e.g. the proof stress and yield stress, reduce as the section increases. In the tables below the relevant sections are often thin and so the strength values are maximum
values. Please refer to the relevant standards for important work..
BS EN 10025 Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels
Note:
The yield stress and the tensile stress vary considerably with the section size.
The lowest values are for the lowest value of the thickest section available
The highest values are for the highest value of the thinnest section (< 3mm for Rm, <= 16mm for ReH)
Yield
Tensile
Stress
Name Number C Mn Si(max) P S Ni Strength Rm Equivalent BS Code
ReH
MPa MPa
S185 1.0035 - - - - - - 175-185 290-540 - -
S235JR 1.0037 0,17 1,40 - 0,045 0,045 0,009 225-235 340-510 - -
S235JRG2 1.0038 0,17 1,40 - 0,045 0,045 0,009 175 - 235 320-510 BS4360 40B
S235J0 1.0114 0.17 1.40 - 0.040 0.040 0.009 175 - 235 320-510 BS4360 40C
S235J2G3 1.0116 0,17 1,40 - 0,035 0,036 - 175 - 235 320 - 510 BS4360 40D
S275JR 1.0044 0,21 1,50 - 0,045 0,045 0,009 205 - 275 380 - 580 BS4360 43B
S275J0 1.0143 0,18 1,50 - 0,040 0,040 0,009 205 - 275 380 - 580 BS4360 43C
S275J2G3 1.0144 0,18 1,50 - 0,035 0,035 - 205 - 275 380 - 580 BS4360 43D
S355JR 1.045 0,24 1,60 0,55 0,045 0,045 0,009 275 - 355 450 - 680 BS4360 50B
S355J0 1.0553 0,2 1,60 0,55 0,04 0,04 0,009 275 - 355 450 - 680 BS4360 50C
S355J2G3 1.0570 0,2 1,6 0,55 0,35 0,35 - 275 - 355 450 - 680 BS4360 50D
BS EN 10028 Flat products made of Steel for Pressure Purposes

Yield Tensile
Name Number C Mn Si P S Ni Stress Re Strength Rm Equivalent BS Code
MPa MPa
0,4 -
P235GH - 0,16 - - - - 235 360-480 BS 1501 164-360
1,2
0,5 -
P265GH - 0,2 - - - - - 390- BS 1501 -
1,4
0,08 - 0,9 -
P295GH - - - - - 295 460-580 BS 1501 -
0,2 1,5
BS EN 10083-1 Quenched and Tempered Steels - Special Steels
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Strength Of Steels
Note:
The yield stress and the tensile strength are for dia /thickness <= 16mm (Normalised)
Thicker sections have lower strengths
Strength values are for Quench and Tempered conditions.
Proof Tensile
Si P Cr Mo Ni Stress Strength Equivalent
Name... Number C Mn S(max) Code
(max) (max) (max) (max) (max) Re Rm (min) BS
MPa MPa
C22E 1.1151 0,17 - 0,24 0,40 0,40 -0,70 0,35 0,35 0,40 0,10 0,40 340 500 -650 - -
C22R 1.1149 0,17- 0,24 0,40 0,40-0,70 0,35 0,20-0,40 0,40 0,10 0,40 340 500-650 - -
C35E 1.1181 0,32-0,39 0,40 0,50-0,80 0,35 0,35 0,40 0,10 0,40 430 630 -780 - -
C35R 1.1180 0,32-0,39 0,40 0,50-0,80 0,35 0,20-0,40 0,40 0,10 0,40 430 630-780 - -
C45E 1.1191 0,42-0,50 0,40 0,50-0,80 0,35 0,35 0,40 0,10 0,40 490 700-850 - -
C45R 1.1201 0,42-0,50 0,40 0,50-0,80 0,35 0,20-0,40 0,40 0,10 0,40 490 700-850 - -
C60E 1.1221 0,57-0,65 0,40 0,60-0,90 0,35 0,35 0,40 0,10 0,40 580 850-1000 - -
C60R 1.1223 0,57-0,65 0,40 0,60-0,90 0,35 0,20-0,40 0,40 0,10 0,40 580 850-1000 - -
0,90-
34Cr4 1.7033 0,30-0,37 0,40 0,60-0,90 0,35 0,35 - - 700 900-1100 - -
1,20
0,90-
34CrS4 1.7037 0,30-0,37 0,40 0,60-0,90 0,35 0,20-0,40 - - 700 900-1100 - -
1,20
BS EN 10083-2 Quenched and Tempered Steels - Unalloyed Steels
Note:
Note:
The yield stress and the tensile strength are for (Normalised)dia /thickness <= 16mm and (Q & T) dia <= 16mm and Thickness t <=
8mm (Q & T)
Thicker sections have lower strengths
Strength values (QT) are quench and tempered. (N) values are normalized..
Proof Tensile
Si Cr Mo Ni Stress Strength Equivalent
Name.. Number C Mn P(max) S(max) R e Rm (min) BS Code
(max) (max) (max) (max)
MPa MPa
340
0,17- 0,40- 500(QT)
C22 1.0402 0,4 0,045 0,045 0,04 0,10 0,40 (QT) - -
0,24 0,70 430(N)
240(N)
370
0,22- 0,40- 260 (QT)
C25 1.0406 0,4 0,045 0,045 0,04 0,10 0,40 (QT) - -
0,29 0,70 470(N)
240(N)
400
0,27- 0,50- 600 (QT)
C30 1.0528 0,4 0,045 0,045 0,04 0,10 0,40 (QT) - -
0,34 0,80 510(N)
280(N)
460
0,37- 0,50- 650 (QT)
C40 1.0511 0,4 0,045 0,045 0,04 0,10 0,40 (QT) - -
0,44 0,80 580(N)
320(N)
520
0,47- 0,60- 750 (QT)
C50 1.0540 0,4 0,045 0,045 0,04 0,10 0,40 (QT) - -
0,55 0,90 650(N)
355(N)
580
0,57- 0,60- 850 (QT)
C60 1.0601 0,4 0,045 0,045 0,04 0,10 0,40 (QT) - -
0,65 0,90 710(N)
380(N)

Strength Of Steels
BS EN 10087:1999 Free cutting steels
Note:
The yield stress and the tensile stress vary considerably with the section size.
The lowest values are for the lowest value of the thickest section (>63mm, =< 100mm)
The highest values are for the highest value of the thinnest section (>=5mm, <=10mm )
For the relevant steel the strength values relate to the Hardened and Tempered condition.
Yield
Tensile
Stress
Name Number C Si Mn P S Pb Strength Rm Equivalent BS Code
Re
MPa MPa
Steels which are not heat treated
0,90- 0,27 -
11SMn30 1.0715 <= 0,14 0,05 0,11 - - 360 - 570 BS 970-3 230M07
1,30 0,33
0,10 - 0,34 - 0,20 -
11SMnPb37 1.0737 <=0,14 0,05 0,11 - 360 - 570 - -
1,50 0,40 0,35
Case Hardened Steels
0,07 - 0,70 - 0,15 -
10S20 1.0721 0,40 0,06 - - 360 - 530 - -
0,13 1,10 0,25
0,12 - 0,90 - 0,08-
15SMn13 1.0725 0,40 0,06 - - 420-610 - -
0,18 1,30 0,18
Direct Hardening Steels
0,32 - 0,70 - 0,15 - 320 -
35S20 1.0726 0,40 0,06 - 550-780 BS 970 EN 8M
0,39 1,10 0,25 430
0,32 - 1,30 - 0,10- 360 -
36SMn14 1.0764 0,40 0,06 - 570 - 850 - -
0,39 1,70 0,18 480
0,35 - 1,20 - 0,24 - 380 -
38SMn28 1.0760 0,40 0,06 - 630 - 850 - -
0,40 1,50 0,33 480
0,40 - 1,30 - 0,24 - 400 -
44SMn28 1.0762 0,40 0,06 - 700 - 850 - -
0,48 1,70 0,33 520
0,42 - 0,70 - 0,15 - 370 -
46S20 1.0727 0,40 0,06 - 630 - 850 - -
0,48 1,10 0,25 490
BS EN 10088 Stainless Steels ..Part 2 sheet/plate and strip ..Part 3 bars, rods and sections
Proof Tensile
C Si Mn P Stress Strength Equivalent
Name................ Number S N Cr Cu Mo Ni Rp0.2 Rm Code
(max) (max) (max) max) BS
MPa MPa
BS1449-2
X6Cr17 1.4016 0,08 1,00 1,00 0,040 =< 0,03 - 16-18 - - - 240 400-630 430S17
BS 970-3
400-
X6Cr13 1.4000 0,08 1,00 1,00 0,040 =<0,03 - 12-14 - - - 230 BS1449-2 403S17
630
650-
0,08- 11,5- =< 450 BS1449-2
X12Cr13 1.4006 1,00 1,50 0,040 =< 0,03 - - - 650 410S21
0,15 13,5 0,75 (HT) BS 970-3
(HT)
=< 17,0- 8,0- BS1449-2
X5CrNi18-10 1.4301 0,07 1,0 2,0 0,045 0,030 - - 190 500-700 304S31
0,11 19,5 10,5 BS 970-3
18,0- 10,0- BS1449-2
X2CrNi19-11 1.4306 0,03 1,0 2,0 0,045 0,030 =< 0,11 - - 180 460-680 304S11
20,0 12,0 BS 970-3

Strength Of Steels
17,5- BS1449-2
X2CrNi18-9 1.4307 0,03 1,00 2,00 0,045 =< 0,03 =< 0,11 - - 8-10 175 450-680 304S11
19,50 BS 970-3
X5CrNiMo17- 16,5 2,0- 10 - 500 - BS1449-2
1.4401 0,07 1,00 2,00 0,045 =< 0,03 =< 0,11 - 200 316S31
12-2 - 18,5 2,5 13 700 BS 970-3
X2CrNiMo17- 16,5- 2,0- 10- BS1449-2
1.4404 0,030 1,00 2,00 0,045 =< 0,03 =< 0,11 - 200 500-700 316S11
12-2 18,5 2,5 13 BS 970-3
BS1449-2
X6CrNiTi18-10 1.4541 0,08 1,00 2,00 0,045 =< 0,03 - 17-19 - - 9-12 190 500-700 321S31
BS 970-3
X1NiCrMoCu25- 1,2- 24 -
1.4539 0,020 0,70 2,0 0030 0,010 0,15 19-21 4-5 230 530-730 BS1449-2 310S24
20-5 2,0 26
BS EN 10130 Cold rolled low carbon steel products
Tensile
Yield
Strength Equivalent
Name Number C P S(max) Mn Ti Stress Re Code
Rm BS
MPa MPa
DC01 1.0330 0,12 0,045 0,045 0,060 - 140-280 270-410 - -
DC03 1.0347 0,10 0,035 0,035 0,045 - 140-240 270-370 - -
DC04 1.0338 0,08 0,030 0,030 0,040 - 140-210 270-350 - -
DC05 1.0312 0,06 0,025 0,025 0,035 - 140-180 270-330 - -
BS EN 10277 Bright Steel Products- Pt 2 Steels for general engineering
Note:
The proof stress and the tensile stress values are for Cold drawn bar.
The lowest values are for the lowest value of the thickest section (>63mm, =< 100mm).
The highest values are for the highest value of the thinnest section (>=5mm, <=10mm )
Proof Tensile
Stress Strength Equivalent
Name................ Number C Si Mn P S N Cr Mo Ni Rp0.2 Rm Code
Old BS
MPa MPa
215-
S235JRG2 1.0122 0,17max 1,40max - 0,045 0,045 0,009 - - - 340-840 - -
355
255- 470 -
E335GC 1.0543 - - - 0,045 0,045 0,009 - - - - -
510 950
0,07- 0,30- 180 - 320 -
C10 1.0301 0,40 0,45 0,45 - - - - - -
0,13 0,60 350 760
0,32- 0,50- 270 - 520 -
C35 1.0501 0,40 0,45 0,45 - 0,40 0,10 0,40 - 060A35
0,39 0,80 510 1000
0,42- 0,50- 310 - 580 -
C45 1.0503 0,40 0,45 0,45 - 0,40 0,10 0,40 - 080M46
0,50 0,80 565 1050
0,57- 0,60- 480 - 730 -
C60 1.0601 0,40 0,45 0,45 - 0,40 0,10 0,40 - 080A62
0,65 0,90 630 1150

Strength Of Steels
Steel Selection links
1. British Stainless Steel Association...Properties /Relevant Standards for Stainless Steels

2. Molybdenum Page...Information on Molybdenum steels
5. Hendrix Group..General Material Information Available
6. Key-To-Steel...An excellent reference site for steel classifications and properties.- registration required for full access
8. Casti Metals Black Book ..Download . A comprehensive reference text on european metals including Ref to latest Standards
9. Introduction to Comparing World Steel Standards ..Download .Useful Notes from ASTM (No equivalent only comparable)
10. Numbering Systems for Metals and Alloys...WNR (German/european) & UNS Numbering system lookup data
11. Namtec... UK Site providing a searchable database of metals - European Specification Information
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Notes on Steel Standards

Ferrous
ROYMECH
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Ferrous Metals
Introduction
Iron and its alloys is the most widely used material used in mechanical engineering. This page include
notes on the different methods used to produce the metal from the raw materials.
General
Pig Iron and recycled scrap metal is the basic feedstock to all the iron steel making processes. Pig Iron is generally produced continuously in blast
furnaces from a feedstock of iron ore, coke, lime etc. The resulting pig iron is impure with a carbon content at about 4% and up to 4% total of silicon,
manganese, phosphorous and sulphur. The pig iron and scrap are used to produce cast iron, and steel.
The various products produced from iron alloyed mainly with carbon and silicon are identified with respect to their contents in the chart below....
CAST IRON......Cast Iron Notes
Cast Irons are a family of ferrous metals with a wide range of properties produced by being cast into
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Iron_Steel_Forms.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:26:38 AM

Ferrous
shape as opposed by being formed. " Cast Irons contain 2% to 4% Carbon and 1% to 3% Silicon. Other
elements are used to control specific properties. Cast irons have a wide range of mechanical properties
which make them suitable for use in structural components and components used for bearings. The
wide spread use of cast iron is as a result of its low cost and versatile properties.
WROUGHT IRON
Wrought Iron is no longer produced in commercial quantities, the wrought iron that survives contains less
than 0,035 percent carbon. It therefore consists essentially of ferrite, but its strength and malleability are
reduced by entrained puddling slag, which is elongated into stringers by rolling. As a result, breaking a
bar of wrought iron reveals a fibrous fracture not unlike that of wood. The other elements present are
silicon (0,075 to 0,15 percent), sulfur (0,01 to 0,2 percent), phosphorus (0,1 to 0,25 percent), and
manganese (0,05 to 0,1 percent). This relative purity is the reason why wrought iron has a reputation for
good corrosion resistance.
STEEL .....Plain Carbon Steel Notes
Steel is by definition an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content ranges up to 2 percent (with
a higher carbon content, the material is defined as cast iron). By far the most widely used material for
building the world's infrastructure and industries, it is used to fabricate everything from pins to oil tankers.
The main reasons for the popularity of steel are the relatively low cost of making, forming, and processing
it, the abundance of its two raw materials (iron ore and scrap), and its unparalleled range of mechanical
properties.
The three major steelmaking processes are--basic oxygen, open hearth, and electric arc, the first two,
with few exceptions, use liquid blast-furnace iron and scrap as raw material and the latter uses a solid
charge of scrap and dri (direct reduced iron). The products of the steelmaking process are continuous
cast section ready for hot rolling and cast billets for further processing.
ALLOY STEEL........Alloy Steels Notes
Plain carbon steel is produced with a wide range of mechanical properties with comparatively low
cost. To extent the range of properties of steel alloys have been developed. The benefits resulting
include
● The maximum UTS is increased

● Thick sections steels are available with high hardness throughout the section
● More controllable quenching with minimum risk of shape distortion or cracking
● Improved impact resistance at high temperature range
● Improved corrosion resistance
● Improved high temperature performance
The principle elements that are used in producing alloy steel include nickel, chromium, molydenenum,
manganese, silicon and vanadium. Cobalt , copper and lead are also used as alloying elements.
Cast Steels..

Ferrous
Reference Standards
BS 3100:1991 ...Specification for steel castings for general engineering purposes:
BS EN 10213-1:1996...Technical delivery conditions for steel castings for pressure purposes.
General
BS EN 10213-2:1996...Technical delivery conditions for steel castings for pressure purposes. Steel
grades for use at room temp. and at elevated temp.
BS EN 10213-3:1996...Technical delivery conditions for steel castings for pressure purposes. Steels
for use at low temperatures
BS EN 10213-4:1996...Technical delivery conditions for steel castings for pressure purposes.
Austenitic and austenitic-ferritic steel grades
BS 3146-1:1974 ...Specification for investment castings in metal. Carbon and low alloy steels
Steel castings are normally used in the anealed or normalised state. However when higher strength
steels or steels with other enhanced properties are required a full regime of heat treatment options are
available. Low carbon steel castings are often produced for case hardened products which have hard
surfaces with tough ductile cores.
Similar steel and steel alloy specifications are available to those for Forged and drawn steel
products. The notes provided for carbon steel and alloy steel generally apply for cast steel
Steel castings are chosen in preference to wrought steel products when complicated shapes are
required. The casting process eliminates expensive forging operations. Casting can also provide
significant benefits compared to welded fabrications and welding operations with their inherent strength
and fatigue problems. Casting has significant benefits when medium to large quantities of components
are required. The cost of the pattern is then offset against the savings resulting from batch production
Components designed for steel castings should follow good principles
● The requirements of the casting process are considered e.g. the method of supporting the cores, vent provisions, and pattern split lines.
● Castings should be of uniform thickness - no adjacent thick and thin sections
● Generous fillets should be used
● Ensure that allowances included for core movement and swelling is providing in machining allowances
● ensure sufficient machining allowances are provided for distortion of the casting
It is important to note that thin sections are generally stronger than thick section and casting design and
heat treatment processes should be optimised to ensure that the final manufactured cast item has
acceptable physical properties throughout.
Steel castings as cast have relatively low fatigue resistance withan endurance ratio (fatigue strength/
ultimate strength) as low a 0,4. This ratio can be improved by heat treatment and improvement of the
surface finish. Low and medium alloy steels have a slightly improved endurance ratio compared to plain
carbon steels

Ferrous
1. British Stainless Steel Association

2. Encylopaedea Britannica
3. Steelmatter
4. Australian Stainless Steel Development Association... Very Good Information on Stainless Steel
5. Key-To-Steel ... An excellent reference site for steel classifications and properties.- registration required for full access
6. Iron and Steel manufacture ...A very good Article on iron and steel
7. ADI Treatments Ltd ...Experts in Austempered Ductile Iron manufacturing, castings and uses. Substantial reference information provided
8. Steel for many purposes ...School Science back to basics for clear understanding of the principles
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Properties of Copper Alloys
ROYMECH
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Copper Alloy Properties
Introduction
Copper is an important engineering material since it is widely used in its pure state and also in alloys with other metals. In
its pure state it is the most important material in the electrical industry. It has high electrical conductivity and corrosion
resistance and is easy to fabricate. It has reasonable tensile strength, controllable annealing properties and general
soldering and joining characteristics. Alloyed copper in the form of brass, and bronze is used extensively throughout the
mechanical engineering industry.
Copper alloys do not have a sharply defined yield point, so yield strength is reported either as 0.5% extension under load,
or as 0.2% offset or 0,05% offset. On the basis (0.5% extension), yield strength of annealed material is approximately
one-third the tensile strength. As the material is cold worked or hardened, it becomes less ductile, and yield strength
approaches tensile strength.
Copper is specified according to temper, which is established by cold working or annealing. Typical levels are: soft, half-
hard, hard, spring, and extra-spring. Yield strength of a hard-temper copper is approximately two-thirds of tensile
strength. For brasses, phosphor bronzes, or other commonly cold-worked grades, the hardest available tempers are also
the strongest. Ductility is sacrificed, of course, to gain strength. Copper-beryllium alloys can be precipitation hardened to
the highest strength levels attainable in copper-base alloys.
Relevant Standards
1. BS EN 1976:1998..Copper and copper alloys. Cast unwrought copper products

2. BS EN 1978:1998..Copper and copper alloys. Copper cathodes
3. CEN 133/TC European numbering system (in preparation)ref .European Numbering System for Non-Ferrous Metals
4. BS EN 1412:1996 :Copper and copper alloys. European numbering system
5. BS EN 1173:1996: Copper and copper alloys. Material condition or temper designation
6. BS EN 1982:1999:Copper and copper alloys. Ingots and castings
Sample Unalloyed Wrought Copper Properties

Notes: The values shown are for general guidance only for detailed values refer to standards, and supplier literature..
The mechanical property ranges from minimum (No temper- anealed) to maximum (Full temper)
Unalloyed Copper
0.2%
Tensile ISO
Number Cu P Pb Sn Zn Notes Proof Elong'n
Strength spec'n
Strength
% % % % % MPa MPa %
Suitable for conductors/fabricated Cu-
CW004A 99.9 50-340 200-400 50-5
electrical components - not in reducing atm's ETP
General engineering and building Cu-
CW006A 99.9 50-340 200-400 50-5
applications - not in red atm's. FRTP
Oxygen-free version of Cu-ETP for use in
CW008A 99.95 50-340 200-400 50-5 Cu-OF
red'g atmos's.
Brass
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Copper_Alloys.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:26:43 AM

The copper-zinc brasses consist of a series of alloys of copper up to about 40% Zinc. The property of the alloy varies as
the zinc percentage changes. One of the most useful alloys is the 70%Cu and 30% Zn alloy is famed for its deep-drawing
ability. This alloy is known as cartridge brass. It is also used for radiator cores, tanks, lamp fixtures etc. Copper-Zinc
brasses containing additional elements such as tin, aluminium, silicon, manganese, nickel, and lead are referred to as
"alloy brasses". These alloys alloy further property enhancements to enable the brasses to be used for a wider range of
applications.
Sample Wrought Brass Properties

Brass
0.2%
Tensile ISO
Number Cu P Pb Sn Zn Notes Proof Elong'n
Strength spec'n
Strength
% % % % % MPa MPa %
94.0- Very good cold working properties
CW500L Rem. 60-420 240-420 45-4 CuZn5
96.0 for electrical
71.0- Very good cold working properties
CW504L Rem. 120-420 310-500 30-2 CuZn28
73.0 for extreme deep drawing
59.5- Muntz metal - good hot and cold
CW509L Rem. 200-420 340-500 45-2 CuZn40
61.5 working properties.
Sample Wrought Leaded Brass Properties

Leaded Brass
0.2%
Tensile
Number Cu P Pb Sn Zn Notes Proof Elong'n ISO spec'n
Strength
Strength
% % % % % MPa MPa %
60.0- 2.5- 2.5- These alloys have excellent machinability
CW603N Rem. 160-450 340-580 35-5 CuZn36Pb3
62.0 3.5 3.5 but very limited cold workability
61.0- 1.6- Good machinability.Reasonable cold
CW606N Rem. 160-450 300-580 45-5 CuZn37Pb2
62.0 2.5 working.
59.0- 0.2-
CW610N Rem. Machinable, Good cold working, 150-450 360-580 40-5 CuZn39Pb0.5
60.5 0.8
Copper-Tin Bronze
Alloys consisting of principally copper and tin are properly called "tin bronzes". since phosphorous is usually added to
these alloys as a deoxidising agent during casting, the tin bronzes are commercially known as "phosphur bronzes". These
alloys possess desireable properties such as high strength, wear resistance, and good sea water resistance.
Sample Wrought Tin Bronze Properties

Tin Bronze
0.2%
Tensile
Number Cu P Pb Sn Zn Notes Proof Elong'n ISO Spec'n
Strength
Strength
% % % % % MPa MPa %
0.01- 3.5- Strength increases as tin content
CW450K Rem. 140-850 320-950 60-1 CuSn4
0.4 4.5 increases. Good

0.01- 5.5- Springs, instrument components, 340-

CW452K Rem. 140-950 60-1 CuSn6
0.4 7.0 wire 1000
0.2- 0.1- 7.5-
CW460K Rem. 280-550 460-650 40-5 CuSn8PbP
0.4 0.5 9.0
Sample Wrought Copper Aluminium properties

Copper Aluminium
0.2%
Tensile
Number Cu Al Fe Ni As Mn Notes Proof Elong'n ISO Spec'n
Strength
Strength
% % % % % % MPa MPa %
Alpha phase alloy for tube
4.0- 0.1-
CW300G Rem. - making. 130 380 55 CuAl5As
6.5 0.4
May beheavily cold worked
9.0- 2.0- 1.5- High strength alloys for usein
CW306G Rem. 330-510 600-720 15-5 CuAl10Fe3Mn2
11.0 4.0 3.5 aggressive media when
10.5- 5.0- 5.0- High Strength, Good wear &
CW308G Rem. - 500-680 750-850 10-5 CuAl11Fe6Ni6
12.5 7.0 7.0 impact strength.
Sample Wrought Copper Nickel alloy properties

Copper Nickel
0.2%
Tensile
Number Cu Al Fe Ni As Mn Notes Proof Elong'n ISO Spec'n
Strength
Strength
% % % % % % MPa MPa %
24.0-
CW350H Rem. UK 'silver' coinage alloy. 120 300 - CuNi25
26.0
1.0- 9.0- 0.5- Excellent sea-water corrosion
CW352H Rem. 100-420 290-520 35-8 CuNi10Fe1Mn
2.0 11.0 1.0 resistance.
Excellent sea-water
0.4- 30.0- 0.5-
CW354H Rem. corrosion resistance. Erosion 130-330 350-520 35-12 CuNi30Mn1Fe
1.0 32.0 1.5
resistant
Links Providing information on Copper
1. Copper Development Association - UK...An excellent UK based reference source

2. Copper Organisation... An excellent reference site
3. Brass Advisory Service.. Information on Brass
4. Precision Steel.. Supplier -Flat Rolled Products
5. Key-To-Metal... Reference site for non-ferrous metal classifications and properties.- registration required for full access
7. Anchor Bronze and Metals Inc...US Supplier - Comprehensive database Incl. Properties
Made-To-Measure copper allows...A table showing related international specifications

8. Saudi Mechanical Industries C....Extensive range of copper allows with properties
9. Lager Metals AB...Bronze and Bearings Specialist- Includes lots of material specifications
10. Granta Copper Alloys...Very good look up table
11. Table 4: Wrought Copper Alloys... Download (CDA)– Conversion of Old BS into EN Material Designations

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Matter Index

Aluminium Alloys
ROYMECH
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Matter Index
Aluminium Alloys
Introduction
Aluminium is the most widely used metal in engineering apart from iron. The reason the aluminium is widely used is because the
combination of properties makes it one of the most versatile of engineering and construction materials. Aluminium is light in
weight, yet some of its alloys have strengths greater than that of structural steel. It has good electrical and thermal conductivities
and high reflectivity to both heat and light. It is highly corrosion resistant under a great many service conditions and is nontoxic.
Aluminium can be cast,extruded forged, drawn, hot rolled and cold rolled.
CEN identification of Aluminium Alloys

The European numbering system (ref BS EN 573-1:1995 ) identifies the alloy using an identification starting with AW :
A for Aluminium and W for Wrought alloys ...(AB/AC for Cast Alloys-ref BS EN 1706 /BS EN 1780 ).
This is followed by number ranges for indicating groups of alloys.
Work Hardening Alloys
● En AW-1xxx Pure Aluminium (>99%)

● En AW-3xxx...Aluminium Manganese Alloys AlMn
● En AW-4xxx.. Aluminium Silicon Allosy AlSi
● En AW-5xxx..Aluminium-Magnesium alloys AlMg
Heat Treatable Alloys
● En AW-2xxxx Aluminium Cu alloys AlCu

● En AW-6xxx...Aluminium Magesium Silicon alloys AlMg Si
● En AW-7xxx.. Aluminium Zinc Magnesioum alloys AlZnMg
The alloy condition, or temper as covered in BS EN 515, is denoted by a suffix to the alloy code:
● O for Anealed
● F as fabricated,
● T for heat treatments.
(The T is followed be a number of digits identifying in some detail the heat treament i.e. •The first digit is a precise sequence of events. •Subsequent digits: indicate a
variation in treatment which significantly alters the characteristics of the product with respect to the original temper.
● H for Strain Hardened material supply.
(The H is followed be a number of digits i.e. • First digit: type of treatment. • Second digit: the final degree of strain-hardening, where 8 is normally the hardest (e.g. 4 = half
hard). • Third digit: (when used) a variation of a two-digit temper.)
Pure Aluminium
Commercially pure aluminium varies from about 99,3% to 99,7% Al. The higher purity Aluminium is selected for use as electrical
conductors and reflector sheets. Lower-purity alloys with iron an copper added as necessary is relatively soft and ductile with
excellent workability and weldability
Aluminium is an important material in a large cross section of industries. It is suitable for forming, welding and machining and
provides the following advantages;
● Non - Magnetic
● Good electrical conductivity; about 60% that of Copper but reduced by the presence of alloying elements
● Highly economic to recycle
● High specific strength
● High corrosion fatigue resistance
● Low specific gravity approximately 1/3 of steel
Although available in a number of grades, Aluminium can be divided into two major categories of wrought alloys
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Aluminium_alloys.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:26:46 AM

Aluminium Alloys
Work Hardening Alloys

These alloys ie., Non heat treatable, include commercially pure aluminium and the alloys including manganese or magnesium.
These alloys can be fully or partly softened by annealing at 350 - 400 deg Celcius.
A small number of typical example aluminium allows are listed below. The links on this page include much more comprehensive
information..
Grade. Cond'n Al Mg Mn Fe Si Cu Zn Cr Ti Rp.02 Rm E Notes
wt
wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% MPa >MPa GPa
%
Packaging,
AW-1200 0 > 99% < 0.05 <=0,05 <=0,1 - <= 0,05 25 90 69 foils,
Miscellaneous
<=
AW-1200 Hx4 > 99% < 0.05 <=0,05 - <= 0,05 100 120 69
0,1
Building
1,0- <= <=
AW-3003 0 Remain <=0,6 0,05 - 0,2 - - 50 110 69,5 Industry,
1,5 0,7 0,10
Roofing etc
1,0 - <= <=
AW-3003 Hx6 Remain <=0,6 0,05 - 0,2 - - 165 180 69,5
1,5 0,7 0,10
Building
<= <= <= <=
AW-5005 0 Remain 0,5-1,1 <= 0,2 <= 0,10 - 45 120 69,5 Industry,
0,2 0,7 0,2 0,25
Roofing etc
<= <= <=
AW-5005 Hx6 Remain 0,5-1,1 <= 0,2 <= 0,2 <= 0,10 - 165 180 69,5
0,7 0,2 0,25
Structures
0,2- <= <= <= and
AW-5086 0 Remain 3,45 - 4,5 <= 0,1 0,05-0,25 <= 0,15 130 275 71
0,7 0,5 0,4 0,25 equipment,
Piping, tanks
0,2- <= <= <= 0,05 -
AW-5086 Hx6 Remain 3,45-4,5 <= 0,1 <= 0,15 280 345 71
0,7 0,5 0,4 0,25 0,25
Heat Treatable Alloys
Heat treatable alloys or precipitation hardening alloys include copper, magnesium, zinc and silicon as important constituents.
A small number of typical example aluminium allows are listed below. The links on this page include much more comprehensive
information..
Grade. Cond'n Al Mg Mn Fe Si Cu Zn Cr Ti Rp.02 Rm E Notes
wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% MPa >MPa GPa
Screws, Nuts,
5,0 - <=
AW-2011 T3 Remain - <=0,4 - - 290 365 72,5 Machined
6,0 0,3
components
5,0 - <=
AW-2011 T6 Remain - <=0,4 - - 300 395 72,5
6,0 0,3
Aluminium
0,25- 1,0 - <= <=
AW-6016 0 Remain <=0,2 <=0,5 <= 0,2 <= 1,15 50 100 69,5 Car Body
0,6 1,5 0,20 0,1
sheets
0,25- 1,0 - <= <=
AW-6016 T5 Remain <=0,2 <=0,5 <= 0,2 <= 1,15 185 220 69,5
0,6 1,5 0,20 0,1

Aluminium Alloys
Welded
1,0- 0,05 - 4,0 - 0,1 - ** Structural
AW-7020 0 Remain <=0,4 <=0,35 <=0,2 80 180 70
1,4 0,5 5,0 0,35 0,08 - 0,2 Components,
(**Zr + Ti)
1,0- 0,05 - 4,0 - 0,1 - **
AW-7020 T5 Remain <= 0,4 <= 0,35 <= 0,2 315 375 70
1,4 0,5 5,0 0,35 0,08 - 0,2
Specifications
A table of reference British Standards is located at Aluminium Standards
Links Providing information on Aluminium
1. Aluselect.. Excellent source of data on aluminium alloys to European standards

2. European Aluminium Association..A site providingtechnical information and references.
3. Aluminium Matter org..A site providing links and information joint Liverpool University and EAA.
4. Angelfire.. As site devoted to Aluminium
5. Key-To-Metal An excellent reference site for non-ferrous metal classifications and properties.- registration required for full access
6. Severn Metals A Supplier with useful information on material designations
7. Alubook A lexical knowledge about aluminium
8. AALCO A UK metals supplier- Site includes lots of useful Techical Data Sheets and specifications
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Matter Index

Properties of Titanium
ROYMECH
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Matter Index
Titanium Alloy Properties
Introduction
Titanium does not occur free in Nature. However, when combined with other elements, it is quite
abundant, occurring in small amounts in most of the volcanic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Its more important minerals are ilmenite, rutile, arizonite (iron titanate), brookite, anatase, leucochene
(titanium dioxide), perovskite (calcium titanate), and others. The first two have commercial importance,
and can be found in deposits spread all over the world. There are important rutile and ilmenite deposits in
Australia, Argentina, USA, Central Africa, Brazil, Canada, Egypt, India and Norway. The largest well-
known deposits of rutile are located in Australia.
Titanium and its alloys are relatively new engineering metals since they have been in use only since
about 1952. They are extremely attractive materials for engineers because they have a high strength to
weight ratio, high elevated temperature properties to about 550oC, and excellent corrosion resistance
particularly in oxidising acids and chloride media. This metal is being increasingly used for marine
applications. Its resistance to seawater attack combined with its mechanical properties make it a prime
choice for equipment operating within the sea or transferring seawater.
Titanium is not an 'exotic' metal, it is the fourth most abundant structural metal in the earth's crust, and
the ninth industrial metal. This metal has become the prime selection for a wide range of critical and
demanding applications.
Pure Titanium
Titanium is a light metal having a density of about 4540 kg/m3. This compares to steel at 7900 kg/m3 and
Aluminium at 2710kg/m3. Titanium has a melting point of about 1668oC which is higher than iron
at1560oC. Titanium has a Modulus of Elasticity of 110 x 109 Pa. compared to steel at 210 x 109 Pa.
Therefore Titanium has a significantly high deflection under the same load than steel. Pure Titanium can
be cold rolled to 90% reduction in thickness at room temperatures without cracking.
There are a number of grades of commercially pure (unalloyed) titanium as identified in ASTM B265
(Gr,1,2,3,4,7,11,and 12) (see table below for Gr 1 to 4)). Each grade has a different amount of impurity
content (Grade 1 have lowest impurities). Grade 1 to 4 are classified as pure even though grade 4 is
much stronger and less ductile than grade 1. Grade 4 contains higher levels of oxygen which is
classified ( for pure titanium ) as an alloying element. Oxygen and Nitrogen and Carbon are all interstitial
alloys (they insert themselves in the crystal intertices of the crystals an prevent relative sliding). They
therefore increase the hardness and reduce the ductility. Oxygen is the main element controlling the
strength of unalloyed titanium.
Titanium Alloys
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Titanium.html (1 of 5)10/24/2006 11:26:49 AM

Titanium Alloys are generally divided into three groups (Alpha, Alpha-Beta and Beta). The Alpha group
contain most importantly aluminum and tin. They can also contain molybdenum, zirconium, nitrogen,
vanadium, columbium, tantalum, and silicon. Alpha alloys are not suitable for heat treatment. Alpha
alloys are used for aircraft parts and cryogenic equipment.
The Alpha-Beta group can be strengthened by heat treatment. The alloys are used in aircraft and aircraft
turbine parts, chemical processing equipment, marine hardware.
The Beta Alloys have good hardenability. Beta alloys are slightly more dense than other titanium alloys,
having densities ranging from 4800 to 5050 kg/m3. They are the least creep resistant alloys, they are
weldable, and can have yield strengths up to 1345 x 106 Pa.(Solution treated and age hardened) Beta
alloys are the smallest group. They are used for heavier duty purposes on aircraft.
Information Tables
The tables below are based on USA ASTM Grades which seem to be the most popular. I also have
information on CEN (European grades). These are not as popular and I have not included them at this
stage. This information is not detailed and I will attempt to improve its quality over time. Please use the
links below for better information.
ASTM
Notes
B265
Unalloyed Titanium..Main use in heat exchangers, Airframes, Chemical:
Grade
desalination and marine parts: Plate-type heat exchangers: cold spun or
1
pressed parts : Platinised anodes: High formability
Unalloyed Titanium. Airframes, aircraft engines: marine chemical parts:
Grade
heat exchangers: condenser and evaporator tubing. Good combination of
2
strength, formability, ductility and weldability.
Grade Unalloyed Titanium. Chemical, marine, airframe and aircraft engine parts
3 which require formability strength, weldability and corrosion resistance.
The highest strength pure unalloyed Titanium: Chemical, marine, airframe
Grade and aircraft engine parts: surgical implants: high speed fans: gas
4 compressors: Used in hydraulic and instrumentation tubing: good
formability and corrosion resistance combined with high strength.
Titanium alloy. 6% aluminium, 4% vanadium.:Popular alpha-beta, medium
strength alloy : Main uses - airframe and turbine engine parts (blades,
Grade
discs, wheels, spacer rings)' ordnance equipment: pressure vessels:
5
rocket motor cases. Also used for surgical appliances, implants, pressure
vessels & airframes.
Grade
--
6
Unalloyed Titanium plus 0.12% to 0.25% palladium. Medium strength:
Grade
Comments: Industrial alloy with superior corrosion resistance. standard
7
oxygen. Good corrosion resistance in reducing and oxidising environments.

Titanium Alpha-Beta phase alloy including 3% aluminium and 2.5%

vanadium. High strength and corrosion resistance. Aerospace,
Grade
petrochemical, hydraulic & instrumentation tubing, sports and subsea
9
applications, pressure vessels, honeycomb foil: Normally used in cold-
worked stress-relieved condition. Weldable
Unalloyed Titanium plus 0.12% to 0.25% palladium. Low oxygen. Low
Grade strength. Especially suitable for deep drawing. Permissible hydrogen
11 content depends on form. Pd additions increase corrosion resistance to
certain media. Corrosion resistance: Very good Weldability:
Titanium alloy including 0.3% molybdenum, 0.8% nickel. High strength.
Grade Good Heat and Wear resistance. Used for shell and heat exchangers,
12 hydrometallurgical applications. industry. Good corrosion resistance:
Highly weldable.
Grade
Titanium alloy including 0.5% nickel and 0.05% ruthenium. Low oxygen.
13
Grade Titanium alloy including 0.5% nickel and 0.05% ruthenium. Standard
14 oxygen.
Grade Titanium alloy including 0.5% nickel and 0.05% ruthenium. Medium
15 oxygen.
Unalloyed Titanium plus 0.04% to 0.08% palladium. Standard oxygen,
Grade
medium strength. Used in chemical industries (improved corrosion
16
resistance).
Grade Unalloyed Titanium plus 0.04% to 0.08% palladium. Low oxygen, low
17 strength.
Grade Titanium alloy including 3% aluminium, 2.5% vanadium plus 0.04% to
18 0.8% palladium.
Grade Titanium alloy including 3% aluminium, 8% vanadium, 6% chromium, 4%
19 zirconium, 4% molybdenum.
Grade Titanium alloy including 3% aluminium, 8% vanadium, 6% chromium, 4%
20 zirconium, 4% molybdenum plus 0.04% to 0.08% palladium.
Grade Titanium alloy including 15% molybdenum, 3% aluminium, 2.7% niobium,
21 0.25% silicon.
Grade Titanium alloy including 6% aluminium, 4% vanadium, extra low interstitial,
23 ELI.
Grade Titanium alloy including 6% aluminium, 4% vanadium plus 0.04% to 0.08%
24 palladium.
Grade Titanium alloy including 6% aluminium, 4% vanadium plus 0.3% to 0.6%
25 nickel, 0.04% to 0.08% palladium.
Grade Unalloyed Titanium plus 0.08% to 0.14% ruthenium. Standard oxygen,
26 medium strength. Competitive alternative to grade 7.
Grade Unalloyed Titanium plus 0.08% to 0.14% ruthenium. Low oxygen, low
27 strength.

Titanium alloy including 3% aluminium, 2.5% vanadium, plus 0.08% to

Grade
0.14% ruthenium. High strength with enhanced corrosion alternative to
28
Grade 9.
Some detailed information
ASTM Fe O N C H
Pd Al V Mo Ni Elong'n Rp 0.2 Rm
B265 max max max max max
wt wt wt
No wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% % MPa MPa
% % %
Grade
0.2 0.18 0.03 0.1 0.015 24 170—310 240
1
Grade
0.3 0.25 0.03 0.1 0.015 20 275—450 345—480
2
Grade
0.25 0.3 0.05 0.1 0.015 18 360—480 480—700
3
Grade
0.5 0.4 0.05 0.1 0.015 15 500—530 600—680
4
Grade
0.4 0.2 0.05 0.1 0.015 5.5-6.7 10 800—1100 890—1400
5
Grade
0.1 16 780—820 820—860
6
Grade
0.3 0.25 0.03 0.1 0.015 0,12-0,25 20 275—450** 345
7
Grade
0.25 0.15 0.02 0.05 0.015 2,5—3,05 15 550 650
9
Grade
0.2 0.18 0.03 0.1 0.015 0.12—0.25 24 170-310** 240
11
Grade
0.3 0.25 0.03 0.1 0.015 0.3 0.8 25 414—460 499—600
12
Grade
0.5
13
Grade
0.5
14
Grade
0.5
15
Grade
0.04—0.08 27 345 485
16
Grade
0.18 0.04—0.08 35 206 345
17
Grade
0.04—0.08 3 2.5 4
18

Grade
3 8 4
19
Grade
0.04—0.08 3 8 4
20
Grade
3 15 15—8 880—1250 915—1350
21
** Yield Strength
Links Providing information on Titanium
1. Azom Com ...Comparison with other metals

2. Nautilus... A Short Useful Presentation
3. Matweb... The best source of material Information in the Web
4. Key-To-Metal... An excellent reference site for non-ferrous metal classifications and properties.- registration required for full access
5. Titanium net... A source of specific titanium information
6. Titanex... A supplier providing a very informative site
7. Allegheny Rodney... A data sheet for a range of titanium metals (imperial units)
9. Titanium Process Technologies... Vey useful download paper - including current production technologies
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Properties of Nickel Alloys
ROYMECH
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Nickel Alloy Notes
Introduction
The name "Nickel" originated in Germany. The copper ores being mined seemed to be contaminated and could not be reduced into workable
copper. They attibuted this to the power of "Old Nick". The contaminated ores came to be called Kupfer-nickel which can be translated into devils
copper.
Though first discovered in Germany the main deposits of nickel ores are in Canada. There are deposits in New Caledonia, Cuba and Finland.
Nickel is similar to iron in most of its properties; it has slightly lower strength and hardness and is magnetic.. In contrast with iron nickel is very
resistant to corrosion and is used for this purpose in industry. . Nickel is widely used for plating steel components and in fact Chromium plating is
often primarily nickel plated with a fine coating of chromium for hardness and brightness. Nickel is a very useful material but it is very expensive and
is therefore only used when the duty is too arduous for other metals.
Pure Nickel
Commercially pure nickel is actually about 99,5% Ni + Cobalt. This metal has good mechanical properties and excellent resistance to many
corrosive environments. The alloy retains much of its strength at elevated temperatures and is tough and ductile at low temperature. The alloy
contains some carbon (up to 0,1%). The lower the carbon content the lower the risk of work hardening and the higher the ductility.
Typical applications for commercially pure nickel include Food processing equipment, chemical shipping drums, aerospace and missile
components, caustic handling equipment and piping.
Nickel Copper Alloys (Monels
Nickel and copper are soluble in each other in all proportions. The most important nickel-copper alloys are those containing about 67% Ni and 33%
Cu. These are called Monels.
The Monel alloys provide excellent service in seawater and is highly resistant to attack by chlorinated solvents, most acids, and practically all
alkalis.
Nickel Chromium Alloys
Chromium is an important alloying element for many corrosion-resistant and high-temperature resistant nickel based alloys. It has a high solid
solubility at approximately 30% Cr, at room temperature, in nickel. Inconel 600 is a standard engineering alloy for use in severely corrosive
environments at elevated temperatures. It is a Ni-Cr-Fe alloy containing 15,5% Cr, and 8% Fe. This alloy is not heat treatable bu can be
stengthened by cold working.
Nickel can also be a base for super-alloys with very high strength-high temperature characteristics.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Nickel.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:26:57 AM

Properties of Nickel Alloys
Links Providing information on Nickel Alloys
1. Copper Nickel Alloys...Papers on application of alloys in a marine environment

2. Stainless Steel World...Papers On Nickel Alloys
3. Nickel Alloy Properties..A PDF file
....
4. Falcon Metals... A Supplier with useful Info.
5. SMC... A major supplier of Nickel Alloy- Site contains many PDF download files
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Properties of Rubber & Plastics
ROYMECH
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Rubber and Plastics
Introduction
Plastics are materials made from long molecules (Polymers). Generally Plastics contain numerous
chemical additives to refine their mechanical properties. Plastics are widely used throughout industry.
Plastics are widely used because they can be formed using mass production methods into complicated
shapes at a very low cost. The range of properties available from plastics materials has made them the
prime choice for many aplications. Plastics are light, and durable. They generally are not able to
withstand high temperatures and they are not as strong as metals.
Thermoplastics.....Types of Thermoplastics
When thermoplastics are heated they become softer and less stiff until they become viscous liquids. On
cooling the original properties return.
Thermosetting Resins....Types of Thermosets
Thermosetting moulding powders will also soften on heating allow them to be formed into shapes. In this
process the adjacent polymers form chemical cross links. This results in the material which is hard, rigid,
insoluble and infusible. The thermoset cannot be easily reprocessed. Typical thermosetting materials
include phenolics, ureas, melamine, epoxides and polyesters. Some thermosetting resins when mixed
with long glass fibres are called Glass Reinforced Plastics.
Rubbers and Elastomers Types of Elastomers and Rubbers
A rubber/elastomer is a polymeric material with long flexible molecular chains an the ability to deform
elastically when vulcanised. During the vulcanising process, rubber molecules are linked with adjacent
molecules at intervals along their lengths, usually by sulphur to form a cross-linked elastic material which
is stable over a wide range of temperatures.
Links Providing information on Rubber and Plastics
1. Plastics Org
2. Rapra
3. ABG Rubber And Plastics
4. Matweb - Easiest to use google and enter matweb say (ptfe) properties
5. Boedeker Plastics Specifications
6. Macrogallaria A site devoted to Polymers
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Properties of Rubber & Plastics
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Matter Index
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Wood
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Wood
Introduction
The Mechanical properties and availability of wood have made it a natural material for building structures,
furniture, tools, vehicles, and decorative objects. Worldwide it is used more than metal or plastic.
Wood is a natural product and when used responsibly is a sustainable resource which need not result in
damage to the environment. Forests can be protected by recycling and reusing the wood, using less
wood and by supporting sustainable forest management
All wood is composed of cellulose,lignin, hemicelluloses, and minor amounts (5% to 10%) of extraneous
materials contained in a cellular structure.
Wood comprises about 50% of cellulose which responsible for most of its mechanical properties.
Natural wood is generally composed of bundles of long fibres which are effectively water carrying tubes.
These fibres are laid in the direction of the tree trunk or branch from which the wood is removed.
The strength of wood is highly dependent on the loading direction. Wood is strongest in tension along the
fibres and is weakest in the radial and tangential direction. When loaded in its strongest direction
(longitudinal along the grain - see figure below) wood can have a strength to weight ratio advantage
relative to steel of 2:1. However when wood is loaded in other directions (radial and tangential to the
grain- see figure below) this advantage disappears
To use wood to its best advantage and most effectively in engineering applications, specific
characteristics or physical properties must be considered.
Wood measures
It is customary to use the generally describe wood using the following terms. Of course there is some
degree of overlapping in practice.
● Carpentry- applying to structural work in buildings and ships

● Timbering - applying to temporary work such as formwork for concrete, gantries and shoring
● Joinery -wooden structures inside buildings, such as doors and window frames
● Cabinetwork - cabinetry - making furniture
Hardwoods
Hardwood trees are generally broadleaved trees. These tree species are deciduous, retaining their
leaves only one growing season. The designation Hardwood trees does not necessarily relate to the
hardness of the wood.. Hardwood trees are also called broad leaf trees or deciduous trees.
Typical hardwood trees include ash, elms, oak, maple, walnut, hickory, mahogany, and walnut. Woods
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Wood
grown in tropical climates are generally hardwoods. Hardwood have shorter fibers compared to
softwood. some hardwoods are evergreen.
Softwoods
Softwoods are one of the botanical groups of trees that has persistent needle-like or scale-like leaves;
softwoods are evergreen and have longer-length fibers than hardwoods.
Softwood trees include pines, spruces, firs , cedars. The yew is one of the few softwoods that is native to
the UK. There are a number of softwoods (yew)that are harder and tougher than many hardwoods
Larches, including tamarack, are exceptions, being deciduous "softwoods".
Plywood
This is a product made from an odd number (three, five ...) of thin layers (veneers) of wood (generally
hardwoods) bonded together by an adhesive. The alternate plies are at right angles thus ensuring that
the resulting material has a high uniform strength in all direction .
Plywood does not split as easily as conventional wood and has a good dimensional stability under
conditions of varying moisture conditions. Plywood will not easily split if nail close to any edges.
Plywood can be considered as a high strength construction material used for internal and external load
bearing panels.
Plywood is normally supplied as 1,2m x 2,4m sheets in thicknesses from 3 to 25mm thickness. It can
however be supplied in lengths of up to 40m and in thicknesses of up to 50mm.
Chipboard
Chipboard is made from particles of wood bonded together with a synthetic resin and sometimes other
binders. The panels are generally 2,4m x 1,2m with thicknesses from 3mm to 40mm. Larger sizes are
available up to 5m x 1,5m. The particles are obtained from forrest thinnings sawdust and small pieces of
wood unsuitable for other uses are granulated to chips. The resin used is generally urea
formalehyde. Chipboard is normally only suitable for interior use in the manufacture of low cost furniture,
wall panels and floor panels.
MDF (Medium Density FibreBoard)

There are different types fibreboard which differentiated by
..the size and type of wood fibres used
..the method of heating
..what type of bonding agent is used
..the method by which it is pressed into shape
Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) is a wood substitute form which is made from fine wood fibres in a
resin which is bonded under heat and pressure. It is manufactured by a dry process at a lower
temperature than other fibreboards e.g hardboard. Thethe natural glues and resins contained within the
wood are not effective. MDF therefore uses artificial bonding agents / resins. The resin used is usually
urea formaldehyde, but some fibreboard including exterior or marine quality board will use stronger glues
such as phenol formaldehyde. MDF may be used instead of plywood or chipboard. It is dense, flat, stiff,
has no knots and is easily machined. It is made up of fine particles and therefor does not have an easily
recognisable surface grain
MDF can be painted to produce a smooth quality surface. Because MDF has no grain it can be cut,

Wood
drilled, machined and filed without damaging the surface. MDF may be dowelled together and traditional
woodwork joints may even be cut. MDF may be glued together with PVA wood glue. Oil, water-based
paints and varnishes may be used on MDF. Veneers and laminates may also be used to finish MDF
Safety: It should be noted by anyone involved with MDF that there is an accepted risk that wood dust
inhaled at certain level, is a carcinogen (cancer causing) and that formaldehyde is possibly carcinogenic
to humans'. Exposure to formaldehyde by inhalation can cause irritation to the eyes, nose, throat and
mucous membrane.formaldahyde can also cause dermatitis. A number of countries have but legal
limitations on the use of MDF
Wood Types
Note: Density relates to wood in seasoned condition and is really only useful for relative comparisons
Density
Type of wood Description/Uses
kg/m2
From Europe and UK. A soft timber similar to
Alder - Common poplar. Imported as plywood and used for turning. 530
Light reddish brown colour. Not very durable.
From Euador. A low density wood used for
Balsa 40-320
modelmaking and insulation
From UK, Europe and America. Used for furniture,
Beech flooring, musical instruments. Often used for 720
woodstrip and woodblockflooring.
From UK, Europe and America.General purpose
Birch 660
timber, plywood.
Turnery, craftwork, sports goods, musical
European Boxwood, 910
instruments
From South and Central America. This wood is
American Cedar, used for Cabinet making, boatbuilding, and light 480
construction
From North America. Reddish brown - non-resinous
lightweight softwood with good durability under all
Cedar,Western Red conditions. Used for roofing shingles, greenhouse 370
construction and for interior furniture. Can cause
corrosion of contact metal.
A European tree used for furniture joiner and
Sweet Chestnut fencing and often used for beams. Stains when in 560
contact with damp iron
European/ America tree. Used for specialised
European Cherry crafted furniture, decorative work, musical 430
instruments
An african /Asian tree. Dark wood used for cutlery
Ebony handles, musical instruments, craftwork. This is an 1000
endangered wood

Wood
English. Cross grained with high tendency to warp.

High temperature steaming reduces this tendency
Elm Used for furniture, joinery, flooring, external 550
cladding. Durable under water and excellent for
piles and dock construction
North American. Tough dense and resisant to
Elm rock abrasion. Durable under water and mainly used for 700
piles and dock construction.
From UK , Europe and North America. Straight
grained softwood. Higher than average strength.
Fir, Douglas (softwood) 530
Used extensively for plywood, heavy construction
work, sea defences
Cultivated in Eurpoean Plantations. Marketed as
Silver Fir (softwood) 480
whitewood. Used for building, joinery, packaging
UK, European and N. America. Non resinous
softwood with strainght even grain. Not very
Hemlock 480
durable. Used in construction industry for interior
work generally. Used for crates and boxes
North American. tough, hard smooth and straight
Hickory grained. Used for spokes and rims of wheels, tool 820
handles and machine parts
A European tree sometimes used for minor goods,
Horse Chestnut 510
turnery and utensils and often used beams
Grown in UK and Europe. Difficult to dry and will
Holly 800
easily distort and split. Used for Craft work, inlays
Grown in UK softwood plantation and Europe. Good
strength and durability. A general purpose timber
Larch 590
for outdoor use used for gates and fencing and
mining timbers.
Europe. Fine textured soft and compact and cuts
cleanly. Not durable. Excellent for carving and is
Lime 550
used for musical instrument construction. Brush
backs, turning, minor goods
From West Africa Courser texture than other types
of Mahogany Dark wood and not as stable. used
Mahogany 530
for utility and decorative work, indoors and
outdoors, from boatbuilding to furniture and joinery.
Spanish /Cuban
Used in joinery, high quality furniture, plywood. 720
Mahogany
From N. America. Even texture hard and strong.
Maple Very good timber for flooring. Used for interior 740
timbers and a wide range of industrial applications.

Wood
Found UK, Europe and North America. Best wood

for construction purposes demanding strength and
Oak durability. Wide range of applications, including 720
joinery, furniture, fittings, flooring wood strip and
woodblock flooring
Found UK, Europe and North America. Wide range
Pine (Redwood) of applications, including, furniture, flooring and 510
utility applcations.
Grown in plantations in Malasia. Major use in
Rubberwood 600
furniture production
Africa, South America, India. Minor use for furniture
Rosewood 850
and musical Instruments
From West Africa. Major use in furniture, joinery,
Sapele 620
decorative applications
From UK, Europe ,North America. Near white
Spruce straight grained softwood. Not durable in exposed
420
White Wood locations.General used for boxes packing cases
and construction work..
Sycamore UK , Europe. Turned wood and veneers.. 610
Mainly from S.E Asia. High quality furniture, joinery,
Teak 900
garden furniture ..Sometimes used for beams
Native to UK and Europe. Greyish brown finely
Walnut, European figured. Used for furniture cabinets and gun 640
handles and rifle stocks.
Native to UK and Europe. Lightweight soft
Willow perishable wood. Used to make cricket bats, 440
basket work, toys and other items
Native to UK and Europe. Used for decorative
Yew 670
veneers ornaments. -Historical use for bows
Density of wood
The density of wood varies widely for different woods, and for the same wood. The density is
significantly affected by the moisture content which varies through its life from initial cutting to final
use. The normal range of wood densities varies form about 320 kg/m3 to 720 kg/m3. Imported woods can
be obtained with densities as low as 160 kg/m3 and as high as 1020 kg/m3.
Strength of wood
Wood is a natural product and its properties vary continuously throughout processing from when the tree
is cut down. Green wood has high moisture content (generally) and this results in reduced strength. As
it is dried it loses the moisture content and becomes stronger.
Wood may be described as an orthotropic material; that is, it has unique and independent mechanical
properties in the directions of three mutually perpendicular axes: longitudinal, radial, and tangential. The

Wood
longitudinal axis is assumed parallel to the fiber (grain); the radial axis is normal to the growth rings
(perpendicular to the grain in the radial direction); and the tangential axis is perpendicular to the grain but
tangent to the growth rings. (Think of the grain as the tree rings running up the trunk /branch - planks of
wood are simply sections of the tree trunk (or branch)
There are a massive number of values for mechanical properties of woods available mostly form
american sources (see links below). This page will simply identify a range for Modulus of rupture for two
woods Oak and white wood. The rupture modulus is the longitudonal stress in the extreme fibre at failure
due to bending.
Wood Strength Properties Table

Please note that these are maximum strength values.. If the wood is subject to bending in any other
direction the wood will fail at much lower values. The stress at failure of wood is shear or compression (in
any direction) is lower
Modulus Modulus
Wood Moisture
of of
Name %
Rupture Elasticity
Softwoods
MPa MPa
Fir Douglas 41 54 10400
12 93 12700
Hemlock 51 49 8700
13 83 10400
Larch 66 53 7900
13 92 9900
Pine
89 46 7300
(Scots)
12 89 10000
Redwood
51 44 7700
(Baltic)
13 83 10000
Spruce
53 39 7400
(European)
14 72 10200

Wood
Spruce
43 39 8800
(Canadian
12 74 10500
Hardwoods
Ash
48 66 9500
(European)
12 116 11900
Balsa 11 23 3200
Beech
88 65 9800
(European)
12 118 12600
Birch
76 63 9900
(European)
12 123 13300
Elm
140 40 5200
(English)
12 68 7000
Elm Wych 75 68 9400
12 105 10600
Greenheart 34 140 15900
14 181 21000
Kari 64 77 13400
12 139 17900
Mahogany 64 54 7400
12 78 9000
Oak
89 59 8300
Europe
12 97 10100
Obeche 76 37 4600
12 54 5500
Polpar
154 41 6800
Black
12 12 8600
Saraya
55 60 9100
White
12 80 10100
Teak
48 84 8800
Burma
10.6 106 10000
Machinability

Wood
Wood is generally machined by Sawing, Planing, Turning, Sanding etc..Below is a crude table identifying
the machinability of various wood types.
From a number of samples machined the proportion of good quality results. * Very low. ** Low ***
Medium, **** High , *****Over 90%
Wood Planing Shaping Turning Boring Mortising Sanding

Alder *** * **** *** ***
Ash **** *** **** ***** *** ****
Beech **** * ***** ***** ***** **
Birch *** *** **** ***** ***** **
Cherry **** **** **** ***** *****
Chestnut **** * **** ***** **** ***
Elm * * *** ***** **** ***
Hickory **** * **** ***** ***** ****
Maple *** *** **** ***** ***** **
Maple
** * *** **** ** **
(soft)
Oak ***** * **** ***** ***** ****
Sycamore * * **** ****** ****** *
Walnut *** ** **** ****** ******
Willow ** * *** *** * *
Poplar *** * **** **** *** *
Links Providing information on Wood
1. Woodzone..Informative site providing general information

2. Woodweb..Woodworking Industry Information
3. Wood Handbook -- Wood as an Engineering Material..Downloads ..Comprehensive Document (American ) Excellent
4. Wood Guide.. Friends of the Earth Guide - Including very useful information
5. Effect of Heat treatment on Spruce.. Informative report
6. Canadian Wood Council ..Excellent site on Wood Engineering - my words
7. Timber Trade Federation ..The Timber Trade Federation is the official voice of the UK timber trade.
8. PanelGuide ..An extremely informative document on plywood.
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Glass
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Ceramics
Introduction
A ceramic is generally defined as any inorganic nonmetallic material. Examples of such materials can be anything from NaCl (table salt) to clay (a
complex silicate). By this definition, ceramic materials would also include glasses; however it is considered that the definition "ceramics" must also
be crystalline.
The word ceramics comes from the Greek word keramos which means pottery. Engineering ceramics are formed in the wet plastic state, dried and
then sintered at high temperatures. Monolithic engineering ceramics are derived mainly from inorganic materials and often possess non-metallic
properties.
Ceramics are closely associated with our everyday life. Functional ceramics are distinguished from conventional ceramics (chinaware) and called
"fine ceramics" or "engineering ceramics."
Typical Ceramics
Engineering Ceramics Include
1. alumina
2. silicon carbide
3. zirconia
4. silicon nitride
5. Diamond
6. Cubic boron nitride
7. Magnesia
8. Tungsten Carbide
Properties
Engineering ceramics are ideally suited for high performance applications where a combination of properties such as wear resistance, hardness,
stiffness and corrosion resistance are important. In addition to these properties, engineering ceramics have relatively high mechanical strength at
high temperatures.
Engineering ceramics are distinguished from metals and some alloys by their exceptional properties. They are very hard materials and are highly
wear-resistant. Indeed, when compared to their metal counterparts, engineering ceramic parts and components are more durable and have longer
life-spans under given operational conditions. Ceramic cutting tools, for instance, require less sharpening or replacement due to wear, and will last
at least 60 to 100 times longer than steel blades.
Engineering ceramics are chemically resistant to most acids, alkalis and organic solvents and can withstand high temperatures. Metals weaken
rapidly at temperatures above 816oC while engineering ceramics retain a good degree of their mechanical properties at much higher temperatures.
As most metals are approaching the limits of their capability, engineering ceramics are emerging as the most desirable alternative for various high
performance high value applications. Frequently viewed as a direct replacement material for top of the range metals such as tool steels, stellite and
tungsten carbides, the Ceramic materials produced are generally able to provide even better service if they are engineered for the applications
Engineers have long considered considered engineering ceramics as hard and brittle materials that are prone to catastrophic failure under tensile
loading conditions and are considered to be unreliable materials. However, technological developments over the last two decades have shown that
ceramic materials, are viable alternatives to metals and alloys in many applications. As an example Zirconias have better wear-resistant properties
than metals, are usually corrosion-resistant, can withstand higher operating temperatures, possess a thermal expansion coefficient close to many
metals, and can be appropriately bonded to metals.
Applications
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Glass
Typical mechanical components include wear plates and thermal barriers, bearings for high speed and high stiffness spindles, bushes, gears and
many others.
Typical Process components include pump shafts, seats, bearing surfaces, gears and even complete pump bodies, valve guides and seats.
Ceramics are used for cutting tools including razor blades for film and tape cutting to 300mm diameter circular slitters for the paper industry.
Ceramic turbine blades are used in most turbochargers providing lighter units than the steel alterntives allowing improved performance at higher
temperatures.
Links Providing information on Ceramics
1. Ultrahard Materials.. Useful Information on the More Exotic Ceramic applications

2. Carborundum Universal.. A Typical Supplier with products and properties
3. Dynamic Ceramics Typical Data Sheets
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Glass
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Glass
Introduction
A glass is an inorganic non metallic material that does not have a crystalline structure. Such materials are said to be amorphous and are virtually
solid liquids cooled at such a rate that crystals have not been able to form.
Typical glasses range from the soda-lime silicate glass for soda bottles to the extremely high purity silica glass for optical fibers. Glass is widely
used for windows, bottles, glasses for drinking, transfer piping and recepticles for highly corrosive liquids, optical glasses, windows for nuclear
applications etc. etc.
In history most products have been blown glass. In recent times most flat glass has been produced using the float process. Mass produced
bottles and decorative products are made using industrial scale blown glass process. Hand blown glass items are made in art/craft centres
throughout the UK.
Normal Glass
The main constituent of glass is silicon dioxide (SiO 2). The most common form of silica used in
glassmaking has always been sand.
Sand by itself can be fused to produce glass but the temperature at which this can be achieved is about
1700o C. Adding other chemicals to sand can considerably reduce the temperature of the fusion. The
addition of sodium carbonate ( Na 2 CO 3), known as soda ash,in a quantity to produce a fused mixture of
75% Silica (SiO 2) and 25% of sodium oxide (Na 2O), will reduce the temperature of fusion to about 800o
C. However, a glass of this composition is water soluble and is known as water glass. In order to give
the glass stability, other chemicals like Calcium Oxide (CaO) and magnesium oxide (MgO) are needed.
The raw materials used for introducing CaO and MgO are their carbonates, limestone (CaCO 3) and
dolomite (MgCO3), which when subjected to high temperatures give off carbon dioxide leaving the oxides
in the glass.
Borosilicate glass:
Borosilicate glass is produced using 70% - 80% Silica (SiO 2) and 7% - 13% Boric oxide (B2O3 ) with small amounts of the alkali Sodium Oxide
(soda) (Na 2O) and Aluminum Oxide (AI2O3). Glassware is often used in laboratories where repeated exposure to water vapour at high
temperatures can leach out alkali ions. Borosilicate glass has a relatively low alkali content and with a resultant high resistance to attack by water.
Borosilicate glass has exceptional resistance to thermal shock because it has a low coefficient of expansion (3.3 x 10 -6 K-1) and a high softening
point. The maximum recommended working temperature (short time) for Borosilicate glass is 500oC
Borosilicate glass has good optical properties with the ability to transmit light through the visible range of the spectrum and in the near ultra-violet
range. It is therefore widely used in the field of photochemistry. Because of its thermal and optical properties it is widely used for high intensity
lighting applications.
This glass is used in the manufacture of glass fibres for used in plastic and textile reinforcement-- see below
In the home Borosilicate glass is familiar in the form of oven-ware and other heat-resisting domestic receptacles e.g Pyrex. These items are
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Glass
generally used at temperatures up to 250oC
Borosilicate glass has a very high resistance to attack from water, acids, salt solutions, halogens and organic solvents. It also has a moderate
resistance to alkaline solutions. Only hydrofluoric acid, hot concentrated phosphoric acid and strong alkaline solutions cause appreciable corrosion
of the glass. This glass is therefore widely used in chemical plants and for laboratory apparatus.
General Properties Of Glass
Mechanical Strength
Glass has great inherent strength. It is weakened only by surface imperfections, which give everyday glass its fragile reputation. Special
surface treatment can minimize the effect of surface flaws.
The practical tensile strength of glass is about 27MPa to 62 MPa. However, glass can withstand extremely high compressive stresses .
Therefore, most glass breakage is due to tensile strength failure. The reason that glass is weak in tensile strength is that it is normally
covered in microscopic cracks which generate local stress concentrations. Glass does not possess mechanisms for reducing the resulting
high localised stresses and so it is subject to rapid brittle fracture. There are two methods of reducing /eliminating this problem :
● Treating the glass thermally or chemically such that the outer surfaces are compressively stressed at relatively high levels, the
middle region between the surfaces being under tensile stress. The cracks are therefore "held closed by the continuous residual
stress...This is tempered/ toughened glass. The strength of the glass can be improved by a factor of up to 10 using this method.
● Ensuring that the glass surfaces have no cracks and ensuring that the glass in use is not in mechanical contact with anything
which could scratch the surface. Glass produced with no surface flaws have strength values approaching the theoretical tensile
strength values of 6,5 GPa. These have been produced using very fine fibres of glass.
Hardness
Borosilicate glass is about 2,3 x the hardness of plate glass. On the Moh's scale plate glass has a
hardness value of about 5,7. Glass is harder than most grades of unhardened steel.
Elasticity
Gives under stress - up to a breaking point - but rebounds exactly to its original shape. Glass has
virtually zero ductility. Youngs Modulus for fused Quartz glass is about 72 GPa
Chemical Resistance
Affected by few chemicals. Resists most industrial and food acids.
Thermal Shock Resistance

Normal glass has low heat shock resistance but borosilicate glass has very good heat shock
resistance, and withstands intense heat or cold as well as sudden temperature changes.
Heat capacity
Retains heat, rather than conducts it. Absorbs heat better than metal.
OPTICAL
1. Reflects light
2. Bends light
3. Transmits light very efficiently
4. Absorbs light with great accuracy.
Electrical Insulation
Strongly resists electric current. Stores electricity very efficiently.
Glass Types

Glass
..Some of the types of glass available

Glass Type Notes
Perfectly flat clear glass made using the Float Process. Glass form most widely
Float Glass
used for windows etc. low Cost
Ordinary Plate glass with a metallic coating on one side to reduce solar heat
Reflective
transfer. The metallic coating produces a mirror effect prevent viewing through
Glass
glass pane.
Insulating Two or more panes of glass with a hermetically sealed space between. Glass
Glass used for double glazing.
Pattern Normal plate glass with pattern molded into the surface by passing plate
Glass through engraved rollers
Normal glass which has a wire mesh inserted during the production process.
This glass is only as strong as normal glass. However on fracture the mesh
Wired Glass
stays in place and holds the glass together. Can be used for security and for a
low cost fire glass
Laminated glass is a combination of two or more glass sheets with one or more
Laminated
interlayers of plastic (PVB) or resin. In case of breakage the plastic holds the
Glass
glass fragments
Fire- Contains flames and inflammable gas for a short period of time. Does not
Resistant prevent the conduction of heat through panes. Includes, wired glass,
Glass reinforced laminated glass, Borosilicate glass).
Tempered (toughened) glass is two or more times stronger than annealed
Tempered
glass. When broken, it shatters into many small fragments which prevent major
Toughened
injuries. Tempered glass has a highly stress surface and cannot be cut as
Glass
conventional plate glass
Bullet-resistant laminates consist of multiple plates of glass with a internal
Bullet Proof polycarbonate plates bonded together by interlayers of polyvinyl butyral or
Glass aliphatic urethane. These laminates can resist bullet penetration from a variety
of small arms and rifles.
Special Engineering Applications of Glass
Glass Fibres..
Glass fibres are made of silicon oxide with addition of small amounts of other oxides. Glass fibres are
made very small diameter and have a low ratio of surface cracks which are the main cause of the brittle
property of glass. Glass fibres have the properties of high strength, good temperature and corrosion
resistance, and low price.
There are two main types of glass fibres: E-glass and S-glass. The E-Glass type is the most used, and
has good electrical . The S-Glass is very strong , stiff, and temperature resistant.
On its own glass fibre it not used to any serious extent in engineering. However is is widely used as a
composite material as a reinforcing material with a matrix of thermosetting plastic. Typical examples of
the composites are glass reinforced phenol composites, glass reinforced epoxy resin and glass reinforced
UP resin composites. Used as reinforcing materials in many sectors, e.g. automotive and naval

Glass
industries, sport equipment etc. They are produced by a spinning process, in which they are pulled out
through a nozzle from molten glass at rates thousands of meter/min.
Properties of glass fibres..

/
E-glass fibres:
Modulus of Elasticity : about 72.4 GPa
Tensile strength: about 2.400 GPa (typical steel = 400 MPa)
S-glass fibres:
Modulus of Elasticity : about. 85.5 GPa
Tensile strength: 4.500 GPa
Fibre Optics
Electronic communication has improved significantly over recent years following the widespread
introduction of fibre optics. These are fine glass fibres through which light can be transmitted very
efficiently over long distances. This allows information to be transmitted at extremely high data rates.
The fibre itself is a strand of silica based glass, it's dimensions similar to those of a human hair,
surrounded by a transparent cladding. A typical fibre includes a centre core ( 8,5 μm dia ) a surrounding
glass cladding (125 μm dia ), a protective buffer coating and an outer jacket (245 μm dia ).
The light propagates along the fibre by the process of total internal reflection. The light is contained
within the glass core and cladding by careful design of their refractive indices. The loss along the fibre is
low and the signal is not subject to electromagnetic interference which plagues other methods of signal
transmission, such as radio or copper wire links.
The signals transmitted down optical fibres do degrade and optical amplifiers are required at regular
distance intervals to compensate for the losses.
Links Providing information on Glass
1. Corning.. Click on Research Teach and Learn

2. Shott.. A Supplier of High Quality Glass Products
3. Tech Glass.. Moliterno Technical Glass information
4. Pilkington Glass.. The website of the British inventor of the float glass process- Useful information from -> downloads
5. Glass on the Web.. A website devoted entirely to glass
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Concrete
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Concrete
Introduction
Concrete is effectively an artificial stone or rock. Its primary properties are that is is workable before
hardening, strong in compression and stays strong for extremely long timescales. Concrete is a strong
hard building material composed of sand and gravel and cement and water. It is used for making
buildings, roads, bridges, vessels pipes etc etc etc. As the concrete formulations develop concrete is
increasing its range of applications such that it is making inroads into those presently monopolised by
metals. To enable concrete to withstand tensile loads in is often reinforced with steel rebars or with
natural or artificial fibres...
Concrete is a mixture of a binding agent (generally cement) to bond the other materials together :, fine
aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate ( gravel/stones ), and water.. A typical composition is about 7-15%
cement, 14-21% water and the rest agregate. The water/cement ratio (w/c) of the mixture has an control
over the final properties of the concrete. The water/cement ratio is the relative weight of the water to the
cement in the mixture. The water/cement ratio is a factor selected by the civil engineer. Selection of a w/
c ratio gives the engineer control over two desirable properties: strength and workability. A mixture with
a high w/c will be more workable than a mixture with a low w/c: it will flow easier. But the less workable
the mixture, the stronger the concrete will be. The civil engineer must decide what ratio will give the best
result for the given situation. The water/cement ratio needs to be about 0.25 to complete the hydration
reaction. Typical values of w/c are between 0.35 and 0.40 because they give a good amount of
workability without sacrificing a lot of strength.
Types of Concrete
Type of Concrete Description
This is the most common type of concrete and is made
mostly from portand cement, sand, aggregate and
water. It is used reinforce and un-reinforce for
Cement concrete structures, roads, foundationa. The compositions of
cement, sand and aggregate vary from 1:1:2 ( a
richest practical mixture) to 1:3 :6 (a lean mixture used
for concrete filling)
Concrete not strengthened by reinforcement. Used for
foundations and mass structures such as damn, and
Plain mass concrete
gravity retaining walls.. also called non-reinforced
concrete
A plain concrete with a large ratio aggregate to
Lean concrete cement than structural concrete. It is used for filling
and not structural duties
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Concrete
Lightweight concrete of such a quality that it is suitable

for load-bearing members of structures. If it is a
compact concrete made with stone aggregate , it is of
Structural concrete comparatively high density ( about 2.4 ) and great
strength. If it is based on lightweight aggregate then
high strengths are available but the design generally
requires special considerations
Lightweight concrete of such a quality that it is suitable
for load-bearing members of structures. If it is a
compact concrete made with stone aggregate , it is of
Reinforced concrete comparatively high density ( about 2.4 ) and great
strength. If it is based on lightweight aggregate then
high strengths are available but the design generally
requires special considerations
Structural concrete which is subjected to compression
in those parts which in service are subjecte to tensile
Prestressed concrete
forces so that generally,the concrete is nowhere is a
state of tension under the working load.
This is deposited in its permanent position to harden.
This is the most common method of construction and
Cast in Place /Cast in Situ
when to concrete is not deposited on the ground as for
Concrete
roads and similar it is generally placed in temporary
moulds or is contained within formwork or shuttering.
This is concrete which placed in separate moulds,
under controlled factory conditions, to harden and
when required transferred to site for final erection.
This procedure allow high quality concrete castings to
Precast Concrete be made at low relative costs. This method is used
for the production of paving slabs, bricks, road
channels , kerbs lintels, fence posts, bridge beams etc
etc. Precast units can include re-inforcement and
Engineered steel inserts.
This is concrete which includes high water content to
allow sufficient workability to enable it to be placed
into complicated moulds or around extensive
reinforcement. The concrete is then subject to a
vacuum which removes significant quantities of water
Vacuum Concrete resulting in a stronger concrete on
hardening. Pumped concrete needs to include higher
water content to improve the flow characteristics. If a
high strength concrete is required then special
additives are use in place of the additional water.
Concrete pumping stations may be static or mobile

Concrete
Concrete which is conveyed from the mixer to the

point of deposit through pipes. The concrete is
discharged from the mixer into a hopper which feeds it
inot a pump which forces it through the pipe. The
Pumped Concrete
pipe is 100 or 150mm dia and the method can be used
to pump over distances of 650m horizontally or 50m
vertically., or some combination of these lengths..
lengths
This process is used for the production of vessels and
pipes. The process involves feeding relatively dry
Spun Concrete concrete into a rotating cylinderical mould. The
concrete is flung against the wall be centrifugal action
to form a dense hard impermeable wall.
Concrete which is made at a mixing plant and
delivered to the site in special transport vehicles. The
transport includes a rotating drum in which the
Ready mixed Concrete concrete is continuously mixed until it is discharge on
site. The mix specification is agreed between the
supplier and the user prior to delivery and generally a
high quality product results .
Water Resistant concrete can either be water proofed
or watertight.
● Waterproofed concrete is formed with a water resistant layer or surface
whilst the mass of concrete being ordinary concrete. The water tight layer
Water Resistant Concrete can be formed using a spray of lacquer, or applying a coat of asphalt or
bitumen or using a wash of soda (water glass)
● A watertight concrete can be produced by ensuring and dense product
using tight quality control of the production process. The concrete so formed
can be sufficiently water-tight to enable use for tanks retaining water
High density concrete for use as nuclear shield walls
and ballast blocks and sea walls can be produced by
High density Concrete using different materials for the aggregate. Candidate
materials include barytes, haematite, iron shot, steel
shot and lead shot.
High strength high performance concrete can be
produced by including short fibres in the mix. A
number of reinforcement materials are available
including glass, nylon, polypropylene, carbon and
Fibre reinforced Concrete
steel. Concrete so formed as increased strength,
impact resistance and greater strength. This is an area
of concrete development which is under continuous
development.
Concrete Strength /Grade Designation
Relevant Standards..
BS EN 206-1:2000 Concrete. Specification, performance, production and conformity
BS 8500:2002, Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1. Method of specifying and

Concrete
guidance for the specifier

Note: BS 5328: Parts 1-4: 1997- ..Has been superseded by the above standards>>
According to the above standards the compressive strength class of a concrete is expressed as
● Prefix: ‘C’ for normal-weight and heavyweight concrete or ‘LC’ for lightweight concrete
● The minimum characteristic 150 × 300mm cylinder strength required
● A Backslash (/)
● The equivalent minimum characteristic 150mm (and, in the UK, 100mm) cube strength required.
The compressive strength grades are in N/mm (MPa)
Typical grades include
● Normal Concretes
C8/10, C12/15, C16/20, C20/25, C25/30, C28/35, C30/37, C32/40, C40/50, C50/60, C55/67, C60/75, C70/85, C90/105, C100/115
● Lightweight Concretes
LC8/9, LC12/13, LC16/18, LC20/22, LC25/28, LC30/33, LC35/38, LC40/44, LC50/55, LC55/60, LC60/66, C70/77, LC80/88
Density of Concrete
Concrete is produced in a range of densities as listed below
● Plain Concrete, with natural stone aggregate ...2300 kg/m3

● Plain Concrete, with natural Broken brick aggregate...2000 kg/m3
● Reinforced Concrete, with dense aggregate ...2400 kg/m3
● Reinforced Concrete, with dense aggregate ...2400 kg/m3
● Lightweight cellular (aerated) Concrete ...641 kg/m3
● Lightweight aggregate structural grade Concrete ...1760 kg/m3
● Lightweight aggregate (structural grade) Concrete ...1760 kg/m3
● Steelshot aggregate Concrete ...5285 kg/m3
Links Providing information on concrete
1. Liebig..Information on Anchor Bolts

2. Hilti..Information on Anchor Bolts
3. BS EN 206-1/BS 8500 basics..Informative download
4. Artex-Rawlplug Fixings ..-> Product Range-Mechanical Anchors -> Anchor data sheet downloads
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Metal Fatigue
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Fatigue Index
Metal Fatigue and Endurance
Important note.. The information below is for guidance only . Evaluating the fatigue strength to be used for component design should be carried out
using validated material information and with careful consideration of all factors relevant to the stress locations. The links below the table provide
more detailed information on fatigue design.
Metal Fatigue Notes
Fatigue considerations are important because the consequent failure is generally sudden and at a stress level much lower than the
ultimate stress.
Fatigue properties of materials are generally determined by producing Wohler /S-N Plots. These are simply plots with stress as the
vertical axis and log (number of complete stress reversals) as the horizontal axis. A number of material specimens are tested and
the points at which they break are plotted on the S-N curve.
It is a useful property of steel (and titanium) that when the stress level fall below a certain value the specimen is effectively never
likely to fail. Generally other materials do not exhibit this effect.
The fatigue strength is the maximum completely reversed stress under which a material will fail after it has experienced the stress for
a specified number of cycles. (The strength is accompanied by the number of cycles). ..Fatigue Strength (fixed number of cycles) =
Sn,
The Fatigue limit is the maximum completely reversed stress for which it is assumed that the material will never fail regardless of the
number of cycles. Fatigue Limit = S'n
Experiments have shown little direct relationship between the fatigue limit and the yield strength ,ductility etc. However some
relationship between the fatigue limit and the tensile strength Su has been established for unotched polished specimens tested using
the rotating beam method. This method loads the specimens by reversed bending.
- -
S'e = for Wrought Steels
where Su <
0,5 Su 1400mpa
S'e = for Wrought Steels

where Su >
690MPa 1400MPa
S'e =
for Titanium
0,5 Su
S'e = for cast steel and
0,4 Su cast iron
for magnesium
S'n = casting and wrought
0,38 Su alloys (based on 10
6 cycle life)
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Metal Fatigue
S'n =
for nickel alloys
0,35 Su (based on 10 8 cycle
->0,5 life)
Su
S'n =
for copper based
0,25 Su alloys (based on 10
->0,5 8 cycle life)
Su
for for wrought
S'n = aluminium alloys up
to a strength of 280
0,38 Su MPa (based on 5 x
10 8 cycle life)
for for cast
S'n = aluminium alloys up
to a strength of 350
0,16 Su MPa (based on 5 x
10 8 cycle life)
Note: The fatigue limit S'n a is pseudo limit based on a number of stress cycles this applies to
the engineering metals which will eventually fail at some time if subject to continuous
reversing /repeated stress cycles. Ferrous metals and titanium can operated continuously
without failure at stress levels at or below the stress limit S'e.
Note;All of the above relationships are based on a 50% survival life.
The fatigue limit for reversed axial load of a polished,unnotched specimen is aboutt 15% lower than that for reversed bending.
The fatigue limit for torsional testing of polished unnotched specimens is
● S'es is about 0,58 x the fatigue limit in reversed bending for steel.
● S'es is about 0,8 x the fatigue limit in reversed bending for cast iron.
● S'ns is about 0,48 x the fatigue limit in reversed bending for copper.
The above values are all experimentally derived under relatively ideal conditions.
These values should be modified using factors that take into account actual operating conditions.
Approximations for endurance limits for three types of loading for steel are as follows
● Bending S'e is about 0,5 Su

● Axial S'e is about 0,45 Su
● Torsion S'e is about 0,29 Su
Some Fatigue Values

Notes:
N = Normalised, H & T = Hardened and Tempered
I have not been able to obtain good fatigue information, the following values should be used as
guidance.
Contact material suppliers direct for quality fatigue information...

Metal Fatigue
Fatigue
Ultimate Fatigue
Strength
Material Specification....... Treatment Strength Ratio
MPa Sn'/Su
MPa
107Cycles
BS 970 /
070M20 N 193 400/430 0.45/0.48
Carbon
070M26 N 201 430/500 0.40/0.47
Steel
080M30 N 232 460/500 0.46/0.50
080M40 H&T 278 620/780 0.37/0.45
BS 970/;
En22 H&T 525 772/850 0.61/0.68
Low Alloy
722M24 H&T 293 850/1080 0.27/0.35
Steel
653M31 H&T 432 770/1000 0.43/0.56
976M33 H&T 486 950/1050 0.46/0.54
BS 970/
150M19 N 250 540 0,46
Alloy
150M19 H&T 325 700 0,53
Steel
709M40 H&T 480 1000 0,48
735A50 H&T 650 1500 0,43
5x
107cycles
Wrought Not Heat 110 0,44
N3 48
Aluminium Treated 130 0,42
55
175 0,40
70
5x
Wrought Heat 107cycles
H9 155 0,52
Aluminium Treated 80
240 0,35
85
107cycles
Titanium Grade 1 193 345 0,56
Grade 9 373 740 0,50
Heat 107cycles
Brass ISO CuZn30 Treated ? 105 365 0,28
ISO CuZn30 Heat 145 525 0,276
Treated ?

Metal Fatigue
Useful Links..
1. U-Victoria. Material Strength Notes... A number of useful download pages including fatigue notes
2. U-kansas's Fatigue Notes... Basic Fatigue Concepts
3. Shaft Loads... Fatigue considerations in designing shafts
4. Engineers Toolbox ... Online calculators including fatigue .
5. Ocean International Suppliers ... Supplier - Some Fatigue Information
6. MATWEB ... Vast source of material data including some fatigue values
7. Fatigue Tests on Welded Joints ... Useful informative report download
8. Fatigue Design & Evaluation Committee of the SAE ... Includes a accessible database of fatigue reports on SAE steels
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Metal Fatigue
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Stress Concentration Factors
Stress Concentration Factors Notes
The theoretical stress concentration factor K t of a section at subject to an internal stress

resulting from a change of shape and/or geometry :
K t = Highest value of stress at a discontinuity / Nominal stress at local minimum section
K ts relates to shear stress.
This value does not allow for the sensitivity of the material to stress concentrations.
Notch Sensitivity
The material notch sensitivity value "q" is used to quantify the sensitivity of a material to local
high stresses. The notch sensitivity of a material is a measure of how sensitive a material is to
notches or geometric discontinuities.
High notch sensitivity..

Brittle/Hard Materials
Very perfect material is significantly damaged by addition of a notch
Low Notch sensitivity

Material with a lot of flaws not damaged much by one more.
Soft Ductile Materials..
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Metal Fatigue
In fatigue assessments K f is used in place of K t
K f = 1 + q (K t -1). :: ..1 <= k f <= k t
If values for q are not available it is conservative (safe) to use K t.
Note: These values have been obtained by reference to..
● Machinery's Handbook 18th ed.

● Mechanical Engineers Data Book (J.Carvill)
● Machine Design-Theory & Practice A.D Deutschman, W.J Michels, C.E. Wilson
● The calculators in the links below (ETB and Stacie Glass)
All of the sources provided similar results (+/- 10%)..Some source results are tabulated and
some are graphs. My tables include for a degree of mix and match and should be used as
such.. (The best source of Stress Concentration Factors (and probably the source for the
above references) is Peterson's Stress Concentration Factors (2nd Edition)...by Pilkey, Walter
D. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons ...)
If serious work is being carried out reputable sources of information should be used..
Plate with hole in centre of width
K f = σmax / σ
d/w 0,00 0,10 0,20 0,30 0,40 0,50 0,55

Kt 3,00 3,03 3,14 3,34 3,69 4,25 4,64
Wide plate with hole near one side

Metal Fatigue
● σa= Stress at A
● σb= Stress at B
● σ= Calculated uniform stress in section including hole
K t_a = σa / σ :: K t_b = σb / σ
r/c 0,00 0,10 0,20 0,30 0,40 0,50 0,60 0,70 0,80 0,85
K t_a 3,00 3,01 3,05 3,20 3,44 3,78 4,24 4,84 5,63 6,11
K t_b 3,00 3,03 3,07 3,10 3,15 3,18 3,25 3,32 3,42 3,50
Tension of Stepped bar with filleted corners
K t = σmax / ( F /h.d)
r/d
D/d
0,01 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30
1,01 1,65 1,46 1,32 1,26 1,20 1,18 1,15 1,13 1,12

Metal Fatigue
1,02 1,91 1,64 1,46 1,37 1,33 1,31 1,26 1,25 1,20
1,05 2,43 2,02 1,72 1,59 1,45 1,40 1,35 1,30 1,28
1,10 3,02 2,43 1,98 1,78 1,63 1,51 1,44 1,39 1,36
1,20 3,74 2,98 2,38 2,14 1,89 1,72 1,62 1,56 1,53
1,30 4,27 3,40 2,67 2,38 2,06 1,86 1,73 1,64 1,59
1,50 4,80 3,75 3,00 2,64 2,24 1,99 1,84 1,74 1,67
2,00 3,74 3,2 2,65 2,31 2,1 1,94 1,85
Bending of Stepped bar with filleted corners
K t = σmax / ( 6.M /h.d2)
r/d
D/d
0,01 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,30
1,01 1,76 1,53 1,37 1,32 1,28 1,25 1,22 1,19
1,02 2,05 1,74 1,52 1,42 1,35 1,28 1,25 1,22
1,05 2,58 2,11 1,77 1,62 1,47 1,40 1,34 1,29
1,10 3,09 2,45 2,00 1,80 1,59 1,49 1,40 1,31
1,20 3,62 2,81 2,23 1,97 1,70 1,55 1,44 1,34
1,50 3,80 2,98 2,38 2,15 1,83 1,63 1,52 1,38
2,00 3,14 2,59 2,23 1,88 1,66 1,54 1,40
3,00 3,30 2,68 2,34 1,93 1,67 1,53 1,38
Torsion of Grooved Shaft

Metal Fatigue
K ts = τmax / ( 16.T /π.d3)
r/d
D/d
0,02 0,03 0,04 0,06 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,30
1,05 2,00 1,80 1,60 1,45 1,34 1,28 1,21 1,15
1,10 2,00 1,84 1,74 1,63 1,45 1,35 1,29 1,22
1,20 2,16 1,97 1,85 1,69 1,51 1,39 1,32 1,24
1,30 2,22 2,02 1,89 1,72 1,59 1,39 1,33 1,24
1,50 2,24 2,03 1,90 1,73 1,53 1,39 1,30 1,25
2,00 2,80 2,10 1,93 1,75 1,55 1,41 1,31 1,20
Bending of Grooved Shaft
K t = σmax / ( 32.M /π.d3)
r/d
D/d
0,04 0,06 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30
1,05 2,33 2,04 1,76 1,60 1,50 1,42 1,36
1,10 2,45 2,14 1,85 1,64 1,53 1,45 1,39
1,20 2,63 2,30 1,92 1,70 1,57 1,48 1,42
1,30 2,71 2,35 1,95 1,72 1,58 1,49 1,43

Metal Fatigue
1,50 2,85 2,40 2,00 1,74 1,60 1,51 1,43

2,00 2,95 2,45 2,10 1,83 1,67 1,55 1,45
Torsion of Stepped Shaft
K ts = τmax / ( 16.T /π.d3)
r/d
D/d
0,02 0,03 0,05 0,07 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,30
1,05 1,56 1,45 1,34 1,27 1,22 1,17 1,14 1,10
1,10 1,72 1,57 1,43 1,35 1,28 1,21 1,17 1,12
1,20 2,0 1,70 1,57 1,42 1,33 1,25 1,20 1,15
1,30 2,03 1,79 1,56 1,44 1,35 1,26 1,21 1,15
1,50 2,20 1,92 1,62 1,47 1,36 1,25 1,20 1,14
1,75 2,30 2,05 1,75 1,60 1,45 1,30 1,24 1,16
2,00 2,55 2,15 1,75 1,6 1,45 1,31 1,24 1,16
2,50 2,60 2,30 1,80; 1,65 1,42 1,31 1,25 1,16
Bending of Stepped Shaft

Metal Fatigue
K t = σmax / ( 32.M /π.d3)
r/d
D/d
0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,08 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25
1,01 2,05 1,90 1,70 1,60 1,55 1,41 1,36 1,26 1,20 1,15
1,02 1,96 1,64 1,54 1,46 1,41 1,34 1,32
1,05 2,50 2,25 2,00 1,85 1,78 1,60 1,54 1,41 1,32 1,25
1,10 2,80 2,34 2,08 1,94 1,85 1,65 1,54 1,43
1,20 3,30 2,60 2,30 2,10 1,95 1,75 1,65 1,50 1,42 1,30
1,50 3,73 2,90 2,52 2,30 2,13 1,84 1,72 1,54 1,43 1,35
2,00 3,70 3,17 2,71 2,42 2,25 1,92 1,78 1,58 1,46 1,36
3,00 3,90 3,30 2,90 2,45 2,35 1,96 1,81 1,61 1,48 1,38
Stress concentration factor for keyways

Note: Values below are K f not K t
Keyways cut into a shaft reduce its normal torque carrying capacity..It is accepted that for a
standard keyway (width approx 25% dia and depth approx 12.5% dia) the design load carrying

Metal Fatigue
capacity is reduced to 75% of the normal working strength.. (before application of any stress
concentration factors>.
Stress Concentration Factor for Screw Threads

Note: Values below are K f not K t
Bending or Tension K f
Rolled Cut
Annealed 2,2 2,3
Quenched
3,0 3,8
& Drawn
Stress Concentration Factor for Welds

Note: Values below are K f not K t..Some text books allow for welds using a fatigue strength
modifying factor and not a stress concentration modifying factor
Weld Type K f Picture
Reinforced
1,2
Butt Weld
Traverse
1,5 <
Fillet Weld
Parallel
2,7
Fillet Weld
Tee butt
with Fillet
2,0
Weld (No
Penteration)
Useful Links..
1. Stress Concentration Factors... Plymout U. notes and some applets

3. Engineers Toolbox ... Online calculators including fatigue (I have not tried this yet)
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Metal Fatigue

Fatigue Stress Action Types
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Fatigue Action Types
Fatigue Action types
The fatigue action types refers to the types of stress loading that results in fatigue failures in
engineering materials.
Alternating /Reversing Stress

In determining fatigue stress levels using standard test equipment the test specimens are
subject to alternative/reversed stress levels... The cyclic stress varies from σ a tensile to σ a
compressive. The mean stress = 0.
The fatigue strength values for metals are based on this loading condition with the published
fatigue strength values S'n, representing the material fatigue strength property, being the σ
amp value at failure.
Repeated Stress
In the repeated stress loading condition the stress varies between zero and a maximum tensile
(or compressive) stress in a cyclic manner...
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Combined steady and cyclic stress

A stress condition normally experienced in practice is a cyclic stress imposed on a steady load stress..
● The maximum stress = σmax

● The minimum stress = σmin
● The mean stress = σmean = ( σmax + σmin ) / 2
● The stress Amplitude= σamp = ( σmax - σmin ) / 2
● The stress Ratio R = σmin / σmax
For Alternating Stress... R = -1

For Repeated Stress +ve... R = 0 / σ max
For Repeated Stress -ve... R = σ min / 0

Combination of Mean Stress and Fluctuating stress
The mean stress can have a significant effect of the fatigue failure and must be considered in
combination with the alternating stress..(Under normal fatigue loading conditions the mean
stress is small compared to the alternating stress.)
A number of interaction criteria are used to quantify the combined stress and the relevant
design factors of safety..These are plotted together below
The Mean Stress σ mean is plotted on the horizontal axis and the alternating stress σampis
plotted on the vertical axis.
Soderberg Line
If the point of the combined stress is below the Soderberg line then the component will not
fail . This is a very conservative criteria based on the meterial yield point Syt
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Soderberg Criteria
Goodman Line /Modified Goodman Line

If the point of the combined stress is below the relevant Goodman line then the component will
not fail . This is a less conservative criteria based on the material Ulimate strength ield point Sut
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Goodman Criteria

Gerber Line
If the point of the combined stress is below the Gerber line then the component will not fail .
This is a less conservative criteria based on the material Ulimate strength Sut
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Gerber Criteria
● Se = The Modified fatigue strength

● Sut = The ultimate tensile strength
● Syt = The yield tensile strength
● Nf = The Factor of Safety applicable the Fatigue
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Fatigue Modifying Factors
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The load experience by a component subject to fatigue loading must not exceed the
MODIFIED endurance limit divided by the Stress Concentration factor (Kf). The Modified
fatigue endurance limit is the endurance strength ( S' n ) identified from the relevant S-N
( Wohler) curve modified by a number of factors
Max load (tension) < Se / K f = C s x C f x C l x C t x C r x C m x S' n / K f
Max load (shear) < Ses / K f = C s x C f x C l x C t x C r x C m x S' es / K f
See Modified endurance/fatigue limit.

Ses Modified endurance/fatigue limit (shear)
S'n The maximum completely reversed (tensile) stress for which it is assumed that
the material will never fail regardless of the number of cycles.
S'ns The maximum completely reversed (shear)stress for which it is assumed that
the material will never fail regardless of the number of cycles.
C s Size Factor
C f Surface Finish Factor
C l Loading Factor
C t Temperature Factor
C r Reliability factor
C m Miscellaneous factor
All of the above factors have significant quantifiable negative effect on the fatigue strength of a metal.
Other factors can also have a significant non-quantifiable effect on the fatigue strength of metals.
Cs = Size Factor
The endurance limit of specimens have been observed to vary with their size. This is possibly related to the probability of a high
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stress interacting with a critical flaw within a certain volume, i.e., when the volume is large there is a higher probability of failure.
Hence, when the size increases, the endurance decreases. Alternatively, since there appears to be a more pronounced size effect in
reversed bending and/or torsion than in the reversed axial loading situation this suggests that the stress gradient at the surface is
partially responsible for the size effect.
For circular components of diameter, d, an accepted relation illustrating the specimen size effect on the endurance limit for the
reversed bending and torsion situations, is
● Cs = 1 for d < 8 mm
● Cs = 1.189 -0.097 for 8 mm < d < 250mm
C f = Surface Finish Factor

The specimens used in the laboratory to determine the fatigue strength curve or endurance
limit of a particular material have a standard size and surface finish that are closely monitored
prior to the test. As discussed previously, the initiation of microcracks is almost always
associated with a free surface and, hence, the surface condition of the location being reviewed
plays a crucial role in assessing the modified fatigue strength.
There are basically three reasons why manufacturing procedures influence the fatigue
characteristics of a component:
1) surface irregularities...
2) the condition of the surface, i.e., whether it has been cold worked or softened by
decarburization,
3) and the introduction of residual stresses into the surface by, for example, shot-peening.
While the first is due to the machining processes employed during the manufacture of the
component, the latter two influence the yield and tensile strengths of the material in the
neighbourhood of the surface. The surface modifying factor therefore depends of the quality
of the finish and the material strength characteristics.

C l = Load factor
The strength values obtained from the S-N (Wohler plot) result from a reversed bending load
as the specimen is rotated. In the rotating-bending testing every element in the specimen
diameter surface is subjected to a bend in one direction and then the other, with only a small
region on the outer surface being subjected to the maximum stress level. The reversed axial
loading scenario is a much more arduous condition because the all of the section is subject to
the full stress and not just the surface elements (The strength values reported for reversed
axial loading has been reported at various ratios from 0,7 - 0,85 times that reported for
reversed bending ). Again in the reversed torsion scenarion the loading is shear as opposed
to bending. To allow for these differences a loading factor is provided
● Cl =1,0 When the loading is reversed bending

● Cl =0,71 When the loading is reversed axial
● Cl = 0,6 when the loading is reversed torsional
C t = Temperature factor
Components are often required to endure temperatures different from those at which the
mechanical properties of a material were obtained. For metals, the following relations may be
applicable in certain situations. A lower temperatures and higher temperatures a more
detailed assessment will be required...
● Ct =1,0 When the temperature is less than 450 deg C

● Cl =1 - 5.8-3 (T-450 deg C) When the 450o C < t 550oC

C r = Reliability factor
The basis of the concept of reliability is that a given component has a certain strength resisting
capacity; if the stress induced by the operating conditions exceeds this capacity, failure
results. In themselves, design methods based solely on the use of factors of safety and
margins of safety give little indication as to the failure probability of the component under cyclic
loading. Furthermore, design variables and parameters are random variables, a fact often
ignored by conventional design methods.
In order to define an acceptable meaning of reliability, consider a large population of

mechanical parts. For a specific choice of the number of cycles to failure, n, (where n may
also be identified with the number of cycles defining the endurance limit), a fatigue strength,
Sn, and a stress action range, σ amp, are associated with each location in the component
being designed.
Owing to the statistical nature of S - N curves and the uncertainty in both the level and
frequency of the loads being applied, there exists in their simplest form a mean value and a
standard deviation for each of these variables that defines, for example, a normal distribution
for each.
As illustrated in the figure below the forward 'tail' of the stress distribution may overlap the
rearward 'tail' of the strength distribution, results in an interference which may be associated
with the probability of failure. Since reliability = 1 - probability of failure, this serves as a
illustrative measure of reliability.
The S_N (Wohler) plotted values are mean values based on a number of test resulting in loads
at failure. The strength values are mean values implying a 50% survival rate. To enable
determination of design strength values with a higher survival rate i.e 90% upwards then the
indicated strength values must be reduced..This involves the use of the Reliability factor
determined by statistical adjustment of the 50% value S'n.....Put simply , "increasing the factor
of safety results in lower risk of failure "
Using the standard normal cumulative distribution and assuming an 8 % standard deviation for
both the stress and strength, an analytic expression for cr may be deduced. This expression

results in the values given in Table below..
Reliability Cr
0,5 1
0,9 0,897
0,95 0,868
0,99 0,814
0,999 0,753
0,9999 0,702
0,99999 0,659
0,999999 0,620
C m = Miscellaneous Factor
This factor is a general factor to allow for various factors which are not easily quantifiable.
These factors may include the influence of: corrosion, electrolytic plating (metallic coatings),
metal spraying, cyclic frequency, fretting corrosion (due to microscopic motions of tightly fitted
parts), and radiation effects on materials. When corrosion, for example, is combined with
cyclic loading, failure is likely to be more accelerated and the endurance limit lower than
expected from separate estimates of the two factors. The reason for this is that corrosion and
stressing occur not only at the same time but also interact with one another. As another
example, in regions where bearing loads exist, the risk of fretting corrosion occurring is higher
than at other locations of a component. As a result, the value of Cm should be lower inthese
locations than at others. Hence, in a particular situation actual fatigue data may not be
applicable and an estimate of Cm must be included in the design and material selection
process.
Shot peening, cold rolling, case hardening and nitriding can improve the fatigue strength and
reduce the effect of stress concentrations.
Fatigue Links
1. ME – 515 Notes... Lecture Download - Describing modification Factors

3. Engineers Toolbox ... Online calculators including fatigue (I have not tried this yet)
4. U-Victoria. Material Strength Notes... A number of useful download pages including fatigue notes
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Fatigue Life
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Fatigue Life
Cyclic Loading Life Considerations

A component is stressed to some extent in its operating life. In all loading scenarios it is desirable
to design the component to minimise stress concentrations and maximum the strength of the
component material using good design practices.
1) Static Loading..
If the component is stressed to a constant stress level for its operating life then fatigue loading
design is not appropriate and for ductile materials the stress concentration factors are not
important...If the component is brittle e.g. Cast Iron, then the stress concentration factors need to be
considered in the design process..Design using the material yield strength and ultimate strength
using the appropriate strength formulae and Factors of Safety can be completed
2) Low life Loading -Stress cycles < 10 3 stress cycles over the design life.
This condition is approached in a similar manner to the static loading scenario. There is a need to
review the loading with respect to the material fatigue properties
Approximate values for low life fatigue strength values for steel are provided below
● Bending S'l = 0,9 Su

● Axial Loading S'l = 0,75 Su
● Axial Loading S'l = 0,72 Su
3) Finite life Loading - Stress cycles 10 3 to 10 6 stress cycles over design lifetime
Use S-N (Wohler) curve for relevant material and determine the relevant fatigue stress level at the
relevant design life . If this information is not available then an estimate of the fatigue strength S'f
can be made if the Endurance limit and the Low life strength values are available. ref. High life
fatigue strength
The fatigue modifying factors must be considered and the stress concentration factors should also
be considered. If the cyclic stress level at at different values over the operating lifetime then it may
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Fatigue Life
be appropriate to use the Palmgren-Miner rule see below..
3) Infinite life Loading - Stress cycles >10 6 stress cycles design lifetime
For ferrous metals and titanium alloys the endurance limit may be used S'n.
For non ferrous the fatigue strength limit S'n may be used,with care , as a design material strength
(assuming the n-cycles.
used is similar compared to the projected life).
The S'n value to be modified by the appropriate fatigue modifying factors and the design should
apply appropriate stress concentration values and factors of safety..
Palmgren-Miner
In actual service, parts are seldom stressed repeatedly at only one stress level and, hence, the
problem arises as to the cumulative damage effect of operations at various levels of stress reversal.
Consequently, the linear cumulative damage rule or the Palmgren-Miner rule has come into
common usage. It assumes that the total life of a part may be estimated by merely adding up the
percentage of life consumed by each stress cycle.
Thus, if a specimen, stressed at σ1, has a life of N 1 cycles, the damage after n 1 cycles at σ1 will be
n 1 / N 1 of the total damage, D, at failure. Similarly, for a two stress level test, where the lives at σ1
and σ2 are, respectively, N 1 and N 2, the corresponding damages, per cycle, being D/N 1 and D/N 2
the total damage at failure becomes:D = D . n 1 / N 1 + D . n 2 / N 2 or 1 = n 1 /N 1 + n 2 / N 2 where n
1 and n 2 are the total number of cycles at σ1 and σ1, respectively.
For a multi-level test, Palmgren - Miner rule states
Failure if n 1 / N 1 + n 2 / N 2 + n3 / N3...... > 1
Example :
A component is designed for
● a stress of 360MPa for 8,000 cycles. Life N 1 from S_N curve = 20,000 cycles

Fatigue Life
8,000 / 20,000 + 10,000/40,000 + 40,000 / 200,000 = 0.8 ( This is less than 1) ..The part will probably not fail in fatigue..
Useful Links..
1. U-kansas's Fatigue Notes... Basic Fatigue Concepts.

2. Shaft Loads... Fatigue considerations in designing shafts.
3. Engineers Toolbox ... Online calculators including fatigue.
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Stress Concentration Reduction
Improving Fatigue Resistance
It is good mechanical design practice to reduce as far as possible the risk from fatigue
loading. This will involve the following:
● Reducing /Eliminating cyclic loads - (Rotating Loads - Vibration etc).

● Reducing operating cycles- (Using lower rotating speeds /Regular part replacement)
● Selecting materials which are tolerant to cyclic loading (ductile /tough materials )
● Reducing/eliminating the stress severe concentrations - (no sharp corners or sudden size changes )
● Specifying manufacturing processes to provide fatigue resistance (Peening /shot blasting/Cold Working )
● Specifying heat treatment to provide fatigue resistance- (Carburising /Nitriding )
● Overdesigning part to reduce stress levels
● Preloading to convert cycling load to steady load (bolt preloading)
Below are illustrated a number of methods of reducing stress concentrations....
Shafts
Screw Threads
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Welds
Reduce weld created stresses by heat treatment (stress relieving /anealing).

Welds to be high quality with no cracks, porosity and slag inclusions.
Welds to have smooth profiles with no sharp corners at interface with parent metal. (Concave
not convex weld surfaces...
Useful Links..
1. Improvement Of Ni 18 (250) Maraging Steel Weldment Fatigue Strength Through Shot Peening ... A link to a short interesting paper
2. Vibration fatigue testing of socket welds ... A paper on fatigue problems in the nuclear industry - with suggested improvements.
3. Shot Peen Forming ...Metal Improvements Company- specialist in improving metal fatigue performance

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Impact Loading
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Impact Loading
Introduction
Generally when the strength of machine elements are considered it is assumed that the loading is
static or applied gradually. This loading condition is often not the case, the loading may be cyclic
requiring assessment for fatigue. Fatigue Index or it may involve impact or suddenly applied
loads. When loads are applied suddenly and when the loads are applied as impact loads the
resulting stresses induced in the machine elements are much higher than if the loads are applied
gradually.
It is normal practice to design machines such that impact loads are eliminated or reduced by
inclusion of shock absorbers. Inclusion of low cost, mass produced, shock absorbers can virtually
eliminate the increased loads resulting from impact loads.
Most ductile materials have strength properties which are a function of the loading speed. The
more rapid the loading the higher the tensile and ultimate strengths of the materials. . Two
standard tests, the Charpy and Izod, measure the impact energy (the energy required to fracture a
test piece under an impact load), also called the notch toughness.
The detailed assessment of the strength of machine elements under impact loading regimes
involves use of advanced techniques including Finite Element Analysis. Impact loads result in
shock waves propogating through the elements with possible serious consequences. It is possible
to complete relatively simply stress evaluation for suddenly applied and impact loads by using the
principle of conservation of energy and assuming the materials considered respond to the loading
elastically.
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Impact Loading
Notation
● A = Area (m2)
● E = Modulus of Elasticity (N/m2)
● h = Drop distance (m)
● k =Stiffness (N/m)
● M = Mass-moving body (kg)
● l = length of bar (l)
● tp = time period (s)
● v = velocity (m/s)
● W = Weight - moving body(N)
● V = Velocity (m/s)
● w = Specific Weight (kg/m3)
● σ = stress (N/m2)
● δ = deflection (m)
● μ = Ratio Moving Mass/Stationary bar
● β = Constant = A Sqrt(wEg/W) - see text
Linear Impact deflections and stresses (gravity loads)

Important note: The notes below represent a very simple view of the loading condition and do not
consider more real case involving shock waves being propagated through the loaded member or
the moving mass
Consider a loading regime as shown below with a ring of Mass M(kg) with weight W= Mg(N) being
dropped through a distance h onto a collar supported by a vertical bar which behaves as a spring
with a stiffness of k (N/m).
The support bar has a length l (m), an Area A (m2 ) With a modulus of elasticity E (N/m2 )
In practice the weight would impact onto the support which would elastically deform until all of the
potential energy has been absorbed. The support would then contract initiating damped oscillations
until the system assumes a stable static position. The equations below determine the initial
maximum deformation which provides the most highly stressed condition.

Impact Loading
In accordance with conservation of energy the potential energy of the weight is converted to elastic
strain energy.
This may be expressed as a quadratic equation
This is solved for the maximum deflection δmax as follows
The weight applied gradually would result in a deflection δst thus
Note:
The stiffness k = Force /Deflection = F /δ: E = stress /strain = σ /e = (F /A) /(δ/l) Therefore k = EA/
l
Substituting this into the equation for δmax results in
This can be expressed as
The resultant maximum force is simply
Pmax = k δmax
and the resultant maximum stress =

Impact Loading
σmax = Pmax/ A
This may be expressed as
For the calculation of the stress due to a suddenly applied load with h = 0
σmax = 2 σst
Linear impact deflections and stresses kinetic impacts
Important note: The notes below represent a very simple view of the loading condition and do not
consider more real case involving shock waves being propagated through the loaded member or
the moving mass
Impact loads based pimarily on kinetic energy e.g horizontal impacts are treated slightly
differently. For these applications the kinetic energy is converted into stored energy due to elasticity
of the resisting element.
Consider a Mass M(kg) with a velocity of v impacting on a collar which is supported by a bar with a
stiffness of K (N/m) - Ignoring gravitational forces.
The kinetic energy of the mass Mv2 /2 is transformed into stored energy in the support.
The resulting equation is

Impact Loading
The resultant maximum deflection equals..
The equivalent maximum stress =
Impact stresses considering propogation of shock waves- Unsupported bar
When a impact force is suddenly applied to and elastic body , a wave of stress is propogated
traveling through the body with a velocity..
w = weight /unit volume (kg/m2), v = velocity (m/s)
The unsupported bar subject to the longitudonal impact from a rigid body with velocity v
experiences a wave of compressive stress of intensity σ.
If the mass of the moving body is very large compared to the mass of the bar the wave of
compression bounces back from the far end of the bar as a wave of tension and returns to the
struck end after a time period
t p = 2L / V

Impact Loading
If the mass of the moving body is very large compared to the bar so that it can be considered infinite
then after breaking contact the moving bar will move away from the impacting mass with a velocity
of vb= 2v. The moving bar will be stress free.
If the mass of the impinging body is μ time the mass of the bar then the bar will move away with an
average velocity of
The moving bar is left vibrating with a stress intensity of
Impacts considering propogation of shock waves- bar with one end supported
For the case of a bar with one end fixed , the wave of compressive stress resulting from the impact
on the unsupported end is reflected back unchanged from the supported (fixed end) and combines
with the advancing waves to produce a maximum stress approximately equal to..
μ = Mass of Moving Body/Mass of Bar
Links to Machine Loading
1. Failure - How do materials break.. Informative download

Impact Loading
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Fatigue Finite Life Stresses
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Fatigue High Cycles Finite Life
Fatigue High Cycles Finite Life

For many applications the number of stress cycles placed a component during its service life is
between 103 and 106 cycles. It is economical to use appropriate fatigue strength as opposed to
using the endurance limit. The strength value between the low cycle stress value S'l and the
endurance limit value S'e can be plotted on a graph of log10 Fatigue strength (S) vs log10 Number of
cycle (N't) as a straight line following the equation.
b = the slope of the line

C = the intercept of the line with the vertical cycles ordinate
S'f = the fatigue strength value
S'e = the endurance limit
S'l = the fatigue strength at 103 cycles
At the endpoints of the high cycles finite life rang (103)cycles and (106)cycles The endurance
strength values are
subtracting the equation for S'e from S 'l results is the following
To obtain C it is simply necessary to substitute the above into the equation for S'e
Therefore knowing the low level fatigue strength (S'l) for a metal and the endurance strength (S'e)
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Fatigue Finite Life Stresses
and the number of operating cycles it is possible to obtain the relevant fatigue value using the
equation.
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Primary Metal Forming Processes ..Casting / Forging etc.
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Primary Forming Processes
Notes and links...

Casting Forging Extruding
Wire/ Tube Drawing Sintering Bending/Forming
Comparison between processes
Note: The MAS link below.. (while it is still on line).. is a excellent tool for comparing processes and also includes details on individual process..
Economic Minimimum
Process Materials Size Range
Quantity thickness
Sand Casting Small/Large Most Metals Small to Large 3mm
Die Casting
Large Al,Cu,Mg,Zn 1-60 kg 3mm
Gravity
Die Casting Large Al,Cu,Mg,Zn - 5kg 1mm
Centrifugal
Large Most Metals 50mm - 1m dia 3mm
Casting
Investment
Small/Large Most Metals 50g - 60 kg 1mm
Casting
Closed Die 150mm dia x
Large Most Metals 3mm
Forging 300mm
Hot Extrusion Large Most Metals 500mm dia 1mm
Hot rolling Large Most Metals Billets -
Cold rolling Large Most Metals Billets -
Al,Cu,Zn,
Drawing Small-Large 3mm-6m dia 0,1mm
Ductile Steel
Al,Cu,Zn,
Spinning Small-Large 3mm-4.5m dia 0,1mm
Ductile Steel
Fe,W,Bronze
Sintering Large 0-4 kg 0,5mm
Hard metals
Links Providing information on Primary Process
1. Manufacturing Advisory Service 2.0 ...A java tool for selecting manufacturing process.
2. Manufacturing Engineer On a Disk A comprehensive document covering Manufacturing with detailed sections on primary processes
3. FIA Forging Facts;.. Forging Industry Association ..Page describing forging processes
4. Forging ;.. Ohio University ..Article describing forging processes
5. mmc Assess ;.. Site Devoted to Metal Matrix Composites-
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Primary Metal Forming Processes ..Casting / Forging etc.
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Machining Processes
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Processes which remove metal from a workpiece can be broadly classified into three main groups i.e Chip Removal, Chipless removal and metal
removed by heat.
Chip Removal Processes..
Machining Processes
Process Name/link... Notes
Automation /CNC control Modern machine tools are generally controlled using CNC /DNC..
Drilling Drilling is the production of holes..
The workpiece is rotated around its axis and a cutting tool is fed
Turning parallel to the axis to create a cylinder or at right angles to the axis
to create a face
Milling involves feeding the workpiece past a rotating cutter with
Milling
cutting edges on its side or end or both
Grinding Used to produce a good accurate surface finish...
Shaping Used to produce flat surfaces by reciprocating tool motion...
Planing Used to produce flat surfaces by reciprocating Workpiece motion...
Saws Saws are used to cut short lengths of long sections..
Additional Notes
Cutting Tool Materials... Cutting Tool Materials..
Cutting Fluids... Cutting Fluids..
Links Providing information on Machining
1. Cyberman machining Page..Machining Primers

2. Manufacturing Education Page.. Michigan Technological University - general machining information
3. Virtual Machine shop.. An excellent collection of lessons on Machine Shop Processes
4. How to perfect a machining process.. Modern Machine Shop article - Very interesting
5. Shopswarf.. A website devoting to machining information. Mainly USA -imperial data (Includes picture of Old Machine tools)
6. Machining..IOWA state lecture notes ..Professor Molian
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Welding Processes
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Welding
Introduction
A weld occurs when pieces of metal are joined by causing the interface to melt and blend prior to
solidifying as a uniform metal joint. This process may be caused by heat, pressure or a combination of
both. When heat alone is used the process is called fusion welding.
Pressure welding usually involves heating the surfaces to a plastic state and then forcing the metal
together. The heating can be by electric current of by friction resulting from moving one surface relative
to the other.
The methods and equipment used for welding metal are also associated with cutting metal. There are a
large number of welding and allied processes including the following.
Welding Processs
Gas Resistance Solid State Other
Arc Welding Brazing Soldering
Welding Welding Welding Welding
Allied processes
Electron
Adhesive Thermal Oxygen Thermal Laser
Arc Cutting Beam
Bonding Spraying Cutting Cutting Cutting
Cutting
Manual Metal Arc Welding Process
Electric Arc welding is based on providing an electric circuit comprising the Electric current source the
feed and return path, the electrode and the workpiece. The arc welding process involves the creation of
a suitable small gap between the electrode and the workpiece. When the circuit is made a large current
flows and an arc is formed between the electrode and the workpiece. The resulting high temperatures
causing the workpiece and the electrode to melt The electrode is consumable. It includes metal for the
weld, a coating which burns off to form gases which shield the weld from the air and flux which combines
with the nitrides and oxide generated at the weld. When the weld solidifies a crust is formed from the
impurities created in the weld process (Slag). This is easily chipped away.
MIG & TIG Welding
The Metal Inert Gas Process uses a consumable electrode of wire form and an inert gas shield of carbon
dioxide when welding carbon steel.. The wire electrode provides a continuous feed of filler metal
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Welding Processes
allowing welds of any length without stopping. The inert gas shield eliminates slag and allows cleaner
and stronger weld.. This process is used widely for automated welding using robots.
The Tungsten Inert gas (TIG) system uses a non-consumable electrode of tungsten and also provides an
inert gas shield of argon or helium.
This process was orginally developed for welding magnesium and it is now used for welding aluminium,
copper, stainless steel, and a wide range of other metals that are difficult to weld. Consumable rods may
be used depending on the type of weld and the thickness of weld.

Welding Processes
Welding process Designations
The welding process designations provided below are based on BS EN ISO 4063 and are used when identifying welds to BS EN 22553
1 Arc welding
11 Metal-arc welding without gas protection

111 Metal-arc welding with covered electrode
112 Gravity arc welding with covered electrode
113 Bare wire metal-arc welding
114 Flux cored wire metal-arc welding
115 Coated wire metal-arc welding
118 Firecracker welding
13 Gas-shielded metal-arc welding

131 MIG welding: metal-arc inert gas welding
135 MAG welding: metal-arc active gas welding
136 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding with active gas shield
14 Gas-shielded welding with non-consumable electrode

141 TIG welding: tungsten inert gas arc welding
149 Atomic-hydrogen welding
15 Plasma arc welding
18 Other arc welding processes

181 Carbon-arc welding
185 Rotating arc welding

Welding Processes
2 Resistance Welding
21 Spot welding
22 Seam welding
221 Lap seam welding
225 Seam welding with strip
23 Projection welding
24 Flash welding
25 Resistance butt welding
29 Other resistance welding processes

291 HF (High-Frequency) resistance welding
3 Gas welding
31 Oxy-fuel gas welding

311 Oxy-acetylene welding
312 Oxy-propane welding
313 Oxy-hydrogen welding
32 Air-fuel gas welding

321 Air-acetylene welding
322 Air-propane welding
4 Pressure welding
41 Ultrasonic welding
42 Friction welding
43 Forge welding
44 Welding by high mechanical energy

441 Explosive welding
45 Diffusion welding
47 Gas pressure welding
48 Cold pressure welding
Other welding processes
71 Thermit welding
72 Electro-slag welding

Welding Processes
73 Electro-gas welding
74 Induction welding
75 Light radiation welding

751 Laser beam welding
752 Arc image welding
753 Infrared welding
76 Electron beam welding
77 Percussion welding
78 Stud welding
781 Arc stud welding
782 Resistance stud welding
Links Providing information on Welding
1. Aussie Weld ... An Welding site with a great tutorial- Much better than above..
2. Dave Wright Welding ...Information on Welding and Metals
3. Welding Links ..A Site providing A directory of Links on Welding and associated topics
4. Design In Site... -> Processes-> Joining Processes..A review of various welding processes
5. TWI ...Site on All aspects of Joining. Excellent Info on Welding etc and the associated regulatory requirements.
6. Gowelding ...Very good site with detailed information on welding and calculating weld strengths
7. Design Guidelines ... Useful Weld Notes
8. Speciality Welds ... Underwater welding, cutting, training etc connected to the diving industry (UK based) ..
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Joining Processes
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Joining Processes
Links Providing information on Joining
1. Fastener Design Manual.. A comprehensive two part manual on design- very useful
2. Fastener Technology .. A trade Magazine
3. Pivot Point Fasteners ... A site devoted to non-threaded fasteners
4. Assembly ... The assembly technology resource centre
5. Velco ..Innovative Joining solutions
6. Permabond..Industrial Adhesives
7. Loctite Well Known Industrial Adhesives
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Painting Processes
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Painting/Galvanizing etc
Paint is a liquid which dries to form a surface. It is used in Engineering for protection, decoration and identification of surfaces.
Paint consists mainly of:
● Pigments, which provide opacity and color and can affect the degree of gloss
● Binders, which keep the powdery pigment together
● Solvents (and thinners and dispersing agents), which evaporate after application to leave behind the film of bound pigment.
When painting surfaces a "paint system" is generally used including the following stages:
● Surface preparation
● Application of a Primer layer.
● Application of an Undercoat layer.
● Application of a topcoat.
It is preferable to obtain the primer, Undercoat and the topcoat from the same manufacturer.
A Paint can be either water based or solvent based.
In a solvent based paint a solvent is used with the binder to obtain suitable consistency for applying the paint. The solvent evaporates after
application. The binder forms a film which hardens generally as a result of chemical reaction . In production processes the hardening/ curing
process is accelarated using additional processes including stoving in special ovens. In the curing process the binder changes chemically and is no
long soluble in the solvent.
Laquers are solvent based paints that simply harden as a result of the solvent evaporation with no chemical change to the film.
Water based paints are either
● Emulusions of polymers depending on for their drying properties on the evaporation of water and coalescing of the polymer particles.
● Water soluble resins which are applied by electro-deposition or by dipping followed by stoving.
Galvanising
Galvanising is a method of protecting a steel surface from corrosion by providing a surface coating of Zinc. Galvanised coatings corrode
preferentially to steel, providing sacrificial or cathodic protection to small areas of steel exposed through damage to the coating. Unlike organic
coatings no touch up is needed
The galvanising process involves the following stages:
● Any surface oil or grease is removed by suitable degreasing agents.

● The steel is then usually cleaned of all rust and scale by acid pickling. This may be preceded by blast cleaning to remove scale and
roughen the surface but such surfaces are always subsequently pickled in inhibited hydrochloric acid.
● The cleaned steel is then immersed in a fluxing agent to ensure good contact between the steel and zinc during the galvanising process.
● The cleaned and fluxed steel is dipped into a bath of molten zinc at a temperature of about 450oC. At this temperature, the steel reacts
with the molten zinc to form a series of zinc/iron alloys integral with the steel surface.
● As the steel workpiece is removed from the bath, a layer of relatively pure zinc is deposited on top of the alloy layers.
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Painting Processes
Links Providing information on Painting
1. Waste Reduction in Metal Coating ...some interesting links

2. American Galavanizers Assoc'n ...Information on Gavanizsing
3. PaintQuality.com ...A comprehensive reference site for paint processes
4. General Paint ...Useful information and Tips
5. Corus Construction Corrosion Notes ...Detailed notes on various surface coating systems and their benefits
6. Design In Site ...-> Processes-> Surface Process..A review of various surface finishing processes
7. IVE.org.uk -> ...Institute Of Vitreous Enamellers
8. Industrial Galvanizers Corporation -> ...Supplier Website with lots of technical informaton
Home
Manufacturing Index
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Surface Engineering
ROYMECH
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Manufacturing Index
Surface Engineering
Surface Engineering Notes
The modern trend is to use surface engineering techniques to provide high performance surfaces on
substrate materials providing vastly improved component and tool performance, and life, at reasonable
costs. The expansion of surface engineering has largely taken place over the last thirty years. The
present situation is that most parts high performance engines have their surfaces treated to withstand
temperature, wear, and corrosion. The majority of the cutting tools used in machining have improved
surface hardness, wear resistance etc resulting from use of surface engineering processes
Typical Surface Engineering processes include
1. Surface Heat Treatments

2. Engineering Paints
3. Vitreous Enamelling
4. Powder Coatings
5. Zinc coatings
6. Tin Plate
7. Electroplating
8. Cadmium Plating
9. Anodising
10. Thermal Spray Coatings (Plasma, arc, D-gun, HVOF.
11. Plasma Ion Nitriding/Carburising/Boronising
12. Pack Cementation
13. Ion Implantation
14. Ceramic, Cermet, PCD and CBC metrials.
15. Chemical Vapour Deposition.
16. Physical Vapour Deposition.
● T.Poeton..Commercial site with some useful information

● Nottingham University UNIMAT.. Notes on the groups capabilities and services _useful background Info
● TWI Surface Engineering ..Site contains much useful information
● Gordon England ..Thermal Spraying Specialist with detailed information on Hardness Testing / Corrosion
● Surfaceweb Guide to Coating Selection ..Useful Notes on Surface Engineering
Links Providing information on Painting
1. Surface Engineering Association..The association dealing with all aspects of surface engineering
Home
Manufacturing Index
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Surface Engineering
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Bi_Metallic Corrosion ( Galvanic Corrosion )
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Corrosion Index
Corrosion Process...
Corrosion is a chemical process resulting the the progressive destruction of a metal by the interaction of the local environment. The
process result in the eventual failure of the metal with resultant high additional lifetime costs.
Three factors required involved in the corrosion of iron and steel are moisture, oxygen and a potential difference between adjacent
areas on/in the surface under consideration. Partially rusted metal in a moist atmosphere satisfies these conditions. The corrosion
may be uniformly distributed over the surface or highly localised (pitting). It may also take place as a result of contact between the
steel and another metal (bi-metallic corrosion). The basic mechanism in these types of corrosion is electriochemical and involves
the passage of electrons from the area of high to lower electron density(negative to positive).
On partially rusted steel in moist atmosphere a large number of small corrosion cells are set up. In these the iron forms the anode
and the rust or scale the cathode. At the anode, atoms of iron go into solution as ferrous ions at the same time liberating electrons.
Fe -> Fe2+ + 2 e- (Anode reaction).
The electrons confer a negative charge on the iron but immediately flow away to the less
negative cathode areas (rust or scale). Here they react with water and oxygen to form
hydroxyl ions.
2e- + Fe + H2O + ½ O2 -> 2 O H- (Cathode reaction).
The ferrous and hydroxyl ions react together in the surface moisture to form ferrous hydroxyl
which in turns becomes oxidised to hydrated ferric oxide (rust). This rust is formed away from
the surface of the anode and offers no protection . This process will continue as long as a
there is moisture and oxygen available. The rust products have a higher volume than the
metal and the rust products therefore tend destroy any protective surface which is in place.
In the presence of dissolved salts e.g. sodium chloride the process is accelerated but the result
is the same.
In a industrial environment there will be sulphur dioxide present and this will react with iron to
form ferrous sulphate . If the humidity is high the ferrous sulphate reacts with water and
oxygen to form hydrated iron oxide (rust) and liberates sulphuric acid which regenerates
ferrous sulphate.
Links to Corrosion
1. Corrosion Doctors An excellent reference site for the very important topic of corrosion
2. Corrosionsource Relevant online magazine
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Corrosion Index
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Bi- Metallic Corrosion. (Galvanic corrosion).
Bi- Metallic Corrosion. (Galvanic corrosion).

Bi-Metallic corrosion is the additional corrosion that occurs when dissimilar metals are in
contact in the presence of an electrolyte. The corrosion of a metal, the anode, results from
the positive current flowing from the anode to the less reactive (more noble) metal, the
cathode, through the electrolyte. This process is similar to the conventional corrosion of a
single, uncoupled metal but generally proceeds at a higher rate depending on the difference in
electrochemical reactivity of the anode and cathode metal.
The requirements for bi-metallic corrosion are as follows:
1. An electrolyte bridging the two metals

2. Electrical contact between the two metals.
3. A difference is potential between the metals to enable a significant galvanic current
4. A sustained cathodic reaction on the more noble of the two metals.
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Electrolyte
The degree of bi-metallic corrosion is affected by the electrolyte pH and conductivity. The
intensity of the corrosion can increase with the conductivity of the electrolyte. Typical values of
conductivity of various fluids are listed below;
Distilled Water 0.5-2 μS/cm
Stored Distilled Water 2-4 μS/cm
Supply Water 50-1500 μS/cm
Sea Water 50,000 μS/cm
Sat. Sodium Chloride 250,000 μS/cm
Sulphuric Acid up to 800,000 μS/cm
Bi-metallic corrosion is seldom a problem when the metals are immersed in pure water.

Methods of Reducing Corrosion resulting from Galvanic Corrosion

Where contact between dissimilar metals cannot be avoided the following steps should be
considered
● Select metals that are close together in the galvanic series for the relevant environment
● Avoid relatively small areas of the less noble metal and large areas of the more noble metal
● Insulate the metals from each other
● Exclude electrolyte from around the bimetallic junction e.g painting
● Paint both metals where possible: if impractical paint the most noble metal
● Provide additional corrosion allowance on the less noble metal
● Apply compatible metal or sacrificial metal coatings
If electrical insulation is used to minimise the risk test for the insulation quality as part of
maintenance regime
Galvanic Series
Reference -Oxidation -Reduction
Galvanic corrosion is driven by the voltage potential between two electrically connected
conductors ( To minimize this form of attack, materials in electrical contact, if required, should
be selected so as to minimize their relative potential.
The galvanic series of metals lists common materials in order of their electrical potential
relative to a recognized standard. Materials widely separated on this list will rapidly corrode in
the presence of electolyte (e.g. Seawater) when in electrical contact, the anodic material
suffering rapid material loss. Materials close together on this list will suffer less damage due
to corrosion.
Anodic - Least Noble

● Magnesium
● Magnesium Alloys
● Zinc
● Cadmium
● Aluminum
● Mild Steel , Wrought Iron
● Cast Iron, Low Alloy High Strength Steel
● Chrome Iron (active)
● Stainless Steel, 430 Series (active)
● Stainless Steel 302, 303, 321, 347, 410,416, (Active)
● Ni - Resist
● Stainless Steel 316, 317, (Active)
● Aluminum Bronze
● Hastelloy C (active) Inconel 625 (active)
● Titanium (active)
● Lead - Tin Solders
● Lead
● Tin
● Inconel 600 (active)
● Nickel (active)
● Hastelloy B (active)
● Brasses
● Copper
● Manganese Bronze , Tin Bronze (
● Nickel Silver
● Copper - Nickel Alloy 90-10
● Copper - Nickel Alloy 80-20

● Stainless Steel 430

● Nickel, Aluminum, Bronze
● Monel
● Silver Solder
● Nickel (passive)
● 60 Ni- 15 Cr (passive)
● Inconel 600 (passive)
● 80 Ni- 20 Cr (passive)
● Chrome Iron (passive)
● Stainless Steel 302, 303, 304, 321, 347,(PASSIVE)
● Stainless Steel 316, 317,(PASSIVE)
● Incoloy 825nickel - Molybdeum - Chromium
● Iron Alloy (passive)
● Silver
● Titanium (pass.) Hastelloy C (passive)
● Inconel 625(pass.)
● Graphite
● Zirconium
● Gold
● Platinum
Cathodic Most Noble.
Links to Bi-Metallic Corrosion
1. National Physical Laboratory On line guides ..Excellent

2. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Various informative notes
3. Henderson Group Material Consultants - Some useful notes
4. Tubesales Australia Good Concise notes and a corrosion table
Home
Corrosion Index

Stress Corrosion
ROYMECH
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Corrosion Index
Stress Corrosion Notes...
Introduction
Stress Corrosion is evidenced when the metal strength loss resulting from the combined
stress and corrosion is greater than the effects of stress and corrosion acting separately. The
magnitude of the combined effect is a measure of the susceptibility of the material to stress
corrosion.
Stress corrosion is generally evidenced as cracks giving an appearance of brittleness in a

material which is otherwise has normal ductile properties. The cracks may follow
intergranular paths which grow at relatively slow velocities. If the load is constant during the
period of crack growth the cracks will eventually reach a critical size to result in material failure.
Some combinations of environment and material known to cause stress corrosion are listed
below.
Material Environment known to cause stress corrosion

Moist air, Sea Water, Chloride, Bromide and iodide
Al alloys
solutions
Ammonia solutions and vapours, amines, moist SO2,
Cu alloys solutions of acetates, citrates formates, tartrates, nitrites
and sodium hydroxide.
Ni alloys Hydroxide solutions and hydrofluoric acid vapour
Solutions of chlorides, bromides, and iodides, liquid N2O4,
Ti alloys methanolic solutions and dry salts and elevated
temperatures
Low strength ferritic Solutions of hydroxides, nitrates, carbonates, phosphates,
steels molybdates, acetates, cyanides, and liquid ammonia
High Strength ferritic Moist air, water, aqueous and organic solutions.
steels Susceptibility increases with increasing stregnth of materials
Solutions of chlorides , fluorides, iodides, bromides,
Stainless Steels
sulphates , Phosphates, nitrates and polythionic acids
Stress corrosion does not normally occur in conditions in which the metal suffers from serious
general corrosion. It is therefore often not noticed resulting in fracture without warning.
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Stress Corrosion
The best methods of eliminating or minimising this problem are listed below
1. By selecting a material that is not susceptible to the environment and by ensuring that the environment is not adversely
affected by cleaning etc are not detrimental.
2. By controlling the operating stresses through design and minimising stress concentrations to keep them below the critical
value. Residual stresses can be reduced by heat treatments and careful design for manufacturing.
3. By coating the material and effectively isolating the material from the environment.
4. Minimising the operating temperature - stress corrosion is very low if the temperature is maintained below a certain specific
value
Links to Stress Corrosion

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Corrosion Surface Coatings
Disclaimer:
The
information
on this
page has
not been
checked by
an
independent
person.
Use this
information
at your own
risk.
ROYMECH
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Corrosion Index
Surface Coatings for Corrosion Notes...
The main method of protecting metal components from attack by the local environment is by
use of surface coatings. There are a number of surface coating systems available;
1. Grease
2. Wax
3. Paint
4. Zinc(Galvanising)
5. Plastic
6. Vitreous Enamel
7. Ceramic
8. Anodising (aluminium)
Notes
Grease /Oil
Various machines require grease and oil for lubrication. These products also provide a
degree of corrosion protection of the lubricated surfaces and a adjacent surfaces. Grease
can be used to provide corrosion protection for tools and equipment used in workshops which
are stored for short times when not in use.
Wax
There are a number of wax based products available which can be sprayed on surfaces at risk
and provide a significant level of corrosion resistance at minimum costs. Depending on the
operating conditions these products can last from one to ten years or more..
Paint
Probably the most widely used system of corrosion protection is by painting the metal surfaces
at risk. Notes on painting are provided elsewhere on this site Painting Notes
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The advantages of painting is that the protection is relatively convenient to apply and the paint
can be tailored to suit the duty. Paints can be engineered for convenience of decontamination
and provide a degree of surface protection against the environment in addition to the required
corrosion protection. Paint is also used for decoration and equipment identification.
The main disadvantages of painting are that damaged painted surfaces or low quality painted
surfaces will fail rapidly resulting in enhanced local corrosion of the base metal.
Zinc Coating (Galvanising)

Galvanised steel which is steel electroplated with zinc, uses the zinc layer as a protection to
the steel. Zinc is anodic and sacrificially removed. The steel is cathodic and thus is protected.
The important advantage of this process is that if the zinc coating is scratched the steel
surface beneath is still galvanically protected. Notes on this process are provide elsewhere on
this site Painting Notes
Plastic Coating
Virtually all plastics can be applied as metal surface coatings by spraying, fluidized-bed,
electrostatic, rotational moulding, flock or 'slush' coating or dipping The coating system has
the benefits of the strength of the base metal with the relevant properties of the plastic
coating. This option has similar disadvantages as the painting option. The resulting surface
must be sound and continuous and the thermal and mechanical properties of the coating are
generally inferior to the base metal.
Vitreous Enamel
Enamel is really or Vitreous Enamel is a thin layer of glass fused by heat on to the surface of a
metal being protected. The process involves dipping or spraying the glass coatings onto
metallic substrates and subsequent fusion operations. Vitreous enamelled components may
have single or multiple coatings and they may be fired after each application or they may be
fired as a single operation. The firing process uses a high temperature furnace to chemically
bond the enamel to the metal substrate.
Items that are typically vitreous enamelled include;

● white goods,
● signs,
● industrial parts,
● architectural steel,
● jewellery andcraft items.
Enamelled steel surfaces have excellent corrosion protection. Enamelled surfaces are
protected, smooth and very decorative.
Ceramic
Ceramic coatings are used to provide corrosion resistance against numerous chemicals as the
ceramic materials are inert. They also provide erosion resistance as the ceramics are very
hard. Butterfly disc valves, plug valves and valve bodies can be coated by this process to
overcome corrosion and erosion. Ceramic coatings can also withstand high temperature
conditions. A typical coating thickness is 50 to 100 microns and can be done selectively.
These coatings provide excellent finish and are deposited as slurry on metallic substrates, like
cast iron, steel, stainless steel and aluminium. They are subsequently chemically treated to

attain hard, impervious and corrosion resistant layers of excellent bond strength.
Anodising
Aluminium has a high natural resistance to corrosion because an oxide film Al2O3forms on the
surface providing a protective layer. Anodising is a technical electrolytic process to form a
thicker Al2O3 film than forms naturally. Better protection can be obtained in more aggressive
environments such as sea water.
Links to Surface Coatings
1. Institute of Vitreous Enamellers

2. Environmental Agency
3. Plastic Coatings
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Corrosion Index

Corrosion of Piping
ROYMECH
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Corrosion Index
Corrosion of Piping Notes...
Introduction
A significant proportion of the corrosion problems experienced relate to piping systems.

Piping systems are used to transfer a wide range of fluids in a wide range of environments. A
major lifetime costs for any industrialised plant is the cost of leaking fluids and the cost of
repair of piping system to prevent and eliminate leaks. The main methods of preventing
corrosion in piping systems are as follows;
1. Selection of materials
2. Corrosion resistant surface coating
3. Location /Geometry of piping systems
4. Cathodic protection methods
Piping Materials
There is an extremely wide range of pipeline materials available . These are selected on
various criteria the two most important of which are suitability for service and cost. The
suitability for service is determined primarily on the materials resistance to attack by the fluid
being transferred and the external environment. The internal corrosion resistance is more
important than the external resistance because it easier to protect and monitor and repair the
external surfaces and the environment generally provides a less arduous regime.
A typical range of fluids with suitable pipeline materials is listed below;
Fluid Pipe line material

Process Air Carbon Steel, Copper, Plastic
Potable Water Carbon Steel, Copper, Plastic
Low Pressure Sat.
Carbon Steel, Copper
Steam
High Pressure Dry
Carbon Steel,
Steam
Demineralised
304 Stainless Steel,
Water
304/316 St.steels, Aluminium Bronzes, Copper
Seawater nickel alloys, Nickel alloys, Superduplex, 6%
(or7%)Mo St. steels, Duplex steels, Titanium
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Corrosion of Piping
Nitric Acid 304 Stainless Steel

Nitrogen, Carbon Steel,
Argon Carbon Steel,
Instrument Air Carbon Steel,
Pipeline Material Notes
Carbon Steel
Material containing no principle alloying elements. Piping useable up to 430oC. Widely used
and design requirements are detailed in all relevant codes. Corrosion allowed for when
necessary by applying corrosion allowances.
Low Alloy Steel

Material containes small percentages (less than 3%) of alloying elements such as chromium,
nickel, molybdenum or vanadium. The material has higher temperature range compared to
carbon steel.
Stainless Steel
Steels specifically alloyed for corrosion resistance generally with chromium levels above
18%. Steels resist oxidisation and specific corrosion of virtually all chemicals over a wide
temperature range (-200oC to 900oC ). The corrosion resistance is related to the grade
selected. Stainless steels are represented in all design codes and are convenient to
use. Stainless steel generally cost a least 4 times more than carbon steels.
Cast Iron /Ductile Iron

Two types of cast iron are used, grey cast iron and ductile iron. The former includes graphite
as flakes and the latter includes graphite in spherical or nodular form. Cast iron piping has
been widely used over the years for transferring a wide range of fluids as it is a low cost option
with excellent corrosion resistance to a wide range of environments and fluids. The grey cast
irons are generally being superseded by the ductile iron options and the ductile iron piping
systems are now being generally replaced by plastic piping. The British Standard for Ductile
piping and fittings is BS 4772.
Lead
Lead has been used in the past for a wide variety of domestic, civil and chemical piping. It is
suitable for most chemicals it is readily available and easily worked. Although lead is
expensive it is can be totally recovered and reused. Lead has low strength properties and
suffers from creep. It can be alloyed to improve the strength and creep resistance. Lead is
no longer used for domestic piping for human health reasons. Lead not widely used now
because plastic piping provides improved properties at lower costs.
Copper, Brass, Copper Nickel Alloys

Piping and tubing made from these metals are used for many purposes throughout industry
and also for building and domestic use and for ship pipework engineering because of the
resistance of the brasses to sea water attack. Copper and the associated metals generally
conform to the relevant standards and are therefore conveniently produced and installed.
● Copper tubing is used were ease of fabrication is important.

Corrosion of Piping
● 70%/30% - Cu/Zn brass is a good general purpose material used for a variety of applications e.g. heat exchanger tubes,
and closed circuit systems.
● Admiralty brass 70% /1%/29% - Cu/Sn/Zn has slighty improved resistance to polluted water compared to 70/30 brass.
● Brass with 76%/2%/0,04%- Cu/Al/As and Remainder Zn has good resistance to seawater attack and is used for diverse
process plants for transferring seawater under turbulent conditions to resist corrosion and impingement attack.
● Cupro Nickel Containing 31%/2% - Ni/Fe and " Kunifer" containing 10.5%/1.7% - Ni/Fe are also used for transferring
seawater and high good strength at elevated temperatures.
Aluminium / Aluminium Alloys

Aluminium piping is supplied in two grades to BS 1471: 1972 . Aluminium is used in many
industries and provides excellent corrosion resistance compared to steel for arduous fluid flow
applications.
Glass Glass Lined piping

Glass piping a glass line piping provides ideal corrosion resistance to most fluids. However
this material is not coveniently installed and has various mechanical limitations. It is used
mainly for specialised application including laboratories.
Titanium
This material has only recently been available in quantity. At this time it is relatively
expensive compared to most other materials. However if lifetime costing is consided it would
likely be competitive as it has superb corrosion resistance especially for seawater transfer
duties. When installed in seawater systems titanium piping provides long continuous service
compared to virtually all other metals.
Elastomer/Plastic Lined Steel Piping

This option provides a relatively low cost method of producing a highly corrosion resistant
piping system with good mechanical properties. However if system design, manufacture and
installation is not good the lining system may fail resulting in high rates of local corrosion and
expensive early repairs.
Plastic Piping Systems

Piping systems made from plastics including HDPE, ABS, PVC etc. are not subject to the
same corrosion problems experienced by metal piping systems. More and more piping
systems are being manufactured from plastics However plastics have severely limited
mechanical mechanical and thermal properties and are attacked by some chemicals.
Surface Coating Options
This area of design is discussed on separate page Surface coatings
Location/Geometry of piping systems
The life of a piping system can be significantly improved if the system is correctly designed in
respect to geometry and location. The piping should be designed to ensure that there are no
low points which are not fully drained. The piping should also be located to minimise the risk
of attack from the environment. If possible piping should be protected against environments
which include excessive precipitation in industrial or marine areas.

Corrosion of Piping
Cathodic Protection
Galvanic anode system

Buried ferrous or cast iron piping, however well protected cannot be fully isolated from the
moist soil and will therefore be at risk of corrosion. Corrosion will occur where the base metal
comes into contact with the salts in the ground with the presence of water. The base metal
will behave as an anode. Cathodic protection involves forcing the buried pipe to become a
cathode relative to a buried electrode which will act as an anode. This involves connecting
the pipe using an insulated cable, to a buried bar made from magnesium or other metal with a
similar electric potential relative to the pipe material. As the buried electrode is electrically
positive compared to the pipe this forces the pipe to be a cathode. The buried bar acts as an
sacrificial anode. The pipe therefore acts as a cathode and is not corroded.
The sacrificial anodes are buried about 3m from the pipe and are pitched at about 250m. The
anodes are generally engineered to have a life expectancy of upto ten years.
Impressed Current System

A similar level of protection can be provided by applying a generated DC voltage across the
pipe and a buried buried electrode from cast iron or some similar low cost metal which can
discharge a current to the soil. The applied voltage forces the buried electrode to be positive
relative to the pipe ensuring that it will behave as an anode
Cathodic protection systems require specialised design involvement.

Corrosion of Piping
Links to Corrosion of Piping

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Corrosion Index

Corrosion Restistant Materials
ROYMECH
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Corrosion Resistant Material Notes...
This page only relates to materials used for general mechanical engineering.
Other pages identifying Corrosion /Chemical Resistance are as follows
● Materials associated with piping systems is address on page Piping Materials

● Chemical Resistance of Corrosion resistant materials Corrosion Resistant Metals
● Chemical Resistance of Metals Common Metals
In normal mechanical and structural engineering design materials are selected primarily for
their mechanical properties-corrosion is not an important criteria. The systems are generally
protected against corrosion by surface coatings.
Most machines are located indoors and are accessible for inspection and maintenance. The
exceptions to this are machines used for construction and agriculture. These machines may
well be used in corrosive environments but they are generally regularly maintained and some
level of corrosion is acceptable.
In process engineering corrosion is a very important design factor and materials are selected
primarily on their resistance to chemical attack (corrosion). Surface coatings are often not
considered because of the risk of contaminating the process stream.
Metal Corrosion Properties - Non Chemical Environments
Ratings 0 = Unsuitable, 1 = poor, 2 = Fair, 3 =Fair to Good, 4 good, 5 = good to excellent, 6= excellent.
Fresh Sea Steam

Steam Air
Water Water Cond'te
Static/ Static/ City/
Metal Dry Wet
Turb Turb Indust
Grey Cast Iron-
4/3 4/3 4 4 3
Plain or Low Alloy
Ductile Iron
4/4 4/2 4 4 3
(High Strength )
Cast Iron Ni_Resist.
(14% Ni, 7% Cu, 2% Cr bal 5/5 5/5 5 5 4
Fe)
Ductile Iron Ni_Resist.
5/5 5/5 5 5 4
(24 % Ni, bal Fe)
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Mild Steel- Low Alloy steels 4/3 4/2 4 4 3

Stainless Steel Ferritic
4/6 1/4 6 5 3
(17% Cro)
Stainless Steel Austenitic
6/6 2/5 6 5 4
(18% Cro ,8% Ni )
(18% Cro 12% Ni, 2.5% 6/6 3/5 6 6 6
Mo )
(20% Cro 29% Ni, 2.5% 6/6 4/6 6 6 6
Mo,3.5% Cu )
Hastelloy Alloy
(55% Ni, 17% Mo,16% Cr, 6/6 6/6 6 6 6
6% Fe, 4% W)
Inconel
6/6 4/6 6 6 6
(78% ni,15% Cr, 7% Fe)
Copper Nickel alloys
6/6 6/6 5 6 5
(Up to 30% Ni)
Monel 400
6/6 6/6 6 6 5
(66% Ni, 30% Cu, 4% Si)
Nickel Commercial
3/5 6/6 6 6 4
(99% Ni)
Copper and Silicon Bronze 6/5 4/1 5 6 5
Aluminium Brass 6/6 4/5 5 6 5
Bronze
(88% Cu,5% Sn,5% Ni,2% 6/6 5/5 5 6 5
Zn)
Aluminium Alloys 4/5 0-5/4 2 5 5
Lead (Chemical or
6/5 5/3 0 2 5
antimonial)
Silver 6/6 5/5 5 6 6
Titanium 6/6 6/6 5 6 6
Zirconium 6/6 6/6 5 6 6
Links to Materials for Corrosion Resistance
2. Omega...Chemical Chart-Some Plastics
3. dultmeier...Relatively extensive Chemical Chart
4. Chemical Resistance List ...George fischer ..Very detailed list american units
5. Chemical Compatibility ...Cole Porter ..American site with very clear information on chemical compatibility

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Gas Lubrication/ Bearings
ROYMECH
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Tribology_Index
Gas Lubrication
More Details on on Gas Lubrication/Bearings is to be found in the links below the table
Gas /Air Lubrication-

Bearings
Lubrication is
fundamental
to the
operation of
all
engineering
machines. It
is required to
minimise
friction, wear
and also
provides a
cooling
function and a
surface
protection
function.
Gas
lubricated
bearings have
numerous
advantanges
over liquid
and solid
lubricated
bearings for a
wide range of
applications.
A gas
bearing is
virtually
frictionless,
silent, a
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vibration less.
Gas bearings
can be used
for extremely
large surface
velocities. A
gas bearing
can eliminate
the risk of
contaminating
a process
with lubricant.
A gas / air
bearing can
be
hydrodynamic
or
hydrostatic. In
hydrodynamic
bearings the
gas is
introduced
into the
bearing
surfaces by
the action of
the
bearing. In
hydrostatic
bearing the
gas is
introduced
under
pressure from
an external
source.
Air bearings
are also
widely used to
allow
frictionless
movement of
large heavy
items over flat
surfaces
using air

pads.
Links to Gas Lubrication and Bearings
1. Space Electronics Air Bearings..Product range

2. Loadpoint Bearings..Product Range and useful articles
3. Hovair -Leading Suppliers of Air Pads...Air Pads for load transportation
4. Mohawk Innovative Technology..Foil Bearings
5. Newway Precision systems..Range of air Bearing Designs
6. Air Bearings Ltd -UK..Product Range
7. Globalspec..Useful article
8. Aerotech..Product Range
9. Mechanical Engineering-foil Bearings ..Article of foil bearings
Home
Tribology_Index

Liquid Lubrication
ROYMECH
Home
Tribology_Index
Liquid Lubrication
More Details on on Liquid Lubrication is to be found in the links below the table
Liquid Lubrication
Lubrication is fundamental to the operation of all engineering machines.

It is required to minimise friction, wear and also provides a cooling
function and a surface protection function.
A liquid film lubrication regime can be hydrodynamic or hydrostatic. In

hydrodynamic bearings the fluid is introduced into the bearing surfaces
by the action of the bearing. In hydrostatic bearing the fluid is
introduced under pressure from an external source.
Liquid lubrication in machines is normally hydrodynamic. An oil film is

formed between the two sliding surfaces separating them and providing
a low sliding friction. However this mechanism is only active during the
sliding movement. At the start and at the termination of movement the
oil film is not present. At these times wear can take place.
Hydrodynamic lubrication is present in linear motion (slideways) and in
rotational motion (journals).
An important property of a liquid used for lubrication is its

viscosity.. The viscosity of a fluid is its resistance to shear. The friction
in a lubricated bearing is directly related to the fluid viscosity. Notes
and links providing viscosity information is provide on this website ....
Viscosity
The design of a liquid lubricated bearing system must include

cosideration of a number of associated factors as listed below:
● Selection of oil/grease grade

● Design of the lubrication system - oil bath, forced circulation, oil wick , porous bearings etc
● Ensure the cleanliness of the oil - regular oil replacement , continuous filtration etc
● Cooling of the oil to remove generated heat- natural cooling, using coolers etc
● Oil degeneration in use
It is not possible to address these factors on this page.. Please refer to

the links provided below
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Liquid Lubrication
Bearing Coefficient of Fricton and power requirement..

Petroff's equation provides an friction value for an unloaded journal
bearing i.e with the shaft concentric with the journal. This assumes no
end load and does not allow for end leakage..
f = 2 . π 2 . (µ . n / p ) . r / c
Torque to rotate shaft .. T (Nm)
= W. f .r
= W.[ 2 . π 2 . (µ . n / p ) . r / c ] . r
= W.[ 2 . π 2 . (µ . n . L. 2. r / W ) . r / c ] .r = 4.π 2.r3.µ . n .L / c
Power to rotate shaft... = T.ω = T.2.π .n
P (Watts) = 8 . π 3 .n 2 . r 3 . L . µ / c
= π 3 .n 2 . d 3 . L . µ / c
● P = Power (Watts = N.m /s )

● d = Bearing radius (m)
● r = Bearing radius (m)
● L = Bearing length (m)
● A = Bearing projected Area = L . D (m 2)
● W = Bearing Radial Load (N))
● p = Bearing pressure over projected Area = W / A = W /(L.2.r)(Pa)
● µ = Absolute Viscosity (Pa . s )
● c = radial clearance ( m )
● t = axial clearance ( m )
● n = Rotational Speed revs /s
● r1 = Inner radius of thrust bearing (m)/li>
● r2 = Outer radius of thrust bearing (m)/li>
The equivalent power for a rotating thrust bearing ...
P (Watts) = 2 . π 3 .n 2 . µ . ( r2 4 — r1 4 ) / t
Hydrostatic Lubrication
Journal and thrust and linear bearings can be hydrostatic in that the load
carrying capacity results from externally generated lubricant pressure.
These type of bearing do not depend on the relative motion of the
bearing surfaces for lubrication and so they are effective at zero and
very low velocities. This type of lubrication does not involve the

Liquid Lubrication
necessity of metal contact during start-up and shut down.
Hydrostatic lubrication systems are generally expensive to engineer and

are liable to problems with controlling the lubrication supply
Hydrodynamic Lubrication
Note; Hydrodynamic Lubrication is extremely complex. These notes

provide only outline explanations of the principles involved...
In hydrodynamic lubrication the fluid is assumed not to slip at the

interface with the bearing surfaces i.e. the fluid in contact with the
bearing surfaces moves at the same velocity as the surface. Over the
thickness of the fluid there is a velocity gradient depending on the
relative movement of the bearing surfaces. If the bearing surfaces are
parallel (or concentric ) the action motion of the lubricant will not result in
a pressure which could support any bearing load. However if the
surfaces are at a slight angle the resulting lubrication fluid velocity
gradients will be such that a pressure results from the wedging action of
the bearing surfaces... Hydrodynamic lubrication depends upon this
effect... Note; This principle is similar to the lift in water skiing / aqua
planing ..
Lubrication of journal bearings
The operation of hydrodynamic lubrication in journal bearings is

illustrated below. Before the rotation commences the shaft rests on the
bearing surface. When the rotation commences the shaft moves up the
bore until an equilibrium condition is reached when the shaft is
supported on a wedge of lubricant. The moving surfaces are then held
apart by the pressure generated within the fluid film. Journal bearings
are designed such that at normal operating conditions the continuously
generated fluid pressure supports the load with no contact between the
bearing surfaces. This operating condition is known as thick film

Liquid Lubrication
lubrication and results in a very low operating friction and extremely low
bearing load
Boundary lubricating conditions occur when the lubricant film is

insufficient to prevent surface contact. This occurs at rotation start-up, a
slow speed operation or if the load is too heavy. This regime results in
bearing wear and a relatively high friction value. If a bearing is operated
under boundary lubricating conditions special lubricants are needed.
Lubrication of Thrust bearings
The operation of hydrodynamic lubrication for thrust bearings is enabled

by various design options including tilting pads, taper lands and step
bearings. The tilting pads provide the most ideal Hydrodynamic
lubrication conditions as shown on the figure below..
Factors Affecting Hydrodynamic Lubrication..
It is generally desirable to achieve hydrodynamic lubrication in bearings

or the following reasons;

Liquid Lubrication
● Very low friction factor

● Virtually zero wear results
● Lower cost compared with hydrostatic lubrication
Hydrodynamic lubrication depends on at least three of dimensionless

numbers ... ( µ .n / p ) , ( D / h ) , and (L/D)
The relationship between the bearing friction coefficient and the bearing
modulus is shown in the figure below
Max
µ µn/
Equipment Bearing Pressure
p
MPa Pa. s
3,67
Main 5 - 12 0,007 x
Automobile / 10-8
Aircraft 2,50
Engines Crankpin 10-23 0,008 x
10-8
Wrist pin 14 -35 0,008
5,00
Main 3.5 - 8 0,02 x
10-8
Gas and Oil
2,50
Engines
Crankpin 7 -12 0,04 x
10-8
Wrist pin 8-14 0,065

Liquid Lubrication
5,00
Main 3.5 0,03 x
10-8
Marine
3,67
Engines
Crankpin 4 0,04 x
10-8
Wristpin 10 0,05
5,00
0,015
Main 1,5 - 3 x
-0,06
10-8
Stationary
1,50
steam 0,03 -
Crankpin 4 -10 x
engines 0,08
10-8
0,025
Wristpin 12
-0,06
7,33
Main 2 0,03 x
10-8
Reciprocating 3,67
pumps and Crankpin 4 0,05 x
compressors 10-8
3,67
Wristpin 7 0,08 x
10-8
25,0
Steam 0,002-
Main 0,5 - 2 x
Turbines 0,016
10-8
50,0
Rotary
x
Pumps and Shaft 0,5 -1.5 0,025
10-
Motors 8
A design constraint to keep thick film (full hydrodynamic) is to ensure

the bearing modulus (µ n /p ) >= 1.09 x 10-9
Approximate Determination of friction of journal bearings with

hydrodynamic lubrication
McKee established the following relationship using small

bearings . This does not allow for end leakage
f = 19,56 . ( µ .n / p ). ( D /C) + k
k is obtained from the diagram below but can be approximated as 0.002

Liquid Lubrication
over an L/D ration 0 0.75 - 2.6
Sommerfeld Number
The Sommerfeld Number is a dimensionless parameter used in
lubrication analysis.
S=( µ .n / p ). ( D /C) 2
This parameter has been used as the abscissa for a number of design
curves. The ordinate can be selected to allow the friction value, film
thickness, oil leakage, temperature rise etc to be determined. Design
curves have been produced of various variables against the
Sommerfeld using computer techniques by A.A Raimondi and J.Boyd of
Westinghouse Research Labs(ASLE Transactions Vol 1 No 1 April
1958). These graphs include compensation for end leakage and
eccentricity.
The illustrative design curve has been included below. Detailed journal
and thrust bearing designs should be completed using the relevant
specialist sources of information or software..

Liquid Lubrication
In comparing the value of f(D/C) resulting from the Petroff, McKee and
the Raimondi-Boyd data the values are in close agreement for the
higher values of the Sommerfeld number (above 0.5) i.e the lightly
loaded bearings..
Journal clearances -
The table below provides some typical diametrical clearances for journal
bearings under steady loads and for hydrodynamic lubrication. These
are very crude values. Serious journal bearing design should include a
detailed analysis. The diametric clearance is the journal diameter - the
shaft diameter
Speed Shaft Diametrical

Range Diameter Clearance
mm mm
Below 600 0,025 -
25
RPM 0,05
Above 600
25 0,03 - 0,10
RPM
Below 600
40 0,03 - 0,08
RPM
Above 600
40 0,05 - 0,12
RPM

Liquid Lubrication
Below 600
50 0,04 - 0,09
RPM
Above 600
50 0,06 - 0,14
RPM
Below 600
80 0,05 - 0,11
RPM
Above 600
80 0,08 - 0,17
RPM
Below 600
100 0,06 - 0,13
RPM
Above 600
100 0,09 - 0,20
RPM
Below 600
125 0,07 - ,14
RPM
Above 600
125 0,10 - 0,22
RPM
Below 600
150 0,08 - 0,15
RPM
Above 600
150 0,12 - 0,24
RPM
Below 600
200 0,09 - 0,17
RPM
Above 600
200 0,14 - 0,27
RPM
Links to Liquid Lubrication
1. Faculty of Technology Plymouth ... Lubrication Course Notes- Some Useful Calcs
2. QTC Gears ... A very useful article with lots of information on gear lubrication, Oil Viscosity etc
3. Copper Development Association UK ...Useful reference Data on Copper Based bearings
4. Waukbearings ...Download doument on Hydrodynamic Lubrication
5. Shigley: Chapter 12 -Outline ...Notes based on the relevant chapter of the Shigley book
6. Hydrodynamic Lubrication of cyclically loaded bearings ...NASA downlad (2.8MB ) Imperial units
7. Reliability Direct Journal bearing Notes ...Very useful and practical notes
8. Kingsbury Bearings ..Tilting pad jounal and tilt bearing etc. inc number of useful papers
9. Hydrodynamic Bearings Design ..U of Tenessee Lecture presentation... Using Raimondi- Boyd Charts
Home
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Viscosity
ROYMECH
Home
Tribology_Index
Viscosity
More Details on on Viscosity is to be found in the links below the table
Viscosity
A plate of area "A" moving under the action

of a force "F" with a resulting velocity "V"
over a fixed plate separated by a film of
fluid "h" thick. The shear stress on the
fluid is "F / A". For a Newtonian fluid the
shear stress is directly proportional to the
velocity gradient in the fluid- "dV /dh" .
P / A = µ . dV /dy
The proportionality constant " µ " is the

viscosity and has units of ( N/m 2) .( m ).
( m / s ) = N . s / m 2...
Dynamic Viscosity
The coherent SI unit of dynamic viscosity
is the pascal second (Pa s). This equates
to a Newton second per square metre (N.
s / m 2 ). In the cgs unit the poise is the
corresponding unit which has dimensions
of dyne seconds per cm 2. The centipoise
(cP = 10 -2 poise) is the most common unit
used in tables and handbooks.... 1 Pas =
1000. cP. The viscosity of water at room
temperature is approximately 1 cP
Kinematic Viscosity
This is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity
and the fluid density ρ ( kg /cubic m ) The
SI unit of kinematic viscosity is the m 2 /
s. The equivalent cgs unit is the stoke (St)
which has the unit of cm 2 / s. The unit
commonly used is the centistoke(cSt).......
1 m 2 / s = 10 6 cSt
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Viscosity
Absolute Kinematic Viscosity (m 2 / s ) = µ ( Pa s ) / ρ (kg /

m3 )
Kinematic viscosity (centiStokes) = µ (centiPoise) / ρ

( grammes /cubic cm )
Saybolt Universal Viscosity

A method of determining a lubrication
fluids viscosity is to measure the rate of
flow of the fluid through a test device. The
rate is measured in seconds the greater
the number of seconds the more viscous
the fluid. This viscosity is seconds τ =
Saybolt universal Viscosity - seconds. The
dynamic viscosity relates to the Saybolt
universal viscosity (τ) by the following
formula
Viscosity µ (Poise) = (0.00022 .τ — 0.18 / τ )
SAE Viscosity grading

SAE (Society of automobile engineers )
has allocated numbers for specifying the
viscosity of Engine Oils..
The SAE grades 0W through 25W, where

W stands for Winter, have a maximum
viscosity specified at low temperatures (—5
through —35°C), to ensure easy starting
under low temperature conditions, and a
minimum viscosity requirement at 100°C to
ensure satisfactory lubrication at the final
operating temperature. The SAE grades
20 through 60 only have limits set at 100°C
as these grades are not intended for use
under low temperature conditions.
For marine applications, monograde oils of

SAE 30 or SAE 40 are used because of
the steady operating conditions in a ship's
engine room.
On the other hand, automotive oils are

normally formulated with Viscosity Index

Viscosity
Improvers (VI Improvers) to provide

multigrade performance. VI Improvers
are very large molecules, which are
chemically made by linking together
smaller molecules in a process called
polymerization. The resulting products,
called polymers, may have molecular
weights 1000 times or more greater than
the base stock molecules. The use of
these special polymers makes it possible
to meet both the low temperature viscosity
requirements of the W grades as well as
the high temperature requirements of the
non-W grades. Thus a SAE 20W 40 has
the low temperature viscosity value of a
SAE 20W oil at low temperatures and the
high temperature viscosity of a SAE 40 oil
at the higher temperature.
Different tests are completed to establish

the viscosities for different operating
regimes. Tests are completed for low
temperature
● Pumping in engines starting at low temperature;

● Lubricating the crankshaft bearings at low
temperature
● Lubricating the engine at normal operating
temperatures
Viscosity
Viscosity (cP)* at
SAE mm2/s
Temperature
Viscosity (cSt)
(oC), Max
Grade at 100o C
Cranking Pumpability Min Max
3250 30,000 at
0W 3.8 —
at—30 —35
3500 at 30,000
5W 3.8 —
—25 at— 30
3500 at 30,000 at
10W 4.1 —
—20 —25
3500 at 30,000 at
15W 5.6 --
—15 —20
4500 at 30,000 at
20W 5.6 --
—10 —15
6000 at 30,000 at
25W 9.3 --
—5 —10

Viscosity
20 — — 5.6 9.3
30 — — 9.3 12.5
40 — — 12.5 16.3
50 — — 16.3 21.9
60 — — 21.9 26.1
ISO Viscosity grading

The ISO 3448 grading system for Industrial
Engine Oils simply relates to the midpoint
viscosity of oil in cStokes ( at 40odeg ) as
shown in the table below.
Midpoint Kinematic
Viscosity Viscosity Viscosity
Grade at 40 o Limits
C ( cStoke )
Min Max
IS VG 2 2,2 1,98 2,42
IS VG 3 3,2 2,88 3,52
IS VG 5 4,6 4,14 5,06
IS VG 7 6,8 6,12 7,48
IS VG 10 10 9,00 11,00
IS VG 15 15 13,5 16,5
IS VG 22 22 19,8 24,2
IS VG 32 32 28,8 35,2
IS VG 46 46 41,4 50,6
IS VG 68 68 61,2 74,8
IS VG
100 90,0 110
100
IS VG
150 135 165
150
IS VG
220 198 242
220
IS VG
320 288 352
320
IS VG
460 414 506
460
IS VG
680 612 748
680
IS VG
1000 900 1100
1000

Viscosity
IS VG
1500 1300 1650
1500
Links to Liquid Lubrication
1. Engine Oil Bible ...Very Useful for motorists

2. Texaco ...Product Data and information
3. Exxon ...Product Data and information
4. Schaeffer oil includes Technical Data Sheets ...Lubrication data sheets
5. Herguth Laboratories, inc. ..Physical and Chemical Properties of Mineral Oils That Affect Lubrication
6. Faculty of Technology Plymouth ... Lubrication Course Notes- Some Useful Calcs
7. Lubrication Tips ...Machine Design Lubrication tips to maximize bearing performance.(Bearings)
8. QTC Gears ... A very useful article with lots of information on gear lubrication, Oil Viscosity etc
Home
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Solid Lubrication/ Bearings
ROYMECH
Home
Tribology_Index
Solid/Dry Lubrication
More Details on Solid/Dry Lubrication/Bearings is to be found in the links below the table
Dry Lubrication -
Bearings
Dry Lubrication
is the simplest
most
convenient
method of
lubrication.
However any
bearing
surfaces based
on dry
lubrication will
progressively
wear during
relative
movement
Dry lubrication is
ideally suited for the
following
applications;
● Coating
threads to
prevent
seizure and
enable
release
● Coating
Shafts
which are a
tight hit in
holes to
prevent
fretting, an
binding and
to aid
release
● As a
lubricant
between
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surfaces
subject to
high loads
and slow
relative
movement
Solid /Dry Lubricants
Dry Lubricants are

generally based on
Molybdenum
Disulphide (MoS2) or
Graphite and
sometimes
combination of the
two. Generally
lubricants based on
MoS2 are used in the
lubrication of
machines and
graphite based
lubricants are used in
specialised industries
including hot metal
working. Other
speciality dry
lubricants are
available including
Tungsten Disulphide.
(Ref ws2 Link below.)
Molybdenum
Disulphide........
MoS2 is a black
crystalline solid which
shears easily and has
a low coefficient of
friction . It is resistant
to solvents chemicals
and can be used at
temperatures up to
250 0 C.
Graphite.....
Graphite has a thin
flat crystalline
structure which
adheres strongly to
metal surfaces and is
a good conductor of
heat and electricity.
Graphite is relatively
inert unaffected by
acids, alkalis and
solvents. As a
lubricant it enables
metal surfaces to
resist seizure even at
very high loads.
However it results in
more surface wear
than MoS2. It is
therefore used less

for lubrication of
metal surfaces than
MoS2.
Dry rubbing bearings

(Plastic Based)
These are
usually plain
plastic bushes
which have to
be able to run
with marginal
or no
lubrication.
The main
requirement of
dry bearings is
that the
bearing
surfaces have
a low
coefficient of
friction. These
bearings are
used in
undemanding
applications
such as low
speed moving
parts in
domestic
appliances,
instrument and
electro-
mechanical
devices.
Bearing Materials
● nylon
● acetal
copolymer
● ptfe
Thermoplastic
bearing materials are
often filled with glass,
carbon, bronze, lead.
These bearings
usually consist of a

thin layer of bearing

material bonded onto
a metal backing.
Bearings such as
SKF GLYCODUR F
and Glacier DU
consist of a steel
backing and a
sintered bronze layer.
The porous bronze is
filled with ptfe and
other friction reducing
additives.
Links to Solid/Dry Lubrication and Bearings
1. Garlock Bearings..Dry Bearings -Product and technical information

2. EPI Bearings..Dry Bearings -Product and technical information
3. Molyslip ..Molyslip Lubrication - Product and technical information
4. Industrial Lubricants..Product and technical information
5. Dicronite..Product and technical information
6. ws2 ...Tungsten Disulphide Information
Home
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Surface Wear
ROYMECH
Home
Tribology_Index
Wear Reduction
More Details on Surface Property enhancement is to be found in the links below the table
Surface protection
From Wear
Wear is defined
as “surface
damage
involving a
progressive loss
of material, due
to relative
motion between
it and a
contacting
surface or
substance. All
contacting
surfaces with
relative
movement are
subject to
wear. Normally
the method of
eliminating and
reducing surface
wear is to
provide a film of
lubricant
between the
surfaces.
However the
condition of the
surface and
especially its
hardness has
can be
controlled to
mitigate the
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Surface Wear
negative effects
of surface
interactions. A
hard material is
more resistant to
wear and
abrasion
compared to a
soft material.
Methods of
providing a
surface with
desirable
properties
include:
● Selecting a
suitable
parent material
● Carburising
(Case
Hardening)
● Nitriding
● Coating
Surface
● Attaching an
intermediate
thin strip of
suitable
material
Links to Surface Enhancement Information
1. Surface Engineering Notes Page on this site with more information

2. Nottingham University UNIMAT.. Notes on The groups capabilities and services _useful background Info
3. Tribology Centre Denmark ..Article "Controlling friction and wear of plastics moulds by advanced surface treatment"
4. TWI Surface Engineering ..Site contains much useful information
5. Thermal Spray Association ..Various informative items and links
Home
Tribology_Index
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Tribology/Wear.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:29:24 AM

Coefficients Of Friction

ROYMECH
Home
Tribology_Index
Friction Factors
Note: I have tried to include a wide range of relevant information on this topic. It will be noted that friction values in one section do
not necessarily agree with values in another section...Please use the linked references at the bottom of the page for more detailed
information.
Factors Affecting friction..... Static Friction..... Sliding/dynamic/kinetic friction..... Coefficients of Friction..... Rolling Friction..... Plain
Bearings Friction.....
Rolling Bearing Friction..... Clutch Brake Friction..... Bolted Joints..... Power Screws..... Press Fits.... Test Methods.... Linked
Reference Info
Factors affecting the friction between surfaces
Dry surfaces
1. For low surface pressures the friction is directly proportional to the pressure between the surfaces. As the pressure rises
the friction factor rises slightly. At very high pressure the friction factor then quickly increases to seizing
2. For low surface pressures the coefficient of friction is independent of surface area.
3. At low velocities the friction is independent of the relative surface velocity. At higher velocities the coefficent of friction
decreases.
Well lubricated surfaces
1. The friction resistance is almost independent of the specific pressure between the surfaces.
2. At low pressures the friction varies directly as the relative surface speed
3. At high pressures the friction is high at low velocities falling as the velocity increases to a minimum at about 0,6m/s. The
friction then rises in proportion the velocity 2.
4. The friction is not so dependent of the surface materials
5. The friction is related to the temperature which affects the viscosity of the lubricant
Surface Friction Notes
Static Coefficient of Friction
The static friction coefficient (μ) between two solid surfaces is defined as the ratio of the
tangential force (F) required to produce sliding divided by the normal force between the
surfaces (N)
μ = F /N
For a horizontal surface the horizontal force (F) to move a solid resting on a flat surface
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F= μ x mass of solid x g.
If a body rests on an incline plane the body is prevented from sliding down because of the
frictional resistance. If the angle of the plane is increased there will be an angle at which the
body begins to slide down the plane. This is the angle of repose and the tangent of this angle
is the same as the coefficient of friction.
.
Sliding Coefficient of Friction
When the tangential force F overcomes the frictional force between two surfaces then the
surfaces begins to slide relative to each other. In the case of a body resting on a flat surface
the body starts to move. The sliding frictional resistance is normally different to the static
frictional resistance. The coefficient of sliding friction is expressed using the same formula
as the static coefficient and is generally lower than the static coefficient of friction..
Friction Coefficients
A table below shows friction approximate friction coefficients for various materials. All values
are approximate and are only suitable for guidance only. The sliding/lubricated values must
be used with extreme care. The only way to determine the accurate coefficient of friction
between two materials is to conduct experiments.
Coefficients of friction are sensitive to atmospheric dust and humidity, oxide films, surface
finish, velocity of sliding, temperature, vibration, and extent of contamination. In many cases
the degree of contamination is perhaps the most important single variable.. Link Table of

Coefficients of Friction
The friction values provided are obtained by different test methods under different ambient conditions. This factor can also affect
the results. Link Test Methods
Rolling Friction
When a cylinder rolls on a surface the force resisting motion is termed rolling friction. Rolling friction is generally considerably less
than sliding friction. If W is the weight of the cylinder converted to force, or the force between the cylinder and the flat surface, and
R is radius of the cylinder and F is the force required to overcome the rolling friction then.
F = f x W/R
f is the coefficient of rolling friction and has the same unit of length as the radius R -in the example below m (metres)
Typical values for f are listed below
Note: Values for rolling friction from various sources are not consistent and the following
values should only be used for approximate calculations.
● Steel on Steel f = 0,0005m

● Wood on Steel f = 0,0012m
● Wood on Wood f = 0,0015m
● Iron on iron f = 0,00051m
● Iron on granite f = 0,0021m
● Iron on Wood f = 0,0056m
● Polymer of steel f = 0,002m
● Hardrubber on Steel f = 0,0077m
● Hardrubber on Concrete f = 0,01 -0,02m
● Rubber on Concrete f = 0,015 -0,035m
Plain Bearing Friction factors
For values of rolling bearing friction Plain Bearing Friction Values
Rolling Bearing Friction
For values of rolling bearing friction Rolling Bearing Friction Values
Clutch - Brake Friction Values
The coefficient of friction value is important in the design and brakes and clutches.
Various values are provided on the following linked page Clutch/Brake Materials

Friction coefficient Bolted Joints
The coefficient of friction is required in calculating tightening torques and resulting bolt tensile
forces and stress and in calculating the resulting friction between the connected surfaces.
Below are provided a small number of values showing approximate values of friction
coefficients to be used for steel screw fastened connections. The values are only
representative values and should be confirmed against other sources of information and
preferably testing.
Coefficient of Friction for screw threads
Female Thread -Nut or Tapped Hole in steel

(untreated)
Friction Friction
Male screw Coefficient Coefficient
(Dry) (lub)
Untreated
0,12 - 0,18 0,10 - 0,17
Steel
Phosphated
0,12 - 0,18 0,10 - 0,17
Steel
Cadmium
0,09 - 0,14 0,08 -0,23
Plated Steel
Galvanised
0,14 - 0,23 0,12 - 0,2
steel
Degreased
0,19 - 0,25
steel
Female Thread -Nut or Tapped Hole in steel
(Galvanised)
Friction
Friction
Male screw Coefficient
Coeffient (Dry)
(Lub.)
Untreated
0,14 - 0,2 0,12 - 0,18
Steel
Phosphated
0,14 - 0,2 0,12 - 0,18
Steel
Cadmium
0,1 - 0,16 0,09 - 0,15
Plated Steel
Galvanised
0,14 - 0,25 0,12 - 0,2
steel
Degreased
0,19 - 0,25
steel

Coefficient of Friction Nut/Bolt Face against Clamped surface
Clamped Surface = Steel

Friction
Friction
Bolt/Nut Mat'l Coefficient
Coeffient (Dry)
(Lub.)
Untreated
0,10 - 0,18 0,08 - 0.15
Steel
Phosphated
0,10 - 0,18 0,08 - 0,15
Steel
Galvanised
0,10 - 0,2 0,09 - 0,18
steel
Clamped Surface -Galvanised Steel
Friction Friction
Bolt/Nut Mat'l Coefficient Coefficient
(Dry) (lub)
Untreated
0,10 - 0,18 0,08 - 0,15
Steel
Phosphated
0,10 - 0,18 0,08 - 0,15
Steel
Galvanised
0,16 - 0,22 0,09 - 0,18
steel
Coefficient of friction between surfaces clamped by bolts /screws.

These values allow calculation of the shear force necessary to cause slip between surfaces when clamped by bolts.
slip
Contact Surfaces
coefficient
Steel On Steel- No treatment 0,15- 0,25
Steel On Cast Iron- No treatment 0,18 - 0,3
Steel On Steel- Machined
0,12- 0,18
(Degreased)
Steel On Cast Iron- Machined
0,15 - 0,25
(Degreased)
Grit -Sandblasted surfaces 0,48 - 0,55
Friction Factors for Power Screws
The following factors are typical friction factors for power screw torque and efficiency
calculations..

1) Screw Thread Friction values (μs)

(Friction factors apply mainly for screw thread friction (μs) - can be applied to collar friction
(μc)
Nut Material
Screw
Cast
Material Steel Brass Bronze
Iron
0,15- 0,15- 0,15- 0,15-
Steel(Dry)
0,25 0,23 0,19 0,25
Steel 0,11- 0,10- 0,10- 0,11-
(Lubricated) 0,17 0,16 0,15 0,17
0,08- 0,04- 0,06-
Bronze -
0,12 0,06 0,09
2) Thrust collar Friction values (μc)
Surface Combinations Moving Starting
Soft Steel on Cast Iron 0,12 0,17
Hard Steel on Cast Iron 0,09 0,15
Soft Steel on Bronze 0,08 0,10
Hard Steel on Bronze 0,06 0,08
Press Fit Mechanical Joints
In mechanical engineering rotary motion motion can be transferred by mechanical

connections between a shaft and hub using only a tight fit. Methods of achieving this type of
connections include the engineered interference fit, the taper lock bush and hydraulic fit bush.
These keyless shaft/hub connections all transfer torque by friction.
The coefficient of friction used for designing these types of connections is dependent on the
interface pressure, materials, surface condition, surface coatings etc. The coefficient of
friction is also dependent on the method of installation. A different value result if the shaft is
forced into the hub (force fit) compared to the value if the assemble is completed by heating
the hub or freezing the shaft prior to assembly (shrink fit)...
Various values of relevant coefficients of friction are provided below;
● Steel Hub , Steel Shaft unlubricated - force fit ...C. of Friction = 0,07 to 0,16
● Steel Hub , Steel Shaft greased - force fit ...C. of Friction = 0,05 to 0,12
● Steel Hub , Steel Shaft unlubricated - Shrink fit ...C. of Friction = 0,15 to 0,25
● Steel Hub , Steel Shaft greased - Shrink fit ...C. of Friction = 0,08 to 0,16
The manufacturers of the proprietory keyless hub/shaft systems indicate that their products
are based of a coefficient of friction of 0,12 for lightly oiled connections and 0,15 for dry

assemblies. These companies can provide surface coating fluids containing particles to
increase there coefficient of friction to 0,25 to 0,3. (ref links 1 & 2 below)
The American Gear Manufactures Association (AGMA) recommends a value of between 0,12-
0,15 for hydraulically expanded hubs and 0,15-0,20 for shrink or press fit hubs.
Testing Methods
There are a number of test methods for coefficient of frictions as some of which are listed
below
● Flat block pressed against a OD of rotating ring (FOR)

● Flat block against another flat block (FOF)
● Flat block sliding down an inclined runway(IS)
● Pin pressed against a OD of rotating ring (POR
● Reciprocating loaded spherical end pin pressed on a flat surface(RSOF)
It is clear that the different test methods provide different friction results..
Coefficient of Friction
Extreme care is needed in using friction coefficients and additional independent references
should be used. For any specific application the ideal method of determining the coefficient
of friction is by trials. A short table is included above the main table to illustrate how the
coefficient of friction is affected by surface films. When a metal surface is perfectly clean in a
vacuum , the friction is much higher than the normal accepted value and seizure can easily
occur.
......The links below the tables provide further information.
Effect of oxide film etc on coefficient of static

friction
Thick
Clean Sulfide
Material Oxide
Dry Film
Film
Steel-Steel 0,78 0,27 0,39
Copper-
1,21 0,76 0,74
Copper
The level of uncertainty of the information below is indicated by using steel on steel as an
example. Various reference sources provide values similar to the values below.(0,74 Static-
0,42 sliding) Gieck( 7th ed) provides values of (0,15...0,30 Static - 0,10...0,30 sliding).
Concise Metals Data Handbook by J.R. Davis (table 14,1) includes values (0,31 static -0,23

sliding - for steel 1032? on steel 1032?).. The same table includes a value for mild steel on
mild steel of 0,62 sliding.
Coefficient Of Friction
Test
Material 1 Material 2 DRY Greasy
method
Static Sliding Static Sliding
1,05-
Aluminum Aluminum 1,4 0,3
1,35
Aluminum Mild Steel 0,61 0,47
Brake Material Cast Iron 0,4
Brake Material Cast Iron (Wet) 0,2
Brass Cast Iron 0,3
Brick Wood 0,6
Bronze Cast Iron 0,22
Bronze Steel 0,16
Cadmium Cadmium 0,5 0,05
Cadmium Mild Steel 0,46
Cast Iron Cast Iron 1,1 0,15 0,07
Cast Iron Oak 0,49 0,075
Chromium Chromium 0,41 0,34
Copper Cast Iron 1,05 0,29
Copper Copper 1,0 0,08
Copper Mild Steel 0,53 0,36 0,18
Copper Steel 0,8 SPOF
Steel (304
Copper 0,23 0,21 FOF
stainless)
Copper-Lead
Steel 0,22 -
Alloy
0,05 -
Diamond Diamond 0,1
0,1
0,1 -
Diamond Metal 0,1
0,15

0,9 - 0,1 -
Glass Glass 0,4 0,09-0,12
1,0 0,6
0,5 - 0,2 -
Glass Metal
0,7 0,3
Glass Nickel 0,78 0,56
Graphite Graphite 0,1 0,1
Graphite Steel 0,1 0,1
Graphite (In Graphite (In 0,5 -
vacuum) vacuum) 0,8
0,12 -
Hard Carbon Hard Carbon 0,16
0,14
0,11 -
Hard Carbon Steel 0,14
0,14
0,15 -
Iron Iron 1,0
0,2
Lead Cast Iron 0,43
Lead Steel 1,4 SPOF
0,3 -
Leather Wood
0,4
Leather Metal(Clean) 0,6 0,2
Leather Metal(Wet) 0,4
Oak (Parallel
Leather 0,61 0,52
grain)
Magnesium Magnesium 0,6 0,08
Nickel Nickel 0,7-1,1 0,53 0,28 0,12
Nickel Mild Steel 0,64; 0,178
0,15 -
Nylon Nylon
0,25
Oak (parallel
Oak 0,62 0,48
grain)
Oak (cross
Oak 0,54 0,32 0,072
grain)
Platinum Platinum 1,2 0,25
Plexiglas Plexiglas 0,8 0,8

0,4 - 0,4 -
Plexiglas Steel
0,5 0,5
Polystyrene Polystyrene 0,5 0,5
0,3- 0,3-
Polystyrene Steel
0,35 0,35
Polythene Steel 0,2 0,2
Rubber Asphalt (Dry) 0,5-0,8
0,25-
Rubber Asphalt (Wet)
0,0,75
Rubber Concrete (Dry) 0,6-0,85
0,45-
Rubber Concrete (Wet)
0,75
Saphire Saphire 0,2 0,2
Silver Silver 1,4 0,55
Sintered
Steel - 0,13
Bronze
1,0 -
Solids Rubber --
4,0
Aluminium
Steel 0,45
Bros
Steel Brass 0,35 0,19
Steel(Mild) Brass 0,51 0,44
Steel (Mild) Cast Iron 0,23 0,183 0,133
Steel Cast Iron 0,4 0,21
Copper Lead
Steel 0,22 0,16 0,145
Alloy
Steel (Hard) Graphite 0,21 0,09
Steel Graphite 0,1 0,1
Steel (Mild) Lead 0,95 0,95 0,5 0,3
Steel (Mild) Phos. Bros 0,34 0,173
Steel Phos Bros 0,35
Steel(Hard) Polythened 0,2 0,2
0,3- 0,3-
Steel(Hard) Polystyrene
0,35 0,35

Steel (Mild) Steel (Mild) 0,74 0,57 0,09-0,19

Steel (Mild) Steel (Mild) - 0,62 FOR
0,05 -
Steel(Hard) Steel (Hard) 0,78 0,42 0,029-,12
0,11
Zinc (Plated
Steel 0,5 0,45 - -
on steel)
Teflon Steel 0,04 0,04 0,04
Teflon Teflon 0,04 0,04 0,04
Tin Cast Iron ,32
Titanium Alloy
Aluminium
Ti-6Al-4V 0,41 0,38 FOF
Alloy 6061-T6
(Grade 5)
Titanium Alloy Titanium Alloy
Ti-6Al-4V Ti-6Al-4V 0,36 0,30 FOF
(Grade 5) (Grade 5)
Titanium Alloy
Ti-6Al-4V Bronze 0,36 0,27 FOF
(Grade 5)
Tungsten Tungsten 0,2-
0,12
Carbide Carbide 0,25
Tungsten 0,4 - 0,08 -
Steel
Carbide 0,6 0,2
Tungsten
Copper 0,35
Carbide
Tungsten
Iron 0,8
Carbide
0,25 -
Wood Wood(clean)
0,5
Wood Wood (Wet) 0,2
Wood Metals(Clean) 0,2-0,6
Wood Metals (Wet) 0,2
Wood Brick 0,6
Wood Concrete 0,62
Zinc Zinc 0,6 0,04
Zinc Cast Iron 0,85 0,21

Coefficient Of Friction
Test
Material 1 Material 2 DRY LUBRICATED
method
Static Sliding Static Sliding
FOR = Flat against rotating Cylinder, FOF = Flat against flat, POF = Pin on flat, IS = inclined
surface,SPOF Spherical end pin on flat.
Source of above values.... The values are checked against a variety of internet and literature
sources including the links below eg Link 6-Page 16. I have referred to books including
Machinerys Handbook Eighteenth edition, Kempes Engineers Year Book 1980, Concise
Metals Handbook by J.R.Davis ASM - (Good source of referenced data) and Kurt Giecks
Engineering Formulas 7th Edition.. 1980, etc etc
Table of friction Values for elements
I provide the table below as a consistent set of values for simple elements using the simplest
of test methods. It can be seen that values are generally different to the values in the table
above...
Friction tests in air at room temperature. (50% relative humidity)
Fixed Moving Friction Test

Surface Block coefficient Method
Static Sliding
Incline
Silver (Ag) Silver (Ag) 0,5
Plane
Incline
Gold(Au) 0,53
Plane
Incline
Copper(Cu) 0,48
Plane
Incline
Iron(Fe) 0,49
Plane
Aluminium Aluminium Incline
0,57
(Al) (Al) Plane
Incline
Titanium (Ti) 0,54
Plane
Incline
Gold(au) Silver (Ag) 0,53
Plane
Incline
Gold(Au) 0,49
Plane

Cadmium Cadmium Incline

0,79
(Cd) (Cd) Plane
Incline
Iron(Fe) 0,52
Plane
Incline
Cobalt(Co) Cobalt(Co) 0,56
Plane
Chromium Incline
0,41
(Cr) Plane
Chromium Incline
Cobalt(Co) 0,41
(Cr) Plane
Chromium Incline
0,46
(Cr) Plane
Incline
Copper(Cu) Cobalt(Co) 0,44
Plane
Chromium Incline
0,46
(Cr) Plane
Incline
Copper(Cu) 0,55
Plane
Incline
Iron(Fe) 0,50
Plane
Incline
Nickel(Ni) 0,49
Plane
Incline
Zinc(Zn) 0,56
Plane
Incline
Iron(Fe) Cobalt(Co) 0,41
Plane
Chromium Incline
0,48
(Cr) Plane
Incline
Iron(Fe) 0,51
Plane
Maganese Incline
0,51
(Mg) Plane
Molybdenum Incline
0,46
(Mo) Plane
Incline
Titanium(Ti) 0,49
Plane

Incline
Tungsten(W) 0,47
Plane
Incline
Zinc(Zn) 0,55
Plane
Incline
Indium(In) Indium(In) 1,46
Plane
Maganese Maganese Incline
0,69
(Mg) (Mg) Plane
Molybdenum Incline
Iron(Fe) 0,46
(Mo) Plane
Molybdenum Incline
0,44
(Mo) Plane
Incline
Niobium(Nb) Niobium(Nb) 0,46
Plane
Chromium Incline
Nickel(Ni) 0,59
(Cr) Plane
Incline
Nickel(Ni) 0,50
Plane
Incline
Platinum(Pt) 0,64
Plane
Incline
Lead(Pb) Silver (Ag) 0,73
Plane
Incline
Gold(Au) 0,61
Plane
Incline
Copper(Cu) 0,55
Plane
Chromium Incline
0,53
(Cr) Plane
Incline
Iron(Fe) 0,54
Plane
Incline
Lead(Pb) 0,90
Plane
Incline
Platinum(Pt) Nickel(Ni) 0,64
Plane
Incline
Platinum(Pt) 0,55
Plane

Incline
Tin(Sn) Iron(Fe) 0,55
Plane
Incline
Tin(Sn) 0,74
Plane
Aluminium Incline
Titanium(Ti) 0,54
(Al) Plane
Flat
Titanium(Ti) 0,55
Sliding
Incline
Tungsten(W) Copper(Cu) 0,41
Plane
Incline
Iron(Fe) 0,47
Plane
Incline
Tungsten(W) 0,51
Plane
Incline
Zinc(Zn) Copper(Cu) 0,56
Plane
Incline
Iron(Fe) 0,55
Plane
Incline
Zinc(Zn) 0,75
Plane
Links to Friction
Information
1. Friction Joint Theory... An

informative article
2. RingFeder Brochure...Keyless
Shaft Hub Connection-including
relevant friction values
3. Carbide Depot.. Friction
Coefficients
4. NORD-SKG.. Download
manual with various
Calculations involving sliding
and rolling friction
5. Supercivilcd Com.. Coefficient
of Sliding Friction for various
civil Materials
6. Fastener Design Manual...
NASA GRC RP-1228 (9,6
Mbyte pdf file) Includes
comprehensive table with
friction values.

7. Physlinks - Coefficient of
Friction...A Table of Friction
Coefficients
8. Engineers Edge- Coefficient of
Coefficients
9. FrictionCenter- Coefficient of
Coefficients
10. School for Champions...Lots of
very useful Notes
11. Investigation of the press fit
joints by tribology aspect...A
Very Informative paper
12. Bolt Council...Guide to Design
Criteria for Bolted and Riveted
Joints.(6,7 Mbyte pdf ). Info on
Slip coefficients (P.82) etc
13. MD Metric...Datasheet for PTFE
14. Friction coefficients in "Rail-
Wheel" contacts .......
Downloadable paper providing
very theoretical information
15. Hypertextbooks _Physics
Factbooks.....Physics
Factbook .A page inlcuding a
number of very good (school)
articles on coe-fficents of
friction of different materials
16. 3M Mill Rolls Coef't of Fr'n
Study .."...Coefficient of friction
values for real applications
17. NACA Research
Memorandum .....Paper
Download ..Friction value and
surface damage of several
corrosion resistant materials
18. Wear Research Paper .....
Paper Download ..A study of
the tribological behaviour of
polyamide 66 with varying
injection-moulding parameters
19. Fund'ls of Friction and Wear of
Automobile Brake Materials .....
Paper Download ..Very
informative document
20. Friction...(Steve Roberts) A
presentation deriving the
mechanics of friction
21. Friction in Metal Forming...
Chapter 4-aces, Tribology,
DimensionalCharacteristics,
Inspection and Product Quality
Assurance ..
22. Classical Friction...A very
simple and clear description of

what determines the coefficient

of friction.
23. 12 Friction...Brown University-
Division of Engineering..Very
clear document on friction
24. The Effect of Electroplated
Copper and Zinc Coatings on
Friction Conditions...Paper with
friction values for plated zinc/
aluminium vs steel values
25. An Experimental Study on Slip
Strength of HSFG Bolted
Joints ......Paper with bolted
joint slop friction values from a
variety of recognised sources
26. Rolling Friction...Very useful
notes on rolling friction
Home
Tribology_Index

Vibration & Noise
ROYMECH
Home Page
Vibrations Index Page
Vibration - Noise
Vibration
Vibrations are mechanical oscillations, produced by regular or irregular period movements of a

member or body about its rest position..
Vibration can be a source problems at a engineering level because they can result in damage
to equipment, loss of control of equipment, and reduction in the efficiency of operation of
machines..
Vibration effects on people

Vibration can also be at a low level a source of discomfort and at a high level can be a safety
risk to personal affected
In the context of the effect of vibration on people important factors include:
1. Point of application of the vibration -

2. Frequency of the vibration -
3. Acceleration of the vibration -
4. Duration of the vibration -
Vibration is most normally a problem experienced in driving vehicles and in operating tools.
Vibration can affect visual perception, muscles, concentration, circulation and the respiratory
system and at certain levels can even result in physical harm to the body.
The effect of vibration on the human body is related to the natural frequency of parts of the
human body affected. Frequencies of above 30 Hz are heavily damped by the human tissue.
The body of a sitting person responds to vertical vibration as follows:
● 3- 4 Hz ....Strong resonance in the cervical vertebrae

● 4Hz.........Peak of resonance in the lumber vertebrae
● 5 Hz........High resonance in the shoulder girdle
● 20-30 Hz....High resonance between the head and shoulders
● 60-90 Hz....Resonance in the eyeballs
● 100-200 Hz..Resonance in the lower jaw<
Higher frequency vibrating machines would have a significant effect on the body components
but this is largely mitigated by the damping effects of the tissue which tends to confine the
vibration to the point of application e.g the hands
Control Of Vibrations
The primary method of eliminating vibration is at source by design the equipment and ensuring
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Vibration & Noise
control over the manufacturing tolerances. Other methods of reducing the vibrations
generated by machinery are listed below
● Modify the system such that the natural frequencies are not close to the operating speed or any generated frequencies.
● Prevent large responses by including damping
● Install vibration isolating devices between adjacent sub-systems
● Install equipment on dense heavy rigid vibration absorbent floors
● Include auxiliary mass into the equipment to reduce the response and absorb vibration
● Base design on engineering materials which have high inherent damping, such as cast iron and laminated sandwich
materials
There are a number of proprietary machine resilient support pads which provide engineering
isolation of vibration from the foundations.. Ref. Links below
Noise
Noise is primarily annoying or harmful sound....
Information on sound is found on this site... Waves - sound
Excessive or disruptive noise reduces efficiency and can damage health. The best method of
controlling noise is to eliminate or reduce the noise. However it has been proved that a certain
level of background noise is desireable and certain sound sources improve performance and
efficiency.. Music etc..
In surveys it has been proved that on many occasions it is not the level of noise which is the
problem it is the source of the sound and its frequency. Other peoples conversation, persistent
click or the sounds of insects can be very disturbing when people need to concentrate.
Peak noise levels dB(A) in Industry
Noise Source dB(A) value
Pneumatic Chisel Hammer 115-120

Rocking Sieve, Chain Saw,
Compressed Air Riveter 105-115
electric cutter
Milling /Weaving machine,Crosscut
saw, 100-105
Stamping Machine
Electric Motor, Rotary Press, Wire
Drawing Machine 90-95
Sawmill, Bottle filling Machine
Toolmaking machine -lightly loaded 80
Human Noise Levels at 1 m (dB

Vibration & Noise
Noise Source dB(A) value<
Quiet Conversation 60-65

Dictation 65-70
Speaker at Conferences 65-75
Delivery of a lecture 70-80
Loud Shouting 80-85
Desirable Noise Ranges in Open Plan Office
Noise measure dB(A) value
Equivalent Noise Leq 54-59

Mean Noise level L50 50-55
Peak Noise level L50 60-65
The noise level Leq relates to the average noise levels
The noise level L50 means that the indicated noise level may by exceeded for 50% of the time.
The noise level L1 means that the indicated noise level may by exceeded for 1% of the time.
Sound Deadening Effects of building items
Item Damping in dB(A) value
Normal Single Doors 21-29

Normal double Doors 30-39
Heavy Special Doors 40-46
Window - Single Glazed 20-24
Window - Double Glazed 24-28
Double Glazing with Felt Backing 30-34
Dividing Wall
37-42
6-12cm brick
Dividing Wall
50-55
25-38cm brick
Double Wall
60-65
2 x 12 cm brick

Vibration & Noise
Noise Protection
Ear plugs properly used -conical plugs of synthetic material - can reduce noise levels by up to
30 dB..
Protective Ear Caps (ear muffs)- can reduce noise levels by 40-50dB..
It is suggested that ear plugs be used for noise levels of 85-100 dB(A) and ear muffs be used
for noise levels above 100 dB(A)...
Links on Vibration Analysis/ Reduction
1. Vibrotec ...Articles on Vibration Analysis

2. Maintenance Resources ...Using Vibration Analysis for maintenance
3. Vibration Isolation - transmissibility...A system response curve generated in real time very useful..
4. Enviro Measure... A site dedicated to Acoustics
5. EAR_Online...E A R Speciality Composites- Including Useful Article
6. Taylor Devices...Taylor Devices Free Techical Papers Literature on Vibration, Shock, Damping, Isolation..
7. Euro Bearings...Product information on Vibrations Dampers..
8. Acoustics for Project Engineers...Tony woolf Acoustics.Excellent guide
Home Page

Free Vibrations
ROYMECH
Home Page
Vibration - Noise
Vibration
Simple Harmonic Motion
Generally free natural vibrations occur in elastic system when a body moves away from its rest
position. The internal forces tend to move the body back to its rest position. The restoring
forces are in proportion to the displacement. The accelaration of the body which is directly
related to the force on the body is therefore alway towards the rest position and is proportional
to the displacement of the body from its rest position. The body moves with simple harmonic
motion...
Simple harmonic motion is most conveniently shown as the projection on the vertical (x) axis of
a point rotating in a circular motion (radius a) at a constant angular velocity ω.
The tangential velocity of the point = ω a.

The accelaration of the rotating point toward the centre of the circle..= ω 2. a
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Free Vibrations
The time taken to complete on cycle = t p = 2. π / ω
The rotating speed (frequency of vibration) n = 1 / t p =

ω/2.π
The acceleration dx 2 / dt 2 = f = ω 2 . x and therefore ω

= Sqrt ( f /x )
Therefore n = Sqrt ( f / x ) . 1 / ( 2 π ) ..
Free Natural Vibrations
The extension of the spring results in a restoring force of F = k.x
The mass will accelerate at a rate directly proportional to the

restoring force
The equation of motion of the above spring/mass system is

therefore...m . dx2 /dt 2 = — k . x
This may be written as dx2 /dt 2 + ωn2 . x = 0 ....... ( after making

ωn 2 = k / m )
The "Natural circular frequency" = ωn ....... (units = rads/s)
Then "Natural frequency" n = ω n ( 2 π ) = Sqrt (k / m ) / ( 2

π ).....(units = cycles/s)

Free Vibrations
Damped Vibrations
The resisting force of the damper is directly proportional to the velocity of the mass
The equation of motion of the above damper/spring/mass system is therefore
m . dx2 /dt 2 = — k . x + c . dx /dt
This equates to
m . dx2 /dt 2 + c . dx /dt + k . x = 0
The equation is solved by assuming a solution of the form x = e s.t (s = constant)
Substituting this relationship into the equation results in the formula
( m s 2 + cs + k ) e st = 0
Therefore
s 2 + cs/m + k/m = 0
This equation has two roots

Free Vibrations
The solution of the equation in general forms
A and B are constants which can be evaluated from in initial values of x and dx/dt..
The subsitution of the roots into the general form results in the formula
The term e - ( c / 2 m) t represents an exponentially decaying factor...The expression

inside the brackets can have three general results which significantly affect the
solution
1. if (c /2 m) 2 > (k / m) the factor inside the bracket is positive and the solution is overdamped
2. if (c /2 m) 2 = (k / m) the factor inside the bracket is 0 and the solution is critically damped
3. if (c /2 m) 2 < (k / m) the factor inside the bracket is negative : the solution is underdamped
4. if (c /2 m) 2 = 0 The system is undamped
In the underdamped case the square root of a negative number is an imaginary

number..
This results in a oscillatory solution of the form..

Free Vibrations
In the case of critical damping the damping coefficient is call the critical damping
coeffient Cc
The damping can be expressed in terms of the damping ratio
This results in the values..
The equation of motion for the underdamped case ( ζ < 1 ) is rewritten as
The frequency of damped oscillation (rads/s) is equivalent to
The equation of motion for the overdamped case ( ζ > 1 )is rewritten as
The equation of motion for the critally damped case ( ζ = 1 )is written as

Free Vibrations
Links on Free Vibrations
1. projects eurospace -vibrations ...Excellent notes and models ..essential for clear understanding
2. Oscillations and Energy ...PDF document with useful notes
3. Theory Of Vibrations ...Excellent easy to follow notes
4. plus2 physics Vibrations ...Very Clear notes
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Forced Vibrations
ROYMECH
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Forced Vibrations
Forced Vibration
These initial notes relate to single degree of freedom systems under the influence of periodic
excitation forces i.e.the force is sinusoidal in nature. If the solution of this general case is
known then, in principle, other more complicated period forces can be determined by
superimposing the effects of as many sinusoidal components as required. Other force types e.
g. rotating unbalanced forces will be addressed later.
The equation of motion for the above system is
m . dx2 /dt 2 + c . dx /dt + k . x = F o cos ω t
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Vibrations/Forced_Vibrations.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:30:03 AM

Forced Vibrations
The general solution of the equation is the sum of two parts

The complementary function which is the general solution assuming the right hand
side set at zero
The particular solution which depends on the form of the right hand side of the
equation)
The amplitude of the complementary solution decreases with time and is therefor a
transient part of the general solution. The particular part remains over time and is
really a steady state solution.
As the right hand of the equation is sinusoidal a convenient solution is based on

the relationship (Euler formula )
e iθ = cosθ + i sin θ
putting ω t in place of θ
e iω t = cosω t + i sin ω t
cos ω t is the real component of eiω t.
A particular solution of the equation is obtained by use of the formula x = B cos ω t

+ C sin ω t.
Another form of this equation is x = A cos (ω t + φ )
Substitution of the above into the Euler formula results in the equation
φ φ
x = Real( A e iω t + ) = Real ( A e i e i ω t )
φ
Next substitute Z for the complex constant A e i The modulus of Z is the
amplitude of the steady state solution . The argument of Z is φ, the phase of the
steady state solution.
Referring to the initial equation
ω
● x = Real ( Z e i t)
ω
● dx/dt = Real ( i ω t Z e i )
ω
● dx2/dt2 = Real ( i 2 ω 2 Z e i t )
Substituting these values into the original equation
ω ω
Real [ ( -m ω2 + i c ω + k ) Z e i t ] = Real ( P e i t )

Forced Vibrations
The solution for x is provided if
P = ( -m ω2 + i c ω + k ) Z
The steady state solution is therefore:
x = A cos ( ω t - φ )
Links on Forced Vibration
1. projects eurospace -vibrations...Excellent notes and models ..essential for clear understanding
2. Oscillations and Energy...PDF document with useful notes
3. Theory Of Vibrations...Excellent easy to follow notes
4. plus2 physics Vibrations...Very Clear notes
5. E-A-R speciality Composites ...site includes useful papers on vibration
Home Page

Forced Vibrations

Vibration & Noise
ROYMECH
Home Page
Natural Frequencies to Traverse Vibrations
Fundamental Natural Frequencies of Beams (bending) and Shafts (Torsion)
The values for natural frequencies relate to cycle/unit time. The higher harmonic modes are
not listed. To obtain values for ωn in radians/s multiply values by 2.π.
Cantilevered Beam
Mode 1 2 3 4
K 3,52 22,4 61,7 121
Simply Supported Beam
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Vibrations/Natural_Vibrations.html (1 of 6)10/24/2006 11:30:10 AM

Vibration & Noise
Mode 1 2 3 4
K 9,87 39,5 88,8 158
Beam with fixed ends
Mode 1 2 3 4
K 9,87 39,5 88,8 158
Beam with one end fixed and one end Simply Supportednds

Vibration & Noise
Mode 1 2 3 4
K 15,4 50 104 178
Mass on Cantilevered beam
Central mass on Simply supported beam

Vibration & Noise
Mass on Simply supported beam. Off-Centre
Multiple Mass on beam
Formula for Combined Loading

Vibration & Noise
Mass on Cantilevered Shaft In Torsion
Shaft with mass at both ends

Vibration & Noise
Home Page

Forced Vibrations
ROYMECH
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Forced Vibrations
Steady State Forced Vibrations
On the page Ref..Forced Vibrations covering vibration of a mass (m) with a k spring stiffness
and c viscous damping subject to a sinusoidal force of P cos ω t.
The steady state solution for the system was shown to be
x = A cos ( ω t - φ )
The modulus A was shown to be
The phase angle φ was shown to be
using the following derived relationships..
These are on the plot below...
The dimensionless relationship between the steady state displacement P/x and the Peak
amplitude X is provided by the following expression
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Vibrations/res_curves.html (1 of 6)10/24/2006 11:30:17 AM

Forced Vibrations
The phase angle can be related to the driving frequency and the natural frequency

Forced Vibrations
Rotating Unbalanced Mass
For the case of a mass M supported on springs k with viscous damping c which is supporting a
rotating unbalanced load of mass m rotating with and angular frequency ω at a radius r . The
peak amplitude and phase are provided by the following dimensionless expressions

Forced Vibrations
Excitation of Base
For the case of a mass m supported on springs k with viscous damping c on a base which is
moving with an excitation of form y = Y sin ω t .
Note: proof may be most easily be obtained from link 5 below;

Forced Vibrations
The ratio of peak ampltude of the mass and the base and the phase are provided by the following
dimensionless expressions
Note: The amplitude ratio is also the ratio of the transmitted force to the exciting force it is a
measure of the transmissibility of the system — the ratio of the energy going into the system to the
energy coming from the system.

Forced Vibrations
Links on Free Vibrations
1. projects eurospace -vibrations...Excellent notes and models ..essential for clear understanding
2. Oscillations and Energy...PDF document with useful notes
3. Theory Of Vibrations...Excellent easy to follow notes
4. plus2 physics Vibrations...Very Clear notes
5. EN4 Dynamics and Vibrations...Brown University Lecture Notes -
Home Page

ISO Tolerance Bands (T)

ROYMECH
Home
ISO Tolerances
ISO Tolerance Band "T "
tolerance band in micrometres = (m-6)

based on ISO 286 IT Grades 1 to 14
Nominal Sizes (mm)
over 1 3 6 10 18 30 50 80 120 180 250
inc. 3 6 10 18 30 50 80 120 180 250 315
IT
Grade
1 0.8 1 1 1.2 1.5 1.5 2 2.5 3.5 4.5 6
2 1.2 1.5 1.5 2 2.5 2.5 3 4 5 7 8
3 2 2.5 2.5 3 4 4 5 6 8 10 12
4 3 4 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16
5 4 5 6 8 9 11 13 15 18 20 23
6 6 8 9 11 13 16 19 22 25 29 32
7 10 12 15 18 21 25 30 35 40 46 52
8 14 18 22 27 33 39 46 54 63 72 81
9 25 30 36 43 52 62 74 87 100 115 130
10 40 48 58 70 84 100 120 140 160 185 210
11 60 75 90 110 130 160 190 220 250 290 320
12 100 120 150 180 210 250 300 350 400 460 520
13 140 180 220 270 330 390 460 540 630 720 810
14 250 300 360 430 520 620 740 870 1000 1150 1300
Home
ISO Tolerances
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ISO Tolerance Bands (T)
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ISO Shaft Limit Nearest Zero (Fundamental Deviation )
ROYMECH
Home
ISO Tolerances
Deviations in micrometres = (m-6)
Nominal Sizes (mm)

over 1 3 6 10 14 18 24 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250
inc. 3 6 10 14 18 24 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280
Grade All limits below with - sign
a 270 270 280 290 290 300 300 310 320 340 360 380 410 460 520 580 660 740 820 920
b 140 140 150 150 150 160 160 170 180 190 200 220 240 260 280 310 340 380 420 480
c 60 70 80 95 95 110 110 120 130 140 150 170 180 200 210 230 240 260 280 300
d 20 30 40 50 50 65 65 80 80 100 100 120 120 145 145 145 170 170 170 190
e 14 20 25 32 32 40 40 50 50 60 60 72 72 85 85 85 100 100 100 110
f 6 10 13 16 16 20 20 25 25 30 30 36 36 43 43 43 50 50 50 56
g 2 4 5 6 6 7 7 9 9 10 10 12 12 14 14 14 15 15 15 17
h 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
j(5&6) 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 7 7 9 9 11 11 11 13 13 13 16
j7 4 4 5 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 15 15 18 18 18 21 21 21 26
js +/-0.5T
Grade All limits below with + sign
k (4 to
0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4
7)
k from
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8
m 2 4 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 11 11 13 13 15 15 15 17 17 17 20
n 4 8 10 12 12 15 15 17 17 20 20 23 23 27 27 27 31 31 31 34
p 6 12 15 18 18 22 22 26 26 32 32 37 37 43 43 43 50 50 50 56
r 10 15 19 23 23 28 28 34 34 41 43 51 54 63 65 68 77 80 84 94
s 14 19 23 28 28 35 35 43 43 53 59 71 79 92 100 108 122 130 140 158
t - - - - - - 41 48 54 66 75 91 104 122 134 146 166 180 196 218
u 18 23 28 33 33 41 48 60 70 87 102 124 144 170 190 210 236 258 284 315
v - - - - 39 47 55 68 81 102 120 146 172 202 228 252 284 310 340 385
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x 20 28 34 40 45 54 64 80 97 122 146 178 210 248 280 310 350 385 425 475
y - - - - - 63 75 94 114 144 174 214 254 300 340 380 425 470 520 580
z 26 35 42 50 60 73 88 112 136 172 210 258 310 365 415 465 520 575 640 710
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ISO Tolerances
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ISO Hole Limits Tolerances
ROYMECH
Home
ISO Tolerances
ISO Hole Nearest Dim to Zero (Fundamental Deviation)
Deviations in micrometres = (m-6)
Nominal Sizes (mm)

over 1 3 6 10 14 18 24 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250
inc. 3 6 10 14 18 24 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280
A 270 270 280 290 290 300 300 310 320 340 360 380 410 460 520 580 660 740 820 920
B 140 140 150 150 150 160 160 170 180 190 200 220 240 260 280 310 340 380 420 480
C 60 70 80 95 95 110 110 120 130 140 150 170 180 200 210 230 240 260 280 300
D 20 30 40 50 50 65 65 80 80 100 100 120 120 145 145 145 170 170 170 190
E 14 20 25 32 32 40 40 50 50 60 60 72 72 85 85 85 100 100 100 110
F 6 10 13 16 16 20 20 25 25 30 30 36 36 43 43 43 50 50 50 56
G 2 4 5 6 6 7 7 9 9 10 10 12 12 14 14 14 15 15 15 17
H 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
J6 2 5 5 6 6 8 8 10 10 13 13 16 16 18 18 18 22 22 22 25
J7 4 6 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 18 18 22 22 26 26 26 30 30 30 36
J8 6 10 12 15 15 20 20 24 24 28 28 34 34 41 41 41 47 47 47 55
Js +/- 0.5T
K5 0 0 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 3
K6 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5
K7 0 3 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 9 9 10 10 12 12 12 13 13 13 16
K8 0 5 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16 20 20 20 22 22 22 25
Grade All limits below with - sign
M6 2 1 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 8 9
M7 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
M8 -2 +2 +1 +2 +2 +4 +4 +5 +5 +5 +5 +6 +6 +8 +8 +8 +9 +9 +9 +9
M
From 2 4 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 11 11 13 13 15 15 15 17 17 17 20
9
N6 4 5 7 9 9 11 11 12 12 14 14 16 16 20 20 20 22 22 22 25
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N7 4 4 4 5 5 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 12 12 12 14 14 14 14
N8 4 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5
N
from 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9
P6 6 9 12 15 15 18 18 21 21 26 26 30 30 36 36 36 41 41 41 47
R6 10 12 16 20 20 24 24 29 29 35 37 44 47 56 58 61 68 71 75 85
S6 14 16 20 25 25 31 31 38 38 47 53 64 72 85 93 101 113 121 131 149
T6 - - - - - - 37 43 49 60 69 84 97 115 127 139 157 171 187 209
U6 18 20 25 30 30 37 44 55 65 81 96 117 137 163 183 203 227 249 275 306
V6 - - - - 36 43 51 63 76 96 114 139 165 195 221 245 275 301 331 376
X6 20 25 31 37 42 50 60 75 92 116 140 171 203 241 273 303 341 376 416 466
Y6 - - - - - 59 71 89 109 138 168 207 247 293 333 373 416 461 511 571
Z6 26 32 39 47 57 69 84 107 131 166 204 251 303 358 408 458 511 566 631 701
P7 6 8 9 11 11 14 14 17 17 21 21 24 24 28 28 28 33 33 33 36
R7 10 11 13 16 16 20 20 25 25 30 32 38 41 48 50 53 60 63 67 74
S7 14 15 17 21 21 27 27 34 34 42 48 58 66 77 85 93 105 113 123 138
T7 - - - - - - 33 39 45 55 64 78 91 107 119 131 149 163 179 198
U7 18 19 22 26 26 33 40 51 61 76 91 111 131 155 175 195 219 241 267 295
V7 - - - - 32 39 47 59 72 91 109 133 159 187 213 237 267 293 323 365
X7 20 24 28 33 38 46 56 71 88 111 135 165 197 233 265 295 333 368 408 455
P8 6 12 15 18 18 22 22 26 26 32 32 37 37 43 43 43 50 50 50 56
R8 10 15 19 23 23 28 28 34 34 41 43 51 54 63 65 68 77 80 84 94
S8 14 19 23 28 28 35 35 43 43 53 59 71 79 92 100 108 122 130 140 158
T8 - - - - - - 41 48 54 66 75 91 104 122 134 146 166 180 196 218
U8 18 23 28 33 33 41 48 60 70 87 102 124 144 170 190 210 236 258 284 315
V8 - - - - 39 47 55 68 81 102 120 146 172 202 228 252 284 310 340 385
over 1 3 6 10 14 18 24 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250
inc. 3 6 10 14 18 24 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280
Home
ISO Tolerances
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ROYMECH
Home
ISO Tolerances
ISO Tolerances for Holes(ISO 286-2)
Nominal hole sizes (mm)

over 3 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355
inc. 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400
micrometres (10 -6m)
+28 +34 +43 +53 +66 +79 +94 +110 +129 +142 +161
E6
+20 +25 +32 +40 +50 + 60 +72 +85 +100 +110 +125
+32 +40 +50 +61 +75 +90 +107 +125 +146 +162 +185
E7
+20 +25 +32 +40 +50 + 60 +72 +85 +100 +110 +125
+95 +115 +142 +170 +210 +250 +292 +335 +390 +430 +485
E11
+20 +25 +32 +40 +50 + 60 +72 +85 +100 +110 +125
+140 +175 +212 +250 +300 +360 +422 +485 +560 +630 +695
E12
+20 +25 +32 +40 +50 + 60 +72 +85 +100 +110 +125
+200 +245 +302 +370 +440 +520 +612 +715 +820 +920 +1 015
E13
+20 +25 +32 +40 +50 + 60 +72 +85 +100 +110 +125
+18 +22 +27 +33 +41 +49 +58 +68 +79 +88 +98
F6
+10 +13 +16 +20 +25 + 30 +36 43 +50 +56 +62
+22 +28 +34 +41 +50 +60 +71 +83 +96 +108 +119
F7
+10 +13 +16 +20 +25 + 30 +36 43 +50 +56 +62
+28 +35 +43 +53 +64 +76 +90 +106 +122 +137 +151
F8
+10 +13 +16 +20 +25 + 30 +36 43 +50 +56 +62
+12 +14 +17 +20 +25 +29 +34 +39 +44 +49 +54
G6
+4 +5 +6 +7 +9 +10 + 12 +14 +15 +17 +18
+16 +20 +24 +28 +34 +40 +47 +54 +61 +69 +75
G7
+4 +5 +6 +7 +9 +10 + 12 +14 +15 +17 +18
+22 +27 +33 +40 +48 +56 +66 +77 +87 +98 +107
G8
+4 +5 +6 +7 +9 +10 + 12 +14 +15 +17 +18
+8 +9 +11 +13 +16 +19 +22 +25 +29 +32 +36
H6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+12 +15 +18 +21 +25 +30 +35 +40 +46 +52 +57
H7
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+18 +22 +27 +33 +39 +46 +54 +63 +72 +81 +89
H8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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+30 +36 +43 +52 +62 +74 +87 +100 +115 +130 +140
H9
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+48 +58 +70 +84 +100 +120 +140 +160 +185 +210 +230
H10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+75 +90 +110 +130 +160 +190 +220 +250 +290 +320 +360
H11
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+5 +5 +6 +8 +10 +13 +16 +18 +22 +25 +29
J6
-3 -4 -5 -5 -6 -6 -6 -7 -7 -7 -7
+6 +8 +10 +12 +14 +18 +22 +26 +30 +36 +39
J7
-6 -7 -8 -9 -11 -12 -13 -14 -16 -16 -18
+10 +12 +15 +20 +24 +28 +34 +41 +47 +55 +60
J8
-8 -10 -12 -13 -15 -18 -20 -22 -25 -26 -29
+4 +4.5 +5.5 +6.5 +8 +9.5 +11 +12.5 +14.5 +16 +18
JS6
-4 -4.5 -5.5 -6.5 -8 -9.5 -11 -12.5 -14.5 -16 -18
+6 +7.5 +9 +10.5 +12.5 +15 +17.5 +20 +23 +26 +28.5
JS7
-6 -7.5 -9 -10.5 -12.5 -15 -17.5 -20 -23 -26 -28.5
+9 +11 +13.5 +16.5 +19.5 +23 +27 +31.5 +36 +40.5 +44.5
JS8
-9 -11 -13.5 -16.5 -19.5 -23 -27 -31.5 -36 -40.5 -44.5
+2 +2 +2 +2 +3 +4 +4 +4 +5 +5 +7
K6
-6 -7 -9 -11 -13 -15 -18 -21 -24 -27 -29
+3 +5 +6 +6 +7 +9 +10 +12 +13 +16 +17
K7
-9 -10 -12 -15 -18 -21 -25 -28 -33 -36 -40
+5 +6 +8 +10 +12 +14 +16 +20 +22 +25 +28
K8
-13 -16 -19 -23 -27 -32 -38 -43 -50 -56 -61
-1 -3 -4 -4 -4 -5 -6 -8 -8 -9 -10
M6
-9 -12 -15 -17 -20 -24 -28 -33 -37 -41 -46
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
M7
-12 -15 -18 -21 -25 -30 -35 -40 -46 -52 -57
+2 +1 +2 +4 +5 +5 +6 +8 +9 +9 +11
M8
-16 -21 -25 -29 -34 -41 -48 -55 -63 -72 -78
-5 -7 -9 -11 -12 -14 -16 -20 -22 -25 -26
N6
-13 -16 -20 -24 -28 -33 -38 -45 -51 -57 -62
-4 -4 -5 -7 -8 -9 -10 -12 -14 -14 -16
N7
-16 -19 -23 -28 -33 -39 -45 -52 -60 -66 -73
-2 -3 -3 -3 -3 -4 -4 -4 -5 -5 -5
N8
-20 -25 -30 -36 -42 -50 -58 -67 -77 -86 -94
-9 -12 -15 -18 -21 -26 -30 -36 -41 -47 -51
P6
-17 -21 -26 -31 -37 -45 -52 -61 -70 -79 -87
-8 -9 -11 -14 -17 -21 -24 -28 -33 -36 -41
P7
-20 -24 -29 -35 -42 -51 -59 -68 -79 -88 -98

-12 -15 -18 -22 -26 -32 -37 -43 -50 -56 -62
P8
-30 -37 -45 -55 -65 -78 -91 -106 -122 -137 -151
- - -
-71 -75 -85 -89 -97
-12 -16 -20 -24 -29 35 37 -44 -47 -56 -58 -61 -68 103
R6 - - - - -
-20 -25 -31 -37 -45 - - -66 -69 -81 -83 -86 -97 -
100 104 117 121 133
54 56 139
- -
-60 -63 -67 -74 -78 -87 -93
-11 -13 -16 -20 -25 30 32 -38 -41 -48 -50 -53
R7 - - - - - - -
-23 -28 -34 -41 -50 - - -73 -76 -88 -90 -93
106 109 113 126 130 144 150
60 62
Nominal hole sizes (mm)
over 3 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355
inc. 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400
micrometres
Home
ISO Tolerances

ISO - 286-2 Shaft Limits Tolerances
ROYMECH
Home
ISO Tolerances
ISO Tolerances for Shafts (ISO 286-2)
Nominal Shaft Sizes (mm)

over 3 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355
inc. 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400
micrometres
- - - - - - - - - - - -
- - -660 -740 -820 -920
-270 -300 310 320 340 360 380 410 460 520 580 1050 1200 1350
a12 280 290 - - - -
-390 -510 - - - - - - - - - - - -
-430 -470 1120 1200 1280 1440
560 570 640 660 730 760 860 920 980 1570 1770 1920
-30 -40 -50 -65 -80 -100 -120 -145 -170 -190 -210
d6
-38 -49 -61 -78 -96 -119 -142 -170 -199 -222 -246
-20 -25 -32 -40 -50 -60 -72 -85 -100 -110 -125
e6
-28 -34 -43 -53 -66 -79 -94 -110 -129 -142 -161
-20 -25 -32 -40 -50 -60 -72 -85 -100 -110 -125
e13
-200 -245 -302 -370 -440 -520 -612 -715 -820 -920 -1015
-10 -13 -16 -20 -25 -30 -36 -43 -50 -56 -62
f5
-15 -19 -24 -29 -36 -43 -51 -61 -70 -79 -87
-10 -13 -16 -20 -25 -30 -36 -43 -50 -56 -62
f6
-18 -22 -27 -33 -41 -49 -58 -68 -79 -88 -98
-10 -13 -16 -20 -25 -30 -36 -43 -50 -56 -62
f7
-22 -28 -34 -41 -50 -60 -71 -83 -96 -108 -119
-4 -5 -6 -7 -9 -10 -12 -14 -15 -17 -18
g5
-9 -11 -14 -16 -20 -23 -27 -32 -35 -40 -43
-4 -5 -6 -7 -9 -10 -12 -14 -15 -17 -18
g6
-12 -14 -17 -20 -25 -29 -34 -39 -44 -49 -54
-4 -5 -6 -7 -9 -10 -12 -14 -15 -17 -18
g7
-16 -20 -24 -28 -34 -40 -47 -54 -61 -69 -75
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h4
-4 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -10 -12 -14 -16 -18
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h5
-5 -6 -8 -9 -11 -13 -15 -18 -20 -23 -25
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h6
-8 -9 -11 -13 -16 -19 -22 -25 -29 -32 -36
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h7
-12 -15 -18 -21 -25 -30 -35 -40 -46 -52 -57
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h8
-18 -22 -27 -33 -39 -46 -54 -63 -72 -81 -89
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h10
-48 -58 -70 -84 -100 -120 -140 -160 -185 -210 -230
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/ISO_Tolerances/ISO_286_2s.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:30:42 AM

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h11
-75 -90 -110 -130 -160 -190 -220 -250 -290 -320 -360
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h12
-120 -150 -180 -210 -250 -300 -350 -400 -460 -520 -570
+3 +4 +5 +5 +6 +6 +6 +7 +7 +7 +7
j5
-2 -2 -3 -4 -5 -7 -9 -11 -13 -16 -18
+6 +7 +8 +9 +11 +12 +13 +14 +16 +16 +18
j6
-2 -2 -3 -4 -5 -7 -9 -11 -13 -16 -18
+8 +10 +12 +13 +15 +18 +20 +22 +25 +26 +29
j7
-4 -5 -6 -8 -10 -12 -15 -18 -21 -26 -28
+2.5 +3 +4 +4.5 +5.5 +6.5 +7.5 +9 +10 +11.5 +12.5
js5
-2.5 -3 -4 -4.5 -5.5 -6.5 -7.5 -9 -10 -11.5 -12.5
+4 +4.5 +5.5 +6.5 +8 +9.5 +11 +12.5 +14.5 +16 +18
js6
-4 -4.5 -5.5 -6.5 -8 -9.5 -11 -12.5 -14.5 -16 -18
+6 +7.5 +9 +10.5 +12.5 +15 +17.5 +20 +23 +26 +28.5
js7
-6 -7.5 -9 -10.5 -12.5 -15 -17.5 -20 -23 -26 -28.5
+6 +7 +9 +11 +13 +15 +18 +21 +24 +27 +29
k5
+1 +1 +1 +2 +2 +2 +3 +3 +4 +4 +4
+9 +10 +12 +15 +18 +21 +25 +28 +33 +36 +40
k6
+1 +1 +1 +2 +2 +2 +3 +3 +4 +4 +4
+13 +16 +19 +23 +27 +32 +38 +43 +50 +56 +61
k7
+1 +1 +1 +2 +2 +2 +3 +3 +4 +4 +4
+9 +12 +15 +17 +20 +24 +28 +33 +37 +43 +46
m5
+4 +6 +7 +8 +9 +11 +13 +15 +17 +20 +21
+12 +15 +18 +21 +25 +30 +35 +40 +46 +52 +57
m6
+4 +6 +7 +8 +9 +11 +13 +15 +17 +20 +21
+16 +21 +25 +29 +34 +41 +48 +55 +63 +72 +78
m7
+4 +6 +7 +8 +9 +11 +13 +15 +17 +20 +21
+13 +16 +20 +24 +28 +33 +38 +45 +51 +57 +62
n5
+8 +10 +12 +15 +17 +20 +23 +27 +31 +34 +37
+16 +19 +23 +28 +33 +39 +45 +52 +60 +66 +73
n6
+8 +10 +12 +15 +17 +20 +23 +27 +31 +34 +37
+20 +25 +30 +36 +42 +50 +58 +67 +77 +86 +94
n7
+8 +10 +12 +15 +17 +20 +23 +27 +31 +34 +37
+17 +21 +26 +31 +37 +45 +52 +61 +70 +79 +87
p5
+12 +15 +18 +22 +26 +32 +37 +43 +50 +56 +62
+20 +24 +29 +35 +42 +51 +59 +68 +79 +88 +98
p6
+12 +15 +18 +22 +26 +32 +37 +43 +50 +56 +62
+23 +28 +34 +41 +50 +60 +62 +73 +76 +88 +90 +93 +106 +109 +113 +126 +130 +144 +150
r6
+15 +19 +23 +28 +34 +41 +43 +51 +54 +63 +65 +68 +77 +80 +84 +94 +98 +108 +114
Nominal Shaft Sizes (mm)
over 3 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355
inc. 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400
micrometres

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ISO Tolerances

Surface Finish

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SURFACE TEXTURE (FINISH)
Relevant Standards..
BS 1134-1:1988 Title: Assessment of surface texture. Methods and instrumentation
BS EN ISO 3274:1998 Geometric product specifications (GPS). Surface texture. Profile

method. Nominal characteristics of contact (stylus) instruments
BS EN ISO 4287:2000 Geometrical product specification (GPS). Surface texture. Profile

method. Terms, definitions and surface texture parameters
BS EN ISO 4288:1998 Geometrical product specifications - Surface texture: profile method -

Rules and procedures for assessment of surface texture.
BS EN ISO 1302:2002 Geometrical product specifications (GPS). Indication of surface texture

in technical product documentation
Surface Finish Notes
Surface Texture
The accurate characterization of surface texture has become increasingly important in the
instrument, computing, data storage, automotive and biomedical industries. Surface texture
is a key consideration affecting the function and reliability engineering components.
The surface texture is the local deviations of a surface from its ideal shape e.g perfect flat
shape, perfect cylinderical shape, sherical shape etc. The measure of the surface texture is
generally determined in terms of its roughness, waviness and Form .
Roughness
The roughness of a manufactured surface generally results from the production process and
not specifically from the machining process if any. The action of the cutting tool, chemical
action, polishing, lapping, and the structure of the material all contribute to the roughness of
the surface.
Waviness
Waviness, the more widely spaced repetitive deviations, usually relate to the characteristics of
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Surface Finish
an individual machine or to external environmental factors. It may result from such factors as
machine or work deflection, vibration, chatter, heat treatment, or warping strains. Because
both process and machine induced irregularities occur simultaneously,roughness is
superimposed over waviness.
Form
The form of a surface is the profile of the surface under consideration ignoring variations due
to roughness and waviness. Deviations from the desired form result from clamping marks or
sliding marks machining guide errors etc.
Measuring Surface Finish

In the past surface texture has been assessed by the judgment of the inspector either by eye
or even fingernail. The evaluation was done by comparing the surface to be measured with
standard surfaces
A modern typical surface measuring instrument will consist of a stylus with a small tip
(diamond) a gauge or transducer, a traverse datum and a processor. The surface is
measured by moving the stylus across the surface. As the stylus moves up and down along
the surface, the transducer converts this movement into a signal which is then exported to a
processor which converts this into a number and usually a visual profile.
The stylus must be moved in a straight line to give accurate readings On an expensive fixed
instrument the necessary guide is of some form of datum bar that is usually lapped or
precision ground to a high straightness tolerance. On the normal portable units the guide is
generally based on a skid which slides over the general surface ensuring that the linked stylus
moves in a straight line parallel to the local surface
Surface Texture Parameters

The identification of the surface texture used a number of parameters. These are different
depending on the standard used and on the issue of the relevant standard. The notes below
relate to the standards as listed above
Ra - Average Roughness....
The average roughness is the area between the roughness profile and its mean line, or the
integral of the absolute value of the roughness profile height over the evaluation
length Graphically, the average roughness is the area (shown below) between the roughness
profile and its center line divided by the evaluation length (normally five sample lengths with
each sample length equal to one evaluation length) This is the parameter that has been used
universally for many years The European and ISO standards now more generally use Rz:
Rt, Rp, and Rv ....

Top of Page The peak roughness Rp is the height of the highest peak in the roughness profile
over the evaluation length Similarly, Rv is the depth of the deepest valley in the roughness

Surface Finish
profile over the evaluation length . The total roughness, Rt, is the sum of these two, or the
vertical distance from the deepest valley to the highest peak.:
Rz....
Rz is the sum of the height of the highest peak plus the lowest valley depth within a sampling
length ( lr ). Rz is gnerally used, in european documents, to indicated the roughness surface
texture Note: The default evaluation length "ln" consists of 5 sample lengths "lr."
Sample Filtering
Modern surface texture measuring instruments record the stylus movement over the
evaluation length electronically and can produce output readings to a significant level of
detail. The instruments measure the roughness variations and the waviness variations .
Selecting a roughness filter will remove waviness elements, leaving the roughness profile for
evaluation. Selecting a waviness filter will remove roughness elements,leaving the waviness
profile for evaluation. The signal filters operate on the digital information. Separating the
roughness and waviness is achieved by using filter cut-offs.
λc = the long wave filter. In the roughness requirement this value is the sampling length. This
value may be used as the basis for the Waviness surface texture indication
λs = the short wave filter used for the lower band of the roughness requirement.
Sites Providing
Information on
surface Finish..
1. iCrank...A link
to further
information on
Surface Texture
2. Taylor Hobson...
Metrology
Instruments-
Useful
information on
FAQ link
3. Quality Mag...
Articles on
surface texture
measurement
etc
4. Cyberman
Quality and
Design Page...
Quality Online
is a Site devote
to quality
management

Surface Finish
and
measurement
5. Ultra Tecusa...
Notes on
measurement of
surfaces
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Surface Finish

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Drawing Page
Examples of Identifying Surface Texture Requirements on Drawings
General Representation
Notes..
The Specification limit can be

a) max. i.e no part of the measure profile exceed the stated limit.
b) 16%-rule (default) i.e. 16% of the evaluated profile can exceed the stated limit
Reference BS EN ISO 4288:1998
Surface Texture Parameter

includes a Profile letter and a Characteristic letter
Profile Letter...
a) R for Roughness
b) W for Waviness
c) P for Profile (Form)
Characteristic..
a) p = Maximum mean to peak (In sample length)
b) v = Maximum mean to valley(In sample length)
c) z = Maximum peak to valley(In sample length)
d) c = Mean Height of Profile Irregularities(In sample length)
e) t = Maximum hight of profile deepest valley to highest peak(In sample length)
f) a = Average Roughness. The average roughness is the area between the roughness
profile and its mean line(over the evaluation length)
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Surface Finish
g) q = The root-mean-square (rms) average roughness file(over the evaluation length)

h) sk =Skewness..Indication of high spikes or deep local valleys (over the evaluation length)
h) ku - Kurtosis .. Indication of general spikeness (over the evaluation length)
The Filter parameter

is rarely shown on drawings and indicates the type of filter used. The normal type used now is
the Gaussion filter. This is the default and does not have to be indicated. The older 2RC (2-
resistor-capacitor) analogue type when used is indicated.
The Evaluation length

Is indicated as a multiple of the sample length only if it is different to the default of 5
Description
No material removal allowed, unilateral upper specification limit, default transmission band.
R-profile, maximum height of roughness 0,5µm, evaluation length of 5 sample lengths

(default), "16 % rule" (default).
Description
Machined finish, unilateral upper specification limit, default transmission band.

R-profile, maximum height of roughness 0,3µm, evaluation length of 5 sample lengths
(default), "max- rule" applies.

Surface Finish
Description
Machined finish, unilateral upper specification limit, transmission band 0,008-0,8mm

R-profile, arithmetic mean deviation 3,1µm, evaluation length of 5 sample lengths (default),
"16% rule " (default) applies.
Description
Machined finish, unilateral upper specification limit, transmission band λs = 0.0025mm

(Default-BS EN ISO 3274) Sample Length 0,8mm
R-profile, arithmetic mean deviation 3,1µm, evaluation length of 3 sample lengths, "16% rule
" (default) applies.
Description
Machined finish, unilateral upper specification limit, transmission band 0,8 -25mm
W-profile,maximum height of waviness 10µm, evaluation length of 3 sample lengths, "16%
rule " (default) applies.
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Surface Finish
Drawing Page

Surface Finish- Typical values

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SURFACE TEXTURE Examples
ANSI B46.1 is used in USA (measurement units µinch(micro.inch) )
ISO 1302:1992 which uses N numbers..These are not included in BS EN ISO 1302:2002
The Table below provide equivalent values for the Average Roughness Ra , the USA Values and the N numbers.. .
µm 0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.3 12.5 25 50
µinch 1 2 4 8 16 32 63 125 250 500 1000 2000
N-
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10 N11 N12
Grade
Smooth Medium
Finish Ground Finishes Rough Machined
Turned Turned
Rules of Thumb for surface finish equivalent of N grade and Ra values
● Rough turned with visible toolmarks....N10 = 12.5µm (micro.m)

● Smooth machined surface....N8 = 3.2µm (micro.m)
● Static mating surfaces (or datums).... N7 = 1.6µm(micro.m)
● Bearing Surfaces.... N6 = 0.8µm (micro.m)
● Fine lapped surfaces.... N1 = 0.025µm (micro.m)
Sites Providing
Information on
surface Finish
1. Predev.com...
Precision
Devices. Chart
of Machining vs
surface Texture
2. iCrank... A link
to further
information on
Surface Texture
3. Ultra Tecusa...
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Surface_Texture/Sur_Fin_Values.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:30:51 AM

Surface Finish- Typical values
Notes on
measurement of
surfaces
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Parallel Metric Keys and Keyway Dimensions

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Keyways Index
Keys and keyway Dimensions
KeyWay Dimensions
Key KeyWay
Nominal
Dia Width b Depth
d Tolerance Class Shaft t1 Hub t2
Radius r
bxh Close/
width Free Normal - - - -
Nom Int
x thck
Over Incl Shaft/
Shaft Hub Shaft Hub
Hub Nom Tol Nom Tol Max min
H9 D10 N9 Js9
P9
-
6 8 2x2 2 +0,012 -0,006 1,2 1,0 0,16 0,08
+,025 +0,06 0,004
0 +0,02 -
8 10 3x3 3 -0,012 -0,031 1,8 +0,1 1,4 +0,1 0,16 0,08
0,029
0 0
10 12 4x4 4 0 2,5 1,8 0,16 0,008
+0,03 +0,078 +0,015 -0,012
12 17 5x5 5 - 3,0 2,3 0,25 0,16
0 +0,030 -0,015 -0,042
17 22 6x6 6 0,030 3,5 2,8 0,25 0,16
0
22 30 8x7 8 +0,036 +0,098 +0,018 +0,015 4,0 +0,2 3,3 +0,2 0,25 0,16
-
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30 38 10x8 10 0 +0,040 0,036 -0,018 -0,051 5,0 0 3,3 0 0,40 0,25

38 44 12x8 12 5,0 3,3 0,40 0,25
44 50 14x9 14 0 5,5 3,8 0,40 0,25
+0,12 +0,021 -0,018
+,0430 -
50 58 16x10 16 +0,050 -0,021 -0,061 6,0 4,3 0,40 0,25
0,043
58 65 18x11 18 7,0 4,4 0,40 0,25
+0,2 +0,2
65 75 20x12 20 7,5 4,9 0,60 0,40
0 0 0
75 85 22x14 22 +0,052 +0,149 +0,026 -0,022 9,0 5,4 0,60 0,40
-
85 95 25x14 25 0 +0,065 -0,026 -0,074 9,0 5,4 0,60 0,40
0,052
95 110 28x16 28 10,0 6,4 0,60 0,40
110 130 32x18 32 11,0 7,4 0,6 0,4
130 150 36x20 36 0 12,0 8,4 1,0 0,7
+0,062 +0,18 +0,031 -0,025
- +0,3 +0,3
150 170 40x22 40 0 +0,080 -0,031 -0,088 13,0 9,4 1,0 0,7
0,062 0 0
170 200 45x25 45 13,0 10,4 1,0 0,7
Key Dimensions
Range Of
Width b Thickness h Chamfer S
Lengths
Nom Tol(h9) Nom Tol(h9) Min Max From Inc
2 0 2 0 0,16 0,25 6 20
3 -0,025 3 -0,025 0,16 0,25 6 36
4 4 0,16 0,25 8 45
0 0
5 5 0,25 0,40 10 56
-0,030 -0,030
6 6 0,25 0,40 14 70
8 0 7 0,25 0,40 18 90
10 -0,036 8 0,40 0,60 22 110
Tol (h11) ........ 0
12 8 0,40 0,60 28 140
-0,090
14 0 9 0,40 0,60 36 160

16 -0,043 10 0,40 0,60 45 180

18 11 0,40 0,60 50 200
20 12 0,60 0,80 56 220
22 0 14 0 0,60 0,80 63 250
25 -0,052 14 -0,110 0,60 0,80 70 280
28 16 0,60 0,80 80 320
32 18 0,60 0,80 90 360
36 20 1,00 1,20 100 400
0
40 22 0 1,00 1,20 - -
-0,062
45 25 -0,130 1,00 1,20 - -
50 28 1,00 1,20 - -
56 32 1,60 2,00 - -
63 0 32 1,60 2,00 - -
70 -0,074 36 0 1,60 2,00 - -
80 40 -0,160 2,50 3,00 - -
90 0 45 2,50 3,00 - -
100 -0,087 50 2,50 3,00 - -
Links Providing information on Keyways
1. Keyways standards ...Lovejoy note on keyway standards for USA audience

2. Specifying Rectangular Keyways ...MDmetric document - useful check information for my tables
3. Transeals - Keyways ...Transeals - useful check information for my tables
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Keyways Index

Taper Metric Key and Keyway Dimensions

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Keyways Index
KeyWay & Key Dimensions
Shaft Key Keyway

Nominal Width Depth
Radius
Diameter Shaft & Hub
Section b Shaft t1 Hub t2 r
d
bxh
Tol
Over Inc Nom Nom Tol Nom Tol Max Min
(D10)
6 8 2x2 2 +0,06 1,2 0,5 0,16 0,08
8 10 3x3 3 +0,02 1,8 0,9 0,16 0,08
+0,1 +0,1
10 12 4x4 4 2,5 1,2 0,16 0,008
+0,078 0 0
12 17 5x5 5 3,0 1,7 0,25 0,16
+0,030
17 22 6x6 6 3,5 2,2 0,25 0,16
22 30 8x7 8 +0,098 4,0 +0,2 2,4 +0,2 0,25 0,16
30 38 10 x 8 10 +0,040 5,0 0 2,4 0 0,40 0,25
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38 44 12 x 8 12 5,0 2,4 0,40 0,25

44 50 14 x 9 14 +0,12 5,5 2,9 0,40 0,25
50 58 16 x 10 16 +0,050 6,0 3,4 0,40 0,25
58 65 18 x 11 18 7,0 3,4 0,40 0,25
+0,2 +0,2
65 75 20 x 12 20 7,5 3,9 0,60 0,40
0 0
75 85 22 x 14 22 +0,149 9,0 4,4 0,60 0,40
85 95 25 x 14 25 +0,065 9,0 4,4 0,60 0,40
95 110 28 x 16 28 10,0 5,4 0,60 0,40
110 130 32 x 18 32 11,0 6,4 0,6 0,4
130 150 36 x 20 36 +0,18 12,0 7,1 1,0 0,7
+0,080 +0,3 +0,3
150 170 40 x 22 40 13,0 8,1 1,0 0,7
0 0
170 200 45 x 25 45 15,0 9,1 1,0 0,7
Key Dimensions
Range Of Gib
Width b Thickness h Chamfer s
Lengths L Head Radius r
Nom Tol(h9) Nom Tol(h9) Min Max From Inc h1
2 0 2 0 0,16 0,25 6 20
3 -0,025 3 -0,025 0,16 0,25 6 36
4 4 0,16 0,25 8 45 7 0,25
0 0
5 5 0,25 0,40 10 56 8 0,25

6 -0,030 6 -0,030 0,25 0,40 14 70 10 0,25

8 0 7 0,25 0,40 18 90 11 1,5
10 -0,036 8 Tol 0,40 0,60 22 110 12 1,5
12 8 (h11) ........ 0 0,40 0,60 28 140 12 1,5
14 0 9 -0,090 0,40 0,60 36 160 14 1,5
16 -0,043 10 0,40 0,60 45 180 16 1,5
18 11 0,40 0,60 50 200 18 1,5
20 12 0,60 0,80 56 220 20 1,5
22 0 14 0 0,60 0,80 63 250 22 1,5
25 -0,052 14 -0,110 0,60 0,80 70 280 22 1,5
28 16 0,60 0,80 80 320 25 1,5
32 18 0,60 0,80 90 360 28 1,5
36 20 1,00 1,20 100 400 32 1,5
0
40 22 0 1,00 1,20 - - 36 1,5
-0,062
45 25 -0,130 1,00 1,20 - - 40 1,5
50 28 1,00 1,20 - - 45 1,5
56 32 1,60 2,00 - - 50 1,5
63 0 32 1,60 2,00 - - 50 1,5
70 -0,074 36 0 1,60 2,00 - - 56 1,5
80 40 -0,160 2,50 3,00 - - 63 1,5
90 0 45 2,50 3,00 - - 70 1,5
100 -0,087 50 2,50 3,00 - - 80 1,5
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Keyways Index

Woodruff Metric key and Keyway Dimensions

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Keyways Index
Keys and keyway Dimensions
KeyWay Dimensions
Width b Depth
Tolerance Class Radius R
Shaft t1 Hub t2
b x h1 x D...... Normal Close
Nom Shaft
Shaft Hub
& Hub Nom Tol Nom Tol Max min
N9 Js9
P6
1,0 x 1,4 x 4 1 1,0 0,6 0,16 0,08
1,5 x 2,6 x 7 1,5 2,0 0,8 0,16 0,08
+0,1
2,0 x 2,6 x 7 2,0 - -0,006 1,8 1,0 0,16 0,08
0,004 +0,012 0
2,0 x 3,7 x 10 2,0 - 2,9 1,0 0,16 0,08
- -0,012
2,5 x 3,7 x 10 2,5 0,029 0,0031 2,7 1,2 0,16 0,08
3,0 x 5,0 x 13 3,0 3,8 1,4 0,16 0,08
+0,1
3,0 x 6,5 x 16 3,0 5,3 1,4 0,16 0,08
0
4,0 x 6,5 x 16 4,0 5,0 +0,2 1,8 0,25 0,16
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4,0 x 7,5 x 19 4,0 6,0 0 1,8 0,25 0,16

5,0 x 6,5 x 16 0 5,0
+0,015 -0,012 4,5 2,3 0,25 0,16
-
5,0 x 7,5 x 19 -0,015 -0,042 5,5
5,0 2,3 0,25 0,16
0,030
5,0 x 9.0 x 22 5,0 7,0 2,3 0,25 0,16
6,0 x 9,0 x 22 6,0 6,5 2,8 0,25 0,16
6,0 x 11,0 x 28 6,0 7,5 +0,3 2,8 0,25 0,16
0 +0,2 0,40 0,25
8,0 x 11,0 x 28 8,0 0 +0,018 +0,015 8,0 3,3
- 0
10,0 x 13,0 x 32 10,0 0.036 -0.018 -0.051 10,0 3,3 0,4 0,25
Key Dimensions
Width b Height h1 Diameter D Chamfer s

nom
Tol
Nom Tol(h9) Nom Tol(h11) Nom Min Max
(h12)
0
1,0 1,4 4 0,16 0,25
0 -0,120
1,5 2,6 -0,060 7 0,16 0,25
2,0 0 2,6 7 0 0,16 0,25
2,0 -0,025 3,7 10 -0,150 0,16 0,25
0
2,5 3,7 10 0,16 0,25
-0,075
3,0 5,0 13 0,16 0,25
0
3,0 6,5 16 0,16 0,25

4,0 6,5 16 -0,18 0,25 0,40

0
4,0 7,5 19 0,25 0,40
-0,210
0 0
5,0 0 6,5 16 0,25 0,40
-0,090 - 0,18
-0,030
5,0 7,5 19 0,25 0,40
5,0 9 22 0,25 0,40
0
6,0 9 22 0,25 0,40
-0,210
6,0 10 25 0,25 0,40
8,0 11 28 0,40 0,60
0 0
-0,036 -0,110 0
10,0 13 32 0,40 0,60
-0,25
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Keyways Index

ISO Straight Sided Spline

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Keyways Index
Straight Sided Spline Dimensions
Straight Sided Spline Dimensions
The profile of a straight sided spline is defined by
● N = Number of splines
● d = Minor Diameter
● D = Outside Diameter
Light Series Medium Series

d
Designation..... N D B Designation..... N D B
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
11 6 x 11 x 14 6 14 3
13 6 x 13 x 16 6 16 3,5
16 6 x 16 x 20 6 20 4
18 6 x 18 x 22 6 22 5
21 6 x 21 x 25 6 25 5
23 6 x 23 x 26 6 26 6 6 x 23 x 28 6 28 6
26 6 x 26 x 30 6 30 6 6 x 26 x 32 6 32 6
28 6 x 28 x 32 6 32 7 6 x 28 x 34 6 34 7
32 8 x 32 x 36 8 36 6 8 x 32 x 38 8 38 6
36 8 x 36 x 40 8 40 7 8 x 36 x 42 8 42 7
42 8 x 42 x 46 8 46 8 8 x 42 x 48 8 48 8
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46 8 x 46 x 50 8 50 9 8 x 46 x 54 8 54 9
52 8 x 52 x 58 8 58 10 8 x 52 x 60 8 60 10
56 8 x 56 x 62 8 62 10 8 x 56 x 66 8 65 10
62 8 x 62 x 68 8 68 12 8 x 62 x 72 8 72 12
72 10 x 72 x 78 10 78 12 10 x 72 x 82 10 82 12
82 10 x 82 x 88 10 88 12 10 x 82 x 92 10 92 12
92 10 x 92 x 98 10 98 14 10 x 92 x 102 10 102 14
102 10 x 102 x 108 10 108 16 10 x 102 x 112 10 112 16
112 10 x 112 x 120 10 120 18 10 x 112 x 125 10 125 18
Tolerances of Straight sided Splines
Tolerances on Hole
Tolerances on
Not Treated After Treated After Shaft Type of Fit
Broaching Broaching
B D d B D d B D d
d10 a11 f7 Sliding
H9 H10 H7 H11 H10 H7 f9 a11 g7 Close fit
h10 a11 h7 Fixed
Tolerances Symmetry
spline width 3,5 4 5
3 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18
B 6
Tolerance of 0,010 0,012
0,015 (IT7) 0,018 (IT7)
Symmetry (t) (IT7) (IT7)

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Keyways Index

Key Strength

ROYMECH
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Keyways Index
Keys Strength Calculations
Key Capacity
Note: These
calculations are
approximate and
take no
allowance of
factors of safety
or fatigue
considerations
To determine
the torque
capacity of key..
● h = Depth of
key (m)
● r = Radius of
shaft (m)
● Le = Effective
Length of key
= Straight
Length (m)
● b = Breadth
depth of key
(m)
● T = Torque
capacity of key
(N.m )
● σc = Allowable
compressive
strength of key
(N/m2)
● τ = Allowable
shear strength
of key (N/m2)
T = τ .b . Le .r.....
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Keyways/key_strength.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:31:16 AM

Key Strength
based on shear
T = σc .h . Le . r /
2.....based on
compressive strength
ISO straight sided

Spline Capacity
● r = Mean
radius of
spline (m)
● n = Number of
splines
● Le = Effective
Length of
spline =
Straight
Length (m)
● d = Depth of
Spline (m)
● T = Torque
capacity of key
(N.m )
● σc = Allowable
compressive
strength of key
(N/m2)
● τ = Allowable
shear strength
of key (N/m2)
T = σc . n .d . Le .
r.....based on
compressive strength
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Keyways Index
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Keyways/key_strength.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:31:16 AM

BS 46 :1958 Parallel Keys and Keyway Dimensions

ROYMECH
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Keyways Index
BS 46 Keys and keyway Dimensions-Parallel Rectangular
Ref Standard ..British Standard :BS 46 Part 1 : 1958 Keys and keyways and taper pins. Specification. Keys and keyways
BS 46 Part 1 : 1958 Keys and keyway Dimensions-Parallel Rectangular
all dimensions in inches
Shaft
Keyway (Shaft Keyway (Hub) Radius
Diameter
r
D Width Height W H W h
To/
Over W T Min Max Max Min Min Max Min Max
Inc
1
1 5/16 1/4 0.311 0.312 0.146 0.152 0.312 0.313 0.112 0.118 0.010
1/4
1
1 1/4 3/8 1/4 0.374 0.375 0.150 0.156 0.375 0.376 0.108 0.114 0.010
1/2
1
1 1/2 7/16 5/16 0.437 0.438 0.186 0.192 0.438 0.439 0.135 0.141 0.020
3/4
1 3/4 2 1/2 5/16 0.499 0.500 0.190 0.196 0.500 0.501 0.131 0.137 0.020
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Keyways/keyways_BS46.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:31:20 AM

2
2 5/8 7/16 0.624 0.625 0.260 0.266 0.625 0.626 0.185 0.191 0.020
1/2
2 1/2 3 3/4 1/2 0.749 0.750 0.299 0.305 0.750 0.751 0.209 0.215 0.020
3
3 7/8 5/8 0.874 0.875 0.370 0.376 0.875 0.876 0.264 0.270 0.062
1/2
3 1/2 4 1 3/4 0.999 1.000 0.441 0.447 1.000 1.001 0.318 0.324 0.062
4 5 1 1/4 7/8 1.248 1.250 0.518 0.524 1.250 1.252 0.366 0.372 0.062
5 6 1 1/2 1 1.498 1.500 0.599 0.605 1.500 1.502 0.412 0.418 0.062
6 7 1 3/4 1 1/4 1.748 1.750 0.740 0.746 1.750 1.752 0.526 0.532 0.125
7 8 2 1 3/8 1.998 2.000 0.818 0.824 2.000 2.002 0.573 0.579 0.125
8 9 2 1/4 1 1/2 2.248 2.250 0.897 0.905 2.250 2.252 0.619 0.627 0.125
9 10 2 1/2 1 5/8 2.498 2.500 0.975 0.983 2.500 2.502 0.666 0.674 0.187
10 11 2 3/4 1 7/8 2.748 2.750 1.114 1.122 2.750 2.752 0.777 0.785 0.187
11 12 3 2 2.998 3.000 1.195 1.203 3.000 3.002 0.823 0.831 0.187
12 13 3 1/4 2 1/8 3.248 3.250 1.273 1.281 3.250 3.252 0.870 0.878 0.187
13 14 3 1/2 2 3/8 3.498 3.500 1.413 1.421 3.500 3.502 0.980 0.988 0.250
14 15 3 3/4 2 1/2 3.748 3.750 1.492 1.502 3.750 3.752 1.026 1.036 0.250
15 16 4 2 5/8 3.998 4.000 1.571 1.581 4.000 4.002 1.072 1.082 0.250
16 17 4 1/4 2 7/8 4.248 4.250 1.711 1.721 4.250 4.252 1.182 1.192 0.312
17 18 4 1/2 3 4.498 4.500 1.791 1.801 4.500 4.502 1.229 1.239 0.312
18 19 4 3/4 3 1/8 4.748 4.750 1.868 1.878 4.750 4.752 1.277 1.287 0.312
19 20 5 3 3/8 4.998 5.000 2.010 2.020 5.000 5.002 1.385 1.395 0.312
BS 46 Part 1 : 1958 Key Dimensions

Pref.
Width Height W T
Length
W T Max Min Max Min From To
5/16 1/4 0.314 0.312 0.253 0.250 3/4 3
3/8 1/4 0.377 0.375 0.253 0.250 1 4
7/16 5/16 0.440 0.438 0.315 0.312 1 1/2 4
1/2 5/16 0.502 0.500 0.315 0.312 1 3/4 5
5/8 7/16 0.627 0.625 0.441 0.438 2 1/2 5
3/4 1/2 0.752 0.750 0.503 0.500 3 6
7/8 5/8 0.877 0.875 0.629 0.625 3 1/2 6
1 3/4 1.003 1.000 0.754 0.750
1 1/4 7/8 1.253 1.250 0.879 0.875
1 1/2 1 1.504 1.500 1.006 1.000
1 3/4 1 1/4 1.754 1.750 1.256 1.250
2 1 3/8 2.005 2.000 1.381 1.375
2 1/4 1 1/2 2.255 2.250 1.506 1.500
2 1/2 1 5/8 2.505 2.500 1.631 1.625
2 3/4 1 7/8 2.755 2.750 1.881 1.875
3 2 3.006 3.000 2.008 2.000
3 1/4 2 1/8 3.256 3.250 2.133 2.125
3 1/2 2 3/8 3.506 3.500 2.383 2.375
3 3/4 2 1/2 3.756 3.750 2.508 2.500
4 2 5/8 4.008 4.000 2.633 2.625
4 1/4 2 7/8 4.258 4.250 2.883 2.875
4 1/2 3 4.508 4.500 3.010 3.000
4 3/4 3 1/8 4.758 4.750 3.135 3.125
5 3 3/8 5.008 5.000 3.385 3.375


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Keyways Index

BS 46 :1958 Square Keys and Keyway Dimensions

ROYMECH
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Keyways Index
BS 46 Square Keys and keyway Dimensions
Ref. Standard ..British Standard :BS 46 Part 1 : 1958 Keys and keyways and taper pins. Specification. Keys and keyways
BS 46 Part 1 : 1958 Square Keys and keyway Dimensions
Shaft Width Keyway (Shaft Keyway (Hub) Radius

Diameter Height W H W h r
To/
Over W&T Min Max Max Min Min Max Min Max
Inc
1/4 1/2 1/8 0.124 0.125 0.072 0.078 0.125 0.126 0.060 0.066 0.010
1/2 3/4 3/16 0.187 0.188 0.107 0.113 0.188 0.189 0.088 0.094 0.010
3/4 1 1/4 0.249 0.250 0.142 0.148 0.250 0.251 0.115 0.121 0.010
1
1 5/16 0.311 0.312 0.177 0.183 0.312 0.313 0.142 0.148 0.010
1/4
1
1 1/4 3/8 0.374 0.375 0.213 0.219 0.375 0.376 0.169 0.175 0.010
1/2
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Keyways/keyways_square_BS46.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:31:22 AM

1
1 1/2 7/16 0.437 0.438 0.248 0.254 0.438 0.439 0.197 0.203 0.020
3/4
1 3/4 2 1/2 0.499 0.500 0.283 0.289 0.500 0.501 0.224 0.230 0.020
2
2 5/8 0.624 0.625 0.354 0.36 0.625 0.626 0.278 0.284 0.020
1/2
2 1/2 3 3/4 0.749 0.750 0.424 0.43 0.750 0.751 0.333 0.339 0.020
3
3 7/8 0.874 0.875 0.495 0.501 0.875 0.876 0.387 0.393 0.062
1/2
3 1/2 4 1 0.999 1.000 0.566 0.572 1.000 1.001 0.442 0.448 0.062
4 5 1 1/4 1.248 1.250 0.707 0.713 1.250 1.252 0.551 0.557 0.062
5 6 1 1/2 1.498 1.500 0.848 0.854 1.500 1.502 0.661 0.667 0.062
BS 46 Part 1 : 1958 Square Key Dimensions
Width/
W&T Pref. Length
Height
W &T Max Min From To
1/8 0.127 0.125 3/4 1
3/16 0.190 0.188 3/4 2
1/4 0.252 0.250 3/4 3
5/16 0.314 0.312 3/4 3
3/8 0.377 0.375 1 4
7/16 0.440 0.438 1 1/2 4
1/2 0.502 0.500 2 1/2 5
5/8 0.627 0.625 2 1/2 6
3/4 0.752 0.750 3 1/2 6

7/8 0.877 0.875 3 1/2 6

1 1.003 1.000
1 1/4 1.253 1.250
1 1/2 1.504 1.500

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Keyways Index


ROYMECH
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Keyways Index
BS 46 Rectangular Taper & Gib Head KeyWay & Key Dimensions
All Dimensions in inches
Shaft
key Keyway (Shaft Keyway (Hub)
Diameter
Keyway
D Width Height W H W h
radius
To/
Over W T Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Inc
1
1 5/16 1/4 0.311 0.312 0.146 0.152 0.312 0.313 0.090 0.096 0.010
1/4
1
1 1/4 3/8 1/4 0.374 0.375 0.150 0.156 0.375 0.376 0.086 0.092 0.010
1/2
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Keyways/taper_keyways_BS46.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:31:29 AM

1
1 1/2 7/16 5/16 0.437 0.438 0.186 0.192 0.438 0.439 0.112 0.118 0.020
3/4
1 3/4 2 1/2 5/16 0.499 0.500 0.190 0.196 0.500 0.501 0.108 0.114 0.020
2
2 5/8 7/16 0.624 0.625 0.260 0.266 0.625 0.626 0.162 0.168 0.020
1/2
2 1/2 3 3/4 1/2 0.749 0.750 0.299 0.305 0.750 0.751 0.185 0.191 0.020
3
3 7/8 5/8 0.874 0.875 0.370 0.376 0.875 0.876 0.239 0.245 0.062
1/2
3 1/2 4 1 3/4 0.999 1.000 0.441 0.447 1.000 1.001 0.293 0.299 0.062
4 5 1 1/4 7/8 1.248 1.250 0.518 0.524 1.250 1.252 0.340 0.346 0.062
5 6 1 1/2 1 1.498 1.500 0.599 0.605 1.500 1.502 0.384 0.390 0.062
6 7 1 3/4 1 1/4 1.748 1.750 0.740 0.746 1.750 1.752 0.493 0.499 0.125
7 8 2 1 3/8 1.998 2.000 0.818 0.824 2.000 2.002 0.539 0.545 0.125
8 9 2 1/4 1 1/2 2.248 2.250 0.897 0.905 2.250 2.252 0.581 0.589 0.125
9 10 2 1/2 1 5/8 2.498 2.500 0.975 0.983 2.500 2.502 0.628 0.636 0.187
10 11 2 3/4 1 7/8 2.748 2.750 1.114 1.122 2.750 2.752 0.738 0.746 0.187
11 12 3 2 2.998 3.000 1.195 1.203 3.000 3.002 0.782 0.790 0.187
Key Dimensions
Key Gib Head Pref.

Length
Width Height W T A B C D R taper (L)

Gib
W T Max Min Max Min Taper
Head
3/4
5/16 1/4 0.314 0.312 0.254 0.249 3/8 7/16 1/4 0.3 1/16
to 3
3/8 1/4 0.377 0.375 0.254 0.249 7/16 7/16 9/32 0.3 1/16 1 to 4 2 to 5
2 1/2
1 1/2
7/16 5/16 0.440 0.438 0.316 0.311 1/2 9/16 5/16 0.4 1/16 &3
to 4
to 6
2 1/2
1 3/4 & 3
1/2 5/16 0.502 0.500 0.316 0.311 9/16 5/8 3/8 0.4 1/16
to 5 to 6
1/2
5/8 7/16 0.627 0.625 0.442 0.437 11/16 3/4 7/16 0.5 1/8 1 to 4 2 to 6
2 1/2
1 3/4
3/4 1/2 0.752 0.750 0.504 0.499 13/16 7/8 17/32 0.5 1/8 &3
to 4
to 6
2 1/2 5 &
7/8 5/8 0.877 0.875 0.630 0.624 15/16 1 21/32 0.6 1/8
to 5 6 to 8
1 1 6&
1 3/4 1.003 1.000 0.755 0.749 23/32 0.6 1/8
1/16 1/4 7 to 8
1 1
1 1/4 7/8 1.253 1.250 0.880 0.874 27/32 0.7 1/4
5/16 1/2
1 1 1
1 1/2 1 1.504 1.500 1.007 0.999 0.7 1/4
9/16 5/8 1/32
1 1
1 3/4 1 1/4 1.754 1.750 1.257 1.249 2 0.8 1/4
13/16 7/32
2 2 1
2 1 3/8 2.005 2.000 1.382 1.374 0.8 1/4
1/16 1/4 13/32
2 2 1
2 1/4 1 1/2 2.255 2.250 1.509 1.499 0.9 3/8
5/16 1/2 9/16
2 2 1
2 1/2 1 5/8 2.505 2.500 1.634 1.624 0.9 3/8
9/16 3/4 11/16
2 1
2 3/4 1 7/8 2.755 2.750 1.884 1.874 3 1.0 3/8
13/16 15/16
3 3 2
3 2 3.006 3.000 2.014 1.999 1.0 3/8
1/16 2/8 1/16

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Keyways Index

Taper Square Metric Key and Keyway Dimensions

ROYMECH
Home
Keyways Index
BS 46 Square Taper & Gib Head KeyWay & Key Dimensions
All Dimensions in inches
Shaft
key Keyway (Shaft Keyway (Hub)
Diameter
Keyway
Width/
D W H W h radius
Height
r
To/
Over W&T Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Inc
1/4 1/2 1/8 0.124 0.125 0.072 0.078 0.125 0.126 0.039 0.045 0.010
1/2 3/4 3/16 0.187 0.188 0.107 0.113 0.188 0.189 0.067 0.073 0.010
3/4 1 1/4 0.249 0.250 0.142 0.148 0.250 0.251 0.094 0.100 0.010
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Keyways/Square _taper_keyways_BS46.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:31:33 AM

1
1 5/16 0.311 0.312 0.177 0.183 0.312 0.313 0.121 0.127 0.010
1/4
1
1 1/4 3/8 0.374 0.375 0.213 0.219 0.375 0.376 0.148 0.154 0.010
1/2
1
1 1/2 7/16 0.437 0.438 0.248 0.254 0.438 0.439 0.175 0.181 0.020
3/4
1 3/4 2 1/2 0.499 0.500 0.283 0.289 0.500 0.501 0.202 0.208 0.020
2
2 5/8 0.624 0.625 0.354 0.360 0.625 0.626 0.256 0.262 0.020
1/2
2 1/2 3 3/4 0.749 0.750 0.424 0.430 0.750 0.751 0.310 0.316 0.020
3
3 7/8 0.874 0.875 0.495 0.501 0.875 0.876 0.364 0.370 0.062
1/2
3 1/2 4 1 0.999 1.000 0.566 0.572 1.000 1.001 0.418 0.424 0.062
4 5 1 1/4 1.248 1.250 0.707 0.713 1.250 1.252 0.526 0.532 0.062
5 6 1 1/2 1.498 1.500 0.848 0.854 1.500 1.502 0.635 0.641 0.062
Key Dimensions
Key Gib Head

Width Pref.Length
/ W T A B C D R L
Height
Gib
W & T Max Min Max Min Taper
Head

3/4 to
1/8 0.127 0.125 0.129 0.124 3/16 1/4 5/32 0.1 1/32
1
3/4 to 1 1/2
3/16 0.190 0.188 0.192 0.187 1/4 3/8 7/32 0.2 1/33
2 to 2
3/4 to 1 1/2
1/4 0.252 0.250 0.254 0.249 5/16 7/16 9/32 0.2 1/16
3 to 4
3/4 to 2 to 4
5/16 0.314 0.312 0.316 0.311 3/8 9/16 11/32 0.3 1/16
3 1/2
3/8 0.377 0.375 0.379 0.374 7/16 5/8 13/32 0.3 1/16 1 to 4 2 to 6
2 1/2
1 3/4
7/16 0.440 0.438 0.442 0.437 1/2 3/4 15/32 0.4 1/16 &3
to 4
to 6
2 1/2
&3
1/2 0.502 0.500 0.504 0.499 9/16 7/8 17/32 0.4 1/16 2 to 6
to 6
1/2
2 1/2 4 1/2
5/8 0.627 0.625 0.630 0.624 11/16 1 21/32 0.5 1/8 &3 to 7
to 6 &8
4 &.
1 3 1/2
3/4 0.752 0.750 0.755 0.749 13/16 23/32 0.5 1/8 5&6
1/4 to 6
&8
1 3 1/2 6&7
7/8 0.877 0.875 0.880 0.874 15/16 27/32 0.6 1/8
3/8 to 6 to 8
1 1 1
1 1.003 1.000 1.007 0.999 0.6 1/8
1/16 5/8 1/32
1 1
1 1/4 1.253 1.250 1.257 1.249 2 0.7 1/4
5/16 9/32
1 2 1
1 1/2 1.504 1.500 1.509 1.499 0.7 1/4
9/16 1/2 17/32
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Keyways Index

Drive Shafts

ROYMECH
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Drive_Index
Shaft Design
Shaft
A shaft is a rotating or stationary component which is normally circular in section. A shaft is normally designed to transfer torque
from a driving device to a driven device. If the shaft is rotating, it is transferring power and if the shaft operating without rotary
motion it is simply transmitting torque and is probably resisting the transfer of power.
Mechanical components directly mounted on shafts include gears, couplings, pulleys, cams, sprockets,links and flywheels. A shaft
is normally supported on bearings. The torque is normally transmitted to the mounted components using pins, keys, clamping
bushes, press fits, bonded joints and sometimes welded connections are used.
Shafts are subject to combined loading including torque (shear loading), bending (tensile & compressive loading), direct shear
loading, tensile loading and compressive loading. Design of shafts must include assessment of fatigue loading and unstable loading
when the shaft is rotating at critical speeds (whirling). When designing a shaft the following staged procedure is normally adopted
1. Produce a free-body sketch of the shaft. Replacing the various associated components with their equivalent load/torque
components
2. Produce a bending moment diagram for the xy plane and the xz plane (x = shaft axis direction).
Note: The resulting internal moment at any point along the shaft = Mx = Sqrt (Mxy2 + Mxz2 )
3. Produce a torque diagram.
4. Locate the section(s) on the shaft which the internal loading is the highest..This important stage requires significant effort
and judgement
5. Locate the point on the shaft which the internal loading is the highest. This important stage requires significant effort and
judgement
6. Assess the strength of the shaft and determine if the safety margin is sufficient. The failure criteria (ref Failure theories for
the shaft depends on the material selection (ductile/brittle) and consideration of the loading regime, (constant/ variable
loading, rotating speed, degree of shock loading )
Indicative Transmittable Torque Values
This table is provided to allow comparison between shafts and is based on very simplistic assumptions with no allowance for fatigue,
additional stresses to Bending Moments etc etc etc
Shaft Dia Pure Torque Power (100RPM)

mm Nm kW
30 132 1.4
40 313 3.3
50 612 6.4
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Shaft_design.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:31:36 AM

Drive Shafts
60 1058 10.6
75 2068 21.6
80 2510 26
100 4900 51.3
Notes on table values
q = The skin torsion stress of a solid round shaft : T= The torque transmitted by the shaft : T = q.D3/5.1
The table is based on a torsion stress level of 25 N/mm2
Power transmitted by a shaft P = 2 * pi * T * N (N = Revs /sec)
Table power based on pure torque values
Methods of Locking/Driving items on Shafts
Type Description Notes

Reliable method based on a machined keyway
in shaft and associated bore. Drive is via a fitted
key. Results in increased local intensified Keyways
KeyWay stresses. A machined keyway results in a
Splines
weaker shaft.(shaft dia. effectively reduced by
25%). Key can be deformed over time and result
is a loose drive
Circlips
Pin Very low cost option. Used for low torque drives.
Pins
Expensive to manufacture with matching spline
in shaft and bore. No additional components Keyways
Spline
required. Allow relative axial movement. High Splines
torque capacity.
A Tapered Bush that fits into a tapered bore in
the Gear/Coupling to be driven by the shaft. The
TaperLock
locking action results from forcing the bush into
Bush
the bore using axial screws. Tendency to stick in
position. Limited shaft range (up to 80mm dia)

Drive Shafts
Similar principles to taperlock bush but has

Shaft parallel bore and OD. More convenient to install.
Locking Much larger size range (up to 500mm dia).
Lock Bush These are relatively expensive but required no
special shaft machining.
Requires accurate shaft and bore. Machined
items are assembled using hydraulic press or
Interference
using thermal methods e.g. Heating the female
Fit
item or freezing the male item. Difficult to
separate
Low Cost. High torques can be transmitted. No
special machining of shaft or bore. Cannot easily
Adhesive Adhesives
be taken apart. Should not be used without
extensive development/testing
Hydraulic Similar application to locking bush. Large size
Locking range. Convenient to apply. No risk of sticking.
Bush Relatively expensive.
Links to Information
on designing shaft
suppliers and shaft
locking methods
1. MITCALC ..A
reasonably priced
Excel based software
package allowing
detailed shaft design
to European Codes- I
recommend this
software
2. Machine Design ..
University Of
Tennessee at Martin
lecture Notes: Lots of
useful information on
pdf files
3. Fenner Drives ..
Information On
Trantorque
4. Lenze ..Supplier of
Taperlock Bushes,
Shaft Bushes,
Hydraulic Locking
Bushes
5. OnSmartclickcom ..A
treasure trove of

Drive Shafts
notes on design of
machine elements
including shaft and
gearbox design
6. DANotes ..(U of W
australia) Very
informative ..Section
on Stress Strength
and Safety for shafts
7. Chapter 9 Shaft
Design ..(Colorado
School of Mines)
Excellent
downloadable
chapter of shaft
design.
8. Machine Components
Shafts, Keys and
Couplings ..(Caltech)
Powerpoint
Presentation ..Very
informative
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Drive_Index

Bearings
ROYMECH
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Drive_Index
Bearings
Any drive which includes a rotating shaft uses bearings to support and locate the shaft while still allowing rotation with minimum friction
Notes:
In table below only radial bearings are described. For most of the options listed, axial thrust bearing equivalents are available.
Additional information on bearings is to be found in the links below the table
Bearing Description Notes

Low cost bearing. Bearing made from alloy softer than shaft material.
Lubrication required or progressive wear will result. Low radial space
Plain
required. Smooth running. Bearing will always wear at start up and
Lubricated
stopping when oil film lubrication (hydrodynamic lubrication) is not
working. Length to Dia. ratio greater than 2 desirable. Plain
Plain bearing made from porous metal impregnated with lubricant. Will Bearing
Plain
run for long period (+4000 hours) before re-lubrication of bearing Mat'l
Porous
required. Methods of continuous re-lubrication available. Notes
Same as plain bearing but bearing is able to operate with no lubrication.
Based on either self lubricating material (PTFE) or on the transfer of solid
Plain Dry
lubricating film to shaft. This type of bearing more suitable for intermittent
use. There is no way to prevent progressive wear
This is a plain bearing with oil lubrication introduced under pressure. This
Plain bearing could operate for extremely long periods of time with no wear.
Hydrostatic Some bearings operating under a dual hydrodynamic/hydrostatic regime
by machining the bearings to be self pressurising. Very low friction.
Low cost standard geometry bearings with balls retained in annulus
between outer and inner race/rings. Very low starting friction. Can be
Deep
supplied with seals/shields and filled with grease. The bearing eliminates
Groove
the need for sleeves to protect the shaft form wear or damage. Relatively
Ball
large radial space needed. Very small axial space required. Can provide
both axial and radial location of shaft in housings
Same principle as ball bearings but with cylindrical rolling elements.
Cylinderical These are able to take much higher loads but can only resist support
(Rolling) loading in a direction radial to the rollers. Requires lubrication. Generally
used for large loads. No tolerance to angular deflection of shaft
Double row
Outer Race has spherical contoured bore. Bearings able to accept large
Spherical
angular displacement of shaft. High Capacity. Requires lubrication
(Rolling)
Taper Similar properties to cylindrical bearings but can accept a wider range of
(Rolling) loads. Lubrication required.
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Bearings
Rolling bearing based on small dia. needle bearings. Very low radial
Needle
space required. High radial capacity. Lower speed limits relative to ball
(Rolling)
bearings. Lubrication required.
Magnetic
Hi-Tech option requiring methods of monitoring the shaft position and
Levitation
controlling the magnetic forces
Bearings
Links to Bearing Design
1. MDMetric...Oilite bearings data sheet.

2. Beemer Precision...Oilite /Plain Bearing Information
3. Glacier...Glacier Plain/Dry/ Bearings ...
4. INA bearings ...Rolling Bearings..Excellent Design Tool
5. Timken ...Taper roller Bearings..American Bias but very good
6. SKF ...All types of bearings .. Excellent Design Tool
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Brakes
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Brakes
The purpose of a brake is to stop or slow down a moving mass generally by converting the kinetic energy into thermal energy using brake pads/
shoes/discs etc. The brake surface for friction brakes is made from a material with high coefficient of friction, high strength and good thermal
properties. The mass being retarded is generally a rotating inertial load and the brake material is attached to stationary members.
Brake Type
Brake Description Notes

Operates by the action of a fixed belt over a rotating cylindrical Band
Band
surface(drum). Action not harsh.
Works by bringing curved metal plates, lined with friction material
Drum (brake shoes) against an external or internal rotating cylindrical Drum
surface.
Disc brake consists of a disc rotating between two friction pads.
When the pads are forced together under hydraulic, pneumatic, Disk
Disc
electrical or magnetic action then the disc is very effectively
stopped.
Probably the first design of brake based on a shoe/block which is Block/
Block/Shoe forced against the outside of an rotating wheel. Ideally simple
Shoe
design visible on many old vehicles
A smooth progressive brake action resulting from rotating plates,
Fluid or vanes in a retained fluid. When the fluid is prevented from
flowing the viscous resistance retards the rotation.
This type of brake includes a fixed cylindrical enclosure housing a
coil wrapped around a fixed cylinder. Within the cylinder is a
cylindrical rotor mounted on the rotating shaft. The annulus
Magnetic
between the fixed cylinder and the rotor is filled with magnetic
Particle
particles. If there is no current in the coil the rotor is relatively free
to rotate. On applying a current the particles coalesce and
prevent relative movement.
Shafts driven by and electric motor often using regenerative
braking. When the power to the motor is removed. The motor
Electric effectively becomes a generator driven by the shaft. The shaft is
Regenerative slowed as the kinetic energy is converted into electical energy.
The recovered energy is often stored when used in electric
vehicles.
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Brakes
Links to Brake Design
1. RingSpann .Disc Brakes

2. Manufacturing..Article on Brakes /Clutches
3. Warner ..Brake /Clutch Information/Data sheets
4. Friction Components ..Brake /Clutch Information/Data sheets
5. Twiflex ..Brake /Clutch Information/Data sheets- Registration Required
6. Road vehicle braking Notes ..A useful informative set of notes
7. Clutches and Brakes .. A review of the different types of clutches and Brakes
8. Wichita Clutches & Brakes .. A supplier of Brakes and Clutches with downloadable data sheets
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Clutches
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Clutches
The purpose of a clutch is to initiate motion or increase the velocity of a mass generally by transferring kinetic energy from another moving item. The
mass being accelerated is generally a rotating inertial load . Using a friction type clutch the energy is generally transferred using surfaces lined with
friction material... Using a positive clutch the energy is transferred using interlocking teeth or projecting lugs. However magnetic force or fluid
viscosity is also used to transfer torque
Clutch Type
Clutch
Description Notes
type
Two types :single disc and multi disc. Discs generally have fabric Axial
linings on both sides to transmit torque from adjacent rotating discs
Plate Plate
when clamping forces are applied. Clamping force may be via
Clutch
springs.
The clutch drives between internal and external cones instead of
plates. The clutch is engaged when the inner cone(external) is forced
into the outer (internal) cone. The cone clutch utilises the wedging Cone
Cone
action of the parts to increase the normal force on the lining. Thus an Clutch
increase in the tangential friction and the torque results. The clutch
has improved thermal properties over a plate clutch .
If a conductor moves relative to magnetic field cutting the lines of
magnetic field then rings of currents are induced in the conductor
round the lines of the magnetic field. The induced currents generate
magnetic fields opposing the change i.e. try to stop the relative
motion.
Eddy
The eddy current clutch uses this principle by having an input rotating
Current
member which drives an output rotating member. One of which is a
magnet ( permanent or electromagnet)and the other is a conductor.
The torque transmitted is related to the intensity of eddy currents
which are set by the relative speed using permanent magnets or by
adjusting the flux field using using electromagnets.
A clutch in which projections on one part fit into recesses on the other
Dog part. This is a positive drive clutch. Old fashion design but very
simple
This type of clutch transfers torque using a viscous fluid in a
chamber. This system allows the speed on the driven side to
Fluid
progressively increase up to the speed of the driving side. Not very
good for sudden changes of load
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Clutches
This is basically an inner race and and outer race and the annulus
between is occupied by a number of sprags .The sprags are steel
blocks positioned and shaped such that if they will transmit power
from one race to the other by a wedging action in the driving
Sprag
direction. Rotation in the othe direction frees the sprags and the
clutch is disengaged. Either race can be the driver. This type of
clutch can be used to allow simple over-running, indexing, or back-
stopping.
Links to Clutch Design
1. Renold .Sprag Clutches

2. Emerson.. .. Morse Info on Clutches
3. Magnetictech .. Eddy Current Clutches
6. Twiflex .. Centrifugal Clutch Information/Data sheets- Registration Required
7. Clutches and Brakes .. A review of the different types of clutches and Brakes
8. Wichita Clutches & Brakes .. A supplier of Brakes and Clutches with downloadable data sheets
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Drive Couplings
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Drive couplings
A coupling is used to connect two in-line shafts to allow one shaft (driver) to drive the second shaft(driven) at the same speed. A coupling can be rigid
or, more normally, it can be flexible allowing relative radial, axial or angular movement of the two shafts. Unlike the clutch the coupling transmission is
not designed to engage-disengage as a normal operation
Coupling Type
Note: Pictures of all the coupling types are to be found at the referenced links below i.e Renolds
Coupling
Description
type
Flange locked onto each shaft. One flange with recess and the other
with matching spigot. Flanges bolted together to form rigid coupling
Rigid
with no tolerance for relative radial, angular or axial movement of the
shafts.
Long cylindrical coupling bored and keyed to fit over both shafts. Split
Muff
axially and clamped over both shafts with recessed bolts. Rigid
Coupling
coupling for transmitting high torques at high speeds
Single piece cylindrical coupling with a hole bored through it entire
Beam length. Each end bored to suite the relevant shaft. The helical slot is
Coupling machined in the coupling in the central region. The reduces the
coupling stiffness. The coupling is positive with some flexibility.
As rigid coupling but with no recess and spigot and the Bolts replaced
Pin
by pins with rubber bushes. Design allows certain flexibility.
As rigid coupling except that a thick rubber disc bonded between steel
Flexible
plates is located between the flanges. The plates are bolted to the
Rubber disc
adjacent coupling flanges.
Both half of the couplings have three shaped lugs . When the coupling
halves are fitted together the lugs on one half fit inside the spaces
between the lugs on the other side. A Rubber insert with six legs fits
Spider
within the spaces between the lugs. The drive is by the lugs
transmitting the torque through the rubber spider spacer... This
coupling is only used for low power drives.
Bibby The outer flanges of the two half couplings are serrated. A spring fits
Coupling into the serrations connecting the two halves.
Chain Flanges replaced a sprocket on each shaft. The coupling is by a
Coupling duplex chain wrapped over both adjacent coupling.
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Drive Couplings
Both coupling halves have a raised rim machined as an external gear.

The sleeve which couples the two shafts comprises two halves bolted
Gear
together, each half having a machine internal gear. This coupling
Coupling
requires lubrication. The coupling is capable of high speeds and high
power capacity.
Coupling halves connected via stainless steel diaphragms. High
Metastream speed high torque capability with good dynamic balance. Single
Coupling coupling will accommodate angular and radial misalignment and fitted
in pairs also allows lateral misalignment.
Based on both coupling halves having vanes within a housing
Fluid
containing viscous fluid. The rotation is transmitted from one side to
Coupling
the other via the viscous fluid. the coupling provides a soft start.
Coupling which allows large angle between drive halves(20-30o).
Generally based on a yoke mounted on each shaft . Between to yokes
Universal is mounted a trunnion cross. Needle bearings are used at the bearing
Coupling points between the cross and the yokes. These type or units are used
in pairs on carden shafts. Uses widely on rear wheel drive vehicle
propshafts
Simplest type of coupling which allows large angle between drive
halves. Each side of coupling includes protruding pins. The halves of
Universal
the coupling are fastened in a pivotting assembly. At all angles up to
Coupling-
Uni-Joint about 40o the pins interlock with each other and rotation on one half
forces the other half to rotate. Low power use only . Not smooth. Not
reliable. Really only suitable for remote manual operations.
Links to Drive Coupling Information
1. Couplings.An excellent site including seminar on couplings

2. Renold .Main UK coupling supplier
3. Emerson.. .. Morse a leading american coupling supplier.
4. Klauslaumayer. ..Catalogue illustrating full range of coupling types
5. Ruland ..Information on Beam Couplings
6. Rimtec ..American Company - Large Range of couplings with information
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Belt Drives
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Belt Drives
Introduction
A belt drive is a method of transferring rotary motion between two shafts. A belt drive includes one pulley on each shaft and one or more
continuous belts over the two pulleys. The motion of the driving pulley is, generally, transferred to the driven pulley via the friction between the belt
and the pulley. Synchronous/timing belts have teeth and therefore do not depend on friction. Belt drives and gear transmissions have a much
greater life expectancy than belt drives. Belt drives also have relatively high inspection and maintenance demands
Belt Drive advantages
● Easy, flexible equipment design, as tolerances are not important.

● Isolation from shock and vibration between driver and driven system.
● Driven shaft speed conveniently changed by changing pulley sizes.
● Belt drives require no lubrication.
● Maintenance is relatively convenient
● Very quiet compared to chain drives, and direct spur gear drives
For belt drives, other than synchronous drives, the belts will slip in a high overload event providing a certain measure of safety.
The belts transferring torque by surface friction need to be in tension. This results in the need for adjustable shaft centres or using tensioning
pulleys
Types of Belt Drives
Note: More details and pictures of all belt types below are to be found at the links below table
Belt Type Description Notes

Belt transfers torque by friction of the belt over a pulley. Needs
tensioner. Traction related to angle of contact of belt on pulley. Is Flat Belts
Flat
susceptible to slip. Belt made from leather, woven cotton, rubber,
balata.
Better torque transfer possible compared to flat belt. Generally
arranged with a number of matched vee belts to transmit power. Vee Belts
Vee
Smooth and reliable. Made from hi-text woven textiles, polyurethane,
etc.
Belt is flat on outside and Vee Grooved along the inside. Combines
Poly-Vee advantages of high traction of the Vee belt and the use of only one
belt.
Belt toothed on the inside driving via grooved pulleys. This enables
Timing/ positive drive. Limited power capacity compared to chain and Vee belt Timing
Synchronous derivatives. Does not require lubrication. Extensively used in low Belts
power applications
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Belt Drives
Linked belts that can be used in place of vee belts. Advantage that the
Vee Link
length can be adjusted and the belt can be easily installed with
Belts
removing pulleys. Expensive and limited load capacity.
Links to Belt Design
1. Co_Design ..Notes and information on Belt Drives

2. Fenner .urethane Vee Belts etc
3. Emerson.. .. Morse A leading American Vee Belt and Timing Belt
4. Lathes . co. ..Notes on Flat Belting and Vee link belting
5. Gates Rubber.. ..Gates Rubber catalogue with info on timing belts vee belts etc
6. Drive comparison..A download paper comparing different belt drive options with chain drives
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Chain Drives
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Chain Drives
A chain is a method of transferring rotary motion between two parallel shafts. The chain drive is positive, efficient and high torques can be
transmitted. The chain is generally made from steel although plastic chains have been developed
Types Of Chain Drives
Chain
Description Notes
Type
Motion transmitted using shaft mounted sprockets. Simplex chain
consists of length of single links, duplex is length of double links, triplex is Roller
Roller
length of triple links. Chain drives should ideally be lubricated and Chain
Chain
regularly clean . However experience shows that this drive method will Notes
work for long periods without lubrication or maintenance
Also called silent. Motion transferred via shaft mounted pinions (similar to
Inverted gear wheels.) Higher power power capacities, higher speeds and
Tooth smoother operation. These drive method definitely requires lubrication.
(Oil bath, or spray.)
Leaf These chains are used for lifting loads and do not involve tooth sprockets
Chains or gear wheels. They are used on fork lift trucks an machine tools
Links to Chain Design
1. ustsubaki ...Contains "Chain Reference Guide"..Reviews all types of Chain in some detail
2. Renold ....Main UK Chain supplier
3. Emerson.. ...Morse A leading american Chain supplier
4. BGA...Notes on relevant Codes of Practice
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Shaft Seals

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Seals
A More Detailed Review of Seals on this site ...Seals Index
A rotating shaft often transmits rotary motion through a wall and the two sides of the wall have to be isolated from each other. A rotary
seal is used to provide the necessary isolation. A seal is generally used to prevent the leakage of a fluid from one side of a containing
wall to the other
Types Of Seals
Seal Type Description

Used very rarely and then on very slow rotation /oscillation.
O- Ring
Low Cost
Widely used for shaft sealing. Seal and shaft wear likely over
Lip Seal
time. Used extensively throughout engineering industry
Labyrinth No friction or shaft wear. Leakage can take place when there
Seal is no shaft rotation
Widely used. When correctly installed seal is very reliable an
Mechanical can seal at high pressures and speeds. Leakage can occur
Seal when shaft is stationary. This seal has many design variations
many of which are complicated.
Gland Low Cost and reliable. Requires regular maintenance and
Packing adjustment.
Very novel seal design. Uses fluid with metallic particles.
Magnetic
Used for high sealing levels at high speeds at low dp( 0.5 bar
Fluid
and less)
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Shaft Seals
Shaft Seal
References
1. Packed
Stuffing Boxes
and
Mechanical
Seals A
detailed
description of
the seal types
2. Chicago
RawHide
Shaft Seal
Basics
3. Ferrofluidics
Magnetic Fluid
Seal
4. James Walker
Well known
UK Supplier
5. Garlock A
supplier of a
wide range of
seal products
6. Supaseal -
Lots of
information
and seal
dimensions
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Drive Motors
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Drive Motors
Most machines require a prime mover to initiate motion by transferring energy from one form to kinetic energy of a drive shaft. The source energy
may be electrical, Hydraulic, Pneumatic, chemical, steam etc etc. This is named the drive on this page
Types Of Drives
Note: More details and pictures of all motor types below are to be found at the links below table
Drive Type Description

3-phase Used for the majority of industrial drives. With a 50Hz supply synchronous =
AC-Electric 3000RPM/ Number of pole pairs. Inverter controls have enabled low cost speed
Induction control.
DC- Electric
Small,compact. More expensive than AC drives. Accurate speed control
Permanent
possible. Used mostly for speciality application.
magnet
Generic name for motors designed for accurate speed and/or position control.
Servo Speed measurement used to enable accurate speed control. Requires special
control circuit.
One pulse from a digital device creates one step (an incremental shaft rotation)
of the motor. Very accurate control of speed and position. A stepper motor
Stepper
system does not need any type of feedback device to control position, which
brings down the system price.
Compact drives providing high torques and a wide speed range. Close control of
speed possible. Driven by high pressure hydraulic oil circulation (210 bar +).
Hydraulic
External power pack required. Used extensively in industry and for heavy duty
Motor
vehicles, JCB, Earthmovers etc. Variations include piston, vane, gear etc.
Hydraulic motor is similar to a hydraulic pump
Small high speed drive system (3000 RPM +). Requires pressurised air supply.
Pneumatic
(about 7 bar). Poor control of speed and torque. Generally fitted with gear
Motor
reducers. Mostly used for hand tools.
Petrol/Diesel High speed, high power, noisy, polluting. Mainly used for driving cars/vehicles
I.C Engine and tools. Overall probably the most widely used drive.
Steam
First industrial drive. Now used for more specialised application.
Engine
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Drive Motors
Links to Motors
1. Information / Dimensions of metric Motors ..Metric Motors

2. General Information on Range of Electric Motors AC/DC etc ..Reliance
3. Wide range of supplier information and tutorials on drive systems ..MotionNet
4. All the information on Electric Motors and Gearboxes you will need ..SEW Eurodrive
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Spur Gears
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Gears Gearboxes
Spur Gears
The notes below relate to spur gears. Notes specific to helical gears are included on a separate
page Helical Gears
Introduction
Gears are machine elements used to transmit rotary motion between two shafts, normally with a
constant ratio. The pinion is the smallest gear and the larger gear is called the gear wheel.. A
rack is a rectangular prism with gear teeth machined along one side- it is in effect a gear wheel with
an inifinite pitch circle diameter. In practice the action of gears in transmitting motion is a cam
action each pair of mating teeth acting as cams. Gear design has evolved to such a level that
throughout the motion of each contacting pair of teeth the velocity ratio of the gears is maintained
fixed and the velocity ratio is still fixed as each subsequent pair of teeth come into contact. When
the teeth action is such that the driving tooth moving at constant angular velocity produces a
proportional constant velocity of the driven tooth the action is termed a conjugate action. The teeth
shape universally selected for the gear teeth is the involute profile.
Consider one end of a piece of string is fasted to the OD of one cylinder and the other end of the
string is fastened to the OD of another cylinder parallel to the first and both cylinder are rotated in
the opposite directions to tension the string(see figure below). The point on the string midway
between the cylinder P is marked. As the left hand cylinder rotates CCW the point moves towards
this cylinder as it wraps on . The point moves away from the right hand cylinder as the string
unwraps. The point traces the involute form of the gear teeth.
The lines normal to the point of contact of the gears always intersects the centre line joining the
gear centres at one point called the pitch point. For each gear the circle passing through the pitch
point is called the pitch circle. The gear ratio is proportional to the diameters of the two pitch
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Spur Gears
circles. For metric gears (as adopted by most of the worlds nations) the gear proportions are based
on the module
m = (Pitch Circle Diameter(mm)) / (Number of teeth on gear).
In the USA the module is not used and instead the Diametrical Pitch is used
dp = (Number of Teeth) / Diametrical Pitch (inches)
Profile of a standard 1mm module gear teeth for a gear with Infinite radius (Rack ).
Other module teeth profiles are directly proportion . e.g. 2mm module teeth are 2 x this profile
Many gears trains are very low power applications with an object of transmitting motion with minium
torque e.g. watch and clock mechanisms, instruments, toys, music boxes etc. These applications do
not require detailed strength calculations.
Standards
● AGMA 2001-C95 or AGMA-2101-C95 Fundamental Rating factors and Calculation Methods for involute Spur Gear and Helical
Gear Teeth
● BS 436-4:1996, ISO 1328-1:1995..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values of deviations relevant to corresponding
flanks of gear teeth
BS 436-5:1997, ISO 1328-2:1997..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values of deviations relevant to radial
composite deviations and runout information
BS ISO 6336-1:1996 ..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Basic principles, introduction and general influence
factors
BS ISO 6336-2:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Calculation of surface durability (pitting)
BS ISO 6336-3:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Calculation of tooth bending strength
BS ISO 6336-5:2003..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Strength and quality of materials
If it is necessary to design a gearbox from scratch the design process in selecting the gear size is
not complicated - the various design formulea have all been developed over time and are available
in the relevant standards. However significant effort, judgement and expertise is required in
designing the whole system including the gears, shafts , bearings, gearbox, lubrication. For the
same duty many different gear options are available for the type of gear , the materials and the
quality. It is always preferable to procure gearboxes from specialised gearbox manufacturers

Spur Gears
Terminology - spur gears
● Diametral pitch...... The number of teeth per one inch of pitch circle diameter.
● Module. ...... The length, in mm, of the pitch circle diameter per tooth.
● Circular pitch...... The distance between adjacent teeth measured along the are at the pitch circle diameter
● Addendum...... The height of the tooth above the pitch circle diameter.
● Centre distance...... The distance between the axes of two gears in mesh.
● Circular tooth thickness...... The width of a tooth measured along the are at the pitch circle diameter.
● Dedendum...... The depth of the tooth below the pitch circle diameter.
● Outside diameter...... The outside diameter of the gear.
● Base Circle diameter...... The diameter on which the involute teeth profile is based.
● Pitch circle dia...... The diameter of the pitch circle.
● Pitch point...... The point at which the pitch circle diameters of two gears in mesh coincide.
● Pitch to back...... The distance on a rack between the pitch circle diameter line and the rear face of the rack.
● Pressure angle...... The angle between the tooth profile at the pitch circle diameter and a radial line passing through the same
point.
● Whole depth...... The total depth of the space between adjacent teeth.

Spur Gears
Spur Gear Design
The spur gear is is simplest type of gear manufactured and is generally used for transmission of
rotary motion between parallel shafts. The spur gear is the first choice option for gears except when
high speeds, loads, and ratios direct towards other options. Other gear types may also be preferred
to provide more silent low-vibration operation. A single spur gear is generally selected to have a
ratio range of between 1:1 and 1:6 with a pitch line velocity up to 25 m/s. The spur gear has an
operating efficiency of 98-99%. The pinion is made from a harder material than the wheel. A gear
pair should be selected to have the highest number of teeth consistent with a suitable safety margin
in strength and wear. The minimum number of teeth on a gear with a normal pressure angle of 20
desgrees is 18.
The preferred number of teeth are as follows

12 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 25 28 30 32 34 38
40 45 50 54 60
64 70 72 75 80 84 90 96 100 120 140 150 180
200 220 250
Materials used for gears
Mild steel is a poor material for gears as as it has poor resistance to surface loading. The carbon
content for unhardened gears is generally 0.4%(min) with 0.55%(min) carbon for the
pinions. Dissimilar materials should be used for the meshing gears - this particularly applies to alloy
steels. Alloy steels have superior fatigue properties compared to carbon steels for comparable
strengths. For extremely high gear loading case hardened steels are used the surface hardening
method employed should be such to provide sufficient case depth for the final grinding process
used.
Material Notes applications

Ferrous metals
Large
Low Cost easy to moderate
Cast Iron machine with high power,
damping commercial
gears
Power gears
with medium
Low cost, reasonable
Cast Steels rating to
strength
commercial
quality

Spur Gears
Power gears
with medium
Good machining, can be
Plain-Carbon Steels rating to
heat treated
commercial/
medium quality
Highest power
Heat Treatable to requirement.
Alloy Steels provide highest strength For precision
and durability and high
precisiont
Corrosion
resistance with
Good corrosion
Stainless Steels (Aust) low power
resistance. Non-magnetic
ratings. Up to
precision quality
Low to medium
Hardenable, Reasonable power ratings
Stainless Steels (Mart) corrosion resistance, Up to high
magnetic precision levels
of quality
Non-Ferrous metals
Light duty
Light weight, non- instrument
Aluminium alloys corrosive and good gears up to
machinability high precision
quality
low cost
commercial
Low cost, non-corrosive, quality gears.
Brass alloys
excellent machinability Quality up to
medium
precision
For use with
Excellent machinability, steel power
Bronze alloys low friction and good gears. Quality
compatability with steel up to high
precision
Ligh weight low
load gears.
Light weight with poor
Magnesium alloys Quality up to
corrosion resistance
medium
precision

Spur Gears
Special gears
Low coefficient of for thermal
Nickel alloys thermal expansion. Poor applications to
machinability commercial
quality
Special light
High strength, for low weight high
Titanium alloys weight, good corrosion strength gears
resistance to medium
precision
High
production, low
Low cost with low
Di-cast alloys quality gears to
precision and strength
commercial
quality
High
production, low
Low cost, low quality, quality to
Sintered powder alloys
moderate strength moderate
commercial
quality
Non metals
Long life , low
Wear resistant, low load bearings
Acetal (Delrin
water absorbtion to commercial
quality
High
production, low
Low cost, low quality, quality to
Phenolic laminates
moderate strength moderate
commercial
quality
Long life at low
No lubrication, no loads to
Nylons
lubricant, absorbs water commercial
quality
Special low
Low friction and no friction gears to
PTFE
lubrication commercial
quality
Equations for basic gear relationships

Spur Gears
It is acceptable to marginally modify these relationships e.g to modify the addendum /dedendum to
allow Centre Distance adjustments. Any changes modifications will affect the gear performance in
good and bad ways...
Addendum h a = m = 0.3183 p
Base Circle diameter Db = d.cos α
Centre distance a = ( d g + d p) / 2
Circular pitch p = m.π
Circular tooth thickness ctt = p/2
Dedendum h f = h - a = 1,25m = 0,3979 p
Module m = d /n
Number of teeth z = d /m
Outside diameter D o = (z + 2) x m
d = n . m ... (d g = gear & d p =
Pitch circle diameter
pinion )
Whole depth(min) h = 2.25 . m
Top land width(min) t o = 0,25 . m
Module (m)
The module is the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth. The unit of the module is milli-
metres.Below is a diagram showing the relative size of teeth machined in a rack with module
ranging from module values of 0,5 mm to 6 mm
The preferred module values are
0,5 0,8 1 1,25 1,5 2,5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50
Normal Pressure angle α

An important variable affecting the geometry of the gear teeth is the normal pressure angle. This is
generally standardised at 20o. Other pressure angles should be used only for special reasons and
using considered judgment. The following changes result from increasing the pressure angle

Spur Gears
● Reduction in the danger of undercutting and interference

● Reduction of slipping speeds
● Increased loading capacity in contact, seizure and wear
● Increased rigidity of the toothing
● Increased noise and radial forces
Gears required to have low noise levels have pressure angles 15o to17.5o
Contact Ratio
The gear design is such that when in mesh the rotating gears have more than one gear in contact
and transferring the torque for some of the time. This property is called the contact ratio. This is a
ratio of the length of the line-of-action to the base pitch. The higher the contact ratio the more the
load is shared between teeth. It is good practice to maintain a contact ratio of 1.2 or greater. Under
no circumstances should the ratio drop below 1.1
A contact ratio between 1 and 2 means that part of the time two pairs of teeth are in contact and
during the remaining time one pair is in contact. A ratio between 2 and 3 means 2 or 3 pairs of
teeth are always in contact. Such as high contact ratio generally is not obtained with external spur
gears, but can be developed in the meshing of an internal and external spur gear pair or specially
designed non-standard external spur gears.
(Rgo2 - Rgb2 )1/2 - (Rpo2 - Rpb2 )1/2 - a sin α

contact ratio m =
p cos α
Rgo = Dgo /2..Radius of Outside Dia of Gear

Rgb = Dgb / 2..Radius of Base Dia of Gear
Rpo = Dpo / 2..Radius of Outside Dia of Pinion
Rpb = Dpb / 2..Radius of Base Dia of Pinion
p = circular pitch.
a = ( d g+ d p )/2 = center distance.
Spur gear Forces, torques, velocities & Powers
● F = tooth force between contacting teeth (at angle pressure angle α to pitch line tangent. (N)
● F t = tangential component of tooth force (N)
● F s = Separating component of tooth force
● α= Pressure angle
● d 1 = Pitch Circle Dia -driving gear (m)
● d 2 = Pitch Circle Dia -driven gear (m)
● ω 1 = Angular velocity of driver gear (Rads/s)
● ω 2 = Angular velocity of driven gear (Rads/s)

Spur Gears
● z 1 = Number of teeth on driver gear

● z 2 = Number of teeth on driven gear
● P = power transmitted (Watts)
● M = torque (Nm)
● η = efficiency
Tangential force on gears F t = F cos α
Separating force on gears F s = F t tan α
Torque on driver gear T 1 = F t d 1 / 2
Torque on driver gear T 2 = F t d 2 / 2
Speed Ratio =ω 1 / ω 2 = d 2 / d 1 = z 2 /z 1
Input Power P 1 = T1 .ω 1
Output Power P 2 =η.T 1 .ω 2
Spur gear Strength and durability calculations

Designing spur gears is normally done in accordance with standards the two most popular series
are listed under standards above: The notes below relate to approximate methods for estimating
gear strengths. The methods are really only useful for first approximations and/or selection of stock
gears (ref links below). — Detailed design of spur and helical gears is best completed using the
standards. Books are available providing the necessary guidance. Software is also available
making the process very easy. A very reasonably priced and easy to use package is included in
the links below (Mitcalc.com)
The determination of the capacity of gears to transfer the required torque for the desired operating
life is completed by determining the strength of the gear teeth in bending and also the durability i.e
of the teeth ( resistance to wearing/bearing/scuffing loads ) .. The equations below are based on
methods used by Buckingham..
Bending
The basic bending stress for gear teeth is obtained by using the Lewis formula
σ = Ft / ( ba. m. Y )

Spur Gears
● F t = Tangential force on tooth

● σ = Tooth Bending stress (MPa)
● b a = Face width (mm)
● Y = Lewis Form Factor
● m = Module (mm)
When a gear wheel is rotating the gear teeth come into contact with some degree of impact. To
allow for this a velocity factor is introduced into the equation. This is given by the Barth equation
for milled profile gears.
K v = 6,1 / (6,1 +V )
V = the pitch line velocity = d.ω/2

Note: This factor is different for different gear conditions i.e K v = ( 3.05 + V )/3.05 for cast iron, cast
profile gears.
The Lewis formula is thus modified as follows
σ = K v.Ft / ( ba. m. Y )
Surface Durability
This calculation involves determining the contact stress between the gear teeth and uses the Herz
Formula
σ w = 2.F / ( π .b .l )
σ w = largest surface pressure

F = force pressing the two cylinders (gears) together
l = length of the cylinders (gear)
b = halfwidth =
d 1 ,d 2 Are the diameters of the two contacting cylinders.

ν 1 ν 2 Poisson ration of the two gear materials
E 1 ,E 2 Are the Young's Modulus Values for the two gears
To arrive at the formula used for gear calculations the following changes are made
F is replaced by Ft/ cos α

Spur Gears
d is replaced by 2.r
l is replaced by W
The velocity factor Kv as described above is introduced.
Also an elastic constant ZE is created
When the value of E used is in MPa then the units of Cp are √MPa = KPa The resulting formula for
the compressive stress developed is as shown below
The dynamic contact stress χc developed by the transmitted torque must be less than the allowable
contact stress Se...
Note: Values for Allowable stress values Se and ZE for some materials are provided at Gear Table
r1 = d1 sin α /2
r2 = d2 sin α /2
Important Note: The above equations do not take into account the various factors which are integral
to calculations completed using the relevant standards. These equations therefore yield results
suitable for first estimate design purposes only...
To select gears from a stock gear catalogue or do a first approximation for a gear design select the
gear material and obtain a safe working stress e.g Yield stress / Factor of Safety. /Safe fatigue
stress
● Determine the input speed, output speed, ratio, torque to be transmitted

● Select materials for the gears (pinion is more highly loaded than gear)
● Determine safe working stresses (uts /factor of safety or yield stress/factor of safety or Fatigue strength / Factor of safety )
● Determine Allowable endurance Stress Se
● Select a module value and determine the resulting geometry of the gear
● Use the lewis formula and the endurance formula to establish the resulting face width
● If the gear proportions are reasonable then - proceed to more detailed evaluations
● If the resulting face width is excessive - change the module or material or both and start again
The gear face width should be selected in the range 9-15 x module or for straight spur gears-up to
60% of the pinion diameter.

Spur Gears
Lewis form factor.

Note:For spur gear subject to tip loading. the table below does not apply for mid tooth loading used
for less conservative calculations.
Lewis Form factor for Teeth profile α = 20o , addendum = m, dedendum = 1.25m
Number Number Number Number Number
Y Y Y Y Y
of teeth of teeth of teeth of teeth of teeth
12 0.245 17 0.303 22 0.331 34 0.371 75 0.435
13 0.261 18 0.309 24 0.337 38 0.384 100 0.447
14 0.277 19 0.314 26 0.346 45 0.401 150 0.460
15 0.290 20 0.322 28 0.353 50 0.409 300 0.472
16 0.296 21 0.328 30 0.359 60 0.422 Rack 0.485
Internal Gears
Advantages:
1. Geometry ideal for epicyclic gear design

2. Allows compact design since the center distance is less than for external gears.
3. A high contact ratio is possible.
4. Good surface endurance due to a convex profile surface working against a concave surface.
Disadvantages:
1. Housing and bearing supports are more complicated, because the external gear nests within the internal gear.
2. Low ratios are unsuitable and in many cases impossible because of interferences.
3. Fabrication is limited to the shaper generating process, and usually special tooling is required.

Spur Gears

6. Quality Transmission Components...Supplier with downloadable Gear Design Handbook
7. Stock Drive Products= Sterling Instruments...Supplier with large quantity of downloadable drive information
8. Mitcalc...Excel based software including coded gear design
9. Lenze...Drive system supplier with geared motor section
10. Davall Gears...UK Supplier of stock gears and gearboxes
11. Meffett gears...UK Supplier of stock gears and gearboxes
12. Gear Design Lecture Notes...Plymouth.ac.uk - Useful Notes on gear strength design
13. Gear Stress (PDF)...A very useful downloadable paper based on AGMA standards for gear design
14. How to specify and choose gears...SEED Co-design very useful guide
15. DR Gears...One stop resource for gear manufacturers
16. KHK Gears...Gear Supplier with downloads and information
Home
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Spur Gears

Helical Gears
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Helical Gears
Introduction
Helical gears are similar to spur gears except that the gears teeth are at and angle with the axis of
the gears. A helical gear is termed right handed or left hand as determined by the direction the
teeth slopes away from the viewer looking at the top gear surface along the axis of the gear.
( Alternatively if a gear rest on its face the hand is the direction of slope of the teeth) . Meshing
helical gears must be of opposite hand. Meshed helical gears can be at and angle to each other (up
to 90o ). The helical gear provides a smoother mesh and can be operated at greater speeds than a
straight spur gear. In operatation helical gears generate axial shaft forces in addition to the radial
shaft force generated by normal spur gears.
In operation the initial tooth contact of a helical gear is a point which develops into a full line contact
as the gear rotates. This is a smoother cycle than a spur which has an initial line contact. Spur
gears are generally not run at peripheral speed of more than 10m/s. Helical gears can be run at
speed exceeding 50m/s when accurately machined and balanced.
Standards ... The same standards apply to helical gears as for spur gears
● AGMA 2001-C95 or AGMA-2101-C95 Fundamental Rating factors and Calculation Methods for involute Spur Gear and Helical
Gear Teeth
● BS 436-4:1996, ISO 1328-1:1995..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values of deviations relevant to corresponding
flanks of gear teeth
BS 436-5:1997, ISO 1328-2:1997..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values of deviations relevant to radial
composite deviations and runout information
BS ISO 6336-1:1996 ..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Basic principles, introduction and general influence
factors
BS ISO 6336-2:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Calculation of surface durability (pitting)
BS ISO 6336-3:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Calculation of tooth bending strength
BS ISO 6336-5:2003..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Strength and quality of materials
Helical gear parameters
A helical gear train with parallel axes is very similar to a spur gear with the same tooth profile and
proportions. The primary difference is that the teeth are machined at am angle to the gear axis.
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Helical Gears
Helix Angle ..
The helix angle of helical gears β is generally selected from the range 6,8,10,12,15,20 degrees. The
larger the angle the smoother the motion and the higher speed possible however the thrust loadings
on the supporting bearings also increases. In case of a double or herringbone gear β values
25,30,35,40 degrees can also be used. This large angles can be used because the side thrusts on
the two sets of teeth cancel each other allowing larger angles with no penalty
Pitch /module ..
For helical gears the circular pitch is measured in two ways
The traverse circular pitch (p) is the same as for spur gears and is measured along the pitch circle
The normal circular pitch p n is measured normal to the helix of the gear.
The diametrical pitch is the same as for spur gears ... P = z g /dg = z p /d p ....d= pitch circle dia
(inches).
The module is the same as for spur gears ... m = dg/z g = d p/z p.... d = pitch circle dia (mm).
Helical Gear geometrical proportions
● p = Circular pitch = d g. π / z g = d p. π / z p
● p n = Normal circular pitch = p .cosβ
● P n =Normal diametrical pitch = P /cosβ
● p x = Axial pitch = p c /tanβ
● m n =Normal module = m / cosβ
● α n = Normal pressure angle = tan -1 ( tanα.cos β )
● d g = Pitch diameter gear = z g. m
● d p = Pitch diameter pinion = z p. m
● a =Center distance = ( z p + z g )* m n /2 cos β
● a a = Addendum = m
● a f =Dedendum = 1.25*m
● b = Face width of narrowest gear
Herringbone / double crossed helical gears

Helical Gears
Crossed Helical Gears

When two helical gears are used to transmit power between non parallel, non-interesecting shafts,
they are generally called crossed helical gears. These are simply normal helical gears with non-
parallel shafts. For crossed helical gears to operate successfully they must have the same
pressure angle and the same normal pitch. They need not have the same helix angle and they do
not need to be opposite hand. The contact is nor a good line contact as for parallel helical gears
and is often little more than a point contact. Running in crossed helical gears tend to marginally
improve to area of contact.
The relationship between the shaft angles Ε and the helix angles β 1 & β2 is as follows
Ε = (Same Helix Angle) β 1 + β 2 ......(Opposite Helix Angle) β 1 - β 2
For gears with a 90o crossed axis it is obvious that the gears must be the same hand.
The centres distance (a) between crossed helical gears is calculated as follows
a = m * [(z 1 / cos β 1) + ( z 1 / cos β 1 )] / 2

Helical Gears
The sliding velocity Vsof crossed helical gears is given by
Vs = (V1 / cos β 1 ) = (V 2 / cos β 2 )
Strength and Durability calculations for Helical Gear Teeth

Designing helical gears is normally done in accordance with standards the two most popular series
are listed under standards above: The notes below relate to approximate methods for estimating
gear strengths. The methods are really only useful for first approximations and/or selection of stock
gears (ref links below). — Detailed design of spur and helical gears should best be completed using
the standards. Books are available providing the necessary guidance. Software is also available
making the process very easy. A very reasonably priced and easy to use package is included in the
links below (Mitcalc.com)
The determination of the capacity of gears to transfer the required torque for the desired operating
life is completed by determining the strength of the gear teeth in bending and also the durability i.e
of the teeth ( resistance to wearing/bearing/scuffing loads ) .. The equations below are based on
methods used by Buckingham..
Bending
The Lewis formula for spur gears can be applied to helical gears with minor adjustments to provide
an initial conservative estimate of gear strength in bending. This equation should only be used for
first estimates.
σ = Fb / ( ba. m. Y )
● Fb = Normal force on tooth = Tangential Force Ft / cos β

● ba = Face width (mm)
● m = Module (mm)
When a gear wheel is rotating the gear teeth come into contact with some degree of impact. To
allow for this a velocity factor is introduced into the equation. This is given by the Barth equation
for milled profile gears.
K v = 6,1 / (6,1 + V )
V = the pitch line velocity = PCD.ω/2
The Lewis formula is thus modified as follows
σ = Fb / (K v. ba. m. Y )
The Lewis form factor Y must be determined for the virtual number of teeth z' = z /cos3β The

Helical Gears
bending stress resulting should be less than the allowable bending stress Sb for the gear material
under consideration. Some sample values are provide on this page ef Gear Strength Values
Surface Strength
The allowable gear force from surface durability considerations is determined approximately using
the simple equation as follows
Fw = K v d p b a Q K / cos2β
Q = 2. dg /( dp + dp ) = 2.zg /( zp +zp )
Fw = The allowable gear load. (MPa)
K = Gear Wear Load Factor (MPa) obtained by look up ref Gear Strength Values
Lewis Form factor for Teeth profile α = 20o , addendum = m, dedendum = 1.25m
Number Number Number Number Number
Y Y Y Y Y
of teeth of teeth of teeth of teeth of teeth
12 0.245 17 0.303 22 0.331 34 0.371 75 0.435
13 0.261 18 0.309 24 0.337 38 0.384 100 0.447
14 0.277 19 0.314 26 0.346 45 0.401 150 0.460
15 0.290 20 0.322 28 0.353 50 0.409 300 0.472
16 0.296 21 0.328 30 0.359 60 0.422 Rack 0.485

8. Mitcalc...Excel based software including coded gear design
10. Artec Toothing Design...A number of short papers including on gears including helical gear teeth
11. QTC helical gears...A number of helical gear specifications
12. Direct gear design for spur and helical gears...A paper providing a alternative approach to gear design

Helical Gears
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Worm Gears
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Worm Gears
Introduction..... Nomenclature..... Design Parameters..... Specifications..... Worm Gear Profiles..... Materials..... Design Process.....
Thermal Design..... Worm Gear Formulue..... Friction Factors..... Strength Design to BS721..... Strength Design to AGMA.....
Introduction
A worm gear is used when a large speed reduction ratio is required between crossed axis shafts which
do not intersect. A basic helical gear can be used but the power which can be transmitted is low. A
worm drive consists of a large diameter worm wheel with a worm screw meshing with teeth on the
periphery of the worm wheel. The worm is similar to a screw and the worm wheel is similar to a section
of a nut. As the worm is rotated the wormwheel is caused to rotate due to the screw like action of the
worm. The size of the worm gearset is generally based on the centre distance between the worm and
the wormwheel.
If the worm gears are machined basically as crossed helical gears the result is a highly stress point
contact gear. However normally the wormwheel is cut with a concave as opposed to a straight width.
This is called a single envelope worm gearset. If the worm is machined with a concave profile to
effectively wrap around the wormwheel the gearset is called a double enveloping worm gearset and has
the highest power capacity for the size. Single enveloping gearsets require accurate alignment of the
worm-wheel to ensure full line tooth contact. Double enveloping gearsets require accurate alignment of
both the worm and the wormwheel to obtain maximum face contact.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Worm_Gears.html (1 of 17)10/24/2006 11:32:41 AM

Worm Gears
The worm is shown with the worm above the wormwheel. The gearset can also be arranged with the
worm below the wormwheel. Other alignments are used less frequently.
Nomenclature
As can be seen in the above view a section through the axis of the worm and the centre of the gear
shows that , at this plane, the meshing teeth and thread section is similar to a spur gear and has the
same features
α n = Normal pressure angle = 20o as standard

γ = Worm lead angle = (180 /π ) tan-1 (z 1 / q)(deg) ..Note: for α n= 20o γ should be less than 25o
b a = Effective face width of worm wheel. About 2.m √ (q +1) (mm)
b l = Length of worm wheel. About 14.m. (mm)
c = clearance c min = 0,2.m cos γ , c max = 0,25.m cos γ (mm)
d 1 = Ref dia of worm (Pitch dia of worm (m)) = q.m (mm)
d a.1 = Tip diameter of worm = d 1 + 2.h a.1 (mm)
d 2 = Ref dia of worm wheel (Pitch dia of wormwheel) =( p x.z/π ) = 2.a - d 1 (mm)
d a.2 = Tip dia worm wheel (mm)
h a.1 = Worm Thread addendum = m (mm)
h f.1 = Worm Thread dedendum , min = m.(2,2 cos γ - 1 ) , max = m.(2,25 cos γ - 1 )(mm)

Worm Gears
m = Axial module = p x /π (mm)

m n = Normal module = m cos γ(mm)
M 1 = Worm torque (Nm)
M 2 = Worm wheel torque (Nm)
n 1 = Rotational speed of worm (revs /min)
n 2 = Rotational speed of wormwheel (revs /min)
p x = Axial pitch of of worm threads and circular pitch of wheel teeth ..the pitch between adjacent
threads = π. m. (mm)
p n = Normal pitch of of worm threads and gear teeth (m)
q = diameter factor selected from (6 6,5 7 7,5 8 8,5 9 10 11 12 13 14 17 20 )
p z = Lead of worm = p x. z 1 (mm).. Distance the thread advances in one rev'n of the worm. For a 2-
start worm the lead = 2 . p x
R g = Reduction Ratio
q = Worm diameter factor = d 1 / m - (Allows module to be applied to worm )
μ = coefficient of friction
η= Efficiency
Vs = Worm-gear sliding velocity ( m/s) z 1 = Number of threads (starts) on worm
z 2 = Number of teeth on wormwheel

Worm Gears
Worm gear design parameters

Worm gears provide a normal single reduction range of 5:1 to 75-1. The pitch line velocity is ideally up
to 30 m/s. The efficiency of a worm gear ranges from 98% for the lowest ratios to 20% for the highest
ratios. As the frictional heat generation is generally high the worm box is designed disperse heat to the
surroundings and lubrication is and essential requirement. Worm gears are quiet in operation. Worm
gears at the higher ratios are inherently self locking - the worm can drive the gear but the gear cannot
drive the worm. A worm gear can provide a 50:1 speed reduction but not a 1:50 speed increase....(In
practice a worm should not be used a braking device for safety linked systems e.g hoists. . Some
material and operating conditions can result in a wormgear backsliding )
The worm gear action is a sliding action which results in significant frictional losses. The ideal
combination of gear materials is for a case hardened alloy steel worm (ground finished) with a phosphor
bronze gear. Other combinations are used for gears with comparatively light loads.
Specifications
BS721 Pt2 1983 Specification for worm gearing — Metric units.
This standard is current (2004) and provides information on tooth form, dimensions of gearing,
tolerances for four classes of gears according to function and accuracy, calculation of load capacity and
information to be given on drawings.
Worm teeth Profile
The sketch below shows the normal (not axial) worm tooth profile as indicated in BS 721-2 for unit
module (m = 1mm) other module teeth are in proportion e.g. 2mm module teeth are 2 times larger

Worm Gears
Materials used for gears
Material Notes applications

Worm
Toys, domestic appliances,
Acetal / Nylon Low Cost, low duty
instruments
Excellent machinability, Used infrequently in modern
Cast Iron
medium friction. machinery
Power gears with medium
Carbon Steel Low cost, reasonable strength
rating.
Power gears with high rating
Hardened Steel High strength, good durability
for extended life
Wormwheel
Toys, domestic appliances,
Acetal /Nylon Low Cost, low duty
instruments
Reasonable strength, low Normal material for worm
Phos Bronze friction and good compatibility gears with reasonable
with steel efficiency
Excellent machinability, Used infrequently in modern
Cast Iron
medium friction. machinery
Design of a Worm Gear

The following notes relate to the principles in BS 721-2
Method associated with AGMA are shown below..
Initial sizing of worm gear.. (Mechanical)

1) Initial information generally Torque required (Nm), Input speed(rpm), Output speed (rpm).
2) Select Materials for worm and wormwheel.
3) Calculate Ratio (R g)
4) Estimate a = Center distance (mm)
5) Set z 1 = Nearest number to (7 + 2,4 SQRT (a) ) /R g
6) Set z 2 = Next number < R g . z 1
7) Using the value of estimated centre distance (a) and No of gear teeth ( z 2 )obtain a value for q from
the table below
8) d 1 = q.m (select) ..
9) d 2 = 2.a - d 1
10) Select a wormwheel face width b a (minimum =2*m*SQRT(q+1))
11) Calculate the permissible output torques for strength (M b_1 and wear M c_1 )

Worm Gears
12) Apply the relevent duty factors to the allowable torque and the actual torque
13) Compare the actual values to the permissible values and repeat process if necessary
14) Determine the friction coefficient and calculate the efficiency.
15) Calculate the Power out and the power in and the input torque
6) Complete design of gearbox including design of shafts, lubrication, and casing ensuring sufficient
heat transfer area to remove waste heat.
Initial sizing of worm gear.. (Thermal)

Worm gears are often limited not by the strength of the teeth but by the heat generated by the low
efficiency. It is necessary therefore to determine the heat generated by the gears = (Input power -
Output power). The worm gearbox must have lubricant to remove the heat from the teeth in contact and
sufficient area on the external surfaces to distibute the generated heat to the local environment. This
requires completing an approximate heat transfer calculation. If the heat lost to the environment is
insufficient then the gears should be adjusted (more starts, larger gears) or the box geometry should be
adjusted, or the worm shaft could include a fan to induced forced air flow heat loss.
Formulae
The reduction ratio of a worm gear ( R g )
Rg=z2/z1

Worm Gears
eg a 30 tooth wheel meshing with a 2 start worm has a reduction of 15
Tangential force on worm ( F wt )= axial force on wormwheel
F wt = F ga = 2.M 1 / d 1
Axial force on worm ( F wa ) = Tangential force on gear
F wa = F gt = F wt.[ (cos α n - μ tan γ ) / (cos α n . tan γ + μ ) ]
Output torque ( M 2 ) = Tangential force on wormwheel * Wormwheel reference diameter /2
M 2 = F gt* d 2 / 2
Relationship between the Worm Tangential Force F wt and the Gear Tangential force F gt
F wt = F gt.[ (cos α n . tan γ + μ ) / (cos α n - μ tan γ ) ]
Relationship between the output torque M 2and the input torque M 1
M 2 = ( M 1. d 2 / d 1 ).[ (cos α n - μ tan γ ) / (cos α n . tan γ + μ ) ]
Separating Force on worm-gearwheel ( F s )
F s = F wt.[ (sin α n ) / (cos α n . sin γ + μ .cos γ ) ]
Efficiency of Worm Gear ( η )
η =[(cos α n - μ .tan γ ) / (cos α n + μ .cot γ )]
Sliding velocity ( V s )...(m/s)
V s (m/s ) = 0,00005236. d 1. n 1 sec γ

= 0,00005235.m.n (z 12 + q 2 ) 1/2

Worm Gears
Peripheral velocity of wormwheel ( V p) (m/s)
V p = 0,00005236,d 2. n 2
Friction Coefficient
Cast Iron and Phosphor Bronze .. Table x 1,15

Cast Iron and Cast Iron.. Table x 1,33
Quenched Steel and Aluminum Alloy..Table x 1,33
Steel and Steel..Table x 2
Friction coefficients - For Case Hardened Steel Worm / Phos Bros Wheel
Sliding Friction Sliding Friction

Speed Coefficient Speed Coefficient
m/s μ m/s μ
0 0,145 1,5 0,038

0,001 0,12 2 0,033
0,01 0,11 5 0,023
0,05 0,09 8 0,02
0,1 0,08 10 0,018
0,2 0,07 15 0,017
0,5 0,055 20 0,016
1 0,044 30 0,016
Worm Design /Gear Wear / Strength Equations to BS721
Note: For designing worm gears to AGMA codes AGMA method of Designing Worm Gears
The information below relates to BS721 Pt2 1983 Specification for worm gearing — Metric units. BS721
provides average design values reflecting the experience of specialist gear manufacturers. The
methods have been refined by addition of various application and duty factors as used. Generally wear
is the critical factor..
Permissible Load for Strength

Worm Gears
The permissible torque (M in Nm) on the gear teeth is obtained by use of the equation
M b = 0,0018 X b.2σ bm.2. m. l f.2. d 2.
( example 87,1 Nm = 0,0018 x 0,48 x 63 x 20 x 80 )
X b.2 = speed factor for bending (Worm wheel ).. See Below
σ bm.2 = Bending stress factor for Worm wheel.. See Table below
l f.2 = length of root of Worm Wheel tooth
d 2 = Reference diameter of worm wheel
m = axial module
γ = Lead angle
Permissible Torque for Wear

The permissible torque (M in Nm) on the gear teeth is obtained by use of the equation
M c = 0,00191 X c.2σ cm.2.Z. d 21,8. m
( example 33,42 Nm = 0,00191 x 0,3234 x 6,7 x 1,5157 x 801,8 x 2 )
X c.2 = Speed factor for wear ( Worm wheel )

σ cm.2 = Surface stress factor for Worm wheel
Z = Zone factor.
Length of root of worm wheel tooth

Radius of the root = R r= (d 1 /2 + h ha,1 (= m) + c(= 0,25.m.cos γ )
R r= d 1 /2 + m(1 +0,25 cos γ)
l f.2 = 2.R r.sin-1 (2.R r / b a)

Note: angle from sin-1(function) is in radians...
Speed Factor for Bending

This is a metric conversion from an imperial formula..
X b.2 = speed factor for bending = 0,521(V) -0,2
V= Pitch circle velocity =0,00005236*d 2.n 2 (m/s)
The table below is derived from a graph in BS 721. I cannot see how this works as a small worm has a
smaller diameter compared to a large worm and a lower speed which is not reflected in using the RPM.

Worm Gears
Table of speed factors for bending
RPM (n2) X b.2 RPM (n2) X b.2

1 0,62 600 0,3
10 0,56 1000 0,27
20 0,52 2000 0,23
60 0,44 4000 0,18
100 0,42 6000 0,16
200 0,37 8000 0,14
400 0,33 10000 0,13
Additional factors
The formula for the acceptable torque for wear should be modified to allow additional factors which
affect the Allowable torque M c
M c2 = M c. Z L. Z M.Z R / K C
The torque on the wormwheel as calculated using the duty requirements (M e) must be less than the
acceptable torque M c2 for a duty of 27000 hours with uniform loading. For loading other than this then
M e should be modified as follows
M e2 = M e. K S* K H
Thus
uniform load < 27000 hours (10 years) M e ≤ M c2
Other conditions M e2 ≤ M c2
Factors used in equations Lubrication (Z L)..

Z L = 1 if correct oil with anti-scoring additive else a lower value should be selected
Lubricant (Z M)..
Z L = 1 for Oil bath lubrication at V s < 10 m /s
Z L = 0,815 Oil bath lubrication at 10 m/s < V s < 14 m /s
Z L = 1 Forced circulation lubrication
Surface roughness (Z R ) ..

Worm Gears
Z R = 1 if Worm Surface Texture < 3μ m and Wormwheel < 12μ m

else use less than 1
Tooth contact factor (K C

This relates to the quality and rigidity of gears . Use 1 for first estimate
K C = 1 For grade A gears with > 40% height and > 50% width contact
= 1,3 - 1,4 For grade A gears with > 30% height and > 35% width contact
= 1,5-1,7 For grade A gears with > 20% height and > 20% width contact
Starting factor (K S) ..
K S =1 for < 2 Starts per hour
=1,07 for 2- 5 Starts per hour
=1,13 for 5-10 Starts per hour
=1,18 more than 10 Starts per hour
Time / Duty factor (K H) ..

K H for 27000 hours life (10 years) with uniform driver and driven loads
For other conditions see table below
Tables for use with BS 721 equations
Speed Factors
X c.2 = K V .K R
Note: This table is not based on the graph in BS 721-2 (figure 7) it is based on another more easy to
follow graph. At low values of sliding velocity and RPM it agrees closely with BS 721. At higher speed
velocities is gives a lower value (e.g at 20m/s -600 RPM the value from this table for X c.2 is about 80%
of the value in BS 721-2
Table of Worm Gear Speed Factors
Note -sliding speed = Vs and Rotating speed = n2 (Wormwheel)

Sliding KV Rotating KR
speed Speed
m/s rpm
0 1 0,5 0,98
0,1 0,75 1 0,96
0,2 0,68 2 0,92
0,5 0,6 10 0,8
1 0,55 20 0,73
2 0,5 50 0,63
5 0,42 100 0,55

Worm Gears
10 0,34 200 0,46

20 0,24 500 0,35
30 0,16 600 0,33
Stress Factors
Table of Worm Gear Stress Factors

C.
Other 0,4%
P. C. 0,55% Steel
metal C.
B. I. C.Steel Case.
(Worm) Steel
H'd
Bending
Metal Wear ( σ cm )
(σbm )
(Wormwheel)
MPa MPa
Phosphor Bronze
69 8,3 8,3 9,0 15,2
Centrifugal cast
Phosphor Bronze
63 6,2 6,2 6,9 12,4
Sand Cast Chilled
Phosphor Bronze
49 4,6 4,6 5,3 10,3
Sand Cast
Grey Cast Iron 40 6,2 4,1 4,1 4,1 5,2
0,4% Carbon steel 138 10,7 6,9
0,55% Carbon steel 173 15,2 8,3
Carbon Steel
276 48,3 30,3 15,2
(Case hardened)
Zone Factor (Z)

If b a < 2,3 (q +1)1/2 Then Z = (Basic Zone factor ) . b a /2 (q +1)1/2
If b a > 2,3 (q +1)1/2 Then Z = (Basic Zone factor ) .1,15
Table of Basic Zone Factors

q
z1 6 6,5 7 7,5 8 8,5 9 9,5 10 11 12 13 14 17 20

1 1,045 1,048 1,052 1,065 1,084 1,107 1,128 1,137 1,143 1,16 1,202 1,26 1,318 1,402 1,508
2 0,991 1,028 1,055 1,099 1,144 1,183 1,214 1,223 1,231 1,25 1,28 1,32 1,36 1,447 1,575

Worm Gears
3 0,822 0,89 0,989 1,109 1,209 1,26 1,305 1,333 1,35 1,365 1,393 1,422 1,442 1,532 1,674
4 0,826 0,83 0,981 1,098 1,204 1,701 1,38 1,428 1,46 1,49 1,515 1,545 1,57 1,666 1,798
5 0,947 0,991 1,05 1,122 1,216 1,315 1,417 1,49 1,55 1,61 1,632* 1,652 1,675 1,765 1,886
6 1,131 1,145 1,172 1,22 1,287 1,35 1,438 1,521 1,588 1,625 1,694 1,714 1,733 1,818 1,928
7 1,316 1,34 1,37 1,405 1,452 1,54 1,614 1,704 1,725 1,74 1,76 1,846 1,98
8 1,437 1,462 1,5 1,557 1,623 1,715 1,738 1,753 1,778 1,868 1,96
9 1573 1,604 1,648 1,72 1,743 1,767 1,79 1,88 1,97
10 1,68 1,728 1,748 1,773 1,798 1,888 1,98
11 1,732 1,753 1,777 1,802 1,892 1,987
12 1,76 1,78 1,806 1,895 1,992
13 1,784 1,806 1,898 1,998
14 1,811 1,9 2
Duty Factor
Duty - time Factor K H

KH
Impact from Expected life
Prime mover hours Impact From Load
Uniform Load Medium Impact Strong impact
1500 0,8 0,9 1
Uniform Load 5000 0,9 1 1,25
Motor Turbine
27000 1 1,25 1,5
Hydraulic motor
60000 1,25 1,5 1,75
1500 0,9 1 1,25
Light impact 5000 1 1,25 1,5
multi-cylinder
27000 1,25 1,5 1,75
engine
60000 1,5 1,75 2
Medium 1500 1 1,25 1,5
Impact 5000 1,25 1,5 1,75
Single cylinder 27000 1,5 1,75 2
engine 60000 1,75 2 2,25
Worm q value selection

The table below shows allow selection of q value which provides an reasonably efficient worm design.

Worm Gears
The recommended centre distance value "a" (mm)is listed for each q value against a range of z 2 (teeth
number values). The table has been produced by reference to the relevant plot in BS 721
Example
If the number of teeth on the gear is selected as 45 and the centre distance is 300 mm then a q value
for the worm would be about 7.5
Important note: This table provides reasonable values for all worm speeds. However at worm speeds
below 300 rpm a separate plot is provide in BS721 which produces more accurate q values. At these
lower speeds the resulting q values are approximately 1.5 higher than the values from this table. The
above example at less than 300rpm should be increased to about 9
Table for optimum q value selection
Number of Teeth On Worm Gear (z 2)

q 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
6 150 250 380 520 700
6.5 100 150 250 350 480 660
7 70 110 170 250 350 470 620 700
7.5 50 80 120 180 240 330 420 550 670
8 25 50 80 120 180 230 300 380 470 570 700
8.5 28 90 130 130 180 220 280 350 420 500 600 700
9 40 70 100 130 170 220 280 330 400 450 520
9.5 25 50 70 100 120 150 200 230 300 350 400
10 26 55 80 100 130 160 200 230 270 320
11 25 28 55 75 100 130 150 180 220 250
12 28 45 52 80 100 130 150 100
13 27 45 52 75 90 105
AGMA method of Designing Worm Gears
The AGMA method is provided here because it is relatively easy to use and convenient- AGMA is all
imperial and so I have used conversion values so all calculations can be completed in metric units..
Good proportions indicate that for a center to centre distance = C the mean worm dia d 1 is within the
range
Imperial (inches)
( C 0,875 / 3 ) ≤ d 1 ≤ ( C 0,875 / 1,6 )
Metric ( mm)

Worm Gears
( C 0,875 / 2 ) ≤ d 1 ≤ ( C 0,875 / 1,07 )
The acceptable tangential load (W t) all
(W t) all = C s. d 20,8 .b a .C m .C v . (0,0132) (N)
The formula will result in a life of over 25000 hours with a case hardened alloy steel worm and a
phosphor bronze wheel
C s = Materials factor
b a = Effective face width of gearwheel = actual face width. but not to exceed 0,67 . d 1
C m = Ratio factor
C v = Velocity factor
Modified Lewis equation for stress induced in worm gear teeth
σ a = W t / ( p n. b a. y )(N)
W t = Worm gear tangential Force (N)

y = 0,125 for a normal pressure angle α n = 20o
The friction force = W f
W f = f.W t / (. cos φ n ) (N)
γ = worm lead angle at mean diameter

α n = normal pressure angle
The sliding velocity = V s
V s = π .n 1. d 1 / (60,000 )
d 1 = mean dia of worm (mm)

n 1 = rotational speed of worm (revs/min)
The torque generated γ at the worm gear = M b (Nm)

Worm Gears
T G = W t .d 1 / 2000
The required friction heat loss from the worm gearbox
H loss = P in ( 1 - η )
η = gear efficiency as above.
C s values
C s = 270 + 0,0063(C )3... for C ≤ 76mm ....Else
C s (Sand cast gears ) = 1000 for d 1 ≤ 64 mm ...else... 1860 - 477 log (d 1 )
C s (Chilled cast gears ) = 1000 for d 1 ≤ 200 mm ...else ... 2052 -456 log (d 1 )
C s (Centrifugally cast gears ) = 1000 for d 1 ≤ 635 mm ...else ... 1503 - 180 log (d 1 )
C m values
NG = Number of teeth on worm gear.

NW = Number of stards on worm gear.
mG = gear ration = NG /NW
C v values
C v (V s > 3,56 m/s ) = 0,659 exp (-0,2167 V s )
C v (3,56 m/s ≤ V s < 15,24 m/s ) = 0,652 (V s) -0,571 )
C v (V s > 15,24 m/s ) = 1,098.( V s ) -0,774 )
f values
f (V s = 0) = 0,15

Worm Gears
f (0 < V s ≤ 0,06 m/s ) = 0,124 exp (-2,234 ( V s ) 0,645
f (V s > 0,06 m/s ) = 0,103 exp (-1,1855 ( V s ) ) 0,450 ) +0,012
Links to Gear
Design
1. Holroyd ...A UK
based specialist
worm gear
manufacturer
Worm gearbox
selector
2. SEW Eurodrive...
All the
information on
Gearboxes you
will need
3. Quality
Transmission
Components...
Supplier with
downloadable
Gear Design
Handbook
4. Stock Drive
Products=
Sterling
Instruments...
Supplier with
large quantity of
downloadable
drive information
5. Lenze...Drive
system supplier
with geared
motor section
Home
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Bevel Gears
ROYMECH
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Bevel Gears
Introduction
There are four basic types of bevel gears
● Straight bevel gears.. These gears have a conical pitch surface and straight teeth tapering towards an apex
● Zerol bevel gears. This is similar to a bevel gear except the teeth are curved. In essence, Zerol Bevel Gears are Spiral Bevel Gears with
a spiral angle of zero.
● Spiral bevel gears. The teeth are curved teeth at an angle allowing too contact to be gradual and smooth
● Hypoid bevel gears..These gears are similar to spiral bevel except that the pitch surfaces are hyperboloids rather than cones. Pinion can
be offset above or below gear center, thus allowing larger pinion diameter, and longer longer life and smoother mesh, with additional
ratios e.g 6:1, 8:1, 10:1
Specifications
BS 545:1982..Specification for bevel gears (machine cut)..(Obsolescent)
BS ISO 10300-1:2001..Calculation of load capacity of bevel gears. Calculation of load capacity of bevel
gears. Introduction and general influence factors
BS ISO 10300-2:2001..Calculation of load capacity of bevel gears. Calculation of surface durability
(pitting)
BS ISO 10300-3:2001..Calculation of load capacity of bevel gears. Calculation of tooth root strength
Straight bevel gears

These are gears cut from conical blanks and connect intersecting shaft axes. The connecting shafts are
generally at 90o and sometimes one shaft drives a bevel gear which is mounted on a through shaft
resulting in two output shafts. The point of intersection of the shafts is called the apex and the teeth of
the two gears converge at the apex. The design of bevel gears results in thrust forces away from the
apex. With the bearing limitations the gears have to be carefully designed to ensure that they are not
thrown out of alignment as they are loaded.
Straight bevel gears are used widely in machine drive systems to effect 90o direction changes. and in
differential drives They have the same limitations as spur gears and they are therefore not used on
high duty high speed applications. Straight bevel gears are low cost units supplied with ratios from 1:2 to
4:1.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Bevel_Gears.html (1 of 8)10/24/2006 11:32:46 AM

Bevel Gears
Straight Bevel Gear Terminology
Straight Bevel Gear Force equations
Nomenclature

Bevel Gears
z p = Number of teeth on pinion

z g = Number of teeth on pinion
α = Pressure Angle of Teeth.
ε p = Pitch Angle (pinion)....= tan-1 (z p / z g )
ε g = Pitch Angle (gear)....= tan-1 (z g / z p )
P p = Power at Pinion shaft (kW)
n p = Rotational speed of pinion shaft (revs/min)
d p = Pinion Pitch Circle diameter (mm)
Mp = torque on pinion shaft (Nm)
Fs = Separating Force (N)
Fp = Pinion Thrust (N)
Fg = Gear Thrust (N)
Zerol Bevel Gears

The advantage of Zerolbevel gears compared to straight bevel gears is that operate with a smooth
localised point contact as opposed to a line contact enabling smoother operation with low vibration levels
and higher speeds. Because there is not spiral angle and no additional developed thrust these gears
can be used as direct replacements for straight bevel gears. These gears normally have a pressure
angle of 20o. The minimum number of teeth on the pinion is 14. The design of Zerol gears is relatively
specialised and they are manufactured using special "Gleason" machine tools..
Spiral Bevel Gear

These are produced using a spiral gear form which results in a smoother drive suitable for higher speed
higher loaded applications. Again satisfactory performance of this type of gear is largely dependent
upon the rigidity of the bearings and mountings.

Bevel Gears
α n = Normal Pressure angle..

ε = pitch cone angle
γ = Helix angle
Pinion Thrust F p = F t [ (tan α n sin ε / cos γ ) ± tan γ cos ε ]
Note: ( + ) if helix angle is as shown and ( -) if helix angle is opposite to that shown
Hypoid Bevel Gear

Hypoid gears are best for the applications requiring large speed reductions with non intersecting shafts
and those applications requiring smooth and quiet operation. Hypoid gears are generally used for
automotive applications. The minimum number of teeth for speed rations greater than 6 :1 is eight
although 6 teeth pinions can be used for ratios below 6:1. Hypoid gears have pressure angles between
19 and 22o. The design of hypoid gears is relatively specialised and they are manufactured using special
"Gleason" machine tools..

Bevel Gears
Straight Bevel Gear Strength and Durability Equations

Designing bevel gears is normally done in accordance with standards as listed under specifications
above: The notes below relate to approximate methods for estimating gear strengths. The methods are
really only useful for first approximations and/or selection of stock gears (ref links below). — Detailed
design of bevel gears should only be completed using the relevant standards. Books are available
providing the necessary guidance. Software is also available making the process very easy.
The equations are basically modified spur gears equations using and equivalent number of teeth z e
Equivalent Number of teeth on gear = z eg = z g / cos ε g

Equivalent Number of teeth on pinion = z ep = z p / cos ε p
Bending Strength Equations

The basic lewis formula for spur gear teeth is shown as follows
σ = F t / ( W. m. Y )
● F t = Tangential force on tooth

● W = Face width (mm)
● m = Module (mm)
The Lewis formula is modified to provide the allowable tangential force F b based on the allowable
bending Stress S b
F a = S b.W. m. Y
It is clear that a bevel gear does not have a uniform section or a uniform module and therefore it is
necessary to start be considering and element dx..

Bevel Gears
The Lewis formula applied to the element is as follows
To obtain the allowable torque T transmitted by the multiply both sides by r xand integrating results in
The module varies along the gear teeth in proportion to the radius from the apex along the pitch cone.
Thus ..m / m x = L / x where m = module at x = L
A similar relationship holds for for r x. i.e for r x /r = x /L

Substituting these relationships into the integration equation results..
d x varies from x = (L -b) to x = L the integration can be solved as follows:

Bevel Gears
The face width is considered to be limited to 1/3 of the cone distance then the factor b2 / (3.L2) = 1/27 is
so small compared to the other factors that it can be reasonably ignored . Then dividing by r to arrive a
the Lewis equation for the allowable bending load
The allowable bending load F b must be greater than the dynamic load which is the actual bending load
calculated from the transmitted torque modified by the Barth formula as identified in the notes on spur
gears i.e
Fb≥Ft/Kv
K v is given by the Barth equation for milled profile gears.
K v = 6,1 / (6,1 +V )
Note: This factor is different for different gear conditions i.e K v = ( 3.05 + V )/3.05 for cast iron, cast
profile gears.
V =Average velocity of gear face = 0.0000524.n.d mean

d mean is the mean pitch circle diameter (mm)..
n = Rotational speed of gear (rpm)
Surface Durability Equations
The gear durability equation is based on the Hertz contact stress equation and its application to gears.
The allowable tangential wear load F w is calculated as follows
F w = d p. K. Q' / cos ε p
d p = Pitch diameter measured at the back of tooth

Q' = 2 z eg /( z ep + z ep )

Bevel Gears
z eg & z ep are the equivalent number of teeth on the gear and pinion as defined above
K = Wear Load Factor see table Gear table
The allowable load F w must be greater than the dynamic bending load which is the actual load
calculated from the transmitted torque modified by the Barth formula as identified in the notes on spur
gears i.e
Fw≥Ft/Kv
Links to Bevel Gears
1. Boston Gears - Miter Gears ...A supplier of bevel gears

2. NASA TEsts on Spiral Bevel Gears ...Interesting short note.
3. Bevel gear geometry and simple strength calculation ... Downloadable paper
4. Neeterdrive.co.uk ... UK supplier of Bevel gears and associated components
8. hewitt-topham...UK gear supplier
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Harmonic Gears
ROYMECH
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Harmonic
Introduction
The harmonic gear allows high reduction ratios with concentric shafts and with very low backlash
and vibration. It is based on a very simple construction utilising metals elasto-mechanical property.
Harmonic drive transmissions are noted for their ability to reduce backlash in a motion control
system. How they work is through the use of a thin-walled flexible cup with external splines on it lip,
placed inside a circular thick-walled rigid ring machined with internal splines. The external flexible
spline has two fewer teeth than the internal circular spline. An elliptical cam enclosed in an
antifriction ball bearing assembly is mounted inside the flexible cup and forces the flexible cup
splines to push deeply into the rigid ring at two opposite points while rotating. The two contact
points rotate at a speed governed be the difference in the number of teeth on the two splines This
method basically preloads the teeth, which reduces backlash.
Harmonic Drive Limitations

Harmonic drives have speed reductions single stage of 30:1 to 350:1. The lower ratios are limited
because of fatigue considerations on the flexispline member. The harmonic drive is normally not
suitable for high power levels above 6kW ..
A typical large duty Harmonic drive will have dimensions of about 280mm dia x 150 mm long and
will be able to continuously transmit an output torque of 2270 Nm at an output speed of 20 RPM and
and input speed of 2000RPM (4.7 kW output)- This unit will be able to transfer higher torques for
short time durations e.g a momentary torque 9000Nm. The efficiency would be about 70%. This
unit would weigh about 42 kg. ..... A worm drive for a similar drive (1800 RPM imput speed ,70-1
reduction same output torque )would weigh 327 kg and would be in a case about 750mm high x
360mm wide x 500mm wide..Surprisingly for this duty the efficiency of the worm unit would be 77%
Harmonic Drive Applications
● Robotics
Harmonic Drives offer robot manufacturers many benefits including zero backlash, high positional accuracy, low vibration and a
compact design. They can be used in any of the robot axis and their light weight design contributes minimal weight to the robotic
arm which increases robot payload capacity.
● Machine Tools
Harmonic drives allow accurate control of the motions for axis positioning and for tool changing.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Harmonic_Gears.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:32:50 AM

Harmonic Gears
>
● Medical
Applications using harmonic drives include patient beds, rehabilitations equipment, and MRI / Cat scan gantries.
● Military Aerospace
The Harmonic Drives are used to accurately rotate and tilt the antennas and arrays. They are also used for driving lunar vehicle
motions and positioning aerials and telescopes e.g. Harmonic drives are used in the Hubble Telescope.
Harmonic Gear construction

Wave Generator:
The wave generator is an oval-shaped cam with a thin ball bearing placed around the outer
circumference of the oval cam. The wave generator is mounted onto the motor shaft.
Flex Spline:
The flex spline is a thin, cup-shaped component made of elastic metal, with teeth formed along the
outer circumference of the cup's opening. The gear's output shaft is attached to the bottom of the
flex spline.
Circular Spline:
The circular spline is a rigid internal gear with teeth formed along its inner circumference. These
teeth are the same size as those of the flex spline, but the circular spline has two more teeth than
the flex spline. The circular spline is attached to the gearbox along its outer circumference.

Harmonic Gears
Harmonic Gear Operation

The wave generator is mounted on the drive shaft and as it is rotated it imparts a continuously
moving elliptical form or wave-like motion to the Flexspline. This causes the meshing of the
external teeth of the Flexspline with the internal teeth of the Circular Spline at their two equidistant
points of engagement to progress in a continuous rolling fashion. It also allows for full tooth
disengagement at the two points opposite the minor axis of the Wave Generator.
Since the Flexspline has two less teeth than the Circular Spline and because full teeth
disengagement is made possible by the elliptical shape of the Wave Generator, each complete
revolution of the Wave Generator causes a two tooth displacement of the Flexspline in relation to
the Circular Spline. This displacement is always in the opposite direction of the rotation of the
Wave Generator (see diagram)e.g if the Wave Generator is rotating in a CW direction, the two-tooth-
per-revolution displacement of the Flexspline will be in a CCW direction and vice versa
In this way, a basic three element harmonic drive component set is capable of functioning as a
speed reducer. Input from a main power source through the Wave Generator is at a high speed,
but the two-tooth-per-revolution displacement causes the Flexspline, which is the output element, to
rotate in the opposite direction of, and at a considerably slower speed than, the Wave Generator.
The reduction ratio which results can be calculated by dividing the number of teeth on the
Flexspline by two (the difference between the number of teeth on the Circular Spline and the
Flexspline). If a fixed Circular Spline had 80 teeth and an output Flexspline has 78 teeth, the ratio
would be 80/(80-78)=40:1
Harmonic Drive characteristics
1. High speed reduction ratio:

A Harmonic Drive has high single-stage coaxial reduction ratios of 1/30 to 1/320 using a very simple three part mechanism.
2. Free of backlash (lost motion):

Harmonic Gears
Different from the ordinary tooth-with-tooth mating mechanism, the Harmonic Drive can be made with very little -- nearly zero --
backlash.
3. High precision:
With the Harmonic Drive, high positional/rotational accuracy is possible because a number of teeth are matinging at the same time
and the 50% of the teeth are mating at 180o symmetrical with the other 50% of the mating gears. as a result pitch errors and
accumulated pitch errors on rotational accuracy are nuetralised equalized to ensure improved positional/rotational accuracy.
4. Small numbers of components and ease of assembly: Because it comprises high reduction ratios are available with only three
basic components and since all three components are co-axially aligned, the Harmonic Drive can be easily built into component-
assembled products.
5. Small-sized and lightweight:
Machinery/equipment can be made smaller in size and lighter in weight because the Harmonic Drive provides similar levels of
torque and speed reduction ratios as conventional gearing mechanisms at 30% the size of conventional products of similar
capacity and at less than 50% the weight.
6. High torque capacity:
The flexspline is made of special steel with a higher resistance to fatigue.
Different from the typical driving force transmission apparatus, every tooth is subjected to
very little force but provides a high capacity of torque. This is because up to 30% of the teeth
are always taking some load and these teeth come into contact with one another face to face.
Therefore every tooth is subjected to a minimum of force while providing a maximum of
torque.
7. High efficiency:
The mating portion of each tooth is subjected to very little slide motion. Therefore, motion loss due to friction is reduced
substantially. This is why the Harmonic Drive can maintain a high level of efficiency, allowing for the down sizing of driving motors
as a result.
8. Quiet, vibration-free operation:
With the Harmonic Drive, quiet and vibration-free operations are possible because the teeth do not come into rolling contact with
one another, and since the circumferential speed of each tooth is low, the teeth provide a well-balanced force.
Links to Bevel Gears
1. Oriental Motors - The advantages of Geared Stepping Motors ...A very informative document explaining features of various gear types
2. Oriental Motors ...A specialist supplier with lots of useful information
3. Harmonic Drives ... A supplier of harmonic drives
4. Harmonic gear design benefits from CAD FEA ... Informative Paper
5. Harmonic Drive Systems Inc...Principles of the Harmonic Drive Mechanism - Very good notes
6. Heason.com...A supplier of harmonic Gears and linked equipment
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Gearboxes
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Gear Boxes
Introduction
Prime movers such as Electric motors, internal combustion engines, steam engines and turbines
produce rotary motion at certain speeds and with certain torques at optimum efficiency. The motion
produced is rarely equal to the motion required to do the necessary work and gear trains are
required to translate the motion economically at maximum efficiency.
It may be possible to use a low cost method of translating the motion e.g. a timing belt vee belt or
chain transmission system. However these methods are limiting in their scope and are subject to
regular maintenance and replacement. The engineered gearbox generally provides the optimum
solution. Many companies provide motorised gear units with the electric motor mounted directly
onto a gearbox providing the drive conditions (torque and speed ) exactly as required by the
user. Once installed to the manufacturers instructions the only maintenance required is regular
lubrication.
Gearboxes can be engineered to allow gear ratio changes to enable output shaft speed while
keeping the input speed and torque at the same value. The primary advantage for using a gearbox
for changing speed is to enable the full power to be transmitted at the different speeds. Electric
motors and other prime movers are rated for a maximum torque at the optimum speed if the speed
is reduced using electronic controls the resulting developed torque is not proportionally increased.
Gearboxes also allow the input shaft and the output shaft to be in different directions.
Simple Drive Train Rules

1) For any pair of meshing gears the angular velocity ratio is given by
ω2 /ω1 = ± z1 /z2 = ± d1 / d2
ω1 = Input speed (rads/s)

ω2 = Output speed (rads/s)
z1 Number of teeth on input gear
z2 Number of teeth on output gear
d1 Pitch Circle Dia of the input gear
d2 Pitch Circle Dia of the output gear
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Gearboxes
The sign is - (Reversing) if both gears are external and + (Same direction)if one gear is a ring
(internal gear)
2) For a train of gear wheels the overall angular velocity ratio is given by
ω2 /ω1
= ± Product of teeth No's Driving gears / Product of teeth No's Driven gears
= ± Product of pitch diameters (Driving gears) / Product of pitch diameters (Driven gears)
The sign is - (Reversing) if there are an odd number of pairs of external gears
Gearbox Design Features
The design of the gearbox includes the following features..
● Input and output shaft relative positions and orientation

● Support of external forces on shafts
● Design and rigidity of casing
● Type, dimensions and strength of gears
● Method of changing speed /direction if required
● Design and strength of gear shafts
● Gearbox bearings
● Gearbox Seals
● Lubrication
● Noise and vibration
● Couplings to shaft
● Fixing /support of gearbox
● Heat dissipation
● Maintenance provisions

Gearboxes
Gearbox Examples
A gearbox is loosely defined as an enclosure for housing gears. Examples of gearboxes are numerous and some are listed below:
● Watch mechanism
● Bicycle axle gear (Sturmy Archer-3 speed) Sprocket to wheel axle -(Sturmy Archer-3 speed)
● Power tool gear units - allowing speed reduction, change and reversing
● Automobile synchromesh gearbox -5 speed + reverse - Engine to drive shafts
● Machine tool integral - Electric motor drive to spindle and travelling motions
● Wind turbine gearbox - Turbine to generator
● Steam turbine - speed reduction turbine to generator
● Marine - Gearbox - turbine /diesal prime movers to Prop shaft
● Cranes -Gearbox usind for lifting and travelling motions
These are all specialised applications and the notes on this page relate to gear units manufactured
as separate units for mounting in transmission systems.
The normal method of fixing an enclosed gearbox in industry is to mount it on a rigid horizontal
baseplate designed to absorb vibration. The rotary motion is transferred to the input shaft and from
the output shafts via flexible couplings. There are a number of variations as listed below
Mounting
● Foot mounted on vertical surfaces

● Foot mounted below horizontal surface
● Flange mounted onto the prime mover
● Shaft mounted with a torque arm to prevent rotation of gearbox
The sketches below show examples of gearboxes mounted in different ways. These are only
illustrative sketches and should not be considered as gearbox designs..

Gearboxes
When using a gearbox in a non-standard mounting position the lubrication system should be
checked for suitability
Gearbox Casing
The large gearbox casings are generally castings from cast iron or steel. Cast iron is a rigid
material with excellent vibration damping properties. Fabricated steel gearbox are used for small
batch quantities. Gearboxes used for the transmissions in vehicles are often made from cast
aluminium this is primarily to save weight. The tiny gearbox units are made from a variety of
materials including cast zinc alloys. The important criteria in the gearbox casing design are listed
below..
● Inclusion of safe lifting points to allow installation

● Support of the shaft bearings and hence the gear loadings;
● The transfer of the developed gear forces to supporting structure or further drive element;
● Containment of lubricant and exclusion of foreign matter;
● Providing a safety and noise barrier;
● Dissipation of the heat generated by gear friction
● Aiding testing, installation, and maintenance by containing all element in one unit;
● Providing convenient access to internals for inspection & maintainance
● Aesthetic benefits
● Enable accessible location of nameplate with all of the gear unit details
Gearbox shafts
A variety of shaft designs are available including the following
● Plain shaft with keyway

● Plain shaft suitable for Friction drive coupling system
● Splined shaft
● Hollow shaft with internal keyway
● Flange
The selection of the drive shaft system is generally based on space considerations, on the design of
the prime mover of the driven component and on the loading pattern. A proprietary gearbox is
design to best fit in with the existing drive arrangements.

Gearboxes
Shaft Orientation
The shafts transfer of motion to and from a gearbox can be supplied in a variety of designs some of
which are listed below.
● Inline shafts .....Epi-cyclic. spur, helical, harmonic

● Parallel shafts .... spur, helical
● Shafts at angles but non intersecting....Helical, Worm, Hypoid, Spiroid gears
● Shafts at angles and intersecting... Bevel gears
Worm gears and bevel gears are most commonly supplied with shafts at Right angles.
Links to Relevant sites
1. DanNotes Epicyclic Gear Design ...Theoretical analysis include torque

2. Epicyclic Gear Train Solution Techniques with Application to Tandem Bicycling...Informative Document
3. Epi-cyclic gear calculator ... W.M Berg com A basic epicyclic gear calculator
4. Redex Andantex ... A supplier of all types of gear units
6. Lenze..Drive components
7. Holroyd ...A UK based specialist worm gear manufacturer.
Worm gearbox selector
8. Co- Design SEED..Very useful notes
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Gears Gearboxes

Epicyclic Gears
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Epicyclic Gears
Introduction
An epicylic gear is a planetary gear arrangement consists of one or more planet(epicyclic) gears (P)
meshed and rotating round a central sun gear (S). The planet gears are also meshed and rotate
within an internal ring gear (A). The planet gears are fixed to an planet carrier-crank arm(L)
designed to rotate on the same centre as the sun gear. Only one planet-carrier /crank arm is used
in a single epicyclic gear train. This complicated arrangement (see below) has a number of modes
of operation depending on which members are locked. Epicyclic gears can be based on spur
gears, helical gears, or bevel gears.
Epicyclic gearboxes are generally purchased as complete units from specialist suppliers.
Design Features
1. Co-axial drive and driven shafts

2. Compact drive
3. Low moment of Inertia
4. Torque transmitted up to 10,000 Nm
5. Drive speed up to 15,000 RPM
6. Efficient
7. Quiet in operation
Epicyclic Gearboxes (Planetary gearboxes)have the following features
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Epicyclic Gears
Typical Epicyclic Gear Arrangement
Calculation of Ratios
Example 1..
Rotation (CW= +ve)

from action- Nx =
Action
number of teeth
L A P S
Turn whole gear thro 1 rev Clock Wise 1 1 1 1
-NA / +NA /
Fix arm L and rotate A back CCW 1 rev 0 -1
NP NS
1-
NA / 1+
Add the two motions above> 1 0 NA / NS
NP
Summary : Rotation of the planet shaft(L) 1 rev CW results in the rotation of the shaft (S) 1 + NA /
NS revs (CW). Ratio 1 : ( 1 + NA / NS )
Example 2..

Epicyclic Gears
Rotation (CW= +ve) from

action- Nx = number of
Action
teeth
S L P A
- NS / - NA /
Fix L and rotate Sun 1 rev CW 1 0
NP NS
Summary : Rotation of the Sun shaft(S) 1 rev CW results in the rotation of the shaft (L) NS / NA revs
(CCW). Ratio 1: ( - NS / NA )
Example 3..
Rotation (CW= +ve) from action- Nx = number

Action of teeth
L A B-D S
Turn whole gear through 1 rev CW 1 1 1 1

Epicyclic Gears
Fix L and rotate A back CCW 1 rev 0 -1 - NA / NB - ( NA / NB).( N D / N S)

1 - NA /
Add the two motions above> 1 0 1 - ( NA . ND)/( N B . N S)
NB
Summary : Rotation of the Shaft L 1 rev CW results in the rotation of the shaft (S) 1 - ( NA . ND)/( N
B . N S) revs (CW).
Ratio 1: [1 - ( NA . ND)/( N B. N S)]
Example 4..

Action of teeth
L A B-D S
Fix L and rotate A back CCW 1 rev 0 -1 - NA / NB + ( NA / NB).( N D / N S)
1 - NA /
Add the two motions above> 1 0 1 + ( NA . ND)/( N B . N S)
NB
Summary : Rotation of the shaft L 1 rev CW results in the rotation of the shaft (S) 1 + ( NA . ND)/( N
B . N S) revs (CW).
Ratio 1: [1 + ( NA . ND)/( N B . N S)]
Example 5..

Epicyclic Gears

Action of teeth
L A B-D S
Fix L and rotate A back CCW 1 rev 0 -1 + NA / NB + ( NA / NB).( N D / N S)
1 + NA /
Add the two motions above> 1 0 1 + ( NA . ND)/( N B . N S)
NB
Summary : Rotation of the shaft L 1 rev CW results in the rotation of the shaft (S) 1 + ( NA . ND)/( N
B . N S) revs (CW).
Ratio 1: [1 + ( NA . ND)/( N B . N S)]
Epi-cyclic gear Train Variations

The figure below shows the range of possible epicylclic gear arrangements.. Those in section I &
III are classed as simple arrangements because the planet gears mesh with both sun gears. Those
in sections II & IV are classed as complex trains because the planet gears partially match with each
other and partially mesh with the sun gears.

Epicyclic Gears
Calculation of epicyclic Gear Ratio
1) First calculate the ratio of the gears with the planet carrier fixed..
r f = (±) Product of Driving Gear Teeth /Product of Driven Gear Teeth
Note: when two external gears are in contact there is a sign change (change of direction) when an
internal gear meshes with and external gear both gears rotate in the same direction and there is no
change in direction..
2) Designate and input gear (x) and an output gear (y).

The speed of the input gear relative to the carrier arm = ω x - ω c
The speed of the output gear relative to the carrier arm = ω y - ω c

Epicyclic Gears
3) The train value with the carrier fixed =
rf=(ωy-ωc)/(ωx-ωc)
This relationship is used to solve the planetary gear train ratios.

Using this method for the examples above
Example 1.
1) r f = (NA /NP ).( - NP /NS )= - NA /NS
2) Select ω A as input speed = 0 and ω S as output speed (unknown) .
3) r f = ( ω S - ω c ) / ( ω A - ω c ) Therefore r f.ω c = ( ω S - ω c ) Therefore ω S/ω c = 1 - r f
ω S/ω c = 1 + NA /NS
Example 2.
1) r f = (-NS /NP ).( NP /NA )= - NS /NA
2) Select ω S as input speed and ω A as output speed .w c =0
3) r f = ( ω A - ω c ) / ( ω S - ω c ) Therefore w A / w S = r f
ω A/ω S = - NS /NA
Example 3.
1) r f = (NA /NB ).(ND /NS )= ( N A.N D) / (NB .NS )
2) Select ω A as input speed = 0 and ω S as output speed. (solve for ω S/ ω c
3) r f = ( ω S - ω c ) / ( ω A - ω c ) Therefore 1 - r f = w S / w c
ω S/ω c = 1 - ( N A.N D) / (NB .NS )
Example 4.
1) r f = (NA /NB ).( - ND /NS )= - ( N A.N D) / (NB .NS )
ω S/ω c = 1 + ( N A.N D) / (NB .NS )
Example 5.
1) r f = (- NA /NB ).( ND /NS )= - ( N A.N D) / (NB .NS )

Epicyclic Gears
ω S/ω c = 1 + ( N A.N D) / (NB .NS )
Links to Epicyclic Gear Design
1. DanNotes Epicyclic Gear Design ...Theoretical analysis include torque

2. Epicyclic Gear Train Solution Techniques with Application to Tandem Bicycling...Informative Document
3. Epi-cyclic gear calculator ... W.M Berg com A basic epicyclic gear calculator
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Differential Gearboxes
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Differential Gears
Introduction
A differential gear includes two coaxial gears are connected by one or more similar planet gears
mounted on intermediate shafts. Those shafts are fixed to a carrier. The arrangement is such that
the angular velocity of the planet gears is the average of the angular velocities of the two co-axial
gears.
Linear differential
A linear version of the differential gear is shown below. It is clear from this diagram that the
velocity of C = the average of the velocities of A & B. Vc = VA + VB / 2
Automobile drive differential
Considering the type of differential as used for car drives. In the figure below the drive shaft is
connected to the gear A. This drives the case D via a bevel drive. The case rotates and drives the
wheel drives B and C via the gear E. If the gear E is fixed then the wheels would rotate at the
same speed as the case. As the the gear E is free to rotate the average speed of the wheels is the
same as the case. Therefore if one wheel locks the second wheel would rotate at twice the speed
of the case.
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Differential Gearboxes
Power:
Generally each gear mesh will have 1% - 2% loss in efficiency, so with two different meshes from
the transmission shaft to each of the half shafts, the system will actually be 96% to 98% efficient. If
the system is assumed to be 100% efficient; then Drive Power A = Driven Power B + Driven Power
C
PA = PB + PC = T B ωB + T C ωC
Px is the power :
Tx is the Torque:
ωx = the angular velocity.
Links to Differential gear design
1. Howstuffworks differentials ...Very clear notes and illustrative graphics

2. The Antikythera Mechanism II...Useful Notes on Differential gears
3. Efunda - Differential Gears ... Clear explanation on how differential gears work
Home
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http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Differentials.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:33:13 AM

Gears- Gear Lubrication
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Gear Lubrication
Introduction
When used in a gearbox the lubricant provides two primary two benefits: to lubricate the teeth
and to remove heat generated from the gear operation. The lubricant is also often used for
lubricating the various bearing found in the gearbox. If the correct lubricant is selected for use
in a gear system it will provide slip-free power transmission at high mechanical efficiency, with
good reliability, low maintenance, and long life.
Surface fatigue occurs when the lubricant film on the gear wheel teeth is insufficient to protect
the surfaces from the stress, resulting in pitting forming in the contact region. Scuffing can
result if the lubricant film is not maintained, with the consequent increase in temperature
causing distress and wear of the material surface.
The lowest practical viscosity oil should be selected to minimise friction losses and churning.
However for low speed units with high tooth loading higher viscosity oils may be necessary
The oil should be selected is thus a compromise. Gear oil generally includes additives to
improve its load bearing properties (Extreme pressure additives), it viscosity (Viscosity Index
improvers), corrosion inhibiters etc etc>
Selection of viscosity grade - ref to viscosity notes Viscosity

Selection of lubrication oils for gearbox application should only be done with guidance from the
specialist suppliers. The following notes are intended as background guidance.
For high speed gears at lower temperatures -10o to 16o C is low viscosity oil should be
selected e.g ISO VG 46.
For medium speed at lower centre distances (less than 200mm) a viscosity grade range of ISO
VG 68 - ISO VG 100 is reasonable.
For medium speed at lower centre distances (more than 200mm) a viscosity grade range of
ISO VG 68 - ISO VG 220 is reasonable.
For low speed gears at higher temperatures up to 52o C ISO VG 150 - ISO VG 320.
For gears subject to high surface pressures and sliding then special grades of oil must be
considered including EP grades, synthetics etc.
Important Gearbox Lubrication properties

To meet the lubrication needs of modern enclosed industrial gear drives, a gear lubricant must
possess the following key performance properties:
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● thermal and oxidative stability

● thermal durability
● compatibility with seal materials
● protection against excessive gear and bearing wear
● high-temperature extreme pressure protection (EP gear oils)
● gear and bearing cleanliness
● emulsibility characteristics
● rust and corrosion protection, especially to yellow metal components
● antifoaming characteristics
Special types of oil applicable for gearbox lubrication
Rust and Oxidation-Inhibited Gear Lubricants

These lubricants are commonly referred to as R & O gear oils. They are generally petroleum
base oils or synthetic blend base oils with additive systems that protect against rust and
oxidation. In addition to rust and oxidation-inhibiting additives, some R & O gear oils contain
minute amounts of antiwear additives. The viscosity grades for R & O corresponds to the ISO
viscosity grades 32 to 320. R & O gear oils perform well over a wide range of gear drive sizes
and speeds in a temperature range of -15oC to 121oC.
Compounded Gear Lubricants

Compounded gear oils are a blend of petroleum base oils with rust and oxidation inhibitors,
demulsibility additives and 3 percent to 10 percent fatty or synthetic fatty oils. These gear oils
are frequently used in worm gear drives to provide excellent lubricity and prevent sliding
wear. Compounded gear oils are limited to an upper operating temperature limit of 82oC.
The oils are supplied in grades corresponding to ISO viscosity grades 460 to 1,000.
Extreme Pressure Gear Lubricants

These lubricants are commonly referred to as EP gear oils. EP gear oils are petroleum based
or synthetic blend based oils that contain special multi-purpose additive systems. The
additive systems contain rust and oxidation inhibitors, EP additives, demulsifiers, antifoam
agents, and in some cases solid lubricants that are collodially suspended, such as
molybdenum disulfide, borates or graphite. The EP additive system, which includes sulfur-
phosphorous, borates and sulfur-phosphorous-boron chemistries, provides a chemically
protective film that protects against welding, scuffing and scoring of the gears during boundary
lubrication conditions, which can occur at start-up, stopping and high shock loads. The EP
lubricant grades correspond to ISO viscosity grades 68 to 1,500. EP gear oils perform well
over a wide range of gear drive sizes and speeds in a temperature range of -15oC to 121oC .
Synthetic Gear Lubricants

Synthetic gear lubricants differ from petroleum base gear lubricants in that they are formulated
using synthetic base fluids. The most common types of synthetic base fluids used in the
formulation of synthetic base gear oils include: polyalphaolefins (PAO), diesters, polyol esters
and polyglycols.
Synthetic gear lubricants are used whenever petroleum base gear lubricants have reached

their performance limit. Synthetic lubricants are conventionally reserved for equipment
subjected to extreme high or low temperatures, frequent high loading and extended service
intervals to avoid both equipment and oil degredation. Synthetic lubricants have a higher
viscosity index (smaller viscosity changes with temperature variations), improved thermal and
oxidation resistance and and better lubricity. Each type of synthetic base fluid has different
characteristics and some of them may have disadvantages such as compatibility with
elastomers, paints, reactions in the presence of moisture and higher price.
Synthetic gear lubricants can also contain rust and corrosion inhibitors, EP additives,
demulsifiers, antifoam agents and in some cases solid lubricants. They can be supplied in
grades which corresponds to ISO viscosity grades 32 to 6,800. synthetic gear lubricants over
used at temperature ranges of -46o up to 125oC
Method of Lubrication
There are three primary methods of lubricating gears
● Grease lubrication
● Splash lubrication
● Spray lubrication
Grease Lubrication (0 to 6 m/s tangential gear speed )

Grease lubrication is suitable for any gear system that is open or enclosed, so long as it runs at
low speed. The grease should have a suitable viscosity with good fluidity especially in a
enclosed gear unit. Grease is not suitable for high loads and continuous operation and there
is virtually not cooling effect. The must be sufficient grease to ensure the gear teeth are
lubricated but an excess can result in viscous drag and power losses.
Splash Lubrication(4 to 15 m/s tangential gear speed )

Splash lubrication is the normal method for lubricating spur, helical, bevel and worm
gears. The gears simply dip into a bath of oil as the rotate. Splash lubrication needs at least
3 m/s tangential speed gear speed to be effective. It is important that provisions are made to
ensure the teeth are not immersed in the bath such that excessive losses result from the oil
being churned up. The oil level should be monitored under static and dynamic conditions to
ensure it is correct for the application
Spray Lubrication (above 12 m/s tangential gear speed )

For the higher speed units (10 to 20 m/s peripheral speed) engineered spray lubrication is
genally provided using shaped nozzles with oil at a circulated pressure of about 0.7 barg. At
higher speeds the system for directing the oil at the teeth needs to be carefully engineering to
ensure the oil actually reaches the contacting surfaces as centrifugal forces and escaping air
flow will tend to deflect the oil jet.
Worm gear lubrication

Worm drives are inefficient because the gears experience sliding rather than rolling contacts,

leading to operating temperatures much higher than other gear types. Spur gears normally
operate at 28°C higher than ambient temperatures while worm gear temperatures typically rise
50°C over ambient. This temperature difference is required to aid in dispersing the friction heat
generated.
Due to the sideway sliding motion in worm gears, it is difficult to maintain a hydrodynamic oil
wedge. This results in gears operating under boundary lubrication conditions. Also, high
operating temperatures that approach 88°C and higher usually require oils with an ISO VG of
460 and higher. They also require good thermal and oxidative stability. The types of oils
used to lubricate worm gears are compounded mineral oils, EP mineral gear oils and
synthetics.
Links to Gear Lubrication
1. Redline Oil ...A supplier information note (pdf file)

2. Lubricants.co.uk...John Sheard Ltd. A UK lubricants site with lots of relevant useful information
3. Mobil Gear Lubricants ... A supplier with lubricant specifications
5. ARTEC Technical Papers on Gearboxes ... A number of very informative papers - Access to some require registration
6. Machinery Lubrication ... A large collection of very useful articles available...excellent
7. QTC Gear handbook section 20 ... Extremely useful notes on gear lubrication
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Gearbox Thermal Design Consideration
ROYMECH
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Gears Gearboxes
Thermal Design of Gearboxes
Introduction
When designing a gearbox it is necessary to consider need to remove the heat that is generated
inside the gearbox due the the mechanical inefficiency of the gear action. This is not too important
for the efficient gears such as spur gears and helical gears, Generally the surface area of the
enclosing box for spur and helical gears is more than sufficient to disperse the heat to the local
environment by radiation, convection and conduction. In designing worm gearboxes the thermal
design of the gearbox is often a factor that significantly affects the system design. A worm gearbox
can be compact for a high reduction high power unit while the heat to be removed may be high
because the gear is relatively inefficient.
A worm gearbox will dissipate more heat as the external temperature rises and the ambient
temperature falls. A reasonable design ambient temperature is about 30o C. a a reasonable
maximum gearbox surface temperature is about 80o C. This reflect a temperature difference
between the lubricating oil and the ambient of nearly 50o C assuming a low temperature drop
through the gearbox walls.
For the conditions above it is reasonable to assume that a gearbox will dissipate approximately 1kW
per m2 of surface area. With a fan mounted on the worm shaft providing a reasonable relative air
flow this can be increased to about 1.7kW per m2 of surface area. These values assume flat
surfaces and do not include for conduction through the base and shafts and do not include for the
benefits from adding fins and ribs to the box external surfaces.
I have included some notes below justify, to some extent these values.
These notes relate to very approximate methods of determining the heat dissipated from a
gearbox. For serious high risk design projects it is recommended that detailed heat transfer
calculations are completed together with tests. For large power compact gearbox with high
mechanical losses to be dissipated there may be a need for integral lubrication oil cooling systems
Basic Heat Transfer Equation
A very simple heat transfer equation combining the effects of radiation and convection is provided
below :
H = C cr A c∆ t
H = Energy dissipated through the housing . (kW)

C cr = Combined (radiation/convection )heat transfer coefficient kW/( m 2. deg.C)
∆ t = Temperature difference between oil and surroundings
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Ac = Area of case exposed to ambient air temperature.
A chart below provides combined heat transfer values based on gearbox exposed area..
This graph is based on information from ..Machine design Theory and Practice .A.D.Deutschman,
W.A Michels & C.E. Wilson.. MacMillan Publishing 1975.
For a small gearbox with a surface temperature of 50o above ambient C a heat transfer of about
1,26kW /m2 is achievable.
For a large gearbox with a surface temperature of 50o above ambient a heat transfer of about
0.8kW /m2 is achievable.
If a fan is provided on the wormshaft and improvement in C cr of about 60% is possible
Ref. watlow.com includes Provides surface heat transfer information.

From this source a typical combined heat transfer coefficient for oxidised steel for an ambient air
temperature 21o. C and a body temperature of 93 o C. i.e 72o C. temperature difference is 1.0kW
per m2.
Ref. Spirax Sarco Includes a chart providing overall heat transfer values from steel tanks walls.
Temperature U - at different relative air flows

surface and Side Walls top
ambient W / (m2.oC ) W / (m2.oC )
1m/ 3m/ 1m/ 3m/
deg.C Static Static
s s s s
30 10.5 18 31.5 14 24 42
50 11.5 20 34,5 15 25,5 45
70 12 20,4 36 16 27,2 48

This table includes for static air conditions and if the air flow adjacent to the surfaces is about 1m/s
then the static values are increased by a factor of 1.7 and if the air flow is 3m/s then the static
values are increased by a factor of 3.
From this source a heat transfer coefficient of about 1 kW /m2 is achievable from a tank with side
walls and a top surface with a low ambient air movement at a temperature difference of 50o C.. This
would increase by about 75% if relative air flow is increased to 3m/s (equivalent to a slight breeze)
1. Spirax Sarco ...Steam, water and air equipment supplier with heat transfer information
2. Watlow.com ...Heater equipment supplier with heat transfer information
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Gears Gearboxes

Cams,
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Cam Design
More details on Cam design are to be found in the links below the table
INTRODUCTION
A Cam is a machine component that either rotates or moves back and forth (reciprocates) to create
a prescribed motion in a contacting element known as a follower. The shape of the contacting
surface of the cam is determined by the prescribed motion and the profile of the follower.
Cam-follower mechanisms are particularly useful when a simple motion of one part of a machine is
to be converted to a more complicated prescribed motion of another part, one that must be
accurately timed with respect to the simple motion and may include periods of rest (dwells). Cams
are essential elements in automatic machine tools, textile machinery, sewing machines, printing
machines, and many others. If the follower is not restrained by a groove on the cam, a spring is
necessary to keep the follower in contact with the cam.
Cams systems can replace relatively complicated linkages in achieving desirable motion cycles.
In all cam systems it is important that the follower is always in contact and following the motion of
the cam. This is achieved a number of ways including the following
● Gravity
● Using a mechancical constraint system i.e groove
● Using a spring force
● Using a pneumatic or hydraulic force
Cams are made in a variety of forms,including:
● A rotating disk or plate with the radial required profile;

● A reciprocating wedge of the required shape.
● A cylindrical barrel cam with a follower groove cut in the diameter
● A cylinder with the required profile cut in the end (end cam);
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Cams,
Cam followers
Cams followers can be either reciprocting or pivotting. There are various methods of transferring the motion from the cam to the follower
including the following:
● Knife Edge
● Flat-face
● Roller
● Curved-shoe /spherical
The cam follower can be either offset (as shown below) or in line with the cam centre of rotation..
Design of Cam Systems

The first stage in designing a cam system is the creation of a displacement diagram... A typical
plate cam with an in-line roller follower is shown below with a displacement diagram. This figure
shows the following characteristic features

Cams,
● The rise- This is when the follower is moving away from the cam centre. The slope reflects the follower velocity
● The dwell- the is the period when the follower is stationary
● The return - This is when the follower moves back towards the cam centre
● The base circle on the cam is the smallest full diameter of the cam
● The prime circle is centered on the cam rotation centre with radius at the follower roller centre when the follower is on the base
circle
● The cam profile is the shaped surface of the cam defining the follower motion
>
The diagram below shows a plate cam with a flat face follower showing twelve follower positions..

Cams,
The diagram below shows a plate cam with an offset roller follower showing twelve follower
positions..
The diagram below shows a plate cam with an pivoting follower showing twelve follower positions..

Cams,
Kinematic Coefficients of Cam

The displacement diagram is a plot of the cam displacement vs the cam angle e.g. y = f(θ)
It is possible to plot additional graphs as follows
1) The First order Kinematic Relationship
f'(θ) = dy /dθ..
This is a plot of the slope of the displacement graph and thus the rate of movement of the
follower. High values of f'(θ) result in very steep cam slopes with a risk the the follower will jam
2) The Second order Kinematic Relationship
f''(θ) = d2y /dθ2..
This is related to the curvature of the cam. If f''(θ) becomes very large the curvature of the cam
approaches zero ( a point). This is highly unsatisfactory as it results in very high contact stresses
and consequent wear...
To be continued
Links to Cam Design
1. R.D.Dane Coporation..Components
2. Technology Students Site..Notes on Cam Types
3. Introduction to Mechanisms Chapter 6 Cams ..useful Information on Cam Design
4. Cam and Follower systems ..Educational animations
5. Co-Design Cam Mechanisms..Design Guidance Notes

Cams,
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Springs Index
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Spring Design Index

INTRODUCTION
A Spring is an engineering component which when deflected by a force tends to return to its unloaded shape. Ideally the energy input to
cause the deflection is usefully recovered. Springs are mechanical components designed to store mechanical energy, working on the
principle of flexible deformation of material. Springs constitute one of the most widely used group of components in mechanical
engineering. When designing and/or selecting metal springs consideration should be given to material, manufacturing process, heat
treatment, dynamic properties, elastic properties, strength, fatigue, shock, stability, surging etc etc. Spring types include
Metal Springs...... Helical Compression Springs, Helical Extension Springs, Helical Torsion Springs.. Coil Springs, Disc Springs, Leaf
Springs, Spiral Springs
Other spring Types....Air Springs, Elastomer Springs
Notes on spring design are found on the following linked pages..
General Notes Materials Helical Springs Disc Springs

Leaf Springs Torsion Springs Fatigue Stability
Links to Spring Design
1. Mitcalc ...A excel based software package -very convenient to use

2. Circlips.com ...Site contains very useful spreadsheet based calculators
3. Valleyspring ...An excellent download paper on disc springs
4. How to make springs ...A very informative website on springs and how to design and make them
Home
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Power Screws
ROYMECH
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Power Screws
More details on Power Screw design are to be found in the links below the table
Power Screw Torque /Efficiency Equations....... Power Screw Strength Equations
INTRODUCTION
Power Screws are used for providing linear motion in a smooth uniform manner. They are linear actuators
that transform rotary motion into linear motion. Power screws are are generally based on Acme , Square,
and Buttress threads. Ball screws are a type of power screw. Efficiencies of between 30% and 70% are
obtained with conventional power screws. Ball screws have efficiencies of above 90%.
Power Screws are Used for the following three reasons
● To obtain high mechanical advantage in order to move large loads with minimum effort. e.g Screw Jack.
● To generate large forces e.g A compactor press.
● To obtain precise axial movements e.g. A machine tool lead screw.
Square Form
This form is used for power/force transmission i.e. linear jacks, clamps. The friction is low and there is no
radial forces imposed on the mating nuts. The square thread is the most efficient conventional power
screw form. It is the most difficult form to machine. It is not very compatible for using split nuts-as used
on certain machine tool system for withdrawing the tool carriers
Acme Form
Used for power transmission i.e. lathe lead screws. Is easier to manufacture compared to a square
thread. It has superior root strength characteristics compared to a square thread. The acme screw thread
has been developed for machine tool drives. They are easy to machine and can be used with split
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Power Screws
nuts. The thread has an optimum efficiency of about 70% for helix angles between 25o and 65o. Outside
this range the efficiency falls away.
Buttress Form
A strong low friction thread. However it is designed only to take large loads in on direction. For a given
size this is the strongest of the thread forms. When taking heavy loads on the near vertical thread face this
thread is almost as efficient as a square thread form
Recirculating Ball Screw

This type of power screw is used for high speed high efficiency duties. The ball screw is used for more
and more applications previously completed by the conventional power screws.
The ball screw assembly is as shown below and includes a circular shaped groove cut in a helix on the
shaft. The ball nut also includes an internal circular shaped groove which matches the shaft groove. The
nut is retained in position on the shaft by balls moving within the groove. When the nut rotates relative to
the shaft the balls move in one direction along the groove supporting any axial load. When the balls
reach one end of the nut they are directed back to the other end via ball guides. The balls are therefore
being continuously recirculated.

Power Screws
The recirculated ball screw has the following advantages and disadvantages to the conventional threaded
power screws:
Advantages
● High Efficiency - Over 90%

● Predictable life expectancy -
● Precise and repeatable movement
● No tendency for slip-stick
● Minimum thermal effects
● Easily preloaded to eliminate backlash-with minimum friction penalty
● Smoother movement over full travel range
● Smaller size for same load
Disadvantages
● Requires higher levels of lubrication

● Tend to overhaul- Needs additional brakes if locking is required
● Susceptible to contamination
● For the same capacity ball screws are not as rigid as conventional power screw
Roller Screw
A recent high specification power screw option is the roller screw. For this unit the nut includes a number
of special threaded rollers arranged around arround the central screw. The rollers each take a part of the
load. This system is efficient and can withstand high loads.
Links to Power Screw Design
1. On Drives ...Supplier Of All Drive Components

2. Reliance Gears ... Supplier Of All Drive Components
3. PIC Design ...On line Catalogue
4. Powerjacks ...Srewjacks and Associated components
5. SKF Linear Motion ...Large Quantity of catologue & Design information
Home

Power Screws
Machine_Parts_Index

Mechanisms
ROYMECH
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Mechanisms
More details on Mechanism design are to be found in the links below the table
Introduction
A mechanism considered to be an assembly of mechanical items designed to achieve a
specific purpose within a machine. There are clearly an infinite number of mechanisms
available but the notes and links are concentrating on the specific ones as listed below. For
specific information on linkages please refer.. Linkages
Motion Control Using Computers

The notes below relate generally to mechanical methods for providing relative motion and forces. There is an increasing tendency to
produce motions using servo hydraulic systems and stepping motors under the control of digital computers. Although the
mechanism design often requires creativity and a high level of analysis the final product is often low priced and provides reliable,
efficient, predictable performance. However a mechanism is generally made to perform a fixed operation, reliably and predictably.
Computer controlled motions can be continuously monitored and if necessary modified. If the output motion is change from a
harmonic motion to a periodic square wave motion or a sawtooth motion then changing the control parameters for a computer
controlled system is often very convenient. If a large number of systems have been developed then the cost of modifying the
software or firmware is much less than modifying a large number of mechanisms..
Although the motions of many of high technology machines and computer systems are being controlled by computers. The need for
mechanisms is also increasing in consumer goods e.g. mechanisms in consumer goods, toys, lifting equipment, vehicles, aircraft,
industrial machines, gardening implements,etc etc etc... ......
Classification Of Mechanisms
There are many methods of classifying mechanisms. The following list is a functional list based on the type of motion
required. This list is based on that provided in Theory of Machines and Mechanisms ..Uicker, Pennock, ans Shigley. The notes
below are low level descriptions. Over time additional notes will be included...For detailed analysis and synthesis please refer to the
books listed in the book section of this site.
1. Snap-Action Mechanisms
2. Linear Actuators
3. Fine Adjustment Mechanisms
4. Clamping Mechanisms
5. Location Devices
6. Ratchets
7. Escapements
8. Indexing Mechanisms
9. Swinging or Rocking Mechanisms
10. Reciprocating Mechanisms
11. Reversing Mechanisms
12. Couplings and Connectors
13. Sliding Connectors
14. Stop Pause and Hesitation Mechanisms
15. Curve Generators
16. Straight Line generators
17. Tracing Mechanisms
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Mechanisms
Snap Action Mechanisms

Snap action mechanisms are also called toggle and bi-stable mechanism are widely used for
components for simple toggle switches to clamps. A typical toggle mechanism is shown
below...
Linear Actuators
Stationary Screws with rotating nuts

This group include machine tool traversing mechanisms, jacks, valve drives etc etc.
These mechanism essentially convert rotary motion to linear motion. High mechanical
advantages can result from components which are convenient to design and engineer. The
output motions and forces are very easy to evaluate for the input forces.
Stationary Nuts with with rotating screw

This group includes power screw actuators, valve drives, jacks. The characteristics of this
group is essentially the same as the group with stationary screws and rotating nuts
Single and double acting hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders

This is a massive group including positioning cylinders, rams jacks . The motions and forces
are very easy to calculate..The motion involves convertion of potential energy in fluid to kinetic
energy of the motion of the component moved by the cylinder
Fine adjustment mechanisms

A fine adjusting mechanism is primarily used for control where small movement are required
resulting from larger movements of the input. The variations of this group include screws,
differential screws, gears, cams.etc etc. A typical method of providing small output rotations
from input motions is shown below.. One rotation of the input shaft will result in a linear motion
of the carriage of 0,5mm..
Clamping Mechanisms
Typical clamping mechanisms include toolmakers clamps, G clamps, screw clamps, clamps

Mechanisms
based on cams. Clamps result from lever actions, screw forces, toggle motions..The two
important factors in the engineering of a clamp is the method of applying a high force and the
method of retaining the force after removal of the input motion...
Toggle Clamp
Toolmakers
G Clamp Cam Clamp
Clamp
Horizontal In-Line Vertical Toggle Clamp

ToggleClamp
Location Devices
Location devices often involve positioning and centralising of the component being located.
Jigs and fixtures are used widely in industry for locating items prior to machining or assembly..
Ratchets
A ratchet is used to ensure that the motion of the output device is only allow in one direction
even though the input motion may be in either direction or ocillatory. Refer to Links below
Ratchet Notes.
Escapements
Escapements are used for to control continuous motion to produce a highly controlled step
motion at a fixed rate. Escapements are used for mechanically driven clocks. When used with
clocks the escapement controls the spring driven clock mechanism such that it moves in
regulated steps controlled by a pendulum or an oscillating arm . Refer to Links below
Escapement Notes.
Indexing Mechanisms
Indexing mechanisms generally converts a rotating,rocking or oscillatory motion to a series of
step movements of the output link or shaft. Indexing mechanisms are useful for counters and
machine tool feeds. Refer to Links below
Indexing Notes.

Mechanisms
Swinging Or Rocking Mechanisms

This type of mechanism produces a swinging or rocking motion of a link. The motion is
generally less than 360o and is an oscillatory motion.
Rocking/ Oscillatory Mechanism Notes.
Reciprocating Mechanisms
Reciprocating straight line motion is most generally completed using pneumatic, hydraulic,
and electric linear actuators. Reciprocating motion is also achieved using rack and pinion,
and cams. Historically a number of machines have been operated very successfully using
specially developed mechanisms.
Reciprocating Mechanism Notes.
Reversing Mechanisms
To obtain reverse motion is comparatively easy using pneumatic, hydraulic, levers and gears
methods.
Reverse Linear Motion Using 2-Racks and a Reverse Rotational Reverse Linear
Pinion Motion using 2 Pinions Motion using
Links
A mechanism capable of delivering output motion in either direction can also be achieve using
pneumatic and hydraulic systems with appropriate direction control valves. A lever or gear
type system would require the use of some type of clutch. Some two-way clutches which
connect one output shaft to one of two drive shafts rotating in the opposite directions can
result in a direction reversal of the output shaft without stopping the drive shaft. This, of
course assumes no problems due to inertia.
Rotational Couplings / Connectors

Transmitting motion between parallel, coaxial, intersecting and skewed shafts is achieved
using mechanical coupling systems. There are a wide range of different designs of couplings.
The basic simple design of coupling is used to transmit rotary motion in both directions
between two co-axial shaft. The design of these couplings is based on the torque to be
transmitted, the speed, and the degree of misalignment..
The available range of gear designs can be used to connect shafts of virtually any relative
orientation. Gears not only allow the transfer of rotation but also direction and speed.
Belt drives can also be used to couple shafts together. The method can accomodate various
relative shaft positions and can be designed such that the relative shaft positions can vary as
rotation is taking place.

Mechanisms
Chain drives provide more positive coupling than belt drives but are not as positive as gear
drives..
Typical couplings based on simple link systems are shown below. These methods are limited
in the power that can be transmitted and the evenness of the output shaft motion.
Universal Coupling
Realeaux Coupling
Sliding Connectors
Sliding connectors are used when one slider is used to drive another slider. The normal
problem is that the sliders operate on the same plane but in different directions..Different
methods of solving this problem include
1. Using Rigid links between the slider with pivot points on the sliders
2. Joining the sliders with belts, chains or guided chains- push_pull chains
3. Fastening racks to each slider and mechanically joining the sliders using gears
4. Using Rigid links between the slider with pivot points on the sliders
5. Using Flexible drive systems
6. Using hydraulic cylinders.
Simple sliding linkage coupling Simple sliding coupling using Rack & Pinions
Stop and Dwell Mechanisms

The most obvious example of this type of mechanism is that used to control the valves on and
internal combustion engine. The valve has to open, remain open for a fixed part of the cycle,
close, and remain close for a fixed part of the cycle. The solution for this type of mechanism is

Mechanisms
to use of cam controlling the motion of the valve stem.
Indexing mechanisms as described in the indexing section can often provide stop and dwell
motions.
Curve Generators
The four bar chain can be used to generate and infinite range of curves by adjusting the two
fixed pivot points and the lengths of the links. The curves generated by the free pivot points
are obviously circles with radii = to the length of the links to the adjacent fixed pivot points. The
motion of points along the coupler between the two free pivot points is however complex and
variable.
The modern method of developing curve motion is to use Numerical control methods
combined with hydraulic, or electronic servo drives. The are however opportunities for using
direct mechanical systems for low cost components.
Straight Line Generators

The clear obvious method of developing a straight line motion is to use a machined
slideway. The obvious alternative method is to use computer controlled electric or hydraulic
drive systems. However in the early days of the engineering industry these options were not
available and methods of generating straight lines using linkages were developed. These
systems all resulted in approximate straight lines but they were generally sufficient for the
requirements.
Whitworth Straight Line Mechanism

<
Chebychev Straight Line
Roberts Straight Line Mechanism
Mechanism
Path Following Mechananisms

The pantograph (ref figure below) is a linkage mechanism that is used to trace the movement
of a point at a larger or small scale. Movement of point p is copied by movement of point
p'. The geometric requirement of the pantagraph linkage are that the links a,b,c & d form an
equal sided parallelogram.

Mechanisms
Links to Mechanism Design
1. Rapid Design through Virtual and Physical Prototyping... Index Of Mechanism Terminologies
2. Brock Eng. (Virtual mechanisms)...Excellent Notes and Graphics
3. D& T Online ..A review of various types of mechanisms
4. Co-Design Planar Mechanisms..Design Guidance Notes
5. Mechanisms -Brief Notes..U of Texas at Austen - Very good notes certainly not brief
6. Four-Bar Linkage Analysis and Synthesis ..A site with web based applets
7. Mechanisms ..A site with lots of useful moving graphics for simple mechanisms
8. Techno somner ..A company supplying a wide range of mechansims
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Shock Absorbers
ROYMECH
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Shock Absorbers
These notes are very basic ..More detailed notes on shock absorber /isolation systems will be provided at a future date.
More details on Shock Absorber design are to be found in the links below the table
Introduction..... Shock absorber types..... Comparing Spring and Compensating Type..... Determining Energy to be absorbed .....
Introduction
Reference Impact loads/stresses Impact Loading
The notes relate to simple examples of shock absorber/ isolation systems provided to minimise the
risk of damage from impacts e.g. to prevent damage if a support screw fails and a load is
accidentally released.
The detailed analysis of shock absorber/isolation systems is very complicated and involves
assessment of the dynamic response of the equipment to different types of activating energy
inputs. The notes below relate only to illustrating the benefits of using shock absorbers to reduce
the forces experienced by equipment to impacts. The more complicated scenarios involving
systems continuously operating and withstanding sudden changes of loading and acceleration e.g
car suspension systems and aircraft landing gear, are outside of the scope of this work.
Moving objects have kinetic energy related to their velocity and their mass. If the velocity of an
object is significantly changed in a short time span e.g. it impacts on a stationary body, then high
forces result. These forces can be useful e.g a forging press using the kinetic energy to form
metal. However real life impact forces (shock loads) are generally very destructive and are
avoided.
Kinetic energy increases in a direct ratio to the mass and to the velocity squared. The heavier the
object, or the faster it travels, the more energy it has. Methods of energy absorption include rubber
buffers, metal springs, air springs, and hydraulic shock absorbers. When the systems have to
continuously operate under the influence of shock loads the shock isolation system generally
include spring-dashpot isolation systems. For simple shock absorber applications required to
mitigate the effect of a single events then viscous dampers which dissipate the energy, as heat rise
of a fluid, are often preferred.
In normal everyday life simple examples of shock absorber systems include crash helmets, steel
toe caps in industrial boots, collapsible bumpers on cars, motor way barriers.
The notes below are general in nature provided to show the benefits of using shock absorbers. For
more detailed information - links are provided to shock absorber suppliers.
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Shock Absorbers
Shock Absorber types
There are a number of different methods of converting an impact /collision into relatively smooth
cushioned contact..
● Metal Spring
● Rubber Buffer
● Hydraulic Dashpot
● Collapsing safety Shock Absorbers
● Pneumatic Cylinders
● Self compensating Hydraulic
Metal Springs ..
Simply locating metal springs to absorb the impact loads are a low cost method of reducing the
collision speed and reducing the shock loading. They are able to operate in very arduous
conditions under a wide range of temperatures. These devices have high stopping forces at end of
stroke. Metal springs store energy rather than dissipating it . If metal sprint type shock absorbers
are used then measures should be provided to limit oscillations ---Metal spring are often used with
viscous dampers .
There are a number of different types of metal springs includine helical springs, bellville washers
(cone-springs), leaf springs, ring springs, mesh springs etc etc. Each spring type has its own
operating characteristics.
Elastomeric Shock absorbers..

These are a low cost options for reducing the collision speed and reducing the shock loading and
providing system damping. They are conveniently moulded to suitable shapes. These devices
have high stopping forces at end of stroke with significant internal damping. Elastomeric dampers
are very widely used because of the associated advantages of low cost and mouldability together
with performance benefits. The inherent damping of elastomers is useful in preventing excessive
vibration amplitude at resonance - much reduced compared to metal springs.
However elastomer based shock absorbers are limited in being affected by high and low
temperatures. and are subject to chemical attack. Silcone rubber is able to provide reasonable
mechanical properties between temperatures of -50O to +180O deg. C- most other elastomers have
inferior temperature tolerance.
Hydraulic Dashpot
This type of shock absorber is based on a simple hydraulic cylinder. As the piston rod is moved
hydraulic fluid is forced through an orifice which restricts flow and consequently provides a
controlled resistance to movement of the piston rod.
With only one metering orifice the moving load is abruptly slowed down at the start of the stroke.
The braking force rises to a very high peak at the start of the stroke and then falls away rapidly. On
completion of the stroke the system is stable - the energy being dissipated in the hydraulic fluid as
heat. These type of shock aborbers are provided with springs sufficient to return the actuator to its
initial position after the impacting load is removed.

Shock Absorbers
Collapsing Safety Shock Absorbers

These are single use units which are generally specially designed for specific duties. They are
designed such that at impact they collapse and the impact energy is absorbed as the materials
distort in their inelastic/yield range. They therefore are more compact compared to devices based
on deflections within their elastic range.
Air ( Pneumatic) Springs

These devices use air as the resilient medium . Air has a high energy storage capacity compared to
metal or elastomer materials. For duties with high loads and deflections the air spring is generally
far more compact that the equivalent metal or elastomer device.
Due to the compressibility of air these have a sharply rising force characteristic towards the end of
the stroke. The majority of the energy is absorbed near the end of the stroke. The force on an air
cylinder buffer is determined by the relationship PVn = constant.
Air springs require more maintenance than meal or elastomer based springs and the temperature
range is restricted compared to metal springs.
Self compensating Hydraulic

These devices are similar to the hydraulic dashpot type except that a number of orifices are
provided allowing different degrees of restriction throughout the stroke.
These devices are engineered to bring the moving load is smoothly and gently to rest by a constant
resisting force throughout the entire shock absorber stroke. The load is decelerated with the lowest
possible force in the shortest possible time eliminating damaging force peaks and shock damage to
machines and equipment. These type of shock absorbers are provided with springs sufficient to
return the actuator to its initial position after the impacting load is removed.
Shock Absorber Comparison
These notes identify the high force that can result from and impact and the show the reduction in
force by use of a spring and a compensating hydraulic shock absorber. The example is provides as
a general illustration and is very much simplified.
Force resulting from impact with NO shock absorber included
Considering a very simple duty of dropping a 1 kg load through 1m onto a machine element
represented by a short steel column 0,1m dia by 0,2m long made form steel.

Shock Absorbers
The stiffness of the column k = AE / l.

A = 0,00784m2
E = 21x1010 Pa (N/m2
l = 0,2m
The stiffness of the column k is the Load /unit deflection is calculated as..
k = 0,0784.21x21x1010 /0,2 = 8,25x 1010N/m
To calculate the maximum force resulting from the dropped load assuming conservation of energy.
The strain energy absorbed by the column = the Potential energy absorbed from the dropped load.
The potential energy of the load = E 1
E 1=Mgh = 4.905 Nm.
This equals the strain energy absorbed by the load at impact
The strain energy absorbed = Pmaxδmax /2 = Pmax2 / 2 k
Therefore to clculate the maximum force developed Pmax
Pmax = Sqrt (2.E1.k) = Sqrt (4,905.8,25. 1010 ) = 899kN
This value can also be determined in a similar manner using the principles established on page
Impact Loading

Shock Absorbers
The stress assuming the load is applied gradually = σst = Mg/A
σst = 1.9,81/0,00784 =1249 N/m2
The static deflection δst = W/k = Mg /k
δst = 10.9,81/8,25x 1010 = 1,19x 10-10m
With reference to Impact Loading The Maximum stress = obtained from
The maximum stress can be obtained from
The maximum force experienced as a result of the dropped load
Pmax= σmax.A = 899kN
Maximum force Resulting From Use of Spring
If a spring with a stroke of 0,1m is located on the top surface as shown below
The resulting maximum force is determined as follows.

Shock Absorbers
Energy to be absorbed = E1 = Mgh. = 4.905 Nm
Strain energy of spring = Fδspring /2
Therefore Maximum force = 2Mgh/δspring = 98.1N
Use of the spring has reduced the maximum force by a factor of 10. However the spring is now
exerting an upwrd force which will cause the load to rebound upwards. Detailed analysis of the
system response is required to arrive at the total motion history of this event
Maximum force Resulting From Use A compensating Hydraulic Shock absorber
If a Shock absorber with a stroke of 0,1m is located on the top surface as shown below
It is assumed that the shock absorber is designed to provide a constant decelaration force
throughout its stroke..
The resulting maximum force is determined as follows.
Energy to be absorbed = E1 = Mgh. = 4.905 Nm
Energy to be dissipated in the shock absorber = Fδsh_ab
Therefore Maximum force = Mgh/δsh_ab = 49.05 N
The energy has been dissipated in heating up the hydraulic fluid in the shock absorber. When the
load has come to rest the system is in a stable state. The maximum force transmitted to the column
during impact is 1/20 that experienced by without the shock absorber.
Shock absorber duty requirement
The capacity of a shock absorber is determined by calculating the energy to be absorbed. The
calculation of the energy absorbed is shown in the notes below which illustrate some of the different
applications.
● Free falling mass;

● Horizontally moving mass without propelling force,
● Horizontally moving mass with propelling force,

Shock Absorbers
● Free falling mass on incline;

● Mass moving down incline with downward force
● Mass moving up incline with upward force
● Swinging mass without propelling Torque
● Swinging mass with propelling Torque
Free falling mass;
Assessing the shock absorber requirements.
Th energy to be absorbed at first impact with the shock absorber E 1= Mgh.
E 1= Mgh.
The additional energy to be absorbed in the shock absorber stroke
E 2= Mgs.
The total energy to be absorbed by the shock absorber
E t= E 1+ E 2
The total energy to be absorbed/hour by the shock absorber. (n = number of operations per hour)
E th= E tn
The velocity at impact on the shock absorber
v d = Sqrt(2gh)

Shock Absorbers
The equivalent weight to be supported by the shock absorber
Me= 2M / v d2
Horizontal moving mass;
Assessing the shock absorber requirements.
Assuming moving friction = 0

The energy to be absorbed at first contact with the shock absorber E 1.
E 1= Mv2/ 2
E 2= 0
E t= E 1+ E 2
E th= E tn
vd=v
Me= M

Shock Absorbers
Horizontal moving mass with constant propelling force;

v = velocity at initiation of propelling force.
H = distance over which propelling force is operating.
Th energy to be absorbed at first contact with the shock absorber E 1.
E 1= Mvd2 /2
E 2= Fs
E t= E 1+ E 2
E th= E tn
Me= 2.Et / v d2

Shock Absorbers
Mass Moving down incline

Assuming mass starts from a resting position
The energy to be absorbed at first contact with the shock absorber E 1
E 1= Mgh = Mvd2 / 2.

(No Driving Force F = 0)
E 2=M g s sin θ
E t= E 1+ E 2
E th= E tn
vd = Sqrt (2 g h)
Me= 2.Et / v d2

Shock Absorbers
Mass Moving down incline with downward force

h = Vertical distance over which propelling force is operating.
E 1= (F sin θ + Mg)h = Mvd2 / 2.

propelling Force Down incline
E2 = (F + Mg sinθ) · s
E t= E 1+ E 2
E th= E tn

Shock Absorbers
Me= 2.Et / v d2
Mass Moving up incline due to upward force

h = Vertical distance over which propelling force is operating.
The energy to be absorbed at first contact with the shock absorber E 1.
E 1= (F sin θ - Mg)h =Mvd2 /2
E2 = (F - M g sinθ) · s
E t= E 1+ E 2
E th= E tn

Shock Absorbers
Me= 2.Et / v d2
Swinging Mass Without Propelling Torque
The swinging mass is assumed to be swinging on a horizontal plane.

If the mass is swinging in a vertical plane then the effects of gravity are not considered
E 1= Mv2/2 = Iω2 /2
E2 = 0
E t= E 1+ E 2
E th= E tn

Shock Absorbers
vd = vR/L = ωR
Me= 2.Et / v d2
Swinging Mass With constant Propelling Torque T
The swinging mass is assumed to be swinging on a horizontal plane.

If the mass is swinging in a vertical plane then the effects of gravity are not considered
E 1= Mv2/2 = Iω2 /2
E2 = Ts /R
E t= E 1+ E 2
E th= E tn
vd = vR/L = ωR

Shock Absorbers
Me= 2.Et / v d2

2. Shock Absorbers ...Notes Briely reviewing the different types of shock absorbers
3. Shock absorber design ...pdf download discussing shock absorber design principles - related to aircraft
4. Shock absorbers for Dummies ...A review of shock absorbers used for Road vehicles
5. Shock Absorbers ...A concise review of shock absorbers as used for automotive applications
6. Ace Controls ...Shock absorber supplier catalogue including required calculations
7. Enertrols ...Shock absorber supplier USA based - mostly imperial units
8. Enidene - Shock Absorber Theory ...Some useful notes from a supplier
9. Vibration and Shock Isolation ...A pdf Download including basic theory on subject
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Machine_Parts_Index

BS 4504 PN16 Flange Dimensions

ROYMECH
Home
Flange - Pipe Index
BS4504 PN 16 Dimensions
Note: Now obsolete and replaced by BS EN 1092-1 see flange index page.
DN = Nominal
size, D =
Outside
Diameter, A =
Outside Dia
of Neck , B1
= Bore of
Type 101 &
112 Flange,
C1 =
Thickness of
Plate Flange,
C2 =
Thickness of
Weld_Neck
and Boss
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Flanges/BS4504_16_Dimensions.html (1 of 5)10/24/2006 11:34:14 AM

Flange , N1 =
Dia of Weld
Neck , N2 =
Dia of Boss ,
R = corner
Radius, H1 =
Length of
Boss Flange,
H2 = Length
of Weld Neck
Flange, H3 =
Length of
Neck :
Note: The
flanges
shown are
only a small
part of the
range
covered in BS
4504.
The Facings
shown are
type B
(Raised
Face). Other
Facings
include:
Type A..
Flat: Type C..
Tongue:
Type D..
Groove
Type E..
Spigot: :Type
F..Recess:
Type G..O-
ring
Recess: Type
H.,0-ring
Groove:

Note : All Dimensions in mm
DN D C1 C2 H1 H2 H3 R A N1 N2 B1 d1 f1
10 90 14 14 20 35 6 3 17,2 28 30 18 40 2
15 95 14 14 20 35 6 3 21,3 32 35 22 45 2
20 105 14 14 24 38 6 4 26,9 39 45 27,5 58 2
25 115 16 16 24 38 6 4 33,7 46 52 34,5 68 2
32 140 18 16 26 40 6 5 42,4 56 60 43,5 78 2
40 150 18 16 26 42 7 5 48,3 64 70 49,5 88 3
50 165 20 18 28 45 8 5 60,3 74 84 61,5 102 3
65 185 20 18 32 45 10 6 76,1 92 104 77,5 122 3
80 200 20 20 34 50 10 6 88,9 110 118 90,5 138 3
100 220 22 20 40 52 12 6 114,3 130 140 116 162 3
125 250 22 22 44 55 12 6 139,7 158 168 141,5 188 3
150 285 24 22 44 55 12 8 168,3 184 195 170,5 212 3
200 340 26 24 44 62 16 8 219,1 234 246 221,5 268 3
250 405 29 26 46 70 16 10 273 288 298 276,5 320 3
300 460 32 28 46 78 16 10 323,9 342 350 327,5 378 4
350 520 35 30 57 82 16 10 355,6 390 400 359 438 4
400 580 38 32 63 85 16 10 406,4 444 456 411,0 490 4
450 640 42 34 68 87 16 12 457,0 490 502 462,0 550 4
500 715 46 34 73 90 16 12 508,0 546 559 513,5 610 4
600 840 52 36 83 95 18 12 610,0 650 658 616,5 725 5
700 910 60 36 83 100 18 12 711,0 750 760 - 795 5
800 1025 68 38 90 105 20 12 813,0 848 864 - 900 5
900 1125 76 40 94 110 20 12 914,0 948 968 - 1000 5
1000 1255 84 42 100 120 22 12 1016,0 1056 1072 - 1115 5
1200 1485 98 48 - 130 30 12 1220,0 1260 - - 1330 5
1400 1685 - 52 - 145 30 12 1420,0 1465 - - 1530 5
1600 1930 - 58 - 160 35 12 1620,0 1668 - - 1750 5
Flange Bolting

K = Bolt Circle Diameter, L = Dia Of Bolt Hole,

No = Number of Holes , Size = Size of Bolts
DN K L No Size
mm mm mm - mm
10 60 14 4 M12
15 65 14 4 M12
20 75 14 4 M12
25 85 14 4 M12
32 100 18 4 M16
40 110 18 4 M16
50 125 18 4 M16
65 145 18 8 M16
80 160 18 8 M16
100 180 18 8 M16
125 210 18 8 M16
150 240 22 8 M20
200 295 22 12 M20
250 355 26 12 M24
300 410 26 12 M24
350 470 26 16 M24
400 525 30 16 M27
450 585 30 20 M27
500 650 33 20 M30
600 770 36 20 M33
700 840 36 24 M33
800 950 39 24 M36
900 1050 39 28 M36
1000 1170 42 28 M39
1200 1390 48 32 M45
1400 1590 48 36 M45
1600 1820 56 40 M52
DN K L No Size

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Steel Flange Index

BS EN 1092 PN16 Flange Dimensions

ROYMECH
Home
Flange - Pipe Index
BS EN 1092-1 PN 16 Dimensions
DN = Nominal
size, D =
Outside
Diameter, A =
Outside Dia of
Neck , B1 =
Bore of Type
01 & 12
Flange, C1 =
Thickness of
Plate Flange,
C2 =
Thickness of
Weld_Neck
and Boss
Flange , N1 =
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Flanges/BSEN1092_16_Dimensions.html (1 of 6)10/24/2006 11:34:21 AM

Dia of Weld
Neck , N2 =
Dia of Boss ,R
= corner
Radius, H1 =
Length of Boss
Flange,
H2 = Length of
Weld Neck
Flange, H3 =
Length of
Neck : S =
neck thickness
Note: The
flange types
shown are
only a small
part of the
range covered
in BS EN 1092-
1.
● type 05 is a
blank flange
● type13 is a
screwed
boss flange
● type 02 is a
loose plate
flange used
with either
a type 32
weld on
plate collar
or
a type 33
lapped pipe
end
● a type 04
flange is a
loose flange
for use with
a
type 34 a
weld-neck
collar
● type 21 is
an integral
flange

The Facings
shown are
type B (Raised
Face). Other
Facings
include:
Type A..
Flat: Type C..
Tongue:
Type D..
Groove Type
E..Spigot: :
Type F..
Recess: Type
G..O-ring
Spigot: Type
H.,0-ring
Groove:
A typical
designation for
a flange would
be BS EN
1092-1/01B/
DN150/PN16/
*/S235JR
Key: =
Standard No/
Flange Type &
Face Type /
Nominal Size/
Pressure
Rating/*/
Material
Designation.
* Normally not
used. For 01
type flanges
above 600 mm
the bore B1
would be
specified
here . * for

type 11 and 31
the neck
thickness (S)
is specified
here.
An example
designation for
an flange for
an 800mm
pipe ... BS EN
1092-1/01B/
DN800/
PN16/818/
S235JR
This is an
extremely
simplified
note. To obtain
a
comprehensive
description
with the
various
variations the
standards
must be used.
DN D C1 C2 H1 H2 H3 R A N1 N2 B1 d1 f1 S
10 90 14 14 20 35 6 4 17,2 28 30 18 40 2 1,8
15 95 14 14 20 35 6 4 21,3 32 35 22 45 2 2,0
20 105 14 14 24 38 6 4 26,9 39 45 27,5 58 2 2,3
25 115 16 16 24 38 6 4 33,7 46 52 34,5 68 2 2,6
32 140 18 16 26 40 6 6 42,4 56 60 43,5 78 2 2,6
40 150 18 16 26 42 7 6 48,3 64 70 49,5 88 2 2,6
50 165 19 18 28 45 8 6 60,3 75 84 61,5 102 2 2,9
65 185 20 18 32 45 10 6 76,1 90 104 77,5 122 2 2,9
80 200 20 20 34 50 10 8 88,9 105 118 90,5 138 2 3,2

100 220 22 20 40 52 12 8 114,3 131 140 116 158 2 3,6

125 250 22 22 44 55 12 8 139,7 156 168 141,5 188 2 4,0
150 285 24 22 44 55 12 10 168,3 192 195 170,5 212 2 4,5
200 340 26 24 44 62 16 10 219,1 235 246 221,5 268 2 5,6
250 405 29 26 46 70 16 12 273 292 298 276,5 320 2 6,3
300 460 32 28 46 78 16 12 323,9 344 350 327,5 378 2 7,1
350 520 35 30 57 82 16 12 355,6 390 400 359 438 2 8,0
400 580 38 32 63 85 16 12 406,4 445 456 411,0 490 2 8,0
450 640 42 40 68 87 16 12 457,0 490 502 462,0 550 2 8,0
500 715 46 44 73 90 16 12 508,0 548 559 513,5 610 2 8,0
600 840 52 54 83 95 18 12 610,0 652 658 616,5 725 2 8,8
700 910 - 36 83 100 18 12 711,0 755 760 - 795 2 8,8
800 1025 - 38 90 105 20 12 813,0 855 864 - 900 2 10,0
900 1125 - 40 94 110 20 12 914,0 955 968 - 1000 2 10,0
1000 1255 - 42 100 120 22 16 1016,0 1058 1072 - 1115 2 10,0
1200 1485 - 48 - 130 30 16 1219,0 1262 - - 1330 2 12,5
1400 1685 - 52 - 145 30 16 1420,0 1465 - - 1530 2 14,2
1600 1930 - 58 - 160 35 16 1620,0 1668 - - 1750 2 16,0
Note: in BS EN 1092-1:2002 f1= 2 for all sizes.
Flange Bolting

DN K L No Size
mm mm mm - mm
10 60 14 4 M12
15 65 14 4 M12
20 75 14 4 M12
25 85 14 4 M12
32 100 18 4 M16
40 110 18 4 M16
50 125 18 4 M16
65 145 18 8 M16

80 160 18 8 M16
100 180 18 8 M16
125 210 18 8 M16
150 240 22 8 M20
200 295 22 12 M20
250 355 26 12 M24
300 410 26 12 M24
350 470 26 16 M24
400 525 30 16 M27
450 585 30 20 M27
500 650 33 20 M30
600 770 36 20 M33
700 840 36 24 M33
800 950 39 24 M36
900 1050 39 28 M36
1000 1170 42 28 M39
1200 1390 48 32 M45
1400 1590 48 36 M45
1600 1820 56 40 M52
DN K L No Size
Home
Steel Flange Index


ROYMECH
Home
Flange - Pipe Index
DN = Nominal
size, D =
Outside
Diameter, A =
Outside Dia
of Neck , B1
= Bore of
Type 101 &
112 Flange,
C1 =
Thickness of
Plate Flange,
C2 =
Thickness of
Weld_Neck
and Boss

Flange , N1 =
Dia of Weld
Neck ,N2 =
Dia of Boss ,
R = corner
Radius, H1 =
Length of
Boss Flange,
H2 = Length
of Weld Neck
Flange, H3 =
Length of
Neck :
Note: The
flanges
shown are
only a small
part of the
range
covered in BS
4504.
The Facings
shown are
type B
(Raised
Face). Other
Facings
include:
Type A..
Flat: Type C..
Tongue:
Type D..
Groove
Type E..
Spigot: :Type
F..Recess:
Type G..O-
ring
Recess: Type
H.,0-ring
Groove:

10 90 14 16 22 35 6 3 17,2 28 30 18 40 2
15 95 14 16 22 38 6 3 21,3 32 35 22 45 2
20 105 16 18 26 40 6 4 26,9 40 45 27,5 58 2
25 115 16 18 28 40 6 4 33,7 46 52 34,5 68 2
32 140 18 18 30 42 6 5 42,4 56 60 43,5 78 2
40 150 18 18 32 45 7 5 48,3 64 70 49,5 88 3
50 165 20 20 34 48 8 5 60,3 74 84 61,5 102 3
65 185 22 22 38 52 10 6 76,1 92 104 77,5 122 3
80 200 24 24 40 58 12 6 88,9 110 118 90,5 138 3
100 235 26 24 44 65 12 6 114,3 134 145 116 162 3
125 270 28 26 48 68 12 6 139,7 162 170 141,5 188 3
150 300 30 28 52 75 12 8 168,3 190 200 170,5 218 3
200 360 32 30 52 80 16 8 219,1 244 256 221,5 278 3
250 425 35 32 60 88 18 10 273,0 296 310 276,5 335 3
300 485 38 34 67 92 18 10 323,9 350 364 327,5 295 4
350 555 42 38 72 100 20 10 355,6 398 418 359,5 450 4
400 620 46 40 78 110 20 10 406,4 452 472 411,0 505 4
450 670 50 42 84 110 20 12 457,0 500 520 462,0 555 4
500 730 56 44 90 125 20 12 508,0 558 580 513,5 615 4
600 845 68 46 100 125 20 12 610,0 660 684 616,5 720 5
700 960 - 46 125 20 12 711,0 760 820 5
800 1085 - 50 135 22 12 813,0 864 - 930 5
900 1185 - 54 145 24 12 914,0 968 - 1030 5
1000 1320 - 58 155 24 12 1016,0 1070 - 1140 5
1200 1530 - - - 12 1220,0 - - 1350 5
1400 1755 - - - 12 1420,0 - - 1560 5
1600 1975 - - - 12 1620,0 - - 1780 5
Flange Bolting


DN K L No Size
mm mm mm - mm
10 60 14 4 M12
15 65 14 4 M12
20 75 14 4 M12
25 85 14 4 M12
32 100 18 4 M16
40 110 18 4 M16
50 125 18 4 M16
65 145 18 8 M16
80 160 18 8 M16
100 190 22 8 M20
125 220 26 8 M24
150 250 26 8 M24
200 310 26 12 M24
250 370 30 12 M27
300 430 30 16 M27
350 490 33 16 M30
400 550 36 16 M33
450 600 36 20 M33
500 660 36 20 M33
600 770 39 20 M36
700 875 42 24 M39
800 990 48 24 M45
900 1090 48 28 M45
1000 1210 56 28 M52
1200 1420 56 32 M52
1400 1640 62 36 M56
1600 1860 62 40 M56
DN K L No Size

Home
Steel Flange Index


ROYMECH
Home
Flange - Pipe Index
DN = Nominal
size, D =
Outside
Diameter, A =
Outside Dia of
Neck , B1 =
Bore of Type
01 & 12
Flange, C1 =
Thickness of
Plate Flange,
C2 =
Thickness of
Weld_Neck
and Boss
Flange , N1 =

Dia of Weld
Neck , N2 =
Dia of Boss ,R
= corner
Radius, H1 =
Length of Boss
Flange,
H2 = Length of
Weld Neck
Flange, H3 =
Length of
Neck : S =
neck thickness
Note: The
flange types
shown are
only a small
part of the
range covered
in BS EN 1092-
1.
● type 05 is a
blank flange
● type13 is a
screwed
boss flange
● type 02 is a
loose plate
flange used
with either
a type 32
weld on
plate collar
or
a type 33
lapped pipe
end
● a type 04
flange is a
loose flange
for use with
a
type 34 a
weld-neck
collar
● type 21 is
an integral
flange

The Facings
shown are
type B (Raised
Face). Other
Facings
include:
Type A..
Flat: Type C..
Tongue:
Type D..
Groove Type
E..Spigot: :
Type F..
Recess: Type
G..O-ring
Spigot: Type
H.,0-ring
Groove:
A typical
designation for
a flange would
be BS EN
1092-1/01B/
DN150/PN25/
*/S235JR
Key: =
Standard No/
Flange Type &
Face Type /
Nominal Size/
Pressure
Rating/*/
Material
Designation.
* Normally not
used. For 01
type flanges
above 600 mm
the bore B1
would be
specified
here . * for

type 11 and 31
the neck
thickness (S)
is specified
here.
An example
designation for
an flange for
an 800mm
pipe ... BS EN
1092-1/01B/
DN800/
PN25/818/
S235JR
This is an
extremely
simplified
note. To
obtain a
comprehensive
description
with the
various
variations the
standards
must be used.
10 90 14 14 20 35 6 4 17,2 28 30 18 40 2 1,8
15 95 14 14 20 35 6 4 21,3 32 35 22 45 2 2,0
20 105 14 14 24 38 6 4 26,9 39 45 27,5 58 2 2,3
25 115 16 16 24 38 6 4 33,7 46 52 34,5 68 2 2,6
32 140 18 16 26 40 6 6 42,4 56 60 43,5 78 2 2,6
40 150 18 16 26 42 7 6 48,3 64 70 49,5 88 2 2,6
50 165 20 20 34 48 8 6 60,3 75 84 61,5 102 2 2,9
65 185 22 22 38 52 10 6 76,1 90 104 77,5 122 2 2,9
80 200 24 24 40 58 12 8 88,9 105 118 90,5 138 2 3,2

100 235 26 24 44 65 12 8 114,3 134 145 116 162 2 3,6

125 270 28 26 48 68 12 10 139,7 162 170 141,5 188 2 4,2
150 300 30 28 52 75 12 10 168,3 192 200 170,5 218 2 4,5
200 360 32 30 52 80 16 10 219,1 244 256 221,5 278 2 6,3
250 425 35 32 60 88 18 12 273,0 298 310 276,5 335 2 7,1
300 485 38 34 67 92 18 12 323,9 352 364 327,5 295 2 8,0
350 555 42 38 72 100 20 12 355,6 398 418 359,5 450 2 8,0
400 620 46 40 78 110 20 12 406,4 452 472 411,0 505 2 8,8
450 670 50 46 84 110 20 12 457,0 500 520 462,0 555 2 8,8
500 730 56 48 90 125 20 12 508,0 558 580 513,5 615 2 10,0
600 845 68 58 100 125 20 12 610,0 660 684 616,5 720 2 11,0
700 960 - 46 - 125 20 12 711,0 760 - - 820 2 12,5
800 1085 - 50 - 135 22 12 813,0 864 - - 930 2 14,2
900 1185 - 54 - 145 24 12 914,0 968 - - 1030 2 16,0
1000 1320 - 58 - 155 24 16 1016,0 1070 - - 1140 2 17,5
1200 1530 - - - - - 18 1219,0 - - - 1350 2 -
1400 1755 - - - - - 18 1422,0 - - - 1560 2 -
1600 1975 - - - - - 20 1626,0 - - - 1780 2 -
Flange Bolting

DN K L No Size
mm mm mm - mm
10 60 14 4 M12
15 65 14 4 M12
20 75 14 4 M12
25 85 14 4 M12
32 100 18 4 M16
40 110 18 4 M16
50 125 18 4 M16
65 145 18 8 M16

80 160 18 8 M16
100 190 22 8 M20
125 220 26 8 M24
150 250 26 8 M24
200 310 26 12 M24
250 370 30 12 M27
300 430 30 16 M27
350 490 33 16 M30
400 550 36 16 M33
450 600 36 20 M33
500 660 36 20 M33
600 770 39 20 M36
700 875 42 24 M39
800 990 48 24 M45
900 1090 48 28 M45
1000 1210 56 28 M52
1200 1420 56 32 M52
1400 1640 62 36 M56
1600 1860 62 40 M56
DN K L No Size
Home
Steel Flange Index

Disclaimer:
The
information
on this
page has
not been
checked by
an
independent
person.
Use this
information
at your own
risk.
ROYMECH
Home
Steel Flange Index

DN = Nominal
size, D =
Outside
Diameter, A =
Outside Dia
of Neck , B1
= Bore of
Type 101 &
112 Flange,
C1 =
Thickness of
Plate Flange,
C2 =
Thickness of
Weld_Neck
and Boss
Flange , N1 =
Dia of Weld
Neck , N2 =
Dia of Boss,
R = corner
Radius, H1 =
Length of
Boss Flange,
H2 = Length
of Weld Neck
Flange, H3 =
Length of
Neck :
Note: The
flanges
shown are
only a small
part of the
range
covered in BS
4504.
The Facings
shown are
type B
(Raised

Face). Other
Facings
include:
Type A..
Flat: Type C..
Tongue:
Type D..
Groove
Type E..
Spigot: :Type
F..Recess:
Type G..O-
ring
Recess: Type
H.,0-ring
Groove:
10 90 14 16 22 35 6 3 17,2 28 30 18 40 2
15 95 14 16 22 38 6 3 21,3 32 35 22 45 2
20 105 16 18 26 40 6 4 26,9 40 45 27,5 58 2
25 115 16 18 28 40 6 4 33,7 46 52 34,5 68 2
32 140 18 18 30 42 6 5 42,4 56 60 43,5 78 2
40 150 18 18 32 45 7 5 48,3 64 70 49,5 88 3
50 165 20 20 34 48 8 5 60,3 74 84 61,5 102 3
65 185 22 22 38 52 10 6 76,1 92 104 77,5 122 3
80 200 24 24 40 58 12 6 88,9 110 118 90,5 138 3
100 235 26 24 44 65 12 6 114,3 134 145 116 162 3
125 270 28 26 48 68 12 6 139,7 162 170 141,5 188 3
150 300 30 28 52 75 12 8 168,3 190 200 170,5 218 3
200 375 36 34 52 88 16 8 219,1 244 260 221,5 285 3
250 450 42 38 60 105 18 10 273 306 312 276,5 345 3
300 515 48 42 67 115 18 10 323,9 362 380 327,5 410 4
350 580 54 46 72 125 20 10 355,6 408 424 359,5 465 4
400 660 60 50 78 135 20 10 406,4 462 478 411,0 535 4
450 685 66 50 84 135 20 12 457,0 500 522 462,0 560 4

500 755 72 52 90 140 20 12 508,0 562 576 513,5 615 4

600 890 84 60 100 150 20 12 610,0 666 686 616,5 735 5
Flange Bolting

DN K L No Size
mm mm mm - mm
10 60 14 4 M12
15 65 14 4 M12
20 75 14 4 M12
25 85 14 4 M12
32 100 18 4 M16
40 110 18 4 M16
50 125 18 4 M16
65 145 18 8 M16
80 160 18 8 M16
100 190 22 8 M20
125 220 26 8 M24
150 250 26 8 M24
200 320 30 12 M27
250 385 33 12 M30
300 450 33 16 M30
350 510 36 16 M33
400 585 39 16 M36
450 610 39 20 M36
500 670 42 20 M39
600 795 48 20 M45
Home
Steel Flange Index


BS En 1092-1 PN40 Flange Dimensions

ROYMECH
Home
Flange - Pipe Index
DN = Nominal
size, D =
Outside
Diameter, A =
Outside Dia of
Neck , B1 =
Bore of Type
01 & 12
Flange, C1 =
Thickness of
Plate Flange,
C2 =
Thickness of
Weld_Neck
and Boss
Flange , N1 =

Dia of Weld
Neck , N2 =
Dia of Boss ,R
= corner
Radius, H1 =
Length of Boss
Flange,
H2 = Length of
Weld Neck
Flange, H3 =
Length of
Neck : : S =
neck thickness
Note: The
flange types
shown are
only a small
part of the
range covered
in BS EN 1092-
1.
● type 05 is a
blank flange
● type13 is a
screwed
boss flange
● type 02 is a
loose plate
flange used
with either
a type 32
weld on
plate collar
or
a type 33
lapped pipe
end
● a type 04
flange is a
loose flange
for use with
a
type 34 a
weld-neck
collar
● type 21 is
an integral
flange

The Facings
shown are
type B (Raised
Face). Other
Facings
include:
Type A..
Flat: Type C..
Tongue:
Type D..
Groove Type
E..Spigot: :
Type F..
Recess: Type
G..O-ring
Spigot: Type
H.,0-ring
Groove:
A typical
designation for
a flange would
be BS EN
1092-1/01B/
DN150/PN40/
*/S235JR
Key: =
Standard No/
Flange Type &
Face Type /
Nominal Size/
Pressure
Rating/*/
Material
Designation.
* Normally not
used. * for
type 11 and 31
the neck
thickness (S)
is specified
here.

This is an
extremely
simplified
note. To
obtain a
comprehensive
description
with the
various
variations the
standards
must be used.
10 90 14 14 20 35 6 4 17,2 28 30 18 40 2 1,8
15 95 14 14 20 35 6 4 21,3 32 35 22 45 2 2,0
20 105 14 14 24 38 6 4 26,9 39 45 27,5 58 2 2,3
25 115 16 16 24 38 6 4 33,7 46 52 34,5 68 2 2,6
32 140 18 16 26 40 6 6 42,4 56 60 43,5 78 2 2,6
40 150 18 16 26 42 7 6 48,3 64 70 49,5 88 2 2,6
50 165 20 20 34 48 8 6 60,3 75 84 61,5 102 2 2,9
65 185 22 22 38 52 10 6 76,1 90 104 77,5 122 2 2,9
80 200 24 24 40 58 12 8 88,9 105 118 90,5 138 2 3,2
100 235 26 24 44 65 12 8 114,3 134 145 116 162 2 3,6
125 270 28 26 48 68 12 10 139,7 162 170 141,5 188 2 4,2
150 300 30 28 52 75 12 10 168,3 192 200 170,5 218 2 4,5
200 375 36 34 52 88 16 10 219,1 244 260 221,5 285 2 6,3
250 450 42 38 60 105 18 12 273 306 312 276,5 345 2 7,1
300 515 48 42 67 115 18 12 323,9 362 380 327,5 410 2 8,0
350 580 54 46 72 125 20 12 355,6 408 424 359,5 465 2 8,8
400 660 60 50 78 135 20 12 406,4 462 478 411,0 535 2 11,0
450 685 66 57 84 135 20 12 457,0 500 522 462,0 560 2 12,5
500 755 72 57 90 140 20 12 508,0 562 576 513,5 615 2 14,2
600 890 84 72 100 150 20 12 610,0 666 686 616,5 735 2 16,0

Flange Bolting

DN K L No Size
mm mm mm - mm
10 60 14 4 M12
15 65 14 4 M12
20 75 14 4 M12
25 85 14 4 M12
32 100 18 4 M16
40 110 18 4 M16
50 125 18 4 M16
65 145 18 8 M16
80 160 18 8 M16
100 190 22 8 M20
125 220 26 8 M24
150 250 26 8 M24
200 320 30 12 M27
250 385 33 12 M30
300 450 33 16 M30
350 510 36 16 M33
400 585 39 16 M36
450 610 39 20 M36
500 670 42 20 M39
600 795 48 20 M45
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Steel Flange Index

Pipe_Sizes BS 1600
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Flange - Pipe Index
Pipe Outside Dia's & wall thickesses, to ANSI B36.10 and BS1600 Schedule Sizes-
Important Note:
Please check my numbers if you are doing detail design
Size Range. The range of pipe sizes in BS 1600 includes all piping shown below up to and and including 36"
Schedule s Piping
Schedule 5s, 10s , 40s and 80s apply to stainless steel (Austenitic chromium nickel) only
Schedule 40s piping includes all sizes up to, and including 12" and is dimensionally the same as Standard wall piping.
Schedule 80s piping includes all sizes up to, and including 12" and is dimensionally the same as Extra strong piping
Nom
OD Schedule vs (Wall thickness in mm)
size
Sched
Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Std.
in mm 10 Extra Strong.
5s 20 30 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Wall
s= 10s
1/8 10,3 s=1,24 1,73 2,41 1,73 2,41
s
1/4 13,7 2,24 3,02 2,24 3,02
=1,65
3/8 17,1 s=1,65 2,31 3,2 2,31 3,2
s
1/2 21,3 1,65 2,77 3,73 4,78 2,77 3,73
=2,11
3/4 26,7 1,65 s=2,11 2,87 3,91 5,56 2,87 3,91
s
1 33,4 1,65 3,38 4,55 6,35 3,38 4,55
=2,77
s
1 1/4 42,2 1,65 3,56 4,85 6,35 3,56 4,85
=2,77
s
1 1/2 48,3 1,65 3,68 5,08 7,14 3,68 5,08
=2,77
s
2 60,3 1,65 3,91 5,54 8,74 3,91 5,54
=2,77
s
2 1/2 73,0 2,11 5,16 7,01 9,53 5,16 7,01
=3,05
s
3 88,9 2,11 5,49 7,62 11,13 5,49 7,62
=3,05
3 1/2 101,6 2,11 s=3,05 5,74 8,08 5,74 8,08
4 114,3 2,11 s=3,05 6,02 8,56 11,13 13,49 6,02 8,56
5 141,3 2,77 s=3,4 6,55 9,53 12,70 15,88 6,55 9,53
6 168,3 2,77 s=3,4 7,11 10,97 14,27 18,26 7,11 10,97
8 219,1 2,77 s=3,76 6,35 7,04 8,18 10,31 12,7 15,09 18,26 20,62 23,01 8,18 12,7
s
10 273,0 3,40 6,35 7,8 9,27 12,70 15,09 18,26 21,44 25,40 28,58 9,27 12,7
=4,19
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Pipe_Sizes BS 1600
s
12 323,8 3,96 6,35 8,38 10,31 14,27 17,48 21,44 25,4 28,58 33,32 9,53 12,7
=4,57
s=
14 355,6 3,96 4,78 7,92 9,53 11,13 15,09 19,05 23,83 27,79 31,75 35,71 9,53 12,7
6,35
s=
16 406,4 4,19 4,78 7,92 9,53 12,7 16,66 21,44 26,19 30,96 36,53 40,49 9,53 12,7
6,35
s=
18 457 4.19 4,78 7,92 11,13 14,27 19,05 23,83 29,36 34,93 39,67 45,24 9,53 12,7
6,35
s=
20 508 4,78 5,54 9,53 12,70 15,09 20,62 26,19 32,54 38,10 44,45 50,01 9,53 12,7
6,35
s
22 559 4,78 =5,54 9,53 12,70 - 22,23 28,58 34,93 41,28 47,63 53,98 9,53 12,7
6,35
s
24 610 5,54 =6,35 9,53 14,27 17,48 24,61 30,96 38,89 46,02 52,37 59,54 9,53 12,7
6,35
26 660 7,92 12,7 9,53 12,7
28 711 7,92 12,7 15,88 9,53 12,7
s=
30 762 6,35 7,92 12,70 15,88 9,53 12,7
7,92
32 813 7,92 12,70 15,88 17,48 9,53 12,7
34 864 7,92 12,70 15,88 17,48 9,53 12,7
36 914 7,92 12,70 15,88 19,05 9,53 12,7
42 1067 9,53 12,7
Sched
Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Sched Std.
in mm 10 Extra Strong
5s 20 30 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Wall
s= 10s
Nom
OD Schedule vs (Wall thickness in mm)
size
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Pipe Sizes BS3600
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Flange - Pipe Index
Pipe sizes to BS3600
6mm Nominal size 10,2mm OD

Thickness
1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,3 2,6
(mm
mass/m -
0,266 0,304 0,339 0,373 0,404 0,448 0,487
kg/m
Thickness
1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,3
(mm
mass/m -
0,364 0,418 0,470 0,619 0,567 0,635 0,699 0,758 0,813 0,879
kg/m
Thickness
1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5
(mm
mass/m -
0,474 0,546 0,616 0,684 0,750 0,845 0,936 1,02 1,10 1,21 1,30 1,41
kg/m
Thickness
1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4
(mm
mass/m -
0,596 0,687 0,777 0,866 0,962 1,08 1,2 1,32 1,43 1,57 1,71 1,86 2,01 2,12
kg/m
Thickness
1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6
(mm
mass/m -
0,761 0,880 0,998 1,11 1,23 1,40 1,56 1,72 1,87 2,07 2,26 2,49 2,70 2,86 2,94
kg/m
Thickness
1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6
(mm
mass/m -
0,962 1,12 1,27 1,42 1,56 1,78 1,99 2,20 2,41 2,67 2,93 3,24 3,54 3,77 3,88
kg/m
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Pipe Sizes BS3600
Thickness
1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6
(mm
mass/m -
1,22 1,42 1,61 1,80 1,99 2,27 2,55 2,82 3,09 3,44 3,79 4,21 4,61 4,93 5,08
kg/m
Thickness
1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6
(mm
mass/m -
1,39 1,62 1,84 2,06 2,28 2,61 2,93 3,25 3,56 3,97 4,37 4,86 5,34 5,71 5,9
kg/m
Thickness
1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6 6,3
(mm
mass/m -
2,03 2,32 2,60 2,88 3,29 3,70 4,11 4,51 5,03 5,55 6,19 6,82 7,31 7,55 8,39
kg/m
Thickness
1,8 2,0 2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6 6,3 7,1 8,0
(mm
mass/m -
3,30 3,65 4,19 4,71 5,24 5,75 6,44 7,11 7,95 8,77 9,42 9,74 10,8 12,1 13,4
kg/m
Thickness
1,8 2,0 2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6 6,3 7,1 8,0
(mm
mass/m -
3,87 4,29 4,91 5,53 6,15 6,76 7,57 8,38 9,37 10,3 11,1 11,5 12,8 14,3 16,0
kg/m
Thickness
2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6 6,3 7,1 8,0 8,8 10,0
(mm
mass/m -
5,63 6,35 7,06 7,77 8,70 9,63 10,8 11,9 12,8 13,3 14,8 16,5 18,5 20,1 22,6
kg/m
Thickness
2,3 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6 6,3 7,1 8,0 8,8 10,0
(mm
mass/m -
6,35 7,16 7,97 8,77 9,83 10,9 12,2 13,5 14,5 15,0 16,8 18,8 21,0 22,9 25,7
kg/m
Thickness
3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6 6,3 7,1 8,0 8,8 10,0 11,0 12,5 14,2
(mm
mass/m -
10,8 12,1 13,4 15,0 16,6 17,9 18,5 20,7 23,2 26,0 28,4 32,0 34,9 39,2 43,9
kg/m

Pipe Sizes BS3600

Thickness
3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6 6,3 7,1 8,0 8,8 10,0 11,0 12,5 14,2
(mm
mass/m -
13,0 14,6 16,2 18,2 20,1 21,7 22,5 25,2 28,2 31,6 34,6 39,0 42,7 48,0 54,0
kg/m
175 mm Nominal size 193,7mm OD
Thickness
3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6 6,3 7,1 8,0 8,8 10,0 11,0 12,5 14,2
(mm
mass/m -
15,0 16,9 18,7 21,0 23,3 25,1 26,0 29,1 32,7 36,6 40,1 45,3 49,6 55,9 62,9
kg/m
200 mm Nominal size 219,1mm OD
Thickness
3,2 3,6 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,4 5,6 6,3 7,1 8,0 8,8 10,0 11,0 12,5 14,2
(mm
mass/m -
17,0 19,1 21,2 23,8 26,4 28,5 29,5 33,1 37,1 41,6 45,6 51,6 56,6 63,7 71,8
kg/m
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Circlips External
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Fastener Index Page...
Circlips - External
Circlips generally to dimensions according to DIN 471
Nom
Groove Circlip
size Circlip Dimensions (mm) Groove Dimensions (mm)
Strength Strength
(mm)
s d3 a d d2 m
d1 s d3 b C1 C2 d2 t n F n(kN) F r(kN)
(tol) (tol) max 5min (tol) min
- +0,04 -
3 0,40 2,7 1,9 0,8 1,0 7,0 6,6 2,8 0,50 0,10 0,3 0,1 0,47
0,05 -0,15 0,04
- +0,04 -
4 0,40 3,7 2,2 0,9 1,0 8,6 8,2 3,8 0,50 0,10 0,3 0,2 0,50
0,05 -0,15 0,04
- +0,04 -
5 0,60 4,7 2,5 1,1 1,0 10,3 9,8 4,8 0,70 0,10 0,3 0,2 1,0
0,05 -0,15 0,04
- +0,04 -
6 0,70 5,6 2,7 1,3 1,2 11,7 11,1 5,7 0,80 0,15 0,5 0,4 1,45
0,05 -0,15 0,04
- +0,06 -
7 0,80 6,5 3,1 1,4 1,2 13,5 12,9 6,7 0,90 0,15 0,5 0,5 2,6
0,05 -0,18 0,06
- +0,06 -
8 0,80 7,4 3,2 1,5 1,2 14,7 14,0 7,6 0,90 0,20 0,6 0,8 3,0
0,05 -0,18 0,06
- +0,06 -
9 1,00 8,4 3,3 1,7 1,2 16,0 15,2 8,6 1,10 0,2 0,6 0,9 3,5
0,06 -0,18 0,06
- +0,10 -
10 1,00 9,3 3,3 1,8 1,5 17,0 16,2 9,6 1,10 0,2 0,6 1,0 4,0
0,06 -0,36 0,11
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Circlips External
- +0,10 -
11 1,00 10,2 3,3 1,8 1,5 18,0 17,1 10,5 1,10 0,25 0,8 1,4 4,5
0,06 -0,37 0,11
- +0,10 -
12 1,00 11,0 3,3 1,8 1,7 19,0 18,1 11,5 1,10 0,25 0,8 1,5 5,0
0,06 -0,38 0,11
- +0,10 -
13 1,00 11,9 3,4 2,0 1,7 20,2 19,2 12,4 1,10 0,3 0,9 2,0 5,8
0,06 -0,39 0,11
- +0,10 -
14 1,00 12,9 3,5 2,1 1,7 21,4 20,4 13,4 1,10 0,3 0,9 2,1 6,4
0,06 -0,40 0,11
- +0,10 -
15 1,00 13,8 3,6 2,2 1,7 22,6 21,5 14,3 1,10 0,35 1,1 2,6 6,9
0,06 -0,41 0,11
- +0,10 -
16 1,00 14,7 3,7 2,2 1,7 23,8 22,6 15,2 1,10 0,40 1,2 3,2 7,4
0,06 -0,42 0,11
- +0,10 -
17 1,00 15,7 3,8 2,3 1,7 25,0 23,8 16,2 1,10 0,40 1,2 3,4 8,0
0,06 -0,43 0,11
- +0,10 -
18 1,20 16,5 3,9 2,4 2,0 26,2 24,8 17,0 1,30 0,50 1,5 4,5 17,00
0,06 -0,44 0,11
- +0,10 -
19 1,20 17,5 3,9 2,5 2,0 27,2 25,8 18,0 1,30 0,50 1,5 4,8 17,00
0,06 -0,45 0,11
- +0,13 -
20 1,20 18,5 4,0 2,6 2,0 28,4 27,0 19,0 1,30 0,50 1,5 5,0 17,10
0,06 -0,42 0,13
- +0,13 -
21 1,20 19,5 4,1 2,7 2,0 29,6 28,2 20,0 1,30 0,50 1,5 5,3 16,80
0,06 -0,42 0,13
- +0,13 -
22 1,20 20,5 4,2 2,8 2,0 30,8 29,4 21,0 1,30 0,50 1,5 5,6 16,90
0,06 -0,42 0,13
- +0,13 -
23 1,20 21,5 4,3 2,9 2,0 32,0 30,6 22,0 1,30 0,50 1,5 5,9 16,60
0,06 -0,42 0,15
- +0,21 -
24 1,20 22,2 4,4 3,0 2,0 33,2 31,7 22,9 1,30 0,55 1,7 6,7 16,10
0,06 -0,42 0,21
- +0,21 -
25 1,20 23,2 4,4 3,0 2,0 34,2 32,7 23,9 1,30 0,55 1,7 7,0 16,20
0,06 -0,42 0,21
- +0,21 -
26 1,20 24,2 4,5 3,1 2,0 35,5 33,9 24,9 1,30 0,55 1,7 7,3 16,10
0,06 -0,42 0,21
- +0,21 -
27 1,20 24,9 4,6 3,1 2,0 36,7 34,8 25,6 1,30 0,70 2,1 9,6 16,40
0,06 -0,42 0,21
- +0,21 -
28 1,50 25,9 4,7 3,2 2,0 37,9 36,0 26,6 1,60 0,70 2,1 10,0 32,10
0,06 -0,42 0,21
- +0,21 -
29 1,50 26,9 4,8 3,4 2,0 39,1 37,2 27,6 1,60 0,70 2,1 10,3 31,80
0,06 -0,42 0,21
- +0,21 -
30 1,50 27,9 5,0 3,5 2,0 40,5 38,6 28,6 1,60 0,70 2,1 10,7 32,10
0,06 -0,42 0,21
- +0,21 -
31 1,50 28,6 5,1 3,5 2,5 41,7 40,9 29,3 1,60 0,85 2,6 13,4 31,50
0,06 -0,42 0,21

Circlips External
- +0,21 -
32 1,50 29,6 5,2 3,6 2,5 43,0 40,7 30,3 1,60 0,85 2,6 13,8 31,20
0,06 -0,42 0,25
- +0,25 -
33 1,50 30,5 5,2 3,7 2,5 44,0 41,7 31,3 1,60 0,85 2,6 14,3 31,60
0,06 -0,50 0,25
- +0,25 -
34 1,50 31,5 5,4 3,8 2,5 45,4 43,1 32,3 1,60 0,85 2,6 14,7 31,30
0,06 -0,50 0,25
- +0,25 -
35 1,50 32,2 5,6 3,9 2,5 46,8 44,2 33,0 1,60 1,00 3,0 17,8 30,80
0,06 -0,50 0,25
- +0,25 -
36 1,75 33,2 5,6 4,0 2,5 47,8 45,2 34,0 1,85 1,00 3,0 18,3 49,40
0,06 -0,50 0,25
- +0,25 -
37 1,75 34,2 5,7 4,1 2,5 49,0 47,0 35,0 1,85 1,00 3,0 18,8 50,00
0,06 -0,50 0,25
- +0,25 -
38 1,75 35,2 5,8 4,2 2,5 50,2 47,6 36,0 1,85 1,00 3,0 19,3 49,50
0,06 -0,50 0,25
- +0,25 -
39 1,75 36,0 5,9 4,3 2,5 51,4 48,5 37,0 1,85 1,00 3,0 19,9 49,80
0,06 -0,50 0,25
- +0,25 -
40 1,75 36,5 6,0 4,4 2,5 52,6 49,5 37,5 1,85 1,25 3,8 25,3 51,0
0,06 -0,50 0,25
- +0,39 -
41 1,75 37,5 6,2 4,5 2,5 54,0 51,5 38,5 1,85 1,25 3,8 26,0 50,1
0,06 -0,90 0,25
- +0,39 -
42 1,75 38,5 6,5 4,5 2,5 55,7 52,5 39,5 1,85 1,25 3,8 26,7 50,0
0,06 -0,90 0,25
- +0,39 -
44 1,75 40,5 6,6 4,6 2,5 57,9 55,4 41,5 1,85 1,25 3,8 28,0 48,5
0,06 -0,90 0,25
- +0,39 -
45 1,75 41,5 6,7 4,7 2,5 59,1 55,9 42,5 1,85 1,25 3,8 28,6 49,0
0,06 -0,90 0,25
- +0,39 -
46 1,75 42,5 6,7 4,8 2,5 60,1 56,9 43,5 1,85 1,25 3,8 29,4 48,9
0,06 -0,90 0,25
- +0,39 -
47 1,75 43,5 6,8 4,9 2,5 61,3 58,1 44,5 1,85 1,25 3,8 30,0 49,5
0,06 -0,90 0,25
- +0,39 -
48 1,75 44,5 6,9 5,0 2,5 62,5 59,3 45,5 1,85 1,25 3,8 30,7 49,4
0,06 -0,90 0,25
- +0,39 -
50 2,00 45,8 6,9 5,1 2,5 64,5 60,8 47,0 2,15 1,50 4,5 38,0 73,3
0,07 -0,90 0,25
- +0,39 -
52 2,00 47,8 7,0 5,2 2,5 66,7 63,0 49,0 2,15 1,50 4,5 39,7 73,1
0,07 -0,90 0,25
- +0,39 -
54 2,00 49,8 7,1 5,3 2,5 69,0 65,2 51,0 2,15 1,50 4,5 41,2 71,2
0,07 -0,90 0,30
- +0,46 -
55 2,00 50,8 7,2 5,4 2,5 70,2 66,4 52,0 2,15 1,50 4,5 42,0 71,4
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
56 2,00 51,8 7,3 5,5 2,5 71,6 67,6 53,0 2,15 1,50 4,5 42,8 70,8
0,07 -1,10 0,30

Circlips External
- +0,46 -
57 2,00 52,8 7,3 5,5 2,5 72,3 69,3 54,0 2,15 1,50 4,5 43,7 70,9
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
58 2,00 53,8 7,3 5,6 2,5 73,6 69,6 55,0 2,15 1,50 4,5 44,3 71,1
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
60 2,00 55,8 7,4 5,8 2,5 75,6 71,8 57,0 2,15 1,50 4,5 46,0 69,2
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
62 2,00 57,8 7,5 6,0 2,5 77,8 74,0 59,0 2,15 1,50 4,5 47,5 69,3
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
63 2,00 58,8 7,6 6,2 2,5 79,0 75,2 60,0 2,15 1,50 4,5 48,3 70,2
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
65 2,50 60,8 7,8 6,3 3,0 81,4 77,6 62,0 2,65 1,50 4,5 49,8 135,0
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
67 2,50 62,5 7,9 6,4 3,0 83,6 79,8 64,0 2,65 1,50 4,5 51,3 136,0
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
68 2,50 63,5 8,0 6,5 3,0 84,4 81,0 65,0 2,65 1,50 4,5 52,2 135,0
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
70 2,50 65,5 8,1 6,6 3,0 87,0 83,2 67,0 2,65 1,50 4,5 53,8 134,0
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
72 2,50 67,5 8,2 6,8 3,0 89,2 85,4 69,0 2,65 1,50 4,5 55,3 131,0
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
75 2,50 70,5 8,4 7,0 3,0 92,7 88,8 72,0 2,65 1,50 4,5 57,6 130,0
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
77 2,50 72,5 8,5 7,2 3,0 94,9 91,0 74,0 2,65 1,50 4,5 59,3 131,0
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
78 2,50 73,5 8,6 7,3 3,0 96,1 92,2 75,0 2,65 1,50 4,5 60,0 131,0
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
80 2,50 74,5 8,6 7,4 3,0 98,1 93,7 76,5 2,65 1,75 5,3 71,6 128,0
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
82 2,50 76,5 8,7 7,6 3,0 100,3 95,9 78,5 2,65 1,75 5,3 73,5 128,0
0,07 -1,10 0,30
- +0,46 -
85 3,00 79,5 8,7 7,8 3,5 103,3 98,9 81,5 3,15 1,75 5,3 76,2 215,0
0,08 -1,10 0,35
- +0,54 -
87 3,00 81,5 8,8 7,9 3,5 105,5 100,9 83,5 3,15 1,75 5,3 78,2 222,0
0,08 -1,30 0,35
- +0,54 -
88 3,00 82,5 8,8 8,0 3,5 106,5 102,0 84,5 3,15 1,75 5,3 79,0 221,0
0,08 -1,30 0,35
- +0,54 -
90 3,00 84,5 8,8 8,2 3,5 108,5 104,0 86,5 3,15 1,75 5,3 80,0 217,0
0,08 -1,30 0,35
- +0,54 -
92 3,00 86,5 9,0 8,4 3,5 110,9 107,4 88,5 3,15 1,75 5,3 82,0 217,0
0,08 -1,30 0,35
- +0,54 -
95 3,00 89,5 9,4 8,6 3,5 114,8 111,0 91,5 3,15 1,75 5,3 85,0 212,0
0,08 -1,30 0,35

Circlips External
- +0,54 -
97 3,00 91,5 9,4 8,8 3,5 116,7 113,2 93,5 3,15 1,75 5,3 87,0 211,0
0,08 -1,30 0,35
- +0,54 -
98 3,00 91,5 9,4 8,8 3,5 118,6 114,0 94,5 3,15 1,75 5,3 88,0 208,0
0,08 -1,30 0,35
- +0,54 -
100 3,00 94,5 9,6 9,0 3,5 120,2 116,0 96,5 3,15 1,75 5,3 90,0 206,0
0,08 -1,30 0,35
- +0,54 -
102 4,00 95,0 9,7 9,2 3,5 122,4 118,0 98,0 4,15 2,00 6,0 104,0 482,0
0,10 -1,30 0,54
- +0,54 -
105 4,00 98,0 9,9 9,3 3,5 126,2 122,0 101,0 4,15 2,00 6,0 107,0 471,0
0,10 -1,30 0,54
- +0,54 -
107 4,00 100,0 10,0 9,5 3,5 128.,0 124,0 103,0 4,15 2,00 6,0 110,0 465,0
0,10 -1,30 0,54
- +0,54 -
108 4,00 100,0 10,0 9,5 3,5 129,0 124,0 104,0 4,15 2,00 6,0 111,0 459,0
0,10 -1,30 0,54
- +0,54 -
110 4,00 103,0 10,1 9,6 3,5 131,2 127,0 106,0 4,15 2,00 6,0 113,0 457,0
0,10 -1,30 0,54
- +0,54 -
112 4,00 105,0 10,3 9,7 3,5 133,6 129,6 108,0 4,15 2,00 6,0 115,0 451,0
0,10 -1,30 0,54
- +0,54 -
115 4,00 108,0 10,6 9,8 3,5 137,3 133,0 111,0 4,15 2,00 6,0 118,0 438,0
0,10 -1,30 0,54
- +0,54 -
117 4,00 110,0 10,8 10,0 3,5 139,7 135,7 113,0 4,15 2,00 6,0 120,0 437,0
0,10 -1,30 0,54
- +0,54 -
118 4,00 110,0 10,8 10,0 3,5 140,7 136,7 114,0 4,15 2,00 6,0 121,0 430,0
0,10 -1,30 0,54
- +0,54 -
120 4,00 113,0 11,0 10,2 3,5 143,1 138,0 116,0 4,15 2,00 6,0 123,0 424,0
0,10 -1,30 0,54
- +0,54 -
122 4,00 115,0 11,2 10,3 4,0 145,5 142,5 118,0 4,15 2,00 6,0 125,0 418,0
0,10 -1,30 0,54
- +0,54
125 4,00 118,0 11,4 10,4 4,0 149,0 144,0 121,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 128,0 411,0
0,10 -1,30
- +0,54
127 4,00 120,0 11,4 10,5 4,0 150,9 146,8 123,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 130,0 407,0
0,10 -1,30
- +0,54
128 4,00 120,0 11,4 10,5 4,0 151,9 147,9 124,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 131,0 401,0
0,10 -1,30
- +0,63
130 4,00 123,0 11,6 10,7 4,0 154,4 150,0 126,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 134,0 395,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
132 4,00 125,0 11,7 10,8 4,0 156,6 152,6 128,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 136,0 396,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
135 4,00 128,0 11,8 11,0 4,0 159,8 155,0 131,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 139,0 389,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
137 4,00 130,0 11,9 11,0 4,0 162,0 158,0 133,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 141,0 380,0
0,10 -1,50

Circlips External
- +0,63
138 4,00 130,0 11,9 11,0 4,0 163,0 159,0 134,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 142,0 381,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
140 4,00 133,0 12,0 11,2 4,0 165,2 160,0 136,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 144,0 376,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
142 4,00 135,0 12,1 11,3 4,0 167,4 163,4 138,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 146,0 370,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
145 4,00 138,0 12,2 11,5 4,0 170,6 166,0 141,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 149,0 367,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
147 4,00 140,0 12,3 11,6 4,0 172,8 168,8 143,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 151,0 361,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
148 4,00 140,0 12,3 11,6 4,0 173,8 169,8 144,0 -063 4,15 2,00 6,0 152,0 357,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
150 4,00 142,0 13,0 11,8 4,0 177,3 171,0 145,0 -063 4,15 2,50 7,5 193,0 357,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
152 4,00 143,0 13,0 11,9 4,0 179,3 174,3 147,0 -063 4,15 2,50 7,5 195,0 356,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
155 4,00 146,0 13,0 12,0 4,0 182,3 176,0 150,0 -063 4,15 2,50 7,5 199,0 352,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
157 4,00 148,0 13,1 12,0 4,0 184,5 179,5 152,0 -063 4,15 2,50 7,5 202,0 352,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
158 4,00 148,0 13,1 12,0 4,0 185,5 180,5 153,0 -063 4,15 2,50 7,5 203,0 353,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
160 4,00 151,0 13,3 12,2 4,0 188,0 182,0 155,0 -063 4,15 2,50 7,5 206.,0 349,0
0,10 -1,50
- +0,63
162 4,00 152,5 13,3 12,3 4,0 189,9 184,9 157,0 -063 4,15 2,50 7,5 208,0 348,0
0,10 -1,50
s d3 a d d2 m
Nom
Groove Circlip
Strength Strength
(mm)
Notes:
The load capacities shown are for first estimate values for initial design evaluations.
They include only for sharp edges of stressed surfaces in contact with the circlips... If the hole or shaft includes chamfers and radii significant
strength reductions are required - see manufactures literature
The groove strength is based on approximate yield stength of 200 N/mm2 with no safety factor and no allowance for stress concentration factors or
notch sensitivities.
The circlip strength is based on manufacturers standard spring steel material.
For detail design consult manufacturers literature .. See links below...

Circlips External
Useful Links
1. Seeger-
OrbisEuropean
Circlip supplier
2. SpringMasters..
UK Supplier of
Springs, Disc
Springs, Circlips
and Retaining
Pins and Rings
3. Circlips.com..AU
supplier of
Fasteners and
Springs
4. Arcon..Catalogue
downloads
included- good
design information
Home

Circlips Internal
ROYMECH
Home
Circlips - Internal
Circlips generally to dimensions according to DIN 472
Nom Groove Circlip

Circlip Dimensions Groove Dimensions
size Strength Strength
s d3 a d d2 m
- +0,36
8 0,8 8,7 2,4 1,1 1,0 3,0 3,6 8,4 +0,09 0,9 0,2 0,6 0,86 2,0
0,05 -0,10
- +0,36
9 0,8 9,8 2,5 1,3 1,0 3,7 4,4 9,4 +0,09 0,9 0,2 0,6 0,96 2,0
0,05 -0,10
- +0,36
10 1,0 10,8 3,2 1,4 1,2 3,3 4,0 10,4 +0,11 1,1 0,2 0,6 1,08 4,0
0,06 -0,10
- +0,36
11 1,0 11,8 3,3 1,5 1,2 4,1 4,8 11,4 +0,11 1,1 0,2 0,6 1,17 4,0
0,06 -0,10
- +0,36
12 1,0 13,0 3,4 1,7 1,5 4,9 5,7 12,5 +0,11 1,1 0,25 0,8 1,60 4,0
0,06 -0,10
- +0,36
13 1,0 14,1 3,6 1,8 1,5 5,4 6,4 13,6 +0,11 1,1 0,3 0,9 2,10 4,2
0,06 -0,10
- +0,36
14 1,0 15, 3,7 1,8 1,7 6,2 7,2 14,6 +0,11 1,1 0,3 0,9 2,10 4,5
0,06 -0,10
- +0,36
15 1,0 16,2 3,7 2,0 1,7 7,2 8,3 15,7 +0,11 1,1 0,35 1,1 2,80 5,0
0,06 -0,10
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Circlips/Circlips_Internal.html (1 of 7)10/24/2006 11:34:48 AM

Circlips Internal
- +0,36
16 1,0 17,3 3,8 2,0 1,7 8,0 9,2 16,8 +0,11 1,1 0,4 1,2 3,40 5,5
0,06 -0,10
- +0,42
17 1,0 18,3 3,9 2,1 1,7 8,8 10,0 17,8 +0,11 1,1 0,4 1,2 3,60 6,0
0,06 -0,13
- +0,42
18 1,0 19,5 4,1 2,2 2,0 9,4 10,8 19,0 +0,13 1,1 0,5 1,5 4,80 6,5
0,06 -0,13
- +0,42
19 1,0 20,5 4,1 2,2 2,0 10,4 11,8 20,0 +0,13 1,1 0,5 1,5 5,10 6,8
0,06 -0,13
- +0,42
20 1,0 21,5 4,1 2,3 2,0 11,2 12,6 21,0 +0,13 1,1 0,5 1,5 5,40 7,2
0,06 -0,13
- +0,42
21 1,0 22,5 4,2 2,4 2,0 12,2 13,6 22,0 +0,13 1,1 0,5 1,5 5,70 7,6
0,06 -0,13
- +0,42
22 1,00 23,5 4,2 2,5 2,0 13,2 14,6 23,0 +0,13 1,10 0,50 1,5 5,90 8,0
0,06 -0,13
- +0,42
23 1,20 24,6 4,2 2,5 2,0 14,2 15,7 24,1 +0,13 1,30 0,55 1,7 6,80 8,0
0,06 -0,13
- +0,42
24 1,20 25,9 4,3 2,6 2,0 14,8 16,4 25,2 +0,21 1,30 0,60 1,8 7,70 13,9
0,06 -0,21
- +0,42
25 1,20 26,9 4,5 2,7 2,0 15,5 17,2 26,2 +0,21 1,30 0,60 1,8 8,00 14,6
0,06 -0,21
- +0,42
26 1,20 27,9 4,7 2,8 2,0 16,1 17,8 27,2 +0,21 1,30 0,60 1,8 8,40 13,8
0,06 -0,21
- +0,42
27 1,20 29,1 4,7 2,9 2,0 17,1 19,0 28,4 +0,21 1,30 0,70 2,1 10,10 13,3
0,06 -0,21
- +0,50
28 1,20 30,1 4,8 2,9 2,0 17,9 19,8 29,4 +0,21 1,30 0,70 2,1 10,50 13,3
0,06 -0,25
- +0,50
29 1,20 31,1 4,8 3,0 2,0 18,9 20,8 30,4 +0,25 1,30 0,70 2,1 10,90 13,6
0,06 -0,25
- +0,50
30 1,20 32,1 4,8 3,0 2,0 19,9 21,8 31,4 +0,25 1,30 0,70 2,1 11,30 13,7
0,06 -0,25
- +0,50
31 1,20 33,4 5,2 3,1 2,5 20,0 22,3 32,7 +0,25 1,30 0,85 2,6 14,10 13,8
0,06 -0,25
- +0,50
32 1,20 34,4 5,4 3,2 2,5 20,6 22,9 33,7 +0,25 1,30 0,85 2,6 14,60 13,8
0,06 -0,25
- +0,50
33 1,20 35,5 5,4 3,3 2,5 21,6 23,9 34,7 +0,25 1,30 0,85 2,6 15,00 14,3
0,06 -0,25
- +0,50
34 1,50 36,5 5,4 3,3 2,5 22,6 24,9 35,7 +0,25 1,60 0,85 2,6 15,40 26,2
0,06 -0,25
- +0,50
35 1,50 37,8 5,4 3,4 2,5 23,6 26,2 37,0 +0,25 1,60 1,00 3,0 18,80 26,9
0,06 -0,25
- +0,50
36 1,50 38,8 5,4 3,5 2,5 24,6 27,2 38,0 +0,25 1,60 1,00 3,0 19,40 26,4
0,06 -0,25
- +0,50
37 1,50 39,8 5,5 3,6 2,5 25,4 28,0 39,0 +0,25 1,60 1,00 3,0 19,80 27,1
0,06 -0,25

Circlips Internal
- +0,50
38 1,50 40,8 5,5 3,7 2,5 26,4 29,0 40,0 +0,25 1,60 1,00 3,0 22,50 28,2
0,06 -0,25
- +0,90
39 1,50 42,0 5,6 3,8 2,5 27,3 29,8 41,0 +0,25 1,60 1,00 3,0 26,00 28,8
0,06 -0,39
- +0,90
40 1,75 43,5 5,8 3,9 2,5 27,8 30,9 42,5 +0,25 1,85 1,25 3,8 27,00 44,6
0,06 -0,39
- +0,90
41 1,75 44,5 5,9 4,0 2,5 28,6 31,7 43,5 +0,25 1,85 1,25 3,8 27,60 45,0
0,06 -0,39
- +0,90
42 1,75 45,5 5,9 4,1 2,5 29,6 32,7 44,5 +0,25 1,85 1,25 3,8 28,40 44,7
0,06 -0,39
- +0,90
43 1,75 46,5 5,9 4,2 2,5 30,6 33,7 45,5 +0,25 1,85 1,25 3,8 28,80 44,5
0,06 -0,39
- +0,90
44 1,75 47,5 6,0 4,2 2,5 31,4 34,5 46,5 +0,25 1,85 1,25 3,8 29,50 43,3
0,06 -0,39
- +0,90
45 1,75 48,5 6,2 4,3 2,5 32,0 35,1 47,5 +0,25 1,85 1,25 3,8 30,20 43,1
0,06 -0,39
- +0,90
46 1,75 49,5 6,3 4,4 2,5 32,8 35,9 48,5 +0,25 1,85 1,25 3,8 30,80 42,9
0,06 -0,39
- +1,10
47 1,75 50,5 6,4 4,4 2,5 33,5 36,7 49,5 +0,25 1,85 1,25 3,8 31,40 43,5
0,06 -0,46
- +1,10
48 2,00 51,5 6,4 4,5 2,5 34,5 37,7 50,5 +0,30 1,85 1,25 3,8 32,00 43,2
0,06 -0,46
- +1,10
50 2,00 54,2 6,5 4,6 2,5 36,3 40,0 53,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 40,50 60,8
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
51 2,00 55,2 6,5 4,7 2,5 37,3 41,0 54,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 41,20 60,2
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
52 2,00 56,2 6,7 4,7 2,5 37,9 41,6 55,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 42,00 60,2
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
53 2,00 57,2 6,7 4,9 2,5 39,00 42,6 56,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 42,90 60,7
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
54 2,00 58,2 6,7 5,0 2,5 40,00 43,6 57,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 43,60 60,4
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
55 2,00 59,2 6,8 5,0 2,5 40,7 44,4 58,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 44,40 60,3
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
56 2,00 60,2 6,8 5,1 2,5 41,7 45,4 59,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 45,20 60,3
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
57 2,00 61,2 6,8 5,1 2,5 42,7 46,4 60,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 46,00 60,8
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
58 2,00 62,2 6,9 5,2 2,5 43,5 47,2 61,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 46,70 60,8
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
60 2,00 64,2 7,3 5,4 2,5 44,7 48,4 63,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 48,30 61,0
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
62 2,00 66,2 7,3 5,5 2,5 46,7 50,4 65,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 49,80 60,9
0,07 -0,46

Circlips Internal
- +1,10
62 2,00 67,2 7,3 5,6 2,5 47,7 51,4 66,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 50,60 60,8
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
64 2,00 68,2 7,4 5,7 2,5 48,7 52,4 67,0 +0,30 2,15 1,50 4,5 51,40 60,6
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
65 2,50 69,2 7,6 5,8 3,0 49,00 52,8 68,0 +0,30 2,65 1,50 4,5 51,80 121,0
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
67 2,50 71,5 7,7 6,0 3,0 50,8 54,6 70,0 +0,30 2,65 1,50 4,5 53,80 121,0
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
68 2,50 72,5 7,8 6,1 3,0 51,6 55,4 71,0 +0,30 2,65 1,50 4,5 56,20 119,0
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
70 2,50 74,5 7,8 6,2 3,0 53,6 57,4 73,0 +0,30 2,65 1,50 4,5 56,20 119,0
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
72 2,50 76,5 7,8 6,4 3,0 55,6 59,4 75,0 +0,30 2,65 1,50 4,5 58,00 119,0
0,07 -0,46
- +1,10
75 2,50 79,5 7,8 6,6 3,0 58,6 62,4 78,0 +0,30 2,65 1,50 4,5 60,00 118,0
0,07 -0,46
- +1,30
77 2,50 82,5 8,5 6,8 3,0 59,2 63,0 80,0 +0,30 2,65 1,50 4,5 61,60 121,0
0,07 -0,54
- +1,30
78 2,5 82,5 8,5 6,8 3,0 60,1 64,00 81,0 +0,35 2,65 1,50 4,5 62,30 122,0
0,07 -0,54
- +1,30
80 2,50 85,5 8,5 7,0 3,0 62,1 66,5 83,5 +0,35 2,65 1,75 5,3 74,60 120,0
0,07 -0,54
- +1,30
81 2,50 86,5 8,5 7,0 3,0 62,2 84,5 +0,35 2,65 1,75 5,3 75,80 119,0
0,07 -0,54
- +1,30
82 2,50 87,5 8,5 7,0 3,0 64,1 68,5 85,5 +0,35 2,65 1,75 5,3 76,60 119,0
0,07 -0,54
- +1,30
83 2,50 88,5 8,5 7,0 3,0 65,2 69,5 86,5 +0,35 2,65 1,75 5,3 77,50 118,0
0,07 -0,54
- +1,30
85 3,00 90,5 8,6 7,2 3,5 66,9 71,3 88,5 +0,35 3,15 1,75 5,3 79,50 201,0
0,08 -0,54
- +1,30
87 3,00 93,5 8,6 7,4 3,5 69,0 73,3 90,5 +0,35 3,15 1,75 5,3 81,30 204,0
0,08 -0,54
- +1,30
88 3,00 93,5 8,6 7,4 3,5 69,9 74,3 91,5 +0,35 3,15 1,75 5,3 82,00 209,0
0,08 -0,54
- +1,30
90 3,00 95,5 8,6 7,6 3,5 71,9 76,3 93,5 +0,35 3,15 1,75 5,3 84,00 199,0
0,08 -0,54
- +1,30
92 3,00 97,5 8,7 7,8 3,5 73,7 78,1 95,5 +0,35 3,15 1,75 5,3 85,0 201
0,08 -0,54
- +1,30
95 3,00 100,5 8,8 8,1 3,5 76,5 80,9 98,5 +0,35 3,15 1,75 5,3 88,00 195
0,08 -0,54
- +1,30
97 3,00 103,5 9,0 8,3 3,5 78,1 82,5 100,5 +0,35 3,15 1,75 5,3 90,00 193
0,08 -0,54
- +1,30
98 3,00 103,5 9,0 8,3 3,5 79,00 83,5 101,5 +0,35 3,15 1,75 5,3 91,00 191
0,08 -0,54

Circlips Internal
- +1,30
100 3,00 105,5 9,2 8,4 3,5 80,6 85,1 103,5 +0,35 3,15 1,75 5,3 93,00 118
0,08 -0,54
- +1,30
102 4,00 108,0 9,5 8,5 3,5 82,00 87,0 106,0 +0,54 4,15 2,00 6,0 108,00 439
0,10 -0,54
- +1,30
105 4,00 112,0 9,5 8,7 3,5 85,00 90,00 109,0 +0,54 4,15 2,00 6,0 112,00 436
0,10 -0,54
- +1,30
107 4,00 115,0 9,5 8,9 3,5 87,00 92,00 111,0 +0,54 4,15 2,00 6,0 114,00 425
0,10 -0,54
- +1,30
108 4,00 115,0 9,5 8,9 3,5 88,00 93,0 112,0 +0,54 4,15 2,00 6,0 115,00 419
0,10 -0,54
- +1,30
110 4,00 117,0 10,4 9,0 3,5 88,2 93,2 114,0 +0,54 4,15 2,00 6,0 117,00 415
0,10 -0,54
- +1,30
112 4,00 119,0 10,5 9,1 3,5 90,00 95,0 116,0 +0,54 4,15 2,00 6,0 119,00 418
0,10 -0,54
- +1,50
115 4,00 122,0 10,5 9,3 3,5 93,0 98,0 119,0 +0,54 4,15 2,00 6,0 122,00 409
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
117 4,00 125,0 10,7 9,6 3,5 94,6 99,6 121,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 124,00 399
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
118 4,00 125,0 10,7 9,6 3,5 95,6 100,6 122,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 125,00 394
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
120 4,00 127,0 11,0 9,7 3,5 96,9 102,00 124,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 127,00 396
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
122 4,00 129,0 11,0 9,8 4,0 98,0 104,0 126,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 129,00 399
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
125 4,00 132,0 11,0 10,0 4,0 101,9 107,0 129,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 132,00 385
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
127 4,00 135,0 11,0 10,0 4,0 103,9 109,0 131,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 135,00 383
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
128 4,00 135,0 11,0 10,2 4,0 104,9 110,0 132,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 136,00 378
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
130 4,00 137,0 11,0 10,2 4,0 106,9 126,0 134,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 138,00 374
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
132 4,00 139,0 11,0 10,3 4,0 108,9 139,0 136,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 140,00 366
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
135 4,00 142,0 11,2 10,5 4,0 111,5 116,0 139,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 143,00 358
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
137 4,00 145,0 11,2 10,6 4,0 113,5 118,6 141,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 145,00 356
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
138 4,00 145,0 11,2 10,6 4,0 114,5 119,6 142,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 146,00 352
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
140 4,00 147,0 11,2 10,7 4,0 116,5 121,0 144,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 148,00 350
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
142 4,00 149,0 11,3 10,8 4,0 118,3 123,4 146,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 150,0 342
0,10 -0,63

Circlips Internal
- +1,50
145 4,00 152,0 11,4 10,9 4,0 121,0 126,0 149,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 153,00 336
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
147 4,00 155,0 11,8 11,1 4,0 122,2 127,4 151,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 156,00 336
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
148 4,00 155,0 11,8 11,1 4,0 123,2 128,4 152,0 +0,63 4,15 2,00 6,0 157,00 331
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
150 4,00 158,0 12,0 11,2 4,0 124,8 131,0 155,0 +0,63 4,15 2,50 7,5 191,00 326
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
152 4,00 161,0 12,0 11,3 4,0 126,8 133,0 157,0 +0,63 4,15 2,50 7,5 202,00 326
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
155 4,00 164,0 12,0 11,4 4,0 129,8 136,0 160,0 +0,63 4,15 2,50 7,5 206,00 324
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
157 4,00 167,0 12,3 11,5 4,0 131,2 137,4 162,0 +0,63 4,15 2,50 7,5 208,00 328
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
158 4,00 167,0 12,3 11,5 4,0 132,2 138,4 163,0 +0,63 4,15 2,50 7,5 210,00 326
0,10 -0,63
- +1,50
160 4,00 169,0 13,01 11,6 4,0 132,7 139,0 165,0 +0,63 4,15 2,50 7,5 212,00 321
0,10 -0,63
s d3 a d d2 m
Nom
Groove Circlip
Strength Strength
(mm)
Notes:
The load capacities shown are for first estimate values for initial design evaluations.
They include only for sharp edges of stressed surfaces in contact with the circlips... If the hole or shaft includes chamfers and radii significant strength
reductions are required - see manufactures literature
The groove strength is based on approximate yield stength of 200 N/mm2 with no safety factor and no allowance for stress concentration factors or notch
sensitivities.
The circlip strength is based on manufacturers standard spring steel material.
For detail design consult manufacturers literature .. See links below...
Useful Links
1. Seeger-
OrbisEuropean
Circlip supplier
2. SpringMasters..
UK Supplier of
Springs, Disc
Springs, Circlips
and Retaining
Pins and Rings
3. Circlips.com..AU
supplier of
Fasteners and
Springs

Circlips Internal
4. Arcon..Catalogue
downloads
included- good
design information
Home

Taper Pins
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Taper Pins
Unhardened taper pins generally to BS 5681:1979
Nom Dia d (h10 ) 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 12,0 16,0 20,0 25,0 30,0 40,0 50,0
a (approx) 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,16 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,40 0,50 0,63 0,80 1,00 1,20 1,60 2,00 2,50 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,3
10 10 12 14 20 25 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 80 100
4 to 5 to 6 to 6 to 8 to
l (Length Range) to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to
8 12 16 20 25
35 35 55 55 60 90 130 160 180 200 200 200 200 200 200
Useful Links
1. Co_Design..
Dimensions of
Metric
fastener
threads etc
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Circlips/Taper_Pins.html10/24/2006 11:34:51 AM
Split Cotter Pins

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Split Cotter Pins
Circlips generally to dimensions according to DIN 94 /ISO 1234 and BS 1574 ..
Nom Size b (Eye

d(Pin Dia) a (Prong ext) c(Eye OD) l (range)
Hole Dia Length)
mm mm mm mm) mm mm
0,8 0,7 1,6 2,4 1,2 - 1,4 6 - 12
1,0 0,9 1,6 3 1,6 - 1,8 6 - 12
1,2 1,0 2,5 3 1,7 - 2,0 6 - 40
1,6 1,4 2,5 3,2 2,4 - 2,8 6 - 40
2,0 1,8 2,5 4,0 3,2 - 3,6 6 - 50
2,5 2,3 2,5 5,0 4,0 - 4,6 8 - 50
3,2 2,9 3,2 6,4 5,1 - 5,8 8 - 63
4,0 3,7 4,0 8,0 6,5 - 7,4 16 - 100
5,0 4,6 4,0 10,0 8,0 - 9,2 20 - 100
6,3 5,9 4,0 12,6 10,3 - 11,8 25 - 125
8,0 7,5 4,0 16,0 13,1 - 15, 40 - 140
10,0 9,5 6,3 20,0 16,6 - 19,0 50 - 140
13,0 12,4 6,3 26,0 21,7 - 24,8 71 - 140
BS 1574 covers Ferrous and no ferrous split cotter pins . In this standard the size of the pins are designated by the hole size in which
the pin is located. The pin is selected by stating the size and length and material.
Cotter pins are made from low carbon steel zinc plated or equivalent..
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Split Cotter Pins
Useful Links
1. Fuller
Metric ..
Supplier of
Fasteners
2. Ondrives ..
Supplier of
Fasteners
Home
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Adhesive Bonding Theory

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The theory of adhesive bonding
Introduction
There are a number of theories on how adhesives work and there is little common
agreement as to which theory is the most relevant for any particular bonding case. It is
actually quite important to know the mechanism of bonding because this has an impact
on the surface preparation of the adherent surfaces and the materials being attached.
It is known that joints bonded with adhesives are generally stronger in compression,
shear and tension than in peeling/tearing- it is much easier to break an adhesive joint by
accessing an edge and peeling it away. It is also apparent that it is relatively difficult to
ensure that an adhesive joints is in pure tension and if the tension load is of centre or is
not normal to the joint there is a tendency for peeling. The best adhesive joints are
designed for shear stresses with mechanical guidance and reinforcement e.g keys,
corners, shoulders etc.
Conditions for Satisfactory Bonding

There are accepted conditions which result in higher adhesive bond strengths as listed
below
● Cleanliness of surfaces.. The bond surface is ideally cleaned of loose matter and also cleaned of surface oxides and
adsorbed gases.
● The choice of adhesive should be such that it wets the adherent surface and also solidifies under an acceptable
regime of time, temperature and pressure.
● The adhesive should be selected to suit the service conditions of environment and temperature. It should be noted
that the difference in coefficient of therma expansion between the adhesive and adherent can have an important
effect on the joint design working over a significant temperature range.
Bonding Theories
There are a number of adhesive theories contributing to the overall study of bonding as
listed below
● The mechanical interlock theory

● The adsorption theory
● The chemisorption theory
● The electrostatic theory
● The diffusion theory
● The weak boundary layer theory-
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Adhesives/Adhesive_Bond.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:34:59 AM

The mechanical interlock theory

This is the simplest theory and is based on the factor that, at the microscopic level all
surfaces are very rough consisting of crevices, cracks and pores. The adhesive
penetrates these features and hardens such that it keys into the surfaces and forms a
strong surface bond ( this is probably similar the velcro). The adhesive thus is able to
bond two surfaces together and ideally the only weakest part of the bonded joint is the
adhesive strength.
The adsorption theory

This theory is based on the assumption that the adhesive "wets" the surface of the
adherent surface (meaning that the adhesive applied to the adherent spreads
spontaneously when the join is formed ).. This theory has resulted in adhesive materials
being developed which have a lower surface tension than the adherent surfaces.
Examples supporting this theory include epoxy resins which wet steel and result in a good
bond - these resins do not wet PE or PTFE and result in a poor bond.
According to this theory, in the event of intimate contact between the adhesive and the
adherend, the adhesive strength arises as a result of secondary intermolecular forces at
the interface. These may include Van der Waals forces - dipole-dipole, dipole-induced
dipole interactions and hydrogen bonds.
The chemisorption theory

This is a variation on the adsorption theory in that stronger chemical bonds (ionic,
covalent metallic ) form across the joint interface. ref Molecular Bonds . In this regard,
introduction of molecular bonding between the adhesive and the adherent will obviously
improve the adhesive bond strength. This can be attained by reactions at the surfaces,
using proper surface treatments, or by using additional coupling agents.
The electrostatic theory

This theory states that an electrostatically charged double bond develops at the bond
interface as a result of the interaction of the adhesive and and adherent which contributes
significantly to the bond strength.
This is a controversal theory as many have doubted the actual significance of the forces
involved. While this concept may be useful to explain some specific examples of
adhesion, significant doubts have been cast regarding its overall value. These include
improved adhesion strengths with lowering of temperature for a large number of adhesive
systesm (lower temperatures should result in poorer electrostatic forces). Also it has
been identified that virtually no changes in adhesion performance result with gross
variations in the electronic character of the adhesives.
The diffusion theory

When an adhesive contains an adherent solvent the adhesive can diffuse into the
adherent surface (substrate) with an interchange of molecules. The theory is is only

really applicable to polymers where a movement and entanglement of long molecules can
occur.
This can be viewed as a molecular interlock enabled adhesion. For plastics, the theory
includes for effects of contact time, influence of time and temperature on bonding rate,
and the influences of polymer molecular weight and polymer structure.
While the diffusion theory applies well for cases of self-adhesion or autohesion, it does
not fit well in providing an explanation for polymer-polymer adhesion. High molecular
weight thermoplastic polymers often display very high melt viscosity and will not diffuse
easily within the time scale of most bonding operations.
The weak boundary layer theory

For most metals there is a surface layer such as a scaly oxide layer. For a successful
bond this layer is ideally removed by surface treatments before a strong adhesive bond
can be achieved. Aluminium has a strong coherent oxide layer which is suitable for
bonding.
Sites Providing
Relevant
Information
1. INTAD-
Adhesives..
Useful Notes
2. SpecialChem -
Adhesives and
Sealants..Very
clear illustrated
notes
3. Interfacial
Adhesion..PDF
Download ..
Very
informative
paper
Home

Natural Adhesives

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Adhesives Home Page
Natural Adhesives
Natural Adhesives
Generally set by solvent evaporation. They are generally of low strength and are
susceptible to moisture and mould. Their use is restricted to the joining of low strength
materials. Natural adhesives include animal glues, fish glues, vegetable glues and
casein.
A vast quantity of natural adhesives are used throughout the world mainly based on
starch and casein and mainly in the packaging industry for labels and low cost packaging
tape
Type Notes Materials Bonded

Made from collagen, (Skin/bone) with sugar and
Wood, Leather,
Animal glycerol added for flexiblily. Supplied as powder/
Porous materials
bead which is dissolved in water
Improved temperature resistance, resistance to Wood, Leather,
Fish
water compared to above Porous materials
Based on starch, dextrine. Supplied as a powder
Vegetable for mixing with water. Low strength. Low resistance Paper /cardboard
to water/high temps
Made from milk precipitated with acid. Supplied a
Wood, Paper
Casein powder for mixing with water. Improved properties
asbestos products
compared to all above glues
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Adhesives/Nat_Adhesives.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:35:01 AM

Natural Adhesives
Sites Providing
Relevant
Information
1. Saphire
Products..UK
supplier with
dimensional
data
2. Bondmaster..
supplier of wide
range of
Adhesive
products..
Datasheets
3. Adhesives
Toolkit..The
Adhesives
Design Toolkit -
Very very
useful
information
source
4. Adhesives
Magazine ..
Magazine with
useful articles
Home
Adhesives Home Page
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Rubber Adhesives

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Adhesives Home Page
Rubber Adhesives
Rubber Adhesives
Based on natural and synthetic rubbers set by solvent evaporation or heat curing. They
have relatively low shear strength and suffer from creep and are therefore used for
unstressed joints. They are useful for flexible bonds with plastics and rubbers. ‘Contact
adhesives’ use rubber in a solvent and will join many materials. Elastomer adhesives
include natural rubbers, polychloroprenes (neoprene), acrylonitride butadiene (nitrile),
butyl rubber adhesives, styrene butadiene rubber adhesives, polyurethane adhesives,
polysulphide rubber adhesives and silicone rubber adhesives.
Rubber adhesives are not generally suitable for loaded structures or adverse
environments (Polyurethane variants can be an exception)...
Note: Polyurethane has been included as a rubber like adhesive. It can equally be
considered as a thermosetting adhesive...

Rubber solution with bonding be evaporation of Rubber,Plastics,
solvent. Not suitable for loaded structures or iron/steel, fabrics,
Natural Rubber
adverse environments. Good for water but paper, wood,
low resistance to oils and solvents glass etc
Used in contact adhesives providing quick, high
Polychloroprene Metal, wood,
strength permanent bonds. Contact adhesion
(Neoprene leather, plastics.
allows joints to be made without clamps/jigs.
Acronitrile
Supplied as solutions. Rubber, Plastics
Butadienes
Has inherent tackiness aging resistance, low Rubber, Some
Butyl Rubber
permeability. Used for inner tube tyre repairs plastics
Styrene Used in automotive industry as for trims etc,-
Rubber products
Butadiene Pressure sensitive variation used for tapes.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Adhesives/Rubber_adhesives.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:35:07 AM

Rubber Adhesives
Two component adhesives which can be

formulated for applications. Resistant to acids,
Glass,
oils some solvents and alkalis. Susceptible to
Polyurethene Polyurethane,
moisture. Load bearing duties viable. Flexible
Metals, Plastics
bonds suitable for shock and vibratory loading.
High strength joints
Steel, aluminium,
Polysulphide adhesive resins provide a flexible
Polysulphide glass, concrete,
and chemically resistant adhesive or sealant.
ceramics, wood
Set at room temperatures. Has a high
temperature service temperature of up to 300o Silicone, Glass,
Silicone Rubber
C. Low shear strength. Very good sealing / metals
space filling adhesive - widely used for glazing
Sites Providing
Relevant
1. Saphire
Products..UK
supplier with
dimensional
data
2. Bondmaster..
supplier of wide
range of
Adhesive
products..
Datasheets
3. Adhesives
Toolkit..The
Adhesives
Design Toolkit -
Very very
useful
information
source
4. 3M -UK..Global
Adhesive tape
supplier
Home
Adhesives Home Page

Rubber Adhesives

Thermoplastic Adhesives

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Adhesives Home Page
Thermoplastic adhesives are fusible, soluble and poor heat and creep resistant. They
are normally used for low/medium load assemblies under reasonable service conditions
In general, thermoplastic adhesives have low/medium shear strength and suffer from
creep at high loading. They have good resistance to oils but poor resistance to water.
Thermoplastic adhesives include polyvinyl acetate (PVA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA),
polyacrylates, polyester acrylics, acrylic solvent cement, cyanoacrylates (superglue),
silicone resins, polyamides and acrylic acid diesters.
Over the recent 25 year properties of thermoplastic adhesives have been enhanced by
toughening such that that variants are available suitable for structural duties. There is
widespread use of thermoplastic adhesives (anaerobic) adhesives for axial fit assemblies,
and screw locking assemblies.

Supplied as an emulsion in water, for porous
Polyvinyl materials, especially wood. Shear strength is Wood, Metal,
Acetate (PVA) good. Resistant to oil . Poor resistance to water. glass, ceramics,
Low heat tolerance. ( White glue)
PMMA,styrene,
Acrylic solvent Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) dissolved in
Polycarbonate,
cement methyl chloride.
UPVC
Toughened acrylics( 2 part) are relatively fast
curing and offer high strength and toughness,
plus have more flexibility than common epoxies. Most materials ,
Toughened
They tolerate minimal surface preparation and very good for
Acrylic
bond well to a wide range of materials. High metals.
peel strength adhesive. Flexon variant single
part -24 hours full strength.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Adhesives/Thermoplast_Adhesives.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:35:09 AM

Toughened As above bu single part - Requires 24 hours for Most materials ,

Acrylic full strength. But good wet tack allowing rapid very good for
Flexon assembly. metals.
Harden quickly in seconds based on catalytic
action of surface moisture. Good for rubber. Metal, ceramics,
Cyanoacrylates
Care needed when used with metals in moist plastics etc.
warm conditions. "Superglue"
Two part thixotropic adhesive provides electrical
Silicone resins insulating properties. Low strength but high Fluorocarbons
working temperatures
Applied hot and set on cooling. Same properties Metal, wood,
Polyamines
as nylon. plastics , laminates
Sealant, locking compounds set in the presence
Anaerobic of metals and the absence of atmospheric
Acrylic acid oxygen. In use this hardens when used in a Metals,.
diesters completed assembly. Used to lock , seal, retain
all types of turned threaded, fitted parts.,
Sites Providing
Relevant
Information
1. Saphire
Products..UK
supplier with
dimensional
data
2. Bondmaster..
supplier of wide
range of
Adhesive
products..
Datasheets
3. Adhesives
Toolkit..The
Adhesives
Design Toolkit -
Very very
useful
information
source
4. Polyimides as
Adhesives: -
Literature
review..
Interesting
Article -
Provides useful
notes on

adhesive
science
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Adhesives Home Page

Thermoset Adhesives

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Thermoset Adhesives
Thermosetting Adhesives
Thermosetting adhesives are essentially infusible, insoluble and show good creep
resistance. They are used for high load assemblies and severe service conditions such
as heat, cold, radiation etc.
Thermoset adhesives set as a result of the build up of molecular chains to produce a rigid
crosslinked structure. They include epoxy resins, which are some of the most widely
used adhesives. There are many different thermoset adhesives available including
phenolic formaldehyde (PF) resins, phenolic neoprene, resorcinol formaldehydes (RF),
polyesters, polyimides and epoxy resins.
Thermoset adhesives are generally more expensive,to purchase and to use, than the
other adhesive types. They are the adhesives most used for structural, load bearing
applications. Some of the toughened variants provide exceptional properties directly
comparable with welded, rivetted alternatives.

Resorcinol Water resistance is very good. They are used to Wood, porous
resins make exterior plywood. materials
Usually made to harden by chemical action rather
Polyesters
than by the evaporation of solvents and thus cure Glass fibre binder.
(unsaturated)
with little shrinkage.
High performance adhesives requiring higher
curing temperatures and bonding pressures (up
Polyimides Metals
to 0.7 MPa ). High cost adhesive. Supplied as
tapes.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Adhesives/Thermoset_Adhesives.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:35:11 AM

Thermoset Adhesives
Epoxy (mostly 2-part) adhesives have good

strength and chemical resistance, do not produce
volatiles during curing, and have low shrinkage. Metal, Glass,
Epoxy resins Therefore they form extremely strong and durable elastormers, some
bonds with most materials in well-designed joints. plastics
Single part adhesives require heat for setting or
long setting times.
Epoxy Better flexibility and peel strength but relatively
polysulphides lower peel strength
Epoxy
Good temperature characteristics Metals , Laminates
silicones
Trade Name.. High performance structural
Redux adhesives - Paste or film . Can be formulated for
Metals,
adhesive higher temperatures (180o C). Automobile,
Aerospace, Marine applications.
Sites Providing
Relevant
Information
1. Saphire
Products..UK
supplier with
dimensional
data
2. Bondmaster..
supplier of wide
range of
Adhesive
products..
Datasheets
3. Adhesives
Toolkit..The
Adhesives
Design Toolkit -
Very very
useful
information
source
4. Polyimides as
Adhesives: -
Literature
review..
Interesting
Article -
Provides useful
notes on

Thermoset Adhesives
adhesive
science
Home
Adhesives Home Page

Screws Nuts Washer Sizes
ROYMECH
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Screws Index Page...
Notes:
The screw and nut sizes are in accordance with BS 3692:1967 (ISO 272 equivalent). This standard has now been superseded by BS 3692:2001.
(The data has not yet been checked against the latest revision. )
All dimensions in milli metres
Bolt Sizes ...ISO metric precision hexagon bolts , Coarse Thread Series
Bolt tolerance class 6g are dimensioned in BS3692:1967
Nominal Thread. Bolt dia Bolt Head Bolt Nut

Pitch
Major Minor Acc/Flats
Size Pitch Diameter Thick Acc./Corn
max - min max - min max - min
max - min
2,980 - 2,367 - 2,655 -
M3 0,5 2,125 5,50 - 5,38 6,40
2,874 2,256 2,580
3,978 - 3,119 - 3,523 -
M4 0,7 2,925 7,00 - 6,85 8,10
3,838 2,979 3,433
4,976 - 3,995 - 4,456 -
M5 0,8 3,650 8,00 - 7,85 9,20
4,826 3,842 4,361
5,974 - 4,747 - 5,324 - 10,00 -
M6 1,0 4,150 11,50
5,794 4,563 5,212 9,78
7,972 - 6,438 - 7,160 - 13,00 -
M8 1,25 5,650 15,00
7,760 6,230 7,042 12,73
9,968 - 8,128 - 8,994 - 17,00 -
M10 1,5 7,180 19,60
9,732 7,888 8,862 16,73
11,966 - 9,819 - 10,829 - 19,00 -
M12 1,75 8,180 22,10
11,701 9,543 10,679 18,67
15,962 - 13,508 - 14,663 - 24,00 -
M16 2,0 10,180 27,70
15,682 13,204 14,503 23,67
19,958 - 16,891 - 18,334 - 30,00 -
M20 2,5 13,215 34,60
19,623 16,541 18,164 29,67
23,952 - 20,271 - 22,003 - 36,00 -
M24 3,0 15,215 41,60
23,577 19,855 21,803 35,58
29,947 - 25,653 - 27,674 - 46,00 -
M30 3,50 19,260 53,1
29,522 25,189 27,462 45,38
35,940 - 31,033 - 33,342 - 55,00 -
M36 4,00 23,260 63,5
35,465 30,521 33,118 54,26
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Screws/Hex_Screws.htm (1 of 5)10/24/2006 11:35:18 AM

Nuts Sizes, Coarse Thread Series
Nut tolerance class 6H are dimensioned in BS3692
Nominal Thread. Nut Diameter Nut

Minor
Size Pitch Major Thick
Max - min
2,599 -
M3 0,5 3,000 2,40
2,459
3,422 -
M4 0,7 4,000 3,20
3,242
4,334 -
M5 0,8 5,000 4,00
4,134
5,153 -
M6 1,0 6,000 5,00
4,917
6,912 -
M8 1,25 8,000 6,50
6,647
8,676 -
M10 1,5 10,000 8,00
8,376
10,441 -
M12 1,75 12,000 10,00
10,106
14,210 -
M16 2,0 16,000 13,00
13,835
17,744 -
M20 2,5 20,000 16,00
17,294
21,252 -
M24 3,0 24,000 19,00
20,752
26,771 -
M30 3,5 30,000 24,00
26,211
32,270 -
M36 4,0 36,00 29,00
31,670
Bolt Sizes ...ISO metric precision hexagon bolts , Fine thread series
Bolt tolerance class 6g are dimensioned in BS3692:1967
Nominal Thread. Bolt dia Bolt Head Bolt Nut

Pitch
Major Minor Acc/Flats
Size Pitch Diameter Thick Acc./Corn
max - min
5,978 - 5,058 - 5,491 - 10,00 -
M6 0,75 4,150 11,50
5,838 4,909 5,391 9,78

7,974 - 6,747 - 7,324 - 13,00 -

M8 1,00 5,650 15,00
7,794 6,563 7,212 12,73
9,972 - 8,439 - 9,160 - 17,00 -
M10 1,25 7,180 19,60
9,760 8,231 9,042 16,73
11,972 - 10,439 - 11,160 - 19,00 -
M12 1,25 8,180 22,10
11,760 10,217 11,028 18,67
15,968 - 14,127 - 14,994 - 24,00 -
M16 1,50 10,180 27,70
15,732 13,879 14,854 23,67
19,968 - 18,127 - 18,994 - 30,00 -
M20 1,5 13,215 34,60
19,732 17,879 18,854 29,67
23,962 - 21,508 - 22,663 - 36,00 -
M24 2,0 15,215 41,60
23,682 21,194 22,493 35,58
29,962 - 27,508 - 28,663 - 46,00 -
M30 2,0 19,260 53,1
29,682 27,194 28,493 45,38
35,952 - 32,271 - 34,003 - 55,00 -
M36 3,00 23,260 63,5
35,577 31,855 33,803 54,26
Nuts Sizes - Fine Thread Series..
Nut tolerance class 6H are dimensioned in BS3692:1967
Nominal Thread. Nut Diameter Nut

Minor
Size Pitch Major Thick
Max - min
5,378 -
M6 0,75 6,000 5,00
5,188
7,153 -
M8 1,00 8,000 6,50
6,917
8,912 -
M10 1,25 10,000 8,00
8,647
10,912 -
M12 1,25 12,000 10,00
10,647
14,676 -
M16 1,50 16,000 13,00
14,376
18,676 -
M20 1,50 20,000 16,00
18,376
22,210 -
M24 2,0 24,000 19,00
21,835
28,210 -
M30 2,0 30,000 24,00
27,835
33,252 -
M36 3,0 36,00 29,00
32,752

Washers.. Plain Washers , bright metric series
Bright Washers are dimensioned in BS4320: 1968
Nominal Washer Diameter Washer Thickness

Internal External Thick
Size Thin
M3 3,4 - 3,2 7,0 - 6,7 0,6 - 0,4 -
M4 4,5 - 4,3 9,0 - 8,7 0,9 - 0,7 -
M5 5,5 - 5,3 10,0 - 9,7 1,1 - 0,9 -
12,5 -
M6 6,7 - 6,4 1,8 - 1,4 0,9 - 0,7
12,1
17,0 -
M8 8,7 - 8,4 1,8 - 1,4 1,1 - 0,9
16,6
10,9 - 21,0 - 1,45 -
M10 2,2 - 1,8
10,5 20,5 1,05
13,4 - 24,0 -
M12 2,7 - 2,3 1,8 - 1,4
13,0 23,5
17,4 - 30,0 -
M16 3,3 - 2,7 2,2 - 1,8
17,00 29,5
21,5 - 37,0 -
M20 3,3 - 2,7 2,2 - 1,8
21,0 36,2
25,5 - 44,0 -
M24 4,3 - 3,7 2,7 - 2,3
25,0 43,2
31,6 - 56,0 -
M30 4,3 - 3,7 2,7 - 2,3
31,0 55,0
37,6 - 66,0 -
M36 5,6 - 4,4 3,3 - 2,7
37,0 65,0
Washers.. Plain Washers , Black metric series
Bright Washers are dimensioned in BS4320: 1968
Washer
Nominal Washer Diameter
Thickness
Internal External Thickness
Size
M5 5,8 - 5,5 10,0 - 9,2 1,2 - 0,8
M6 7,0 - 6,6 12,5 - 11,7 1,9 - 1,3
M8 9,4 - 9,0 17,0 - 16,2 1,9 - 1,3
M10 11,5 - 11,0 21,0 - 20,2 2,3 - 1,7
M12 14,5 - 14,0 24,0 - 23,2 2,8 - 2,2

M16 18,5 - 18,00 30,0 - 29,2 3,6 - 2,4

M20 22,6 - 22,0 37,0 - 35,8 3,6 - 2,4
M24 26,6 - 26,0 44,0 - 42,8 4,6 - 3,4
M30 33,8 - 33,0 56,0 - 54,5 4,6 - 3,4
M36 39,8 - 39,0 66,0 - 64,5 6,0 - 4,0
M42 45,8 - 45,0 78,0 - 76,5 8,2 - 5,8
M48 53,0 - 52,0 92,0 -90,0 9,2 - 6,8
For DIN125 Plain Washers (Overall dimensions) Din 125 Washer
Useful Links
1. Co_Design..Dimensions of Metric fastener threads etc

2. Metric Thread Sizes..Metric THREAD sizes from Tribology - abc
3. Metric Thread Sizes..Metric THREAD sizes from Newmantools - abc
4. Metric Thread Tolerances..Metric Thread tolerances for Fullermetric
5. Metrication.com..Information on metric threads and other metric subjects
Home

Cap Screw Dimensions
ROYMECH
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Cap Screws
Notes:
All linear dimensions in milli metres
Dimensions generally to BS EN ISO 4762 BS 3643- 2 & BS 4168 (superceded)
Hex
Body diameter and Soc.
Nominal Thread. Socket Head Dia
Head height length
Size
Size Pitch Max Min Max Min
M3 0.5 2.50 3.00 2.86 5.50 5.20 1.3
M4 0.70 3.00 4.00 3.82 7.00 6.64 2.00
M5 0.8 4.00 5.00 4.82 8.50 8.14 2.70
M6 1.0 5.00 6.00 5.82 10.00 9.64 3.30
M8 1.25 6.00 8.00 7.78 13.00 12.57 4.3
M10 1.5 8.00 10.00 9.78 16.00 15.57 5.50
M12 1.75 10.00 12.00 11.73 18.00 17.57 6.60
M16 2.0 14.00 16.00 15.73 24.00 23.48 8.80
M20 2.5 17.00 20.00 19.67 30.00 29.48 10.70
M24 3.0 19.00 24.00 23.67 36.00 35.38 12.90
Countersunk Screws (Flat Head Screws)

The dimensions are generally in accordance with BS EN ISO 10642:1998. This supersedes BS 4168-8.
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Cap Screw Dimensions
Hex
Nominal Thread Max Head Soc.
Socket Head Dia
size Pitch Cone Dia Height length
Size
D J A1 A_max A_Min H K
M3 0.5 2,0 6,72 6,00 5,82 1,86 1,05
M4 0.70 2,5 8,96 8,00 7,78 2,48 1,49
M5 0.8 3,0 11,2 10,00 9,78 3,1 1,86
M6 1.0 4,0 13,44 12,00 11,75 3,72 2,16
M8 1.25 5,0 17,92 16,00 15,73 4,96 2,85
M10 1.5 6,0 22,4 20,00 19,67 6,2 3,60
M12 1.75 8,0 26,88 24,00 23,67 7,44 4,35
M16 2.0 10,0 33,6 32,00 29,67 8,8 4,89
M20 2.5 10,0 40,32 40,00 35,61 10,16 5,49
Sites Providing Information On Socket Screws
1. Dimensional Data - Socket Cap Screws..Holo-krome dimensional data

2. PTS_uk..Some useful dimensions of socket screws etc
3. Fullermetric.Din /ISO dimensions
4. Ondrives Goto Fasteners Lots of Information on metric screws
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Screws/cap_screws.htm (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:35:21 AM

Screw Ultimate Loads and Torques
ROYMECH
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Ultimate Loads and Torques..
Only Use these numbers for rough estimates
- FASTENER SIZE
- M6 M8 M10 M12 M14 M16 M20 M22 M24 M30 M36
Pitch mm 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Stress Area mm2 20.1 36.6 58 84.3 115 157 245 303 353 561 817
- GRADE - - - - - - - - - - -
ULT.LOAD 4.6 7900 14370 22760 33110 45130 61610 96150 118700 139300 220000 321000
NEWTONS .... 8.8 15900 28650 45500 66200 90250 123100 192300 237400 276640 439500 641570
(N) 10.9 19700 35900 56900 82700 112800 154000 240340 297240 346300 550340 801480
4.6 4.5 11 22 38 61 95 184 251 320 635 1110
TORQUE; Nm 8.8 12.1 29 58 101 161 252 492 670 850 1690 2940
10.9 17 41 82 143 228 355 693 942 1200 2370 4149
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
Relevant Links
1. Norbar Toque Calculator..Very useful calculator for calculating the torque for any screw
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Screws/Screw_loads.htm10/24/2006 11:35:23 AM
Strength Grade of Bolts and Screw
ROYMECH
Home
Tensile and Proof Stress Of Metric Bolts and Screws. (Carbon Steel )
Indicated stresses in Newton/mm2
Strength
4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.6 6.8 8.8 10.9 12.9 14.9
Designation
Ult. Tensile
392.4 392.4 490.5 490.5 588.6 588.6 784.8 981.0 1177.2 1373.4
Strength
Yield Stress 235.4 314.0 294.3 392.4 353.2 470.9 - - - -
Stress at Perm.
- - - - - - 627.8 882.9 1059.5 1236.0
Set
In accordance with BS3692 and ISO /DR911
Tensile Strength Of Metric Nuts
Strength
4 5 6 8 12 14
Designation
Tensile
392.4 490.5 588.6 784.8 1177.2 1373.4
Strength
In accordance with BS3692 and ISO /DR911
The designation system allows the determination of the ultimate and yield/proof strength of the bolt. The designation system is based on two number
e.g 8.8 . The first number is the tensile strength of the bolt material (kgf/mm2 )/10. The second number is = 1/10 .(the ratio of the Proof (or Yield )
stress and the Tensile strength expresses as a percent = 100.[Yield (Proof stress) /Tensile strength] /10
The tensile and proof strength of the steel for a 4.6 bolt is therefore calculated as follows
Tensile strength (Rm) = 4. 10 kgf/mm2 = 40 kgf/mm2 .... Proof strength (R0,2) = 0,6*40* 10 /100 = 24 kgf/mm2
Tensile and Proof Stress Of Metric Bolts and Screws. (Stainless Steel )
Stainless steels include Austenitic, Martensitic and Ferritic..
Austenitic stainless steels..

Chromium nickel steels which can be cold worked. Non magnetic.
Associated grades ( Steel Number according to BS EN 10088 pt 1) = A1 (1.4305) , A2 (1.4301) ,A3 (1.4541) , A4 (1.4401) and A5 (1.4571).
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Strength Grade of Bolts and Screw
Martensitic stainless steels ..

Limited corrosion resistance but can be heat treated for superior strength properties. Magnetic Properties.
Associated grades ( Steel Number according to BS EN 10088 pt 1) = C1 (1.4006 etc) , C3 (1.4057), C4(1.4104)
Ferritic stainless steels ..

Plain chromium stainless steels with a chromium content varying between 10.5 and 18% and a low carbon content. They not hardenable by heat
treatment. Ferritic alloys have good ductility and formability but a relatively poor high temperature strength compared austenitic grades. Magnetic..
Associated grades = F1
Tensile and Proof Stress Of Metric Bolts and Screws. (Stainless Steel )
Stainless Steel Austenitic Martensitic Ferritic

Steel Grade A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 C1,C4 C1 C3 F1
Strength class 50 70 80 100 50 70 110 80 45 60
Tensile Strength 500 700 800 1000 500 700 1100 800 450 600
0,2% proof
210 450 600 750 250 410 820 640 250 410
stress
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Screws/Strength.htm (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:35:26 AM

Head Clearances
ROYMECH
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Head Clearances Around Screw Heads ...
BOLTS HOLES, MIN SPACINGS, AND SPANNER CLEARANCES
PRECISION HEXAGON BOLTS AND SCREWS
Dimensions in mm
Clearance Nom.
Size Hole D Min P G Size M N H
a b c Spanner
M3 3.5 12 10 8 10 - 5.5 8 8 -
M4 4.5 15 10 8 12 14 7 10 10 19
M5 5.5 20 10 8 12 14 8 10 10 19
M6 6.5 25 14 8 16 17 10 10 12 25
M8 9.0 30 18 12 20 22 13 12 15 25
M10 11.0 40 28 16 25 27 17 16 18 32
M12 13.5 50 30 16 30 30 19 18 20 32
M16 17.5 50 30 22 35 38 24 25 28 50
M20 22.5 60 32 25 40 46 30 30 35 50
M24 26.5 75 48 28 45 55 36 35 45 -
M30 33.0 100 60 40 60 71 46 45 55 -
M36 39.5 100 60 45 70 83 55 55 65 -
HIGH STRENGTH FRICTION GRIP BOLTS
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Screws/Head_Clearances.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:35:33 AM

Head Clearances
Dimensions in mm
Clearance Nom. Size

Size Min P G M N
a b c Spanner
M16 60 30 25 38 27 42 30 35
M20 70 48 28 42 48 32 30 35
M24 80 48 40 55 65 41 45 50
M30 100 60 45 65 77 50 55 60
M36 120 60 45 70 81 60 70 75
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Screws/Head_Clearances.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:35:33 AM

Screw thread Calculations
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use this information at your own risk.
ROYMECH
Home
Notes
The critical areas of stress of mating screw threads are
● The effective cross section area, or tensile area, of the external thread.
● The shear area of the external thread which depends upon minor dia of the tapped hole
● The shear area of the internal thread which depends on the major dia of the the exernal thread
The allowable stresses and screw end force and the method of applying the force in the calculation of the tensile stress are not considered on this page but are addressed on this site by tables and more importantly
referenced links
If a screw threaded fastener is to fail it is preferable that the screw fails rather than the internal or external thread strips. The length of the screw engagement should therefore be sufficient to carry the full load necessary to
break the screw without the threads stripping.
The size of a screwed fastener is first established by calculating the tensile load to be withstood by the screw and selecting a suitable screw to withstand the tensile load with the appropriate factor of safety or preload. If
the joint is fixed using a nut and bolt then assuming the nut is selected from the same grade as the bolt there is little need to size the nut. The fastener manufacture sizes the length of the nut to ensure the screw will fail
before the nut. If the screw fastens into a tapped hole then a check of the depth of thread engagement is required.
Generally for female and male threads of the same material with, the female thread is stronger than the male thread in shear for the same length of engagement
Stress Area formulae
D = Basic Diameter.
p = Screw Thread Pitch
Le = Length of Thread Engagement
A t = The screw thread tensile stress area
d p = Pitch circle diameter of thread
A ss =The thread shear area
The following formula for the Tensile Stress Area of the (male) screw
This is based on ISO 898 Part 1. see calculation below..
d p = Pitch circle diameter of thread
dp = (D - 0.64952.p )
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The thread shear area = Ass
Ass = 0.5. π. dp. Le = 0.5 π (D - 0.64952.p )
To ensure that the screw fails before the thread strips it is necessary the the shear area is at least 2 times the tensile area. i.e
Le = 2 . A t / [0.5 .π .(D - 0.64952.p )]
This assumes that the male and female thread materials have the same strength. If the Female Material strength is lower i.e J as calculated below is greater than 1 then the length of engagement must be increased to
prevent the female thread stripping
If the value of J is greater than than 1 then the length of engagement must be increased to at least
More Detailed Notes
The above formulae are sufficient to enable the tensile strength to be calculated and to allow the depth of thread to be confirmed for a tapped hole
Following are equations to provide more accurate evaluation of the shear strength of threads. These are equations derived from FED-STD-H28/2B, 1991 and Machinerys Handbook eighteenth Edition. They strictly apply
to UN thread series but if the relevent metric screw thread dimensions are used they will give reasonable results. In practice when the values are calculated the value for the screw shear strength is similar to the very
convenient formula provided above. These equations are only of theoretical value
Screw Shear Area Calculations
K nmax = Maximum minor diameter of internal thread.

E smin = Minimum pitch dia of external thread.
E nmax = Maximum pitch dia of internal thread.
D smin = Minimum major dia of external thread.
n = 1/p = threads per unit (mm)
Length Of Thread

Shear Area For Screw
Shear Area For Female Thread
If material in which the female thread is tapped is significantly weaker that the screw material then J must be evaluated.
If the value of J is greater than than 1 then the length of engagement must be increased to at least
Note: Short derivation of nominal stress area formula from info in BS EN ISO 898..

Some calculated Stress Areas for ISO Metric Threads..medium fit (6H / 6g)
The purpose of this table is to show the results of the above formula. It is clear from this table that there is no major benefit in using the detailed formula
above. The approximate formula for the screw thread shear stress area (A ss) is generally sufficiently accurate and there is no need to use the more detailed
formula for As. For sizes below M6 the formulas yield very similar values. For sizes M6 and above the value for Ass provides a slightly more conservative
result (20% margin at M36)
I have obtained the thread dimensions on tables in Machinery's Handbook 27th ed. If you intend to use this information please check it against a reliable
source (ref disclaimer above)
Size M3 M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12 M14 M16 M20 M22 M24 M30 M36
Basic Dia D (mm) 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 20.00 22.00 24.00 30.00 36.00
Pitch p 0.50 0.70 0.80 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.00 2.50 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
1/p n 2.0000 1.4286 1.2500 1.0000 0.8000 0.6667 0.5714 0.5000 0.5000 0.4000 0.4000 0.3333 0.2857 0.2500
Stress Dia Ds 2.5309 3.3433 4.2494 5.0618 6.8273 8.5927 10.3582 12.1236 14.1236 17.6545 19.6545 21.1854 26.7163 32.2472
Tensile
Stress At 5.0308 8.7787 14.1825 20.1234 36.6085 57.9896 84.2665 115.4394 156.6684 244.7944 303.3993 352.5039 560.5872 816.7226
Area
Pitch dp 2.6752 3.5453 4.4804 5.3505 7.1881 9.0257 10.8633 12.7010 14.7010 18.3762 20.3762 22.0514 27.7267 33.4019
circle dia.
Shear
Area/unit A ss/mm 4.2023 5.5690 7.0378 8.4045 11.2910 14.1776 17.0641 19.9506 23.0922 28.8653 32.0069 34.6383 43.5530 52.4676
Length
Length of
Thread Le 2.3944 3.1527 4.0304 4.7887 6.4845 8.1805 9.8765 11.5725 13.5689 16.9612 18.9584 20.3534 25.7428 31.1324
(Ass=2*At)
Max.
Minor Dia Knmax 2.5990 3.4220 4.3340 5.1530 6.9120 8.6760 10.4410 12.2100 14.2100 17.7440 19.7440 21.2520 26.7710 32.2700
(nut)
Min Pitch
Dia E smin 2.5800 3.4330 4.3610 5.2120 7.0420 8.8620 10.6790 12.5030 14.5030 18.1640 20.1640 21.8030 27.4620 33.1180
(Screw)
Max Pitch E
2.7750 3.6630 4.6050 5.5000 7.3480 9.2060 11.0630 12.9130 14.9130 18.6000 20.6000 22.3160 28.0070 33.7020
dia (Nut) sub>nmax
Min Major
dia D smin 2.8740 3.8380 4.8260 5.7940 7.7600 9.7320 11.7010 13.6820 15.6820 19.6230 21.6230 23.5770 29.5220 35.4650
(Screw)

Shear
Area/unit A s /mm 3.9034 5.4728 7.0731 8.6458 12.1612 15.5796 18.9762 22.4239 26.0969 33.2791 37.0302 40.4623 51.6384 63.0982
length
(Screw)
Shear
Area /mm A n/mm 5.5466 7.7691 9.9988 12.1909 16.8285 21.4769 26.1173 31.0335 35.5699 45.3881 50.0141 55.0098 69.5512 84.0601
length
(Nut)
Length of
Thread Le 2.5777 3.2081 4.0103 4.6551 6.0206 7.4443 8.8813 10.2961 12.0067 14.7116 16.3866 17.4238 21.7120 25.8873
(As= 2*At)
Home

Bolt Loading Notes
ROYMECH
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Bolt Preloading
Bolt preloading notes.... Stiffness..... Calculating Thermal loading... Calculating initial bolt tension.....
Shear load developed in tightening bolts.... Methods of setting bolt preload.... Table showing Accuracy of Bolt tensioning methods
Introduction
Calculating bolt loads is complicated if done correctly. The notes below are very limited and are
reasonable for none critical applications. There are lots of specialist in this field as identified in the links
on this page and on the screw index page. These notes do not include for fatigue loading, determination
of stiffness of joint, joint settlement, load application factors.etc etc.
Nomenclature
● A z = Area of plate - taking load ( m2)

● A b = Bolt Cross Section = Bolt thread root Area (m 2)
● D b = Bolt thread root diameter (m)
● F e = External Load (N)
● F t = Thermal Load (N)
● F p = Preload Load (N)
● F = Total Load On Bolt (N)
● E z = Youngs Modulus of item z ( N / m2)
● L = Length of Bolt joint (m)
● L b = Length of Bolt (m)
● L j = Length of joint (m)
● k z = Stiffness of component z (N/m)
● k b = Stiffness of bolt (N/m)
● k j = Stiffness of joint (N/m)
● t z = Thickness of plate z (m)
● T = Bolt Tightening Torque (N.m)
● x z = deflection of item z /unit load (m/N)
● x b = deflection of bolt /unit load (m/N)
● α z= Coefficient of thermal expansion of component z (m/m/Deg.C)

● δ = deflection (m)
Bolt Loading Notes
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Bolt Loading Notes
It is accepted that a bolt preloaded to a fixed value is safer than a bolt simply tightened to an arbitrary value. A preload of about 80% of the proof
strength of the bolt material is normally used.
Assume a bolt is used to clamp a joint to a set preload value and the bolt has a low stiffness and the joint
has a very high stiffness. An external load is applied to tend separate the joint. Part of this load will
cause the further extension of the bolt (increase in bolt load). Part of the load will result in an increase of
the joint thickness reducing of the compressive load on the joint. e.g. If the preload has resulted from a
stretching of the bolt of 1mm and a compression of the joint by only 0.01mm then an external load
sufficient to achieve joint separation will only increase on loading of the bolt by about 0,01mm/1mm (1%)
x preload .
It is clear?? from this example that using longer small diameter bolts to clamp surfaces results in
relatively uniform bolt loading under varying external forces with reduced risk of fatigue loading.
Assuming the assembly is bolted with a bolt preload of Fp and an external load F eis applied..
Joint separation will occur when Fe = F (total load on the bolt) .. i.e when no load is being taken by the
joint
For an infinitely stiff bolt separation will never occur all of the external load will be applied directly to the
bolt with no resulting extension..
For a infinitely stiff joint separation will take place when the external load exceeds the preload.
On application of an external force Fe. Some of the force will used to increase the preload on the bolt
and some will be used to reduce the loading on the joint . The bolt loading diagram below shows the
loading regime on the bolt and joint
Bolted Joint diagram

Bolt Loading Notes
The determination of the proportion of the load taken by the bolt and by the joint is calculated using the
component stiffness values.
The stiffness is effectively the same as the Spring Rate ..
Stiffness = k = F / δ
Stiffness Considerations
Bolt stiffness
The relationship E = stress /strain = σ /e is used to determine the stiffness of a bolt.

Stress = Force (F) /Area (A) and strain = Deflection (δ) / Length (L)
E = (F/A) /(δ/L) Therefore δ = FL/EA .
If the bolt length clamping the joint includes a number of different sections then the resulting stiffness is
determined using the relationship .
To allow for a certain degree of elasticity of the bolt head and nut a correction factor is often used modify
the length used in the stiffness calculations as shown below..

Bolt Loading Notes
The stiffness of the bolt results from the stiffness of the bolt shank (dia ds ) and the stiffness of the bolt
thread (root dia dr ).
The length used to calculate the shank stiffness = L se = L s + 0,4d s
The length used for the threaded length section = = L te = L t + 0,4d r
Joint Stiffness
Note: It is very difficult to calculated the stiffness of a joint e.g one based on holes drilled in a plate. A
rough approximation can be made by assuming joint is an annulus with and OD of 2,5 times the bolt dia
and an ID = bolt diameter.
Additional notes on evaluating the joint stiffness are provided on page Joint Stiffness
The mitcalc software (links below) is useful for obtaining a stiffness value of a joint.
The relationship E = stress /strain = σ /e is used to determine the stiffness of a section .
Calculation of Load Distribution using Bolt/Joint Stiffness

Bolt Loading Notes
A joint preloaded with a force Fp is then subject to an additional load Fe which tends to separate the
joint. The resulting deflection of the joint and bolt are the same providing that Fe is less than the
separation force.
It follows that
Following application of the external force the resulting total force on the bolt =
and the total force on the joint =
Thermal Loading
If all of the materials of the joint and the bolt are the same then any changes in temperature will have
negligible effect of the joint loadings. However if the joint materials have coefficients of thermal
expansion different to the bolt material changes in the joint loading result from changes in temperature...
Let .. Coefficient of thermal expansion of joint material = α j

Coefficient of thermal expansion of bolt = α b
Change of temperature = ∆T
Length of joint = Length of Bolt ( L j = L b = L )
The expansion of the joint = ∆L j= α j ∆T.L

The expansion of the bolt = ∆L b= α b ∆T.L

Bolt Loading Notes
The overall stiffness of the joint is calculated as follows.
The resulting change in the joint load is calculated as follows..
The total bolt load following temperature change is thus..
Initial Tension in Bolt
The initial tension in a bolt is crudely estimated for a bolt tightened by hand by an experienced mechanic
as follows
Fp = K*d
● d = nominal diameter of bolt

● Fp = Preload (N)
● K = Coefficient vary from. 1.75 x 10 6 N/m to 2.8 x 10 6 N /m
For a bolt tightened with a torque wrench the torque required to provide an initial bolt tension may be
approximated by the formula..
T = Fp * K * d
Typical K factors
Steel Thread Condition K

as received, stainless on
0,30
mild or alloy
as received, mild or alloy
0,20
on same
cadmium plated 0,16
molybdenum-disulphide
0.14
grease
PTFE lubrication 0.12

Bolt Loading Notes
A more accurate value can be determined using the formula
Note: Relevant formulea for calculating Power thread torques and efficiencies are derived on webpage Power Screw Equations
● F p = Desired bolt Preload (N)

● p = Thread pitch (m)
● d m = Mean diameter of thread (m)
● μ = Coefficient of Thread friction

● μ c = Coefficient of collar friction
● α is the thread angle / 2 (α = 30 o for standard metric threads & α = 29 o/2 for acme threads).
● r c = Collar friction radius (m)
Note: Friction values are found on this site on the coefficient of friction page..Coefficient of Friction
It can be proved that the majority of the torque is required to overcome the thread and collar friction
forces (approx 90%). Therefore any error in the value of the friction coefficient will have a large variation
on the bolt tensile load. The above formula is in essence not a lot more accurate than the approximate
formulae above.
Note:
A very simplified version of this formula can be derive by assuming μc = μ , d m = 0.92 d , α
= 30o. rc = 0.625 d.
If the denominator is simplified to π.dm The equation reduces to
T = Fp (0,159.p + 1,156. μ.d )
This provides a very crude relationship between the torque and the resulting bolt tension for a
standard hex screw with no washer..
For important bolting applications it is recommended that the bolt preload is is determined using direct
bolt tension measuring techniques - see notes below.
Shear Stress In Bolts
In tightening a bolt stress is induced as a result of the bolt tension and bolt torque.. The combined
resulting shear stress is calculated as follows

Bolt Loading Notes
● F Bolt Tension (N)

● Tf = Thread torque(N.m)
● A r = Thread Root Area (m 2)
● d r = Thread Root diameter
This formula is relatively conservative. For less conservative designs A r can be replaced by A t as
defined on page Thread calcs
and d r can be replaced by d t = Sqrt( 4.A t/π )
In general for static loading, the maximum shear stress in a bolt should not exceed about 75% of the
shear yield stress of the material. For variable loading the bolt should be designed for endurance stress
levels. Bolts subject to dynamic loading often lose their initial torsion stress because the nut/bolt head
tends to slip back if the collar friction is not sufficient.
Methods of setting bolt preload /tension
High strength friction grip bolts and nuts require to be tensioned in accordance with BS 4604 which
specifies min. loads to be achieved (see Table 1). It also specifies three methods of determining bolt
tension, i.e.:
i) Torque Control
ii) Part Turn of Nut
iii) Direct Tension Measurement
Torque Wrench
This method is sometimes known erroneously as "torque control". The bolts are tensioned in a tension
calibrator on the site. The wrench is then set to cut out at that torque (the wrench becomes "calibrated"),
and then all similar bolts that day are installed to that torque after the joint is snugged first. Rotation
during the tightening process must be limited to a specific value. Actual results of tension in bolts
produced by this method are acknowledged to be highly variable, even when this method is followed
exactly.
Turn Of Nut
After snugging the joint, the bolt shank and nut is marked and then a specific amount of rotation is
induced between the nut and the bolt. The amount of rotation differs for different bolt lengths and
diameters and therefore must be known and understood by the bolt installers in advance. The success
of the method is dependent on a correct snugging of the joint, and is dependent on the bolt head being
held from turning so the bolt does not spin in the hole.
Note: Turn-of-nut does not work correctly when the steel surfaces are coated with a compressible coating
such as high paint thickness or hot dipped galvanized zinc.

Bolt Loading Notes
Direct Tension Indicator Washers

A number of direct tension indicator systems are available (see links below) the most popular being the
DTI washers. ..The notes below relate to DTI washers..
DTI washers measure the bolt tension developed during tightening, regardless of the torque resistance of
the bolt. By far the simplest method, a DTI washer is put on the head or nut end of the bolt. The bolts
are then slightly tensioned snugging the joint by partially (but not fully) compressing the DTI (tightening
the nut).
Then all the bolts are tightened such that the DTI's are "crushed" to the point where a feeler gage cannot
be inserted half way around (tightening the nut). DTI's are completely independent of the torque
resistance of the bolt assembly.
If the DTI is put on the nut end of the bolt, tightening can be done by one person because it is not
necessary access the bolt head side.
Other methods of measuring Bolt tension

There are a number of methods of determining the bolt tension including
● Using Strain gauges..Accurate /complicated /expensive. Some skill required

● Using ultrasonics instruments..Accurate and not expensive over the long term. Some skill required
● Using special bolts with built-in (mechanical or electronic) extension measurement e.g Rotobolt. Good but relatively expensive
● Using hydraulics (or heat) to pretension bolts Ses note below
Note:
Using heat is based on heating the bolt(and nut) to a set temperature. The bolt is inserted quickly and
the nut tightened snugly. The bolt is then allowed to cool and the contraction results in the required
tension. If a tension Fp is required for a bolt with a CSA of Ab then the required bolt stress is calculated
σ= F p / Ab
The bolt is heated to a temperature of
T = [σ /(E.e)] + T o
E= Youngs Modulus (N/m2 )....e = Coefficient of thermal expansion (m/m)/deg.C....To = ambient

temperature (deg. C)
This method is very difficult to implement the bolt has to be heated while the bolted joint has to be kept at
ambient temperature. The accuracy of the heating method is very much limited by quality of the
procedure followed.
Hydraulic bolt tensioners use an annular hydraulic jack placed around the screw, stretching it axially.
When the required stress level is reached, the nut is tightened snugly and then the pressure released,
resulting in a preloaded bolt without any frictional or torsional stresses.
The hydraulic method can provide very accurate preload (+/- 1%) on long bolts but it is less accurate on
short bolts.

Bolt Loading Notes
Preload Setting Error

Operator "Feel" +/- 35%
Torque Wrench +/- 25%
Angle Torquing (Turn of
+/- 15%
nut)
Load Indicating Washer +/- 10%
Measuring Bolt
+/- 5%
elongation
Hydraulic Bolt pretension +/- (1% to 10%)
Strain Gauges /
+/- 1%
Ultrasonics
Sites Providing Information On Bolt Loading
1. Rotabolt ..A simple and reliable mechanical (DTI) bolt system for ensuring accurate preload
2. Bolt torque Calculator..A Useful Calculator from Futek
3. Smartbolts..A "clever" bolt with DTI built in
4. Thomas-william-lench..A company providing DTI Washers
5. Applied Bolting..Supplier of DTI Washers -Lots of useful notes
6. Surebolt..A company providing an Ultrasonics tensions system - Very Informative Web site
7. MITCALC..Provides a good Excel based bolt calculator at reasonable cost
8. The Truth About TORQUE and TENSION ..You should read this article from Assembly Magazine
9. DAN_notes Loads in an elastic bolted assembly..Very detailed notes on bolt loading
Home

Bolted Joint
ROYMECH
Home
Screws Index Page
Bolted Joint Design
Introduction
A most important factor is machine design, and structural design is the rigid fastening together of different
components..This should include the following considerations..
● Assembly
● Accuracy of positioning
● Ability to Hold components rigidly together against all forces
● Requirement to separate components
● Retention of fastening over time
There are many methods of fastening items together including
● Bolting
● Rivetting
● Pins
● Keys
● Welding/Soldering/Brazing
● Bonding
● Velcro
● Magnetism
These notes relate primarily to the bolted joint. The bolted joint is a very popular method of fastening
components together. The prime reason for selecting bolts as opposed to welding, or rivets is that the
connection can be easily released allowing disassembly, maintenance and/or inspection..
The bolts /screws are generally used in groups to fasten plates together. A bolt is a screwed fastener
with a head, designed to be used with a nut. A screw is a fastener designed to be used with a formed
female thread in one of the components being attached.
These notes generally relate to bolts and nuts and hex headed screws..
Bolt loading
A bolt can be loaded in one of three ways
● Tension
● Shear
● Combined Shear and Tension
Note: Conditions where bending loads are imposed on the bolt e.g. non-parallel bolting surfaces, should
be avoided.
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Bolted Joint
A bolt is primarily designed to withstand tensile loading while clamping components together. Ideally the
bolt should only be loaded in tension. Any forces tending to slide the clamped components laterally
should be withstood by separate means..
Holes for bolts are generally clearance holes and the best design of bolt is one with a reduced shank
diameter (waisted shanks). Joints in shear depending on the bolts to withstand the shear load are not
really rigid. Significant relative sideways movement must take place before the bolt shank can take any
shear load (hole clearance). It is also likely that in the case of components attached by a number of bolts
that one bolt would be loaded first and this bolt would have to yield before the other bolts take their share
of the shear load....
Bolts taking significant tensile and shear load need to be engineered to withstand the combined stress..
In structural engineering the codes identify the use of High Strength Friction Grip Bolts (Ref BS 4604 Pts
1-2:1970). The bolts are tightened to a specified minimum shank tension so that transverse loads are
transferred across the joint by friction between the plates rather than by shear across the bolt shank.
In mechanical engineering / machine engineering, items are often accurately located using dowels /
locating pins. When installed these dowels /locating pins should be engineered to withstand any
traverse loads. A recent innovation is to provide dowel bushings. These are used in conjunction with
bolts which pass through the inside of the bushing after it has been installed. Separate holes for locating
pins are eliminated. The hardened bushings absorb shear loads, isolating the bolts from these forces.
If the choice is made that bolts/screws are to take shear load the joint should be arranged that the
threaded portion of the bolt/screw shank is not taking the shear.
The notes on
this page relate
to the
mechanical
engineering
industry.. In the
aerospace
industry joints
are often
designed to
specifically load
the bolts in
shear. The
screws and
bolts used are
high
specification
close
toleranced
items and the
holes are also
machined to

Bolted Joint
close
tolerances. The
bolted lap joints
are generally
used for critical
assemblies and
joints designed
with bolts
loaded in
tension are
avoided.????
Strength of Bolts in Shear
Important Note: The calculations below are based on the unrealistic assumption that there is no friction
forces between the plates which are clamped by the bolts. The calculations are therefoe conservative
(safe)..
Strength of Bolts withstanding direct shear loading
For bolts joints loaded in shear - three stress areas result-
● The bolts are loaded in shear..Depending on the joint design the bolt can be in single or double shear...
● The bolt interface with the hole is compressively loaded. ( Crushing )
● If the hole is near to the edge of the plate the plate is subject to shear loading
Single Shear..
Shear Stress = 4 . F / π. d 2 ......Compressive Stress = F / (d . t)......Plate Shear Stress = F / (2.c.t)
Double Shear ..

Bolted Joint
Shear Stress = 2 . F / π. d 2 ......Compressive Stress = F / (d . t)......Plate Shear Stress = F / (2.c.t)
The stresses are adjusted based on the number of bolts / screws used for the joint..
Strength of bolts withstanding torsion generated shear loading
Consider a bracket taking an offset load F (N) at a radius R (m). The bracket is secure using a number of
bolts each with a Area A(m2 ). The bolts are located around a centroid position each with a radius from
the centroid of rn(m) and a horizontal/vertical position relative to the centroid of hn /vn (m) . ( bolt is
designated by the subscript "n". )
Location of Centroid... The location of the centroid of the bolts can often be
determined by inspection as in figure above. If the bolts are not arranged around
a convenient centre then the centroid is determined by ..
x position = sum of the moments of area of all the holes about a fixed horizontal
position divided by the total hole area
y position = sum of the moments of area of all the holes about a fixed vertical
position divided by the total hole area
The offset load is equivalent to a vertical force (F) + moment (F. R) at the centroid of the bolts...
Each bolt is withstands a vertical shear force Fnv = F / No of Bolts.

Each bolt also withstands a shear load Fnm = F.R. rn / (r12 + r22...rn2)
The total horizontal force on each bolt Fth= Fnm . vn / Sqrt(hn2 + vn2 )
The total vertical force on each bolt Ftv= Fnv + Fnm . hn / Sqrt(hn2 + vn2 )
The total shear load on each bolt Ft= Sqrt (Fth2 + Ftv2)
The resulting bolt shear stress τt = Ft /A
The shear stress in each bolt is calculated to ensure the design is safe..
Strength of bolt joints withstanding bending forces

Bolted Joint
Each Bolt withstands a shear Force Fns = Fv / (Number of bolts)

The resulting shear bolt stress τn = Fns /A
Each bolt withstands a tensile force of Fnt = ( Fv. Rv + Fh. Rh) . Vn / (V12 + V22....Vn2 )
The resulting tensile bolt stress σn = Fnt /A
Maximum principals stresses in the bolt resulting from combined loading

Assuming all stresses developed only as a result of bracket loading i.e zero preload and zero residual
bolt torque...
Maximum principal tensile stress in the bolt
Maximum principal compressive stress in the bolt
Maximum shear stress in the bolt
Failure criteria: Refer to page Failure Modes
In order to estimate the design factors of safety it is necessary to consider the failure modes. The
preferred failure criteria for ductile metals is the "Shear Strain Energy Theory" (Von Mises-Hencky
theory). For a stress regime associated with a bolt i.e pure tensile stress σx combined with shear stress
τxy. The Factor of safety relative to the material tensile strength Sy..is calculated as follows

Bolted Joint
Factor of Safety = Sy / ( σx2 + 3 .τxy2 ) 1/2
Preloaded Bolts : Refer to page Preloading
These stresses do not include for the stresses developed in preloading the bolts. The residual shear
stress from bolt tightening should also considered (added). The actual tensile preload force should be
considered following the principles identified on the pages addressing this topic
Relevant Links
1. Overview of Bolted Joint Design..Some Useful notes for Textron Fasteners

2. Spirol..Supplier of Dowel Bushings
3. MITCALC..Provides a good Excel based bolt calculator at reasonable cost
4. SEED Bold Design Guide..And excellent guide to the design of bolted joints
Home

Screw Locking and Retaining Methods
ROYMECH
Home
Introduction
The purpose of a locking device is to prevent the loosening of mating components which may be
operating in conditions of varying stress, temperature or vibration. The effectiveness of the locking
device is often critical to the safety of the system..
The justification for a locking device is often not clear cut because there is a cost penalty ... For a
preloaded screw with a dry thread under a condition of low vibration there is a low risk of loosening. The
induced tightening torque may be relieved but this does not necessarily result in the screw/nut
loosening. Also when a machine has a large number of screws retaining non-critical items which are
regularly used,such as inspection covers, there may be a case for not including locking devices.
Additionally some threads my require regular checking of the applied torque to counter the effects of
creep or stress relaxation. This function may be inhibited by mechanical screw locking devices..
Many locking devices are single use items and there is always the risk that during an activity requiring
screw removal and replacement the maintenance department may not have the same replacement
locking device in stock. They may then try to re-use the existing items, or use available replacement
items, or even not replace the locking device. This will result is the screws being re-assembled such that
they are not firmly locked ..
A clear case for locking can always be made for the following items
● Guards and associated systems

● Location stops and guides
● Critical items under high vibration which are not accessible
● Critical loaded items used for lifting
● Bearing nuts
● Threads which may be unscrewed as shafts are rotated.
● Components which are safety related.
Friction /Positive Locking

There are two main principles used for locking devices friction and positive locking. It should be noted
that locking systems using friction should be selected with care because under high vibration friction
between adjacent surfaces can be significantly reduced. With positive locking device e.g. wire locking
very high reliability results but only when the locking device used correctly.
The overall safety and reliability of a machine is significantly affected by the judicious selection of appropriate locking devices.
Review of various Locking methods
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Note: A number of the locking methods fix the nut or bolt head to the adjacent surface. If these are used
on nut + bolt applications please note that locking the nut /or bolt head does not necessarily lock the other
component (bolt /or nut)
Locking Nut /Jam nut

It should be noticed that the thin lock_nut /jam nut is below the normal nut.. The proper connection is
made by tightening the jam nut snugly first, then tightening the upper nut so tightly that the stress on the
jam nut is reversed as the bolt strains. The locknut principle can also be used to fix the nut in any
position on the male screw thread and therefore create a shoulder..
Nylock /Simmonds Nut

This is a nut with a plastic or fibre collar set into the nut which is an interference fit on the male
thread. On assembly the male thread forces its way through the collar and the resultant friction restricts
the tendency to unscrew. These nuts are not as effective for locking if used more than once.
Slotted /Castle Nuts

These nuts have slots in the top face. The nuts are fully tightened and a hole is drilled through the male
thread to align with one of the slots. Split cotter pins are then inserted through the nut and the male
thread and bent to hold it in position. This is a very effective and positive locking device but is expensive
to install. It can also be difficult to install due to poor accessiblility.

Shakeproof Washers
These are low cost items with questionable reliability generally considered only suitable for non-critical
consumer items.
These washers are generally made from spring steel with serrations either on the inside or the outside
diameter. They are low cost items very suitable for low cost domestic items such a lawn mowers ,
washing machines etc. These items can result in damage to the adjacent surface because when the nut
is tightened the serrations tend to dig into the surface. It is therefore important when using these items
that the provisions for preventing corrosion is considered .
Spring Washer
These are low cost items with questionable reliability generally considered only suitable for non-critical
consumer items.
These are double or single coils of rectangular section spring steel. These washers are used in place of
plain washers. The washers prevent rotation of the nut or bolt by the two ends digging into the surface of
the two adjacent faces. The free height of the coil washer is about 5 times the compressed hieght.

Wire Locking
Wire locking is a very low cost and entirely effective method locking nuts or hex headed screws and bolts
screwed into surfaces. It is mainly used when a number of screws have to be locked. Holes are
predrilled in the items being locked and when all of the items have been fully tightened the wire is
threaded through the holes and the ends are twisted to prevent loosening.. The routing of the wire is
such that it prevents the screws from unscrewing.
The wire is selected as non-corrodible ductile steel or brass wire of suitable small gauge is used for this
purpose.
The method is labour intensive and inhibits maintenance activities...
Tab Washers
Tab washers are thin metal washers designed with two or more tabs which project from the outside
diameter. The washer is placed below the head of the bolt or the nut and following tightening one or two
tabs are bent upwards against the flats of the bolt/nut head. The remaining tab is bent down into a
suitable hole in the surface being fastened or over a local edge, if one is available.
Locking Plates

Locking plates are manufacture items made from thin plates with with hexagon shaped holes sized to fit
snugly over the hex heads to be locked. The plates have holes used for fastening the plate in place onto
the surface being clamped using small screws which are locked..
Slotted Nut
A slot is machined into a nut and the nut is deformed to compress the slot as shown below. When the
nut is tightened onto the male thread it forces the nut back to its original geometry. The thread system is
locked by the built in friction..
Contoured Thread
A method of locking screw threads is available based on using a special thread form on the female part of
the system. This provides for very localised interference such that the thread works normally but is self
locking. This system can be provided in the form of nuts or threaded inserts. The threaded inserts are
based on the Helicoil principle. .This is a modern system with significant advantages.
Threadlocking Adhesives
A modern trend is to use engineered adhesives. These are simply applied to the threaded component
prior to assembly. The type of adhesive selected will depend on the need for a permanent assembly and
an assembly which requires dismantling.. The most well known manufacturer of these systems are
Henkel Loctite.. There are a significant number of advantages to this method and few disadvantages. The
disadvantages include.
● Some dependency on surface preparation

● Affected by extreme temperatures
● Inspection confirmation difficult
Miscellaneous
There are a large number of other methods not discussed above. Most of these methods are based on
the principles identified. Locking systems not yet listed in these notes include..
● Bearing Locknuts
● Plastic Inserts
● Helicoil Inserts
● Taper Thread

1. Henkel-Loctite..Industrial Adhesives - Useful for threadlocking and sealing

2. Heron Adhesives -Nuts N Bolts..An threadlock adhesive which is claimed to be surface tolerant
3. Co-Design- Mechanics of Screw Threads..Very good reference notes
4. Spiralock..A screw thread system which is intrinsically self locking and claims superior load distribution
5. The Jam Nut..A short paper including notes on the proper way to use a Jam Nut
Home

Studs
ROYMECH
Home
Studs
Studs / Studbolts

BS 4439:1969..Specification for screwed studs for general purposes. Metric series
A stud (stud-bolt) is a round metal bar screwed at both ends or fully screwed. Engineered studbolts can
also have flanges at a set distance from one screwed end which provides a positive collar against which
the stud is tightened.
An important application form this type of fastening is for internal combustion engine cylinder blocks. The
cylinder head is normally fastened to the cylinder block using stud bolts. The studs are fitted onto
engineered tapped holes in the block. The projecting studs are convenient guides for locating the
associated holes in the cylinder head . The head is fastened down using nuts on the studbolts. This type
of assembly is also used for special flanges, tank lids, pressure vessel inspection covers, and car
wheels. With stud fastening the nut has the ability to "float" and adjust on the nut end threads, which is
not possible on a bolt...when fastening into deep tapped hole, this feature becomes even more important.
Studs are used with anchor fixings in civil and architectural engineering and when fastening machinery to
concrete flooring.
There are also engineering applications when studbolts ( with two nuts ) are used in place of bolts.
These are generally highly loaded , large dia, long bolted items for which the material control and heat
treatment is more economically completed on a stud as opposed to a bolt. For high load-high duty
applications, high strength stud-bolts can provide significant advantages if properly engineered. The use
of special nuts with close tolerances and specially contoured internal threads can allow distribution of the
stress. Studbolts are widely used in the petrochemical and nuclear industry .
The advantages and disadvantaages of studbolts joints over conventional bolted joints are listed below:
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Studs
Studbolt Advantages
● Improved stress concentration factors are possible

● Uniform section reduces local material variations
● Lower costs in high duty applications
● Facilitates ore convenient assembly and maintenance when using fixed studbolts which act as pilot guides
● Less clearance required on holes allowing more accurate assemble.
● Inventory costs can be reduced.
● For lower duty applications studs can be manufactured on site
● Studs with two nuts can be tightened from either side of joint
Studbolt Disadvantages
● An additional threaded item required for each joint

● More items can loosen
● The nuts are normally considered the weak link in a joint
Weld studs

BS 7670-2:1997..Steel nuts and bolts for resistance projection welding. Specification for welding of weld
nuts and weld bolts
For low duty applications for thin plate and sheet steel assemblies the weld stud provides a convenient
reliable method of fastening flanged joints and removable covers. The stud welding procedure simply
involves positioning a special stud against the flange face using a special welding gun. The gun is
operated and the stud is automatically welded to the face..
The advantages and disadvantages of the welding stud joint are listed below..
Advantages
● No Need for Holes -- no cost of making them -- or of sealing them

● Superior Strength -- greater than that of base metal
● Faster Installation -- than comparable one-sided fasteners
● Total Flexibility -- weld studs anywhere, at any time
● Design Freedom -- improved appearance, no exposed fasteners
● Low installation cost when for medium to high quantities
Disadvantages
● Special equipment required

● Not possible for medium /high carbon materials
● Limited to thinner sections
● More preparation required
The two main stud welding processes are Capacitor Discharge method (CD) and the Arc Stud Weld
Process
Capacitor Discharge method

Capacitor Discharge (CD) stud welding is generally used to weld smaller diameter fasteners to thin base
metals. Because the weld cycle is completed in milliseconds, welds can be made without distortion or ,

Studs
burn-through . As long as one end of the fastener is designed for CD welding, CD studs can be
manufactured in various shapes.
● The fastener is placed against the workpiece. Most CD studs have a special tip which provides precise consistent, automatic welds.
● The weld gun is activated and stored energy is discharged through the fastener melting the full diameter of its base and a portion of the
parent material.
● Spring-loading forces the fastener into the molten metal.
● The fastener is momentariliy held in place as the molten metal solidifies and instantly creates a high quality fusion weld.
Arc Stud welding

Arc stud welding is generally used to weld large diameter fasteners to rougher and thicker base metals.
Arc studs may be almost any shape and there are literally hundreds, however, they must have one end of
the fastener designed for Arc welding. Mild steel, stainless steel, and aluminum are applicable materials
for Arc stud welding.
● A fastener and ceramic ferrule are firmly placed against the work surface under spring tension.
● Upon triggering, the weld gun automatically lifts the fastener from the base metal and initiates a controlled electric arc which melts the end
of the fastener and a portion of the base metal.
● A ceramic arc shield concentrates the heat and retains the molten material in the weld area for maximum weld strength and reliability.
● At the precise moment the fastener and the parent metal become molten, the fastener is automatically plunged into the work surface. The
metal solidifies and a high quality fusion weld is completed.
Sites Providing Information On Studs
1. Advanced Studwelding Co uk..Supplier .Site includes lots of relevant information

2. Fabory -Studbolts..Download of catalogue including studbolts
3. Studwelding.com..American supplier with lots of relevant information and videos
Home

Studs

Anchors
Disclaimer:
The
information
on this
page has
not been
checked by
an
independent
person.
Use this
information
at your own
risk.
ROYMECH
Home
Anchors for fastening to floors and walls
Introduction
Most fixed mechanical systems have to be fastened to a floor or wall. The notes below relate to the
general design principles involved in designing and specifying these fasteners. These notes are rule of
thumb notes for initial guidance-- It is important that final design details should only be fixed using
suppliers literature and following consultation with the suppliers and the relevant structural /civil
engineers.
An important factor when fastening to floors and walls is the material and condition of the surface. These
notes relate generally to masonry walls and concrete floors. It is important to know the grade of the
concrete prior to selecting the anchors. The civil engineer should be advised of the expected static and
dynamic forces being transferred into the structure. The civil engineer needs the forces in the local x,y,z
directions and the associated moments about the local x, y and z axes
Concrete Floors
Ideally mechanical equipment is fastened to cast-in blocks, brackets etc which are cast in the walls and
floor during building construction. Large machines are often positioned on raised plinths for floor
mounted machines these should be at least 100mm above the normal floor level. These plinths can
include pockets into which special bolts are cast.
It is modern practice to drill holes and fasten equipment using special proprietary anchors. The links
below identify many suitable anchor designs. The strength of these fittings are generally based on a
concrete strength typically (30N/mm2 (C20/25)). When fastening to lightweight concrete and concrete
with different grades to that identified in the brochure the strength values must be adjusted..
The support strength of proprietary anchors is normally not affected if the concrete is reinforced. It is
however important not to drill into the reinforcement. It is therefore prudent to consult the structural
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Anchors
drawings to confirm the minimum depth of unreinforced concrete prior to selecting the anchors.
The centre distance between the anchors and the distances from the anchor to the edge of a concrete
surface is an important factor in the strength ratings of the anchors as provided in the literature. If the
distances are reduced then the rated strength needs to be reduced according to the suppliers
recommendations.
Masonry Walls
Structures, made of cut stone and cast concrete, made into shapes and fitted up tightly together, or laid
up with mortar or similar material, are considered masonry structures. This type of structure is generally
strong enough to support engineering components using proprietory achors. These should be drilled into
the solid bricks or concrete blocks and not into the mortared joints.
Again the preferred option is consult the architect /civil engineer an request cast in plates, or studs or
female sockets..
Care must be taken in the choice of anchor to ensure the base material is not cracked or split due to
expansion forces. It should not be positioned in the mortar joints and must be located away from the
edges. Site tests may be required to determine the suitability of the anchor for the base material.
The fixing holes should be restricted to 30mm from the remote face and 300mm from vertical and
horizontal edges of the brickwork where possible.
Blockwork Masonry Walls

These are the lowest strength wall constructions and one should avoid mounting mechanical equipment
off masonry walls..Bonded anchors are preferred and torque controlled anchors should not be used..
Wooden Walls
There are a wide range of wooden wall options starting at thin lathes of wood to walls made up of thick
timber logs. Generally solid wood has significant strength and mechanical components can be fastened
to wooden wall to provide horizonal support and some vertical support. However it is always
recommended that mechanical equipment is primarily supported off solid floors.
It is important when fastening to wood using woodscrews or bolts that suitable pilot holes are provided.
This is very important when using larger screws. (Lag-screws. If pilot holes are not drilled then there is
a significant risk when tightening the woodscrew that the wood will split.
It is generally accepted that through bolts with nuts e.g coach bolts are preferred to screw which directly
screw into the wood. For wood joint subject to high shear loads it is advisable to use bolt the wood
through shear plates. These are discs with sharp edged collars which dig into the wood and provide a
large dia shear area for the wood as opposed to the small dia of the bolt.
Partition Walls
These are internal walls made from hardwood or plasterboard fastened to wooden structures. It is not
advisable to mount any engineering component of any significant mass to a partition wall. The preferred
option if wall mounting is required is to provide a seperate support structure which is fastened to the wall

Anchors
and supported primarily off the load bearing floor.
..to be continued
Sites Providing Information On Anchors
1. Liebig..Information on Anchor Bolts

2. Hilti..Information on Anchor Bolts
3. Canadian Wood Council ..Connections very very informative site on Fastenings for Wood
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Universal Beam Dimensions

ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Universal Beams......BS 4-1:1971(Superseded by BS 4: 1993 )
Please don't use for new designs
Dimensions
M = Mass per m , D= Depth of Section, B= Width of Section, T1 = Web thickness,

T = Flange Thickness, R1 = Root radius, R2= Toe Radius, A = Area of Section
Serial
M D B T1 T R1 D1 A
Size
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm2
914 x 419 388 920.5 420.5 21.5 36.6 24.1 791.5 493.9
- 343 911.4 418.5 19.4 32.0 24.1 791.5 436.9
914x 305 289 926.6 307.8 19.6 32.0 19.1 819.2 368.5
253 918.5 305.5 17.3 27.9 19.1 819.2 322.5
224 910.3 304.1 15.9 23.9 19.1 819.2 284.9
201 903.0 303.4 15.2 20.2 19.1 819.2 256.1
838 x 292 226 850.9 293.8 16.1 26.8 17.8 756.4 288.4
194 840.7 292.4 14.7 21.7 17.8 756.4 246.9
176 834.9 291.6 14.0 18.8 17.8 756.4 223.8
762x267 197 769.6 268.0 15.6 25.4 16.5 681.2 250.5
173 762.0 266.7 14.3 21.6 16.5 681.2 220.2
147 753.9 265.3 12.9 17.5 16.5 681.2 187.8
686 x254 170 692.9 255.8 14,5 23.7 15.2 610.6 216.3
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152 687.6 254.5 13.2 21.0 15.2 610.6 193.6

140 683.5 253.7 12.4 19.0 15.2 610.6 178.4
125 677.9 253.0 11.7 16.2 15.2 610.6 159.4
610x305 238 633.0 311.5 18.6 31.4 16.5 531.6 303.5
179 617.5 307.0 14.1 23.6 16.5 531.6 227.7
149 609.6 304.8 11.9 19.7 16.5 531.6 189.9
610x229 140 617.0 230.1 13.1 22.1 12.7 543.1 178.2
125 611.9 229.0 11.9 19.6 12.7 543.1 159.4
113 607.3 228.2 11.2 17.3 12.7 543.1 144.3
101 602.2 227.6 10.6 14.8 12.7 543.1 129.0
610x178 91 602.5 178.4 10.6 15.0 12.7 547.1 115.9
82 598.2 177.8 10.1 12.8 12.7 547.1 104.4
533x330 212 545.1 333.6 16.7 27.8 16.5 450.1 269.6
189 539.5 331.7 14.9 25.0 16.5 450.1 241.2
167 533.4 330.2 13.4 22.0 16.5 450.1 212.7
533x210 122 544.6 211.9 12.8 21.3 12.7 472.7 155.6
109 539.5 210.7 11.6 18.8 12.7 472.7 138.4
101 536.7 210.1 10.9 17.4 12.7 472.7 129.1
92 533.1 209.3 10.2 15.6 12.7 472.7 117.6
82 528.3 208.7 9.6 13.2 12.7 472.7 104.3
533x165 73 528.8 165.6 9.3 13,5 12.7 476.5 93.0
66 524.8 165.1 8.8 11.5 12.7 476.5 83.6
457x191 98 467.4 192.8 11.4 19.6 10.2 404.4 125.2
89 463.6 192.0 10.6 17.7 10.2 404.4 113.8
82 460.2 191.3 9.9 16.0 10.2 404.4 104.4
74 457.2 190.5 9.1 14.5 10.2 404.4 94.9
67 453.6 189.9 8.5 12.7 10.2 404.4 85.4
457x152 82 465.1 153.5 10.7 18.9 10.2 404.4 104.4
74 461.3 152.7 9.9 17.0 10.2 404.4 94.9
67 457.2 151.9 9.1 15.0 10.2 404.4 85.3
60 454.7 152.9 8.0 13.3 10.2 407.7 75.9
52 449.8 152.4 7.6 10.9 10.2 407.7 66.5
406 x 178 74 412.8 179.7 9.7 16.0 10.2 357.4 94.9
67 409.4 178.8 8.8 14.3 10.2 357.4 85.4
60 406.4 177.8 7.8 12.8 10.2 357.4 76.1

54 402.6 177.6 7.6 10.9 10.2 357.4 68.3

406x152 74 416.3 153.7 10.1 18.1 10.2 357.4 94.8
67 412.2 152.9 9.3 16.0 10.2 357.4 85.3
60 407.9 152.2 8.6 13.9 10.2 357.4 75.8
406x140 46 402.3 142.4 6.9 11.2 10.2 357.4 58.9
39 397.3 141.8 6.3 8.6 10.2 357.4 49.3
381x152 67 388.6 154.3 9.7 16.3 10.2 333.2 85.4
60 384.8 153.4 8.7 14.4 10.2 333.2 75.9
52 381.0 152.4 7.8 12.4 10.2 333.2 66.4
356x171 67 364.0 173.2 9.1 15.7 10.2 309.1 85.3
57 358.6 172.1 8.0 13.0 10.2 309.1 72.1
51 355.6 171.5 7.3 11.5 10.2 309.1 64.5
45 352.0 171.0 6.9 9.7 10.2 309.1 56.9
356x127 39 352.8 126.0 6.5 10.7 10.2 309.1 49.3
33 348.5 125.4 5.9 8.5 10.2 309.1 41.7
305x165 54 310.9 166.8 7.7 13.7 8.9 262.6 68.3
46 307.1 165.7 6.7 11.8 8.9 262.6 58.8
40 303.8 165.1 6.1 10.2 8.9 262.6 51.4
305x127 48 310.4 125.2 8.9 14.0 8.9 262.6 60.8
42 306.6 124.3 8.0 12.1 8.9 262.6 53.1
37 303.8 123.5 7.2 10.7 8.9 262.6 47.4
305x152 33 312.7 102.4 6.6 10.8 7.6 275.3 41.8
28 308.9 101.9 6.1 8.9 7.6 275.3 36.3
25 304.8 101.6 5.8 6.8 7.6 275.3 31.4
254x146 43 259.6 147.3 7.3 12.7 7.6 216.2 55.0
37 256.0 146.4 6.4 10.9 7.6 216.2 47.4
31 251.5 146.1 6.1 8.6 7.6 216.2 39.9
254x102 28 260.4 102.1 6.4 10.0 7.6 224.5 36.2
25 257.0 101.9 6.1 8.4 7.6 224.5 32.1
22 254.0 101.6 5.8 6.8 7.6 224.5 28.4
203x133 30 206.8 133.8 6.3 9.6 7.6 169.9 38.0
25 203.2 133.4 5.8 7.8 7.6 169.9 32.3
Serial
M D B T1 T R1 D1 A
Size

Home
Steel Section Index

Universal Beam Properties

ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Universal Beams...BS 4-1:1971(Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Properties
I= Moment Of Inertia,R= Radius Of Gyration, Z=Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus) = I/ymax
I R Z
Serial
Axis xx RATIO D/
Size Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y
Gross Net T
mm cm 4 cm 4 cm 4 cm cm cm 3 cm 3
914 x 419 717325 639177 42481 38.1 9.27 15586 2021 25.2
- 623866 555835 36251 37.8 9.11 13691 1733 28.5
914x 305 503781 469903 14793 37.0 6.34 10874 961.3 29.0
435796 406504 12512 36.8 6.23 9490 819.2 32.9
375111 350209 10425 36.3 6.05 8241 685.6 38.1
324715 303783 8632 35.6 5.81 7192 569.1 44.7
838 x 292 339130 315153 10661 34.3 6.08 7971 725.9 31.8
278833 259625 8384 33.6 5.83 6633 573.6 38.7
245412 228867 7111 33.1 5.64 5879 487.6 44.4
762x267 239464 221138 7699 30.9 5.54 6223 574. 30.3
204747 189341 6376 30.5 5.38 5374 478.1 35.3
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168535 156213 5002 30.0 5.16 4471 277.1 43.1

686 x254 169843 156106 6225 28.0 5.36 4902 486.6 29.2
150015 137965 5391 27.8 5.28 4364 423.7 32.7
135972 125156 4789 27.6 5.18 3979 377.5 36.0
117700 108580 3992 27.2 5.0 3472 315.5 41.8
610x305 207252 192203 14873 26.1 7.02 6549 961.3 20.2
151312 1402269 10571 25.8 6.81 4901 688.6 26.2
124341 115233 8471 25.6 6.68 4079 555.9 30.9
610x229 111673 101699 4253 25.0 4.88 3620 369.6 27.9
98408 89675 3676 24.8 4.8 3217 321.1 31.2
87260 79645 3184 24.6 4.7 2874 279.1 35.1
75549 69132 2658 24.2 4.54 2509 233.6 40.7
610x178 63970 57238 1427 23.5 3.51 2124 160.0 40.2
55779 50076 1203 23.1 3.39 1865 135.3 46.7
533x330 141682 121777 16064 22.9 7.72 5199 963.2 19.6
125618 107882 14093 22.8 7.64 4657 849.6 21.6
109109 93647 12057 22.6 7.53 4091 730.3 24.2
533x210 76078 68719 3208 22.1 4.54 2794 302.8 25.6
66610 60218 2755 21.9 4.46 2469 261.5 28.7
61530 55671 2512 21.8 4.41 2293 239.2 30.8
55225 50040 2212 21.7 4.34 2072 211.3 34.2
47363 43062 1826 21.3 4.18 1793 175.0 40.0
533x165 40414 35752 1027 20.8 3.32 1528 124.1 39.2
35083 31144 863 20.5 3.21 1337 104.5 45.6
457x191 45653 40469 2216 19.1 4.21 1954 229.9 23.8
40956 36313 1960 19.0 4.15 1767 204.2 26.2
37039 32869 1746 18.8 4.09 1610 182.6 28.8
33324 29570 1547 18.7 4.04 1458 162.4 31.5
29337 26072 1328 18.5 3.95 1293 139.9 35.7
457x152 36160 32058 1093 18.6 3.24 1555 142.5 24.6
32380 28731 963 18.5 3.18 1404 126.1 27.1
28522 25342 829 18.3 3.12 1248 109.1 30.5
25464 22613 794 18.3 3.23 1120 104.0 34.2
21345 19034 645 17.9 3.11 949.0 84.61 41.3
406 x178 27279 23981 1448 17.0 3.91 1322 161.2 25.8

24279 21357 1269 16.9 3.85 1186 141.9 28.6

21520 18928 1108 16.8 3.82 1059 124.7 31.8
18576 16389 922 16.5 3.67 922.8 103.8 36.9
406x152 26938 23811 1047 16.9 3.32 1294 136.2 23.0
23798 21069 908 16.7 3.26 1155 118.8 25.8
20619 18283 768 16.5 3.18 1011 100.9 29.3
406x140 15603 13699 500 16.3 2.92 775.6 70.26 35.9
12408 10963 373 15.9 2.75 624.7 52.61 46.2
381x152 21276 18817 947 15.8 3.33 1095 122.7 23.8
18632 16489 814 15.7 3.27 968.4 106.2 26.7
16046 14226 685 15.5 3.21 842.3 89.96 30.7
356x171 19483 17002 1278 15.1 3.87 1071 147.6 23.2
16038 14018 1026 14.9 3.77 849.3 119.2 27.6
14118 12349 885 14.8 3.71 749.0 103.3 30.9
12052 10578 730 14.6 3.58 684.7 85.39 36.3
356x127 10054 8688 333 14.3 2.60 570.0 52.87 33.0
8167 7099 257 14.0 2.48 468.7 40.99 41.0
305x165 11686 10119 988 13.1 3.80 751.8 118.5 22.7
9924 8596 825 13.0 3.74 646.4 99.54 26.0
8500 7368 691 12.9 3.67 559.6 83.71 29.8
305x127 9485 8137 438 12.5 2.68 611.1 69.94 22.2
8124 6978 367 12.4 2.63 530.0 58.99 25.3
7143 6142 316 12.3 2.58 470.3 51.11 28.4
305x102 6482 5792 189 12.5 2.13 414.6 37.00 29.0
5415 4855 153 12.2 2.05 350.7 30.01 34.7
4381 3959 116 11.8 1.92 287.5 22.85 44.8
254x146 6546 5683 633 10.9 3.39 504.3 85.97 20.4
5544 4814 528 10.8 3.34 433.1 72.11 23.5
4427 3859 406 10.5 3.19 352.1 55.53 29.2
254x102 4004 3565 174 10.5 2.19 307.6 34.13 26.0
3404 3041 144 10.3 2.11 264.9 28.23 30.6
2863 2572 116 10.0 2.02 225.4 22.84 37.4
203x133 2880 2469 354 8.71 3.05 278.5 52.85 21.5
2348 2020 280 8.53 2.94 231.1 41.92 26.1
I R Z

Serial Axis xx RATIO D/

Gross Net T
mm cm 4 cm 4 cm 4 cm cm cm 3 cm 3
Home
Steel Section Index

Universal Beams to BS4 Part 1 :1993
ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Universal Beams... BS 4 Part 1: 1993
Second Radius Section

Plastic
Mass Depth Width Thickness of Depth Area Moment of (Elastic)
Modulus
Root Area Gyration Modulus
Designation per of of between of
Radius
m Section Section Fillets Section Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis
Web Flange
x-x y-y x-x y-y x-x y-y x-x y-y
M h b s t r d A Ix Iy rx ry Zx Zy Sx Sy
kg/m mm mm mm mm mm mm cm2 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3
914x419x388 388 921 420.5 21.4 36.6 24.1 799.6 494 719635 45438 38.2 9.59 15627 2161 17665 3341
914x419x343 343.3 911.8 418.5 19.4 32 24.1 799.6 437 625780 39156 37.8 9.46 13726 1871 15477 2890
914x305x289 289.1 926.6 307.7 19.5 32 19.1 824.4 368 504187 15597 37 6.51 10883 1014 12570 1601
914x305x253 253.4 918.4 305.5 17.3 27.9 19.1 824.4 323 436305 13301 36.8 6.42 9501 871 10942 1371
914x305x224 224.2 910.4 304.1 15.9 23.9 19.1 824.4 286 376414 11236 36.3 6.27 8269 739 9535 1163
914x305x201 200.9 903 303.3 15.1 20.2 19.1 824.4 256 325254 9423 35.7 6.07 7204 621 8351 982
838x292x226 226.5 850.9 293.8 16.1 26.8 17.8 761.7 289 339704 11360 34.3 6.27 7985 773 9155 1212
838x292x194 193.8 840.7 292.4 14.7 21.7 17.8 761.7 247 279175 9066 33.6 6.06 6641 620 7640 974
838x292x176 175.9 834.9 291.7 14 18.8 17.8 761.7 224 246021 7799 33.1 5.9 5893 535 6808 842
762x267x197 196.8 769.8 268 15.6 25.4 16.5 686 251 239957 8175 30.9 5.71 6234 610 7167 959
762x267x173 173 762.2 266.7 14.3 21.6 16.5 686 220 205282 6850 30.5 5.58 5387 514 6198 807
762x267x147 146.9 754 265.2 12.8 17.5 16.5 686 187 168502 5455 30 5.4 4470 411 5156 647
762x267x134 133.9 750 264.4 12 15.5 16.5 686 171 150692 4788 29.7 5.3 4018 362 4644 570
686x254x170 170.2 692.9 255.8 14.5 23.7 15.2 615.1 217 170326 6630 28 5.53 4916 518 5631 811
686x254x152 152.4 687.5 254.5 13.2 21 15.2 615.1 194 150355 5784 27.8 5.46 4374 455 5000 710
686x254x140 140.1 683.5 253.7 12.4 19 15.2 615.1 178 136267 5183 27.6 5.39 3987 409 4558 638
686x254x125 125.2 677.9 253 11.7 16.2 15.2 615.1 159 117992 4383 27.2 5.24 3481 346 3994 542
610x305x238 238.1 635.8 311.4 18.4 31.4 16.5 540 303 209471 15837 26.3 7.23 6589 1017 7486 1574
610x305x179 179 620.2 307.1 14.1 23.6 16.5 540 228 153024 11408 25.9 7.07 4935 743 5547 1144
610x305x149 149.2 612.4 304.8 11.8 19.7 16.5 540 190 125876 9308 25.7 7 4111 611 4594 937
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610x229x140 139.9 617.2 230.2 13.1 22.1 12.7 547.6 178 111777 4505 25 5.03 3622 391 4142 611
610x229x125 125.1 612.2 229 11.9 19.6 12.7 547.6 159 98610 3932 24.9 4.97 3221 343 3676 535
610x229x113 113 607.6 228.2 11.1 17.3 12.7 547.6 144 87318 3434 24.6 4.88 2874 301 3281 469
610x229x101 101.2 602.6 227.6 10.5 14.8 12.7 547.6 129 75780 2915 24.2 4.75 2515 256 2881 400
533x210x122 122 544.5 211.9 12.7 21.3 12.7 476.5 155 76043 3388 22.1 4.67 2793 320 3196 500
533x210x109 109 539.5 210.8 11.6 18.8 12.7 476.5 139 66822 2943 21.9 4.6 2477 279 2828 436
533x210x101 101 536.7 210 10.8 17.4 12.7 476.5 129 61519 2692 21.9 4.57 2292 256 2612 399
533x210x92 92.1 533.1 209.3 10.1 15.6 12.7 476.5 117 55227 2389 21.7 4.51 2072 228 2360 356
533x210x82 82.2 528.3 208.8 9.6 13.2 12.7 476.5 105 47539 2007 21.3 4.38 1800 192 2059 300
457x191x98 98.3 467.2 192.8 11.4 19.6 10.2 407.6 125 45727 2347 19.1 4.33 1957 243 2232 379
457x191x89 89.3 463.4 191.9 10.5 17.7 10.2 407.6 114 41015 2089 19 4.29 1770 218 2014 338
457x191x82 82 460 191.3 9.9 16 10.2 407.6 104 37051 1871 18.8 4.23 1611 196 1831 304
457x191x74 74.3 457 190.4 9 14.5 10.2 407.6 94.6 33319 1671 18.8 4.2 1458 176 1653 272
457x191x67 67.1 453.4 189.9 8.5 12.7 10.2 407.6 85.5 29380 1452 18.5 4.12 1296 153 1471 237
457x152x82 82.1 465.8 155.3 10.5 18.9 10.2 407.6 105 36589 1185 18.7 3.37 1571 153 1811 240
457x152x74 74.2 462 154.4 9.6 17 10.2 407.6 94.5 32674 1047 18.6 3.33 1414 136 1627 213
457x152x67 67.2 458 153.8 9 15 10.2 407.6 85.6 28927 913 18.4 3.27 1263 119 1453 187
457x152x60 59.8 454.6 152.9 8.1 13.3 10.2 407.6 76.2 25500 795 18.3 3.23 1122 104 1287 163
457x152x52 52.3 449.8 152.4 7.6 10.9 10.2 407.6 66.6 21369 645 17.9 3.11 950 84.6 1096 133
406x178x74 74.2 412.8 179.5 9.5 16 10.2 360.4 94.5 27310 1545 17 4.04 1323 172 1501 267
406x178x67 67.1 409.4 178.8 8.8 14.3 10.2 360.4 85.5 24331 1365 16.9 3.99 1189 153 1346 237
406x178x60 60.1 406.4 177.9 7.9 12.8 10.2 360.4 76.5 21596 1203 16.8 3.97 1063 135 1199 209
406x178x54 54.1 402.6 177.7 7.7 10.9 10.2 360.4 69 18722 1021 16.5 3.85 930 115 1055 178
406x140x46 46 403.2 142.2 6.8 11.2 10.2 360.4 58.6 15685 538 16.4 3.03 778 75.7 888 118
406x140x39 39 398 141.8 6.4 8.6 10.2 360.4 49.7 12508 410 15.9 2.87 629 57.8 724 90.8
356x171x67 67.1 363.4 173.2 9.1 15.7 10.2 311.6 85.5 19463 1362 15.1 3.99 1071 157 1211 243
356x171x57 57 358 172.2 8.1 13 10.2 311.6 72.6 16038 1108 14.9 3.91 896 129 1010 199
356x171x51 51 355 171.5 7.4 11.5 10.2 311.6 64.9 14136 968 14.8 3.86 796 113 896 174
356x171x45 45 351.4 171.1 7 9.7 10.2 311.6 57.3 12066 811 14.5 3.76 687 94.8 775 147
356x127x39 39.1 353.4 126 6.6 10.7 10.2 311.6 49.8 10172 358 14.3 2.68 576 56.8 659 89.1
356x127x33 33.1 349 125.4 6 8.5 10.2 311.6 42.1 8249 280 14 2.58 473 44.7 543 70.3
305x165x54 54 310.4 166.9 7.9 13.7 8.9 265.2 68.8 11696 1063 13 3.93 754 127 846 196
305x165x46 46.1 306.6 165.7 6.7 11.8 8.9 265.2 58.7 9899 896 13 3.9 646 108 720 166
305x165x40 40.3 303.4 165 6 10.2 8.9 265.2 51.3 8503 764 12.9 3.86 560 92.6 623 142
305x127x48 48.1 311 125.3 9 14 8.9 265.2 61.2 9575 461 12.5 2.74 616 73.6 711 116
305x127x42 41.9 307.2 124.3 8 12.1 8.9 265.2 53.4 8196 389 12.4 2.7 534 62.6 614 98.4
305x127x37 37 304.4 123.4 7.1 10.7 8.9 265.2 47.2 7171 336 12.3 2.67 471 54.5 539 85.4
305x102x33 32.8 312.7 102.4 6.6 10.8 7.6 275.9 41.8 6501 194 12.5 2.15 416 37.9 481 60
305x102x28 28.2 308.7 101.8 6 8.8 7.6 275.9 35.9 5366 155 12.2 2.08 348 30.5 403 48.5
305x102x25 24.8 305.1 101.6 5.8 7 7.6 275.9 31.6 4455 123 11.9 1.97 292 24.2 342 38.8
254x146x43 43 259.6 147.3 7.2 12.7 7.6 219 54.8 6544 677 10.9 3.52 504 92 566 141
254x146x37 37 256 146.4 6.3 10.9 7.6 219 47.2 5537 571 10.8 3.48 433 78 483 119
254x146x31 31.1 251.4 146.1 6 8.6 7.6 219 39.7 4413 448 10.5 3.36 351 61.3 393 94.1
254x102x28 28.3 260.4 102.2 6.3 10 7.6 225.2 36.1 4005 179 10.5 2.22 308 34.9 353 54.8
254x102x25 25.2 257.2 101.9 6 8.4 7.6 225.2 32 3415 149 10.3 2.15 266 29.2 306 46
254x102x22 22 254 101.6 5.7 6.8 7.6 225.2 28 2841 119 10.1 2.06 224 23.5 259 37.3
203x133x30 30 206.8 133.9 6.4 9.6 7.6 172.4 38.2 2896 385 8.71 3.17 280 57.5 314 88.2

203x133x25 25.1 203.2 133.2 5.7 7.8 7.6 172.4 32 2340 308 8.56 3.1 230 46.2 258 70.9
203x102x23 23.1 203.2 101.8 5.4 9.3 7.6 169.4 29.4 2105 164 8.46 2.36 207 32.2 234 49.8
178x102x19 19 177.8 101.2 4.8 7.9 7.6 146.8 24.3 1356 137 7.48 2.37 153 27 171 41.6
152x89x16 16 152.4 88.7 4.5 7.7 7.6 121.8 20.3 834 89.8 6.41 2.1 109 20.2 123 31.2
127x76x13 13 127 76 4 7.6 7.6 96.6 16.5 473 55.7 5.35 1.84 74.6 14.7 84.2 22.6
Plastic
Modulus
Radius
Web Flange
Home
Steel Section Index

Angle Section dimensions

ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Angles ...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993) Please don't use for new designs
Dimensions
M = Mass per m , A= Depth of Section, B= Width of Section,T = Web thickness
T = Flange Thickness, R1 = Root radius, R2 = Leg radius, Area = Area of Section
Leg
Serial Size t M R1 R2 Area
Lengths AxB
mm mm mm kg mm mm cm2
203.2 x
203 x 203 25.3 76.00 15.2 4.8 96.81
203.2
23.7 71.51 15.2 4.8 91.09
22.1 67.05 15.2 4.8 85.42
20.5 62.56 15.2 4.8 79.69
18.9 57.95 15.2 4.8 73.82
17.3 53.3 15.2 4.8 67.89
15.8 48.68 15.2 4.8 62.02
152.4 x
152 x 152 22.1 49.32 12.2 4.8 62.83
152.4
20.5 46.03 12.2 4.8 58.63
19.0 42.75 12.2 4.8 54.45
17.3 39.32 12.2 4.8 50.09
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15.8 36.07 12.2 4.8 45.95

14.2 32.62 12.2 4.8 41.55
12.6 29.07 12.2 4.8 37.03
11.0 25.60 12.2 4.8 32.61
9.4 22.02 12.2 4.8 28.06
127.0 x
127 x 127 19.0 35.16 10.7 4.8 44.80
127.0
17.4 32.47 10.7 4.8 41.37
15.8 29.66 10.7 4.8 37.78
14.2 26.80 10.7 4.8 34.14
12.6 23.99 10.7 4.8 30.56
11.0 21.14 10.7 4.8 26.93
9.5 18.3 10.7 4.8 23.31
101.6 x
102 x 102 19.0 27.57 9.1 4.8 35.12
101.6
17.4 25.48 9.1 4.8 32.45
15.8 23.37 9.1 4.8 29.78
14.2 21.17 9.1 4.8 26.96
12.6 18.91 9.1 4.8 24.09
11.0 16.69 9.1 4.8 21.27
9.4 14.44 9.1 4.8 18.39
7.8 12.06 9.1 4.8 15.37
89 x 89 88.9 x 88.9 15.8 20.10 8.4 4.8 25.61
14.2 18.31 8.4 4.8 23.32
12.6 16.38 8.4 4.8 20.87
11.0 14.44 8.4 4.8 18.40
9.4 12.50 8.4 4.8 15.92
7.9 10.58 8.4 4.8 13.47
6.3 8.49 8.4 4.8 10.81
76 x 76 76.2x76.2 14.3 15.50 7.6 4.8 19.74
12.6 13.85 7.6 4.8 17.64
11.0 12.20 7.6 4.8 15.55
9.4 10.57 7.6 4.8 13.47
7.8 8.93 7.6 4.8 11.37
6.2 7.16 7.6 4.8 9.12

64 x 64 63.5 x 63.5 12.5 11.31 6.9 2.4 14.41

11.0 10.12 6.9 2.4 12.89
9.4 8.78 6.9 2.4 11.18
7.9 7.45 6.9 2.4 9.48
6.2 5.96 6.9 2.4 7.59
57 x 57 57.2 x 57.2 9.3 7.74 6.6 2.4 9.86
7.8 6.55 6.6 2.4 8.35
6.2 5.35 6.6 2.4 6.82
4.6 4.01 6.6 2.4 5.11
51 x 51 50.8 x 50.8 9.4 6.85 6.1 2.4 8.72
7.8 5.80 6.1 2.4 7.39
6.3 4.77 6.1 2.4 6.08
4.6 3.58 6.1 2.4 4.56
45 x 45 44.5 x 44.5 7.9 5.06 5.8 2.4 6.45
6.1 4.02 5.8 2.4 5.12
4.7 3.13 5.8 2.4 3.99
38 x 38 38.1 x 38.1 7.8 4.24 5.3 2.4 5.4
6.3 3.50 5.3 2.4 4.46
4.7 2.68 5.3 2.4 3.41
32 x 32 31.8 x 38.1 6.2 2.83 5.1 2.4 3.61
4.6 2.16 5.1 2.4 2.75
3.1 1.49 5.1 2.4 1.90
25 x 25 25.4 x 25.4 6.4 2.23 4.6 2.4 2.84
4.7 1.72 4.6 2.4 2.19
3.1 1.19 4.6 2.4 1.52
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Steel Section Index


Angles_Properties

ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Equal Angles...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Properties
C= Centre of Gravity , I= Moment Of Inertia, R= Radius Of Gyration, Z= Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus) = I/ymax,
C I R Z
Serial
Thick Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axiz Axis Axis Axis
Size Cx Cy
x-x y-y u-u v-v x-x y-y u-u v-v x-x y-y
mm cm cm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm cm3 cm3
203 x
25.3 5.99 5.99 3686 3686 5845 1527 6.17 6.17 7.77 3.97 257 257
203
23.7 5.93 5.93 3491 3491 5540 1442 6.19 6.19 7.80 3.98 243 243
22.1 5.87 5.87 3294 3294 5232 1357 6.21 6.21 7.83 3.99 228 228
20.5 5.81 5.81 3094 3094 4916 1271 6.23 6.23 7.85 3.99 213 213
18.9 5.75 5.75 2885 2885 4587 1183 6.25 6.25 7.88 4.00 198 198
17.3 5.69 5.69 2671 2671 4248 1093 6.27 6.27 7.91 4.01 183 183
15.8 5.63 5.63 2455 2455 3907 1004 6.29 6.29 7.94 4.02 167 167
152 x
22.1 4.6 4.6 1321 1321 2089 553 4.58 4.58 5.77 2.97 124 124
152
20.5 4.54 4.54 1243 1243 1968 517 4.60 4.60 5.79 2.97 116 116
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Angles_Properties
19.0 4.49 4.49 1164 1164 1846 482 4.62 4.62 5.82 2.98 108 108
17.3 4.42 4.42 1080 1080 1714 446 4.64 4.64 5.85 2.98 99.8 99.8
15.8 4.37 4.37 999 999 1587 411 4.66 4.66 5.88 2.99 91.9 91.9
14.2 4.31 4.31 911 911 1448 374 4.68 4.68 5.90 3.0 83.3 83.3
12.6 4.24 4.24 819 819 1303 335 4.70 4.70 5.93 3.01 74.5 74.5
11.0 4.18 4.18 727 727 1156 297 4.72 4.72 5.96 3.02 65.7 65.7
9.4 4.11 4.11 631 631 1003 258 4.74 4.74 5.98 3.03 56.7 56.7
127 x
19.0 3.85 3.85 651 651 1028 273 3.81 3.81 4.79 2.47 73.5 73.5
127
17.4 3.79 3.79 607 607 961 253 3.83 3.83 4.82 2.47 68.1 68.1
15.8 3.73 3.73 560 560 888 232 3.85 3.85 4.85 2.48 62.4 62.4
14.2 3.67 3.67 511 511 811 211 3.87 3.87 4.87 2.48 56.6 56.6
12.6 3.61 3.61 462 462 734 190 3.89 3.89 4.90 2.49 50.8 50.8
11.0 3.55 3.55 411 411 654 169 3.91 3.91 4.93 2.50 44.9 44.9
9.5 3.49 3.49 359 359 571 147 3.93 3.93 4.95 2.51 39.0 39.0
102 x
19.0 3.22 3.22 317 317 497 136 3.00 3.00 3.76 1.97 45.6 45.6
102
17.4 3.16 3.16 296 296 466 126 3.02 3.02 3.79 1.97 42.3 42.3
15.8 3.10 3.10 275 275 434 116 3.04 3.04 3.82 1.97 38.9 38.9
14.2 3.04 3.04 252 252 399 105 3.06 3.06 3.84 1.97 35.4 35.4
12.6 2.98 2.98 228 228 361 94.3 3.07 3.07 3.87 1.98 31.7 31.7
11.0 2.92 2.92 203 203 323 83.8 3.09 3.09 3.90 1.99 28.1 28.1
9.4 2.86 2.86 178 178 283 73.1 3.11 3.11 3.92 1.99 24.4 24.4
7.8 2.79 2.79 150 150 239 61.7 3.13 3.13 3.95 2.00 20.4 20.4
89 x
15.8 2.78 2.78 178 178 280 75.7 2.63 2.63 3.30 1.72 29.1 29.1
89
14.2 2.72 2.72 164 164 259 69.1 2.65 2.65 3.33 1.72 26.6 26.6
12.6 2.66 2.66 149 149 235 62.0 2.67 2.67 3.36 1.72 23.9 23.9
11.0 2.60 2.60 133 133 211 55.0 2.69 2.69 3.38 1.73 21.1 21.1
9.4 2.54 2.54 116 116 185 47.9 2.70 2.70 3.41 1.74 18.3 18.3
7.9 2.48 2.48 99.8 99.8 159 41.0 2.72 2.72 3.43 1.74 15..6 15..6
6.3 2.41 2.41 81.0 81.0 129 33.3 2.74 2.74 3.45 1.75 12.5 12.5
76 x
14.3 2.41 2.41 99.6 99.6 157 42.7 2.25 2.25 2.82 1.47 19.1 19.1
76
12.6 2.35 2.35 90.4 90.4 143 38.2 2.26 2.26 2.84 1.47 17.1 17.1

Angles_Properties
11.0 2.29 2.29 80.9 80.9 128 33.8 2.28 2.28 2.87 1.47 15.2 15.2
9.4 2.23 2.23 71.1 71.1 113 29.5 2.30 2.30 2.89 1.48 13.2 13.2
7.8 2.16 2.16 60.9 60.9 96.8 25.1 2.31 2.31 2.92 1.49 11.2 11.2
6.2 2.1 2.1 49.6 49.6 78.8 20.3 2.33 2.33 2.94 1.49 8.97 8.97
64 x
12.5 2.03 2.03 50.4 50.4 78.9 21.8 1.87 1.87 2.34 1.23 11.7 11.7
64
11.0 1.98 1.98 45.8 45.8 72.1 19.5 1.89 1.89 2.37 1.23 10.5 10.5
9.4 1.92 1.92 40.5 40.5 64.0 17.0 1.90 1.90 2.39 1.23 9.15 9.15
7.9 1.86 1.86 35.0 35.0 55.5 14.6 1.92 1.92 2.42 1.24 7.80 7.80
6.2 1.80 1.80 28.6 28.6 45.4 11.8 1.94 1.94 2.45 1.25 6.28 6.28
57 x
9.3 1.76 1.76 28.6 28.6 45.0 12.1 1.70 1.70 2.14 1.11 7.22 7.22
57
7.8 1.70 1.70 24.7 24.7 39.1 10.3 1.72 1.72 2.16 1.11 6.15 6.15
6.2 1.64 1.64 20.6 20.6 32.6 8.53 1.74 1.74 2.19 1.12 5.05 5.05
4.6 1.57 1.57 15.8 15.8 25.0 6.51 1.76 1.76 2.21 1.13 3.80 3.80
51 x
9.4 1.60 1.60 19.6 19.6 30.8 8.42 1.50 1.50 1.88 0.98 5.64 5.64
51
7.8 1.54 1.54 17.0 17.0 26.8 7.17 1.52 1.52 1.91 0.98 4.81 4.81
6.3 1.49 1.49 14.3 14.3 22.7 5.95 1.53 1.53 1.93 0.99 3.98 3.98
4.6 1.42 1.42 11.0 11.0 17.4 4.54 1.55 1.55 1.95 1.00 3.00 3.00
45 x
7.9 1.39 1.39 11.1 11.1 17.5 4.75 1.31 1.31 1.65 0.86 3.64 3.64
45
6.1 1.32 1.32 9.09 9.09 14.4 3.80 1.33 1.33 1.68 0.86 2.91 2.91
4.7 1.26 1.26 7.24 7.24 11.5 3.00 1.35 1.35 1.70 0.87 2.28 2.28
38 x
7.8 1.23 1.23 6.69 6.69 10.5 2.92 1.11 1.11 1.39 0.73 2.59 2.59
38
6.3 1.17 1.17 5.67 5.67 8.94 2.41 1.13 1.13 1.42 0.73 2.15 2.15
4.7 1.11 1.11 4.47 4.47 7.08 1.86 1.14 1.14 1.44 0.74 1.66 1.66
32 x
6.2 1.01 1.01 3.10 3.10 4.87 1.34 0.93 0.93 1.16 0.61 1.43 1.43
32
4.6 0.95 0.95 2.45 2.45 3.87 1.03 0.94 0.94 1.19 0.61 1.10 1.10
3.1 0.88 0.88 1.74 1.74 2.75 0.72 0.96 0.96 1.20 0.62 0.76 0.76
25 x
6.4 0.85 0.85 1.50 1.50 2.33 0.68 0.73 0.73 0.90 0.49 0.89 0.89
25
4.7 0.79 0.79 1.20 1.20 1.89 0.51 0.74 0.74 0.93 0.48 0.69 0.69
3.1 0.73 0.73 0.86 0.86 1.37 0.36 0.75 0.75 0.95 0.49 0.48 0.48

Angles_Properties
C I R Z
Serial
Thick Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axiz Axis Axis Axis
Size Cx Cy
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Steel Section Index

Equal Angles Dimensions/Properties (Metric)

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Steel Section Index
Dimensions Properties ...BS 4848-4 :1972 (Superseded by BS EN 10056-1:1999)
M = Mass per m , A= Depth of Section, B= Width of Section,

T = Flange Thickness, A = Area of Section, Z = Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus) = I/ymax x-x & y-y
C of Radius Of
Moment Of Inertia Z
G Gyration
axa T M r1 r2 A
Cx, X-X, X-X,
U-U V-V U-U V-V
Cy Y-Y Y-Y
mm mm kg mm mm cm2 cm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm3
25 x 25 3 1.11 3,5 2,4 1.42 0.72 0.80 1.26 0.33 0.75 0.94 0.48 0.45
4 1.45 3,5 2,4 1.85 0.76 1.01 1.60 0.43 0.74 0.93 0.48 0.58
5 1.77 3,5 2,4 2.26 0.80 1.20 1.87 0.52 0.73 0.91 0.48 0.71
30 x 30 3 1.36 5,0 2,4 1.74 0.84 1.40 2.23 0.58 0.90 1.13 `0.58 0.65
4 1.78 5,0 2,4 2.27 0.88 1.80 2.85 0.75 0.89 1.12 0.58 0.85
5 2.18 5,0 2,4 2.78 0.92 2.16 3.41 0.92 0.88 1.11 0.57 1.04
40 x 40 4 2.42 6,0 2,4 3.08 1.12 4.47 7.09 1.85 1.21 1.52 0.78 1.55
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5 2.97 6,0 2,4 3.79 1.16 5.43 8.60 2.26 1.20 1.51 0.77 1.91
6 3.52 6,0 2,4 4.48 1.20 6.31 9.98 2.65 1.19 1.49 0.77 2.26
45 x 45 4 2.74 7,0 2,4 3.49 1.23 6.43 10.2 2.67 1.36 1.71 0.87 1.97
5 3.38 7,0 2,4 4.30 1.28 7.84 12.4 3.25 1.35 1.70 0.87 2.43
6 4.00 7,0 2,4 5.09 1.32 9.16 14.5 3.82 1.34 1.69 0.87 2.88
50 x 50 5 3.77 7,0 2,4 4.80 1.40 11.0 17.4 4.54 1.51 1.90 0.97 3.05
6 4.47 7,0 2,4 5.69 1.45 12.8 20.4 5.33 1.50 1.89 0.97 3.61
7 5.82 7,0 2,4 7.41 1.52 16.3 25.7 6.87 1.48 1.86 0.96 4.68
60 x 60 5 4.57 8,0 2,4 5.82 1.64 19.4 30.7 8.02 1.82 2.30 1.17 4.45
6 5.42 8,0 2,4 6.91 1.69 22.8 36.2 9.43 1.82 2.29 1.17 5.29
8 7.09 8,0 2,4 9.03 1.77 29.2 46.2 12.1 1.80 2.26 1.16 6..89
10 8.69 8,0 2,4 11.1 1.85 34.9 55.1 14.8 1.78 2.23 1.16 8.41
70 x 70 6 6.38 9,0 2,4 8.13 1.93 36.9 58.5 15.2 2.13 2.68 1.37 7.27
8 8.36 9,0 2,4 10.6 2.01 47.5 75.3 19.7 2.11 2.66 1.36 9.52
10 10.3 9,0 2,4 13.1 2.09 57.2 90.5 23.9 2.09 2.63 1.35 11.7
80 x 80 6 7.34 10,0 4,8 9.35 2.17 55.8 88.5 23.1 2.44 3.08 1.57 9.57
8 9.63 10,0 4,8 12.3 2.26 72.2 115 29.8 2.43 3.06 1.56 12.6
10 11.9 10,0 4,8 15.1 2.34 87.5 139 36.3 2.41 3.03 1.55 15.4
90 x 90 6 8.3 11,0 4,8 10.6 2.41 80.3 127 33.3 2.76 3.47 1.78 12.2
8 10.9 11,0 4,8 13.9 2.50 104 166 43.1 2.74 3.45 1.76 16.1
10 13.4 11,0 4,8 17.1 2.58 127 201 52.6 2.72 3.42 1.76 19.8
12 15.9 11,0 4,8 20.3 2.66 148 234 61.7 2.70 3.40 1.75 23.3
100x100 8 12.2 12,0 4,8 15.5 2.74 145 230 59.8 3.06 3.85 1.96 19.9
12 17.8 12,0 4,8 22.7 2.90 207 328 85.7 3.02 3.80 1.94 29.1
15 21.9 12,0 4,8 27.9 3.02 249 393 104 2.98 3.75 1.93 35.6
120x120 8 14.7 13,0 4,8 18.7 3.23 255 405 105 3.69 4.65 2.37 29.1
10 18.2 13,0 4,8 23.2 3.31 313 497 129 3.67 4.63 2.36 36.0
12 21.6 13,0 4,8 27.5 3.40 368 584 151 3.65 4.60 2.35 42.7
15 26.6 13,0 4,8 33.9 3.51 445 705 185 3.62 4.56 2.33 52.4
150x150 10 23.0 16,0 4,8 29.3 4.03 624 991 258 4.62 5.82 2.97 56.9
12 27.3 16,0 4,8 34.8 4.12 737 1170 303 4.60 5.80 2.95 67.7
15 33.8 16,0 4,8 43.0 4.25 898 1430 370 4.57 5.76 2.93 83.5
18 40.1 16,0 4,8 51.0 4.37 1050 1670 435 4.54 5.71 2.92 98.7
200x200 16 48.5 18,0 4,8 61.8 5.52 2340 3720 959 6.16 7.76 3.94 162
18 54.2 18,0 4,8 69.1 5.60 2600 4130 1070 6.13 7.73 3.93 181

20 59.9 18,0 4,8 76.3 5.68 2850 4530 1170 6.11 7.70 3.92 199
24 71.1 18,0 4,8 90.6 5.84 3330 5280 1380 6.06 7.64 3.90 235
C of Radius Of
Moment Of Inertia Z
G Gyration
AxB T M r1 r2 A
Cx, X-X, X-X,
U-U V-V U-U V-V
Cy Y-Y Y-Y
mm mm kg mm mm cm2 cm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm3
Home
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Equal Leg Angles to EN 10056-1: 1998
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Section Mass Distance Section

Section Root Toe Area of
Designation per to Cen. Second Moment of Area Radius of Gyration (Elastic)
Dimensions Radius Radius Section
Axtxw metre of Grav'y Modulus
Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Sect'n
A t M r1 r2 A
Cx&Cy Ix, Iy Ixy Iu Iv rx, ry ru rv Zx,Zy
mm mm kg/m mm mm cm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm3 cm2
250x250x35 250 35 128 18 9 7.5 9264 -5402 14666 3862 7.54 9.48 4.87 529 163
250x250x32 250 32 118 20 10 7.38 8597 -5032 13629 3565 7.57 9.53 4.87 488 150
250x250x28 250 28 104 18 9 7.24 7697 -4528 12226 3169 7.62 9.61 4.89 433 133
250x250x25 250 25 93.6 20 10 7.12 6975 -4111 11086 2864 7.65 9.64 4.9 390 119
200x200x24 200 24 71.1 18 9 5.84 3331 -1953 5284 1378 6.06 7.64 3.9 235 90.6
200x200x20 200 20 59.9 18 9 5.68 2851 -1678 4529 1172 6.11 7.7 3.92 199 76.3
200x200x18 200 18 54.2 18 9 5.6 2600 -1533 4132 1067 6.13 7.73 3.93 181 69.1
200x200x16 200 16 48.5 18 9 5.52 2341 -1381 3723 960 6.16 7.76 3.94 162 61.8
180x180x18 180 18 48.6 18 9 5.1 1866 -1097 2963 768 5.49 6.92 3.52 145 61.9
180x180x16 180 16 43.5 18 9 5.02 1682 -991 2673 692 5.51 6.95 3.53 130 55.4
160x160x15 160 15 36.2 17 8.5 4.49 1099 -646 1745 453 4.88 6.16 3.13 95.5 46.1
150x150x18 150 18 40.1 16 8 4.37 1050 -615 1665 435 4.54 5.71 2.92 98.7 51
150x150x15 150 15 33.8 16 8 4.25 898 -528 1426 370 4.57 5.76 2.93 83.5 43
150x150x12 150 12 27.3 16 8 4.12 737 -433 1170 303 4.6 5.8 2.95 67.7 34.8
150x150x10 150 10 23 16 8 4.03 624 -366 991 258 4.62 5.82 2.97 56.9 29.3
130x130x12 130 12 23.5 14 7 3.64 472 -278 750 195 3.97 5 2.55 50.4 30
120x120x15 120 15 26.6 13 6.5 3.51 445 -260 705 185 3.62 4.56 2.33 52.4 33.9
120x120x12 120 12 21.6 13 6.5 3.4 368 -216 584 152 3.65 4.6 2.35 42.7 27.5
120x120x10 120 10 18.2 13 6.5 3.31 313 -184 497 129 3.67 4.63 2.36 36 23.2
120x120x8 120 8 14.7 13 6.5 3.23 255 -150 405 105 3.69 4.65 2.37 29.1 18.7
100x100x15 100 15 21.9 12 6 3.02 249 -144 393 104 2.98 3.75 1.93 35.6 27.9
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100x100x12 100 12 17.8 12 6 2.9 207 -121 328 85.8 3.02 3.8 1.94 29.1 22.7
100x100x10 100 10 15 12 6 2.82 177 -104 280 73 3.04 3.83 1.95 24.6 19.2
100x100x8 100 8 12.2 12 6 2.74 145 -85 230 59.9 3.06 3.85 1.96 19.9 15.5
90x90x12 90 12 15.9 11 5.5 2.66 148 -86.3 234 61.7 2.7 3.4 1.74 23.3 20.3
90x90x10 90 10 13.4 11 5.5 2.58 127 -74.4 201 52.6 2.72 3.43 1.75 19.8 17.1
90x90x9 90 9 12.2 11 5.5 2.54 116 -67.9 184 47.9 2.73 3.44 1.76 17.9 15.5
90x90x8 90 8 10.9 11 5.5 2.5 104 -61.2 166 43.1 2.74 3.45 1.76 16.1 13.9
90x90x7 90 7 9.61 11 5.5 2.45 92.5 -54.3 147 38.3 2.75 3.46 1.77 14.1 12.2
90x90x6 90 6 8.3 11 5.5 2.41 80.3 -47 127 33.3 2.76 3.47 1.78 12.2 10.6
80x80x10 80 10 11.9 10 5 2.34 87.5 -51.1 139 36.4 2.41 3.03 1.55 15.4 15.1
80x80x8 80 8 9.63 10 5 2.26 72.2 -42.4 115 29.9 2.43 3.06 1.56 12.6 12.3
80x80x6 80 6 7.34 10 5 2.17 55.8 -32.7 88.5 23.1 2.44 3.08 1.57 9.57 9.35
75x75x8 75 8 8.99 9 4.5 2.14 59.1 -34.7 93.8 24.5 2.27 2.86 1.46 11 11.4
75x75x6 75 6 6.85 9 4.5 2.05 45.8 -26.9 72.7 18.9 2.29 2.89 1.47 8.41 8.73
70x70x10 70 10 10.3 9 4.5 2.09 57.2 -33.3 90.5 24 2.09 2.63 1.35 11.7 13.1
70x70x8 70 8 8.36 9 4.5 2.01 47.5 -27.8 75.3 19.7 2.11 2.66 1.36 9.52 10.6
70x70x7 70 7 7.38 9 4.5 1.97 42.3 -24.8 67.1 17.5 2.12 2.67 1.36 8.41 9.4
70x70x6 70 6 6.38 9 4.5 1.93 36.9 -21.6 58.5 15.3 2.13 2.68 1.37 7.27 8.13
65x65x7 65 7 6.83 9 4.5 1.85 33.4 -19.6 53 13.9 1.96 2.47 1.26 7.18 8.7
60x60x10 60 10 8.69 8 4 1.85 34.9 -20.1 55.1 14.8 1.78 2.23 1.16 8.41 11.1
60x60x8 60 8 7.09 8 4 1.77 29.2 -17 46.1 12.2 1.8 2.26 1.16 6.89 9.03
60x60x6 60 6 5.42 8 4 1.69 22.8 -13.4 36.1 9.44 1.82 2.29 1.17 5.29 6.91
60x60x5 60 5 4.57 8 4 1.64 19.4 -11.3 30.7 8.03 1.82 2.3 1.17 4.45 5.82
50x50x8 50 8 5.82 7 3.5 1.52 16.3 -9.41 25.7 6.88 1.48 1.86 0.963 4.68 7.41
50x50x6 50 6 4.47 7 3.5 1.45 12.8 -7.5 20.3 5.34 1.5 1.89 0.968 3.61 5.69
50x50x5 50 5 3.77 7 3.5 1.4 11 -6.42 17.4 4.55 1.51 1.9 0.973 3.05 4.8
50x50x4 50 4 3.06 7 3.5 1.36 8.97 -5.24 14.2 3.73 1.52 1.91 0.979 2.46 3.89
50x50x3 50 3 2.33 7 3.5 1.31 6.86 -3.98 10.8 2.88 1.52 1.91 0.986 1.86 2.96
45x45x6 45 6 4 7 3.5 1.32 9.16 -5.33 14.5 3.83 1.34 1.69 0.867 2.88 5.09
45x45x5 45 5 3.38 7 3.5 1.28 7.84 -4.58 12.4 3.26 1.35 1.7 0.871 2.43 4.3
45x45x4.5 45 4.5 3.06 7 3.5 1.26 7.15 -4.17 11.3 2.97 1.35 1.7 0.873 2.2 3.9
45x45x4 45 4 2.74 7 3.5 1.23 6.43 -3.75 10.2 2.68 1.36 1.71 0.876 1.97 3.49
45x45x3 45 3 2.09 7 3.5 1.18 4.93 -2.85 7.78 2.07 1.36 1.71 0.882 1.49 2.66
40x40x6 40 6 3.52 6 3 1.2 6.31 -3.66 9.97 2.65 1.19 1.49 0.77 2.26 4.48
40x40x5 40 5 2.97 6 3 1.16 5.43 -3.17 8.59 2.26 1.2 1.51 0.773 1.91 3.79
40x40x4 40 4 2.42 6 3 1.12 4.47 -2.61 7.09 1.86 1.21 1.52 0.777 1.55 3.08
40x40x3 40 3 1.84 6 3 1.07 3.45 -2.01 5.45 1.44 1.21 1.52 0.783 1.18 2.35
35x35x4 35 4 2.09 5 2.5 1 2.95 -1.73 4.68 1.23 1.05 1.32 0.678 1.18 2.67
30x30x5 30 5 2.18 5 2.5 0.918 2.16 -1.25 3.41 0.917 0.883 1.11 0.575 1.04 2.78
30x30x4 30 4 1.78 5 2.5 0.878 1.8 -1.05 2.85 0.754 0.892 1.12 0.577 0.85 2.27
-
30x30x3 30 3 1.36 5 2.5 0.835 1.4 2.22 0.586 0.899 1.13 0.581 0.649 1.74
0.819
-
25x25x5 25 5 1.78 3.5 1.75 0.799 1.21 1.9 0.524 0.731 0.915 0.481 0.711 2.26
0.686
-
25x25x4 25 4 1.45 3.5 1.75 0.762 1.02 1.61 0.43 0.741 0.931 0.482 0.586 1.85
0.588

-
25x25x3 25 3 1.12 3.5 1.75 0.723 0.803 1.27 0.334 0.751 0.945 0.484 0.452 1.42
0.469
-
20x20x3 20 3 0.882 3.5 1.75 0.598 0.392 0.618 0.165 0.59 0.742 0.383 0.279 1.12
0.227
Section Mass Distance Section
Designation per to Cen. Second Moment of Area Radius of Gyration (Elastic)
Dimensions Radius Radius Section
Axtxw metre of Grav'y Modulus
Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Sect'n
A t M r1 r2 A
Cx&Cy Ix, Iy Ixy Iu Iv rx, ry ru rv Zx,Zy
mm mm kg/m mm mm cm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm3 cm2
Home
Steel Section Index

Unequal Angle Dimensions

ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Unequal Angles ...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Dimensions
M = Mass per m , A= Depth of Section, B= Width of Section,

T = Thickness, R1 = Root radius, R2 = Toe radius, AREA = Area of Section
Leg
Serial Size Lengths A x T M R1 R2 AREA
B
228.6 x
229 x 102 22.1 53.77 13.0 4.8 68.49
101.6
20.6 50.21 13.0 4.8 63.97
18.9 46.45 13.0 4.8 59.17
17.4 42.87 13.0 4.8 54.61
15.8 39.20 13.0 4.8 49.93
14.2 35.43 13.0 4.8 45.13
12.6 31.56 13.0 4.8 40.20
203x152 203.2x152.4 22.1 58.09 13.7 4.8 74.00
20.5 54.42 13.7 4.8 69.07
18.9 50.32 13.7 4.8 64.10
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17.3 46.30 13.7 4.8 58.99

15.8 42.32 13.7 4.8 53.91
14.2 38.29 13.7 4.8 48.78
12.6 34.10 13.7 4.8 43.44
203.2
203 x 102 19.0 42.75 12.2 4.8 54.45
x101.6
17.3 39.32 12.2 4.8 50.09
15.8 36.07 12.2 4.8 45.95
14.2 32.62 12.2 4.8 41.55
12.6 29.07 12.2 4.8 37.03
178 x89 177.8 x 88.9 15.8 31.30 11.2 4.8 39.87
14.2 28.28 11.2 4.8 36.02
12.6 25.31 11.2 4.8 32.24
11.1 22.36 11.2 4.8 28.48
9.4 19.22 11.2 4.8 24.48
152.4 x
152 x 102 19.0 36.16 10.7 4.8 44.80
101.6
17.4 32.47 10.7 4.8 41.37
15.8 29.66 10.7 4.8 37.78
14.2 26.80 10.7 4.8 34.14
12.6 23.99 10.7 4.8 30.56
11.0 21.14 10.7 4.8 26.93
9.5 18.30 10.7 4.8 23.31
152 x 89 152.4 x 88.9 15.7 27.99 10.4 4.8 35.66
14.2 25.46 10.4 4.8 32.43
12.6 22.77 10.4 4.8 29.00
11.1 20.12 10.4 4.8 25.63
9.4 17.26 10.4 4.8 21.99
7.8 14.44 10.4 4.8 18.40
152 x76 152.4 x 76.2 15.8 26.52 9.9 4.8 33.78
14.2 23.99 9.9 4.8 30.56
12.6 21.45 9.9 4.8 27.33
11.0 18.92 9.9 4.8 24.10
9.5 16.39 9.9 4.8 20.87
7.8 13.69 9.9 4.8 17.44

127 x 89 127.0 x 88.9 15.8 24.86 9.7 4.8 31.67

14.2 22.64 9.7 4.8 28.84
12.6 20.26 9.7 4.8 25.81
11.1 17.89 9.7 4.8 22.79
9.4 15.35 9.7 4.8 19.56
7.9 12.94 9.7 4.8 16.48
127 x 76 127.0 x 76.2 14.2 21.17 9.1 4.8 26.96
12.6 18.91 9.1 4.8 24.09
11.0 16.69 9.1 4.8 21.27
9.4 14.44 9.1 4.8 18.39
7.8 12.06 9.1 4.8 15.37
102 x 89 101.6 x 88.9 15.8 21.75 8.9 4.8 27.71
14.2 19.67 8.9 4.8 25.06
12.6 17.72 8.9 4.8 22.57
11.0 15.62 8.9 4.8 19.90
9.5 13.55 8.9 4.8 17.27
7.8 11.31 8.9 4.8 14.41
102 x 76 101.6 x 76.2 14.2 18.31 8.4 4.8 23,32
12.6 16.38 8.4 4.8 20.87
11.0 14.44 8.4 4.8 18.40
9.4 12.50 8.4 4.8 15.92
7.9 10.58 8.4 4.8 13.47
102 x 64 101.6 x 63.5 11.0 13.40 8.1 4.8 17.07
9.5 11.61 8.1 4.8 14.79
7.8 9.69 8.1 4.8 12.35
6.3 7.89 8.1 4.8 10.05
89 x 76 88.9 x 76.2 14.2 16.83 8.1 4.8 21.44
12.7 15.20 8.1 4.8 19.36
11.0 13.40 8.1 4.8 17.07
9.5 11.61 8.1 4.8 14.79
7.8 9.69 8.1 4.8 12.35
6.3 7.89 8.1 4.8 10.05
89 x 64 88.9 x 63.5 11.0 12.20 7.6 4.8 15.55
9.4 10.57 7.6 4.8 13.47
7.8 8.93 7.6 4.8 11.37

6.2 7.16 7.6 4.8 9.12

76 x 64 76.2 x 63.5 11.0 11.17 7.4 4.8 14.23
9.4 9.68 7.4 4.8 12.33
7.9 8.19 7.4 4.8 10.43
6.2 6.56 7.4 4.8 8.36
76 x 51 76.2 x 50.8 11.0 10.12 6.9 2.4 12.89
9.4 8.78 6.9 2.4 11.18
7.9 7.45 6.9 2.4 9.48
6.2 5.96 6.9 2.4 7.59
4.7 4.62 6.9 2.4 5.88
64 x 51 63. x 50.8 9.3 7.74 6.6 2.4 9.86
7.8 6.55 6.6 2.4 8.35
6.2 5.35 6.6 2.4 6.82
4.6 4.01 6.6 2.4 5.11
64 x 38 63.5 x 38.1 7.8 5.80 6.1 2.4 7.39
6.3 4.77 6.1 2.4 6.08
4.6 3.58 6.1 2.4 4.56
51 x 38 50.8 x 38.1 7.9 5.06 5.8 2.4 6.45
6.1 4.02 5.8 2.4 5.12
4.7 3.13 5.8 2.4 3.99
Leg
Serial Size Lengths A x T M R1 R2 AREA
B
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Steel Section Index

Unequal Angle Properties

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Steel Section Index
Unequal Angles...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
>Properties
C= Centre of Gravity , I= Moment Of Inertia, R= Radius Of Gyration, Z= Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus) = I/ymax,
C I R AN Z
Serial Size Thick Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axiz Axis Axis Axis
Cx Cy Tan
229 x 102 22.1 8.73 2.41 3606 447 3747 306 7.26 2.56 7.40 2.11 0.207 255 57.8
20.6 8.67 2.35 3388 423 3523 287 7.28 2.57 7.42 2.12 0.209 239 54.1
18.9 8.60 2.29 3154 396 3283 267 7.30 2.59 7.45 2.13 0.211 221 50.3
17.4 8.54 2.23 2929 369 3051 248 7.32 2.60 7.47 2.13 0.213 205 46.6
15.8 8.47 2.17 2695 342 2808 229 7.35 2.62 7.50 2.14 0.214 187 42.8
14.2 8.40 2.10 2451 313 2556 208 7.37 2.63 7.53 2.15 0.216 170 38.9
12.6 8.33 2.04 2197 283 2292 187 7.39 2.65 7.55 2.16 0.218 151 34.8
203 x 152 22.1 6.59 4.07 2992 1439 3648 783 6.36 4.41 7.02 3.25 0.545 218 129
20.5 6.53 4.01 2811 1355 3432 734 6.38 4.43 7.05 3.26 0.547 204 121
18.9 6.47 3.95 2625 1268 3209 684 6.40 4.45 7.08 3.27 0.548 190 112
17.3 6.41 3.89 2432 1177 2976 633 6.42 4.47 7.10 3.28 0.550 175 104
15.8 6.35 3.83 2237 1085 2740 582 6.44 4.49 7.13 3.29 0.551 160 95.1
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14.2 6.29 3.77 2037 990 2497 530 6.46 4.51 7.15 3.30 0.553 145 86.3
12.6 6.22 3.70 1826 890 2240 476 6.48 4.53 7.18 3.31 0.554 129 77.1
203 x 102 19.0 7.46 2.41 2277 386 2409 253 6.47 2.66 6.65 2.15 0.256 177 49.7
17.3 7.40 2.35 2109 359 2234 234 6.49 2.68 6.68 2.16 0.259 163 46.0
15.8 7.33 2.29 1947 333 2064 216 6.51 2.69 6.70 2.17 0.260 150 42.4
14.2 7.27 2.23 1773 305 1881 197 6.53 2.71 6.73 2.18 .262 136 38.5
12.6 7.20 2.16 1591 276 1689 177 6.55 2.73 6.75 2.19 0.264 121 34.5
178 x89 15.8 6.49 2.08 1280 217 1355 142 5.67 2.33 5,83 1.89 0.257 113 31.9
14.2 6.43 2.01 1165 199 1235 129 5.69 2.35 5.86 1.89 0.260 103 28.9
12.6 6.36 1.95 1051 181 1115 117 5.71 2.37 5.88 1.90 0.262 92.0 26.0
11.1 6.29 1.89 935 162 993 104 5.73 2.38 5.90 1.91 0.264 81.4 23.1
9.4 6.22 1.83 810 141 861 90.3 5.75 2.40 5.93 1.92 0.265 70.1 20.0
152 x 102 19.0 5.25 2.73 1015 358 1161 212 4.76 2.83 5.09 2.17 0.427 102 48.2
17.4 5.19 2.67 945 335 1083 196 4.78 2.84 5.12 2.18 0.430 94.1 44.7
15.8 5.13 2.61 871 309 1000 180 4.80 2.86 5.14 2.19 0.432 86.1 41.0
14.2 5.07 2.55 794 283 913 164 4.82 2.88 5.17 2.19 0.435 78.0 37.2
12.6 5.00 2.48 716 257 825 148 4.84 2.90 5.20 2.20 0.437 70.0 33.4
11.0 4.94 2.42 637 229 734 132 4.86 2.92 5.22 2.21 0.439 61.8 29.6
9.5 4.88 2.36 555 201 641 115 4.88 2.93 5.24 2.22 0.441 53.6 25.7
152 x 89 15.7 5.37 2.22 828 208 907 129 4.82 2.42 5.04 1.90 0.336 83.9 31.2
14.2 5.31 2.16 759 192 833 118 4.84 2.43 5.07 1.91 0.338 76.5 28.5
12.6 5.25 2.10 685 174 752 107 4.86 2.45 5.09 1.92 0.341 68.5 25.6
11.1 5.19 2.04 610 156 671 95.2 4.88 2.47 5.12 1.93 0.343 60.7 22.7
9.4 5.12 1.97 528 136 581 82.6 4.90 2.48 5.14 1.94 0.345 52.1 19.6
7.8 5.04 1.91 445 115 490 69.9 4.92 2.50 5.16 1.95 0.347 43.7 16.5
152 x76 15.8 5.65 1.86 786 132 830 87.2 4.82 1.98 4.96 1.61 0.253 81.9 22.9
14.2 5.59 1.80 717 121 759 79.3 4.84 1.99 4.98 1.61 0.256 74.3 20.8
12.6 5.52 1.74 647 110 685 71.5 4.87 2.01 5.01 1.62 0.259 66.6 18.7
11.0 5.46 1.68 575 98.5 610 63.7 4.89 2.02 5.03 1.63 0.261 58.8 16.6
9.5 5.39 1.62 503 86.7 534 55.7 4.91 2.04 5.06 1.63 0.263 51.0 14.4
7.8 5.32 1.55 424 73.6 450 47.2 4.93 2.05 5.08 1.64 0.265 42.7 12.1
127 x 89 15.8 4.29 2.40 496 198 580 114 3.96 2.50 4.28 1.90 0.470 59.0 30.5
14.2 2.24 2.34 456 183 534 104 3.97 2.52 4.30 1.90 0.473 53.8 27.9
12.6 4.17 2.28 412 166 484 93.9 3.99 2.54 4.33 1.91 0.476 48.3 25.1
11.1 4.11 2.22 367 149 432 83.6 4.01 2.55 4.35 1.92 0.479 42.70 22.3

9.4 4.04 2.16 318 129 375 72.6 4.03 2.57 4.38 1.93 0.481 36.80 19.2
7.9 3.98 2.10 271 110 319 61.7 4.05 2.59 4.40 1.94 0.483 31.0 16.2
127 x 76 14.2 4.47 1.95 430 116 475 71.5 4.0 2.07 4.20 1.63 0.351 52.3 20.4
12.6 4.41 1.89 389 105 429 64.4 4.02 2.09 4.22 1.63 0.355 46.9 18.3
11.0 4.35 1.83 346 94.2 383 57.3 4.04 2.10 4.25 1.64 0.358 41.5 16.3
9.4 4.28 1.77 302 82.8 335 50.0 4.06 2.12 4.27 1.65 0.360 35.9 14.1
7.8 4.21 1.70 255 70.2 283 42.3 4.07 2.14 4.29 1.66 0.362 30.1 11.9
102 x 89 15.8 3.27 2.64 262 186 357 91.5 3.08 2.59 3.59 1.82 0.743 38.1 29.7
14.2 3.21 2.58 240 170 328 83.0 3.10 2.61 3.62 1.82 0.746 34.6 27.0
12.6 3.15 2.52 219 156 299 75.0 3.11 2.63 3.64 1.82 0.748 31.2 24.4
11.0 3.09 2.46 195 139 268 66.6 3.13 2.64 3.67 1.83 0.750 27.6 21.6
9.5 3.03 2.40 171 122 235 58.2 3.15 2.66 3.69 1.84 0.752 24.0 18.8
7.8 2.96 2.33 145 103 199 49.1 3.17 2.68 3.72 1.85 0.753 20.1 15.8
102 x 76 14.2 3.40 2.14 228 109 277 60.4 3.13 2.16 3.45 1.61 0.537 33.8 19.9
12.6 3.34 2.08 207 98.8 251 54.3 3.15 2.18 3.47 1.61 0.54 30.3 17.8
11.0 3.28 2.02 185 88.5 225 48.2 3.17 2.19 3.50 1.62 0.544 26.8 15.8
9.4 3.22 1.96 162 77.8 197 42.0 3.19 2.21 3.52 1.62 0.547 23.3 13.7
7.9 3.16 1.90 138 66.8 169 35.9 3.20 2.23 3.54 1.63 0.549 19.7 11.7
102 x 64 11.0 3.51 1.62 174 51.9 194 31.4 3.19 1.74 3.37 1.36 0.380 26.1 11.0
9.5 3.45 1.56 152 45.8 171 27.4 3.21 1.76 3.40 1.36 0.383 22.7 9.56
7.8 3.38 1.49 129 38.9 145 23.2 3.23 1.78 3.42 1.37 0.386 19.0 8.02
6.3 3.31 1.43 106 32.2 119 19.1 3.25 1.79 3.44 1.38 0.388 15.4 6.54
89 x 76 14.2 2.89 2.26 155 104 207 52.4 2.69 2.20 3.11 1.56 0.710 25.9 19.4
12.7 2.84 2.21 142 95.4 190 47.5 2.71 2.22 3.13 1.57 0.713 23.4 17.6
11.0 2.77 2.14 127 85.4 170 42.0 2.73 2.24 3.16 1.57 0.715 20.7 15.6
9.5 2.71 2.08 111 75.1 150 36.7 2.74 2.25 3.18 1.58 0.718 18.0 13.6
7.8 2.65 2.02 94.2 63.7 127 30.9 2.76 2.27 3.21 1.58 0.720 15.1 11.4
6.3 2.58 1.96 77.5 52.5 104 25.5 2.78 2.29 3.23 1.59 0.721 12.3 9.27
82 x 64 11.0 2.97 1.71 118 49.8 140 28.2 2.76 1.79 3.00 1.35 0.489 20.0 10.7
9.4 2.91 1.65 104 43.9 123 24.6 2.78 1.80 3.02 1.35 0.493 17.4 9.34
7.8 2.85 1.59 88.8 37.7 106 21.0 2.79 1.82 3.05 1.36 0.496 14.7 7.92
6.2 2.78 1.53 72.1 30.7 85.8 17.0 2.81 1.83 3.07 1.37 0.498 11.8 6.37
76 x 64 11.0 2.46 1.83 76.6 47.8 99.9 24.4 2.32 1.83 2.65 1.31 0.669 14.8 10.6
9.4 2.40 1.77 67.3 42.1 88.2 21.3 2.34 1.85 2.67 1.31 0.673 12.9 9.20
7.9 2.34 1.71 57.8 36.2 75.9 18.1 2.35 1.86 2.70 1.32 0.676 10.9 7.81

6.2 2.27 1.64 46.9 29.5 61.7 14.7 2.37 1.88 2.72 1.33 0.678 8.77 6.27
76 x 51 11.0 2.68 1.42 71.7 25.1 81.7 15.1 2.36 1.40 2.52 1.08 0.42 14.5 6.86
9.4 2.62 1.36 63.2 22.3 72.3 13.2 2.38 1.41 2.54 1.09 0.426 12.6 5.99
7.9 2.56 1.30 54.5 19.3 62.5 11.3 2.40 1.43 2.57 1.09 0.431 10.8 5.12
6.2 2.49 1.24 44.4 15.9 51.1 9.20 2.42 1.45 2.59 1.10 0.436 8.66 4.13
4.7 2.43 1.18 34.9 12.6 40.2 7.26 2.44 1.46 2.62 1.11 0.438 6.72 3.22
64 x 51 9.3 2.09 1.46 37.2 20.9 47.0 11.1 1.94 1.46 2.18 1.06 0.613 8.73 5.78
7.8 2.03 1.40 32.1 18.1 40.7 9.50 1.96 1.47 2.21 1.07 0.618 7.44 4.93
6.2 1.97 1.35 26.7 15.1 34.0 7.86 1.98 1.49 2.23 1.07 0.622 6.10 4.06
4.6 1.90 1.28 20.4 11.6 26.0 6.01 2.00 1.51 2.26 1.08 0.625 4.59 3.06
64 x 38 7.8 2.26 1.00 29.2 7.79 32.1 4.87 1.99 1.03 2.08 0.81 0.347 7.13 2.77
6.3 2.20 0.94 24.4 6.59 27.0 4.05 2.00 1.04 2.11 0.82 0353 5.89 2.30
4.6 2.13 0.88 18.7 5.10 20.7 3.10 2.03 1.06 2.13 0.82 0.358 4.43 1.74
51 x 38 7.9 1.73 1.10 15.5 7.37 18.8 4.15 1.55 1.07 1.71 0.80 0.532 4.64 2.72
6.1 1.66 1.03 12.7 6.04 15.4 3.32 1.57 1.09 1.73 0.81 0.54 3.70 2.17
4.7 1.60 0.98 10.1 4.83 12.3 2.63 1.59 1.10 1.75 0.81 0.544 2.89 1.70
C R I AN Z
Serial Size Thick Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axiz Axis Axis Axis
Cx Cy Tan
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Steel Section Index

Unequal angles Dimensions

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Steel Section Index
Unequal Angles ...BS 4848-4 :1972 (Superseded by BS EN 10056-1:1999)
Dimensions/ Properties
M = Mass per m , b= Depth of Section, a= Width of Section,t = Web thickness,

T = Flange Thickness, r1 = Root radius, r2 = Toe radius, A= Area of Section
Serial Size C of G Moment Of Inertia Radius Of Gyration AN

M r1 r2 A
axbxt Cx Cy X-X Y-Y U-U V-V X-X Y-Y U-U V-V
tan
3 x mm kg mm mm cm2 cm cm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm
AN
40x25x4 1.93 4 2.4 2.46 1.36 0.62 3.89 1.16 4.35 0.70 1.26 0.69 1.33 0.53 0.38
60x30x5 3.37 6 2.4 4.29 2.15 0.68 15.6 2.60 16.5 1.69 1.90 0.78 1.96 0.63 0.256
60x30x6 3.99 6 2.4 5.08 2.20 0.72 18.2 3.02 19.2 1.99 1.89 0.77 1.95 0.63 0.252
65x50x5 4.35 6 2.4 5.54 1.99 1.25 23.2 11.9 28.8 6.32 2.05 1.47 2.28 1.07 0.577
65x50x6 5.116 6 2.4 6.58 2.04 1.29 27.2 14.0 33.8 7.43 2.03 1.46 2.27 1.06 0.575
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65x50x8 6.75 6 2.4 8.60 2.11 1.37 34.8 17.7 43.0 9.57 2.01 1.44 2.23 1.05 0.569
75x50x6 5.65 7 2.4 7.19 2.44 1.21 40.5 14.4 46.6 8.36 2.37 1.42 2.55 1.08 0.435
75x50x8 7.39 7 2.4 9.41 2.52 1.29 52.0 18.4 59.6 10.8 2.35 1.40 2.52 1.07 0.43
80x60x6 6.37 8 4.8 8.11 2.47 1.48 51.4 24.8 62.8 13.4 2.52 1.75 2.78 1.29 0.547
80x60x7 7.36 8 4.8 9.38 2.51 1.52 59.0 28.4 72.0 15.4 2.51 1.74 2.77 1.28 0.546
80x60x8 8.34 8 4.8 10.6 2.55 1.56 66.3 31.8 80.8 17.3 2.50 1.73 2.76 1.28 0.544
100x65x7 8.77 10 4.8 11.2 3.23 1.51 113 37.6 128 22.0 3.17 1.83 3.39 1.40 0.415
100x65x8 9.94 10 4.8 12.7 3.27 1.55 127 42.2 144 24.8 3.16 1.83 3.37 1.40 0.414
100x65x10 12.30 10 4.8 15.6 3.36 1.63 154 51.0 175 30.1 3.14 1.81 3.35 1.39 0.41
100x75x8 10.6 10 4.8 13.5 3.10 1.87 133 64.1 16.3 34.6 3.14 2.18 3.47 1.60 0.547
100x75x10 13.0 10 4.8 16.6 3.19 1.95 162 77.6 197 42.1 3.12 2.16 3.45 1.59 0.544
100x75x12 15.4 10 4.8 19.7 3.27 2.03 189 90.2 230 49.5 3.10 2.14 3.42 1.59 0.54
125x75x8 12.2 11 4.8 15.5 4.14 1.68 247 67.6 274 40.9 4.00 2.09 4.20 1.63 0.359
125x75x10 15.0 11 4.8 19.1 4.23 1.76 302 82.1 334 50.0 3.97 2.07 4.18 1.62 0.356
125x75x12 17.8 11 4.8 22.7 4.31 1.84 354 95.5 391 58.5 3.95 2.05 4.15 1.61 0.353
150x75x10 17.0 11 4.8 21.6 5.32 1.61 501 85.8 532 55.3 4.81 1.99 4.96 1.60 0.261
150x75x12 20.2 11 4.8 25.7 5.41 1.69 589 99.9 624 64.9 4.79 1.97 4.93 1.59 0.259
150x75x15 24.8 11 4.8 31.6 5.53 1.81 713 120 754 78.8 4.75 1.94 4.88 1.58 0.254
150x90x10 18.2 12 4.8 23.2 5.00 2.04 533 146 591 88.3 4.80 2.51 5.05 1.95 0.360
150x90x12 21.6 12 4.8 27.5 5.08 2.12 627 171 694 104 4.77 2.49 5.02 1.94 0.358
150x90x15 26.6 12 4.8 33.9 5.21 2.23 761 205 841 126 4.74 2.46 4.98 1.93 0.354
200x100x10 23.0 15 4.8 29.2 6.93 2.01 1220 210 1290 135 6.46 2.68 6.65 2.15 0.263
200x100x12 27.3 15 4.8 34.8 7.03 2.10 1440 247 1530 159 6.43 2.67 6.63 2.14 0.262
200x100x15 33.7 15 4.8 43.0 7.16 2.22 1758 299 1863 194 6.40 2.64 6.58 2.13 0.259
200x150x12 32.0 15 4.8 40.8 6.08 3.61 1652 803 2024 431 6.36 4.44 7.04 3.25 0.552
200x150x15 39.6 15 4.8 50.5 6.21 3.73 2022 979 2475 527 6.33 4.40 7.00 3.23 0.550
200x150x18 47.1 15 4.8 60.0 6.33 3.85 2376 1146 2902 618 6.29 4.37 6.95 3.21 0.548
Serial Size C of G Moment Of Inertia Radius Of Gyration AN
M r1 r2 A
axbxt Cx Cy X-X Y-Y U-U V-V X-X Y-Y U-U V-V
tan
3 x mm kg mm mm cm2 cm cm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm
AN
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Please send comments to Roy@roymech.co.uk
RoyBeardmore@ic24.net

Unequal Angles to EN 10056-1: 1998
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use this information at your own
risk.
ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Unequal Angles...BS EN 10056-1:1999
Dimensions and Properties

Dist Dist
Section Mass to to Angle Section
Designation per Cen. Cen. x-x to Second Moment of Area Radius of Gyration (Elastic)
Dimensions Radius Rad Section
axbxt metre of of u-u Modulus
Grav Grav
Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Sect'n Sect'n
a b t M r1 r2 Tanα A
Cx Cy Ix Iy Ixy Iu Iv rx ry ru rv Zx Zy
mm mm mm kg/m mm mm cm cm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm cm3 cm3 cm2
200x150x15 200 150 15 39.6 15 7.5 6.21 3.73 0.551 2022 979 -824 2476 526 6.33 4.4 7 3.23 147 86.9 50.5
200x150x12 200 150 12 32 15 7.5 6.08 3.61 0.552 1652 803 -675 2025 430 6.36 4.44 7.04 3.25 119 70.5 40.8
200x100x15 200 100 15 33.7 15 7.5 7.16 2.22 0.259 1758 299 -406 1864 194 6.4 2.64 6.58 2.12 137 38.4 43
200x100x12 200 100 12 27.3 15 7.5 7.03 2.1 0.262 1440 247 -336 1528 159 6.43 2.67 6.63 2.14 111 31.3 34.8
200x100x10 200 100 10 23 15 7.5 6.93 2.01 0.263 1219 210 -285 1294 135 6.46 2.68 6.65 2.15 93.2 26.3 29.2
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Sections/U_AngleA_dim_prop.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:36:53 AM

150x100x12 150 100 12 22.5 12 6 4.9 2.42 0.436 651 233 -225 749 134 4.76 2.85 5.11 2.16 64.4 30.7 28.7
150x100x10 150 100 10 19 12 6 4.81 2.34 0.438 553 198 -192 637 114 4.78 2.87 5.13 2.17 54.2 25.9 24.2
150x90x15 150 90 15 26.6 12 6 5.21 2.23 0.354 761 205 -225 841 126 4.74 2.46 4.98 1.93 77.7 30.4 33.9
150x90x12 150 90 12 21.6 12 6 5.08 2.12 0.358 627 171 -188 694 104 4.77 2.49 5.02 1.94 63.3 24.8 27.5
150x90x10 150 90 10 18.2 12 6 5 2.04 0.36 533 146 -160 591 88.3 4.8 2.51 5.05 1.95 53.3 21 23.2
150x75x15 150 75 15 24.8 11 5.5 5.53 1.81 0.254 713 120 -161 754 78.8 4.75 1.94 4.88 1.58 75.3 21 31.6
150x75x12 150 75 12 20.2 11 5.5 5.41 1.69 0.259 589 99.9 -136 624 64.9 4.79 1.97 4.93 1.59 61.4 17.2 25.7
150x75x10 150 75 10 17 11 5.5 5.32 1.61 0.261 501 85.8 -117 532 55.3 4.81 1.99 4.96 1.6 51.8 14.6 21.6
150x75x9 150 75 9 15.4 12 6 5.26 1.57 0.261 455 77.9 -106 483 50.2 4.82 1.99 4.96 1.6 46.7 13.1 19.6
135x65x10 135 65 10 15 11 5.5 4.88 1.42 0.242 356 54.7 -77.6 375 35.9 4.31 1.69 4.43 1.37 41.3 10.8 19.1
135x65x8 135 65 8 12.2 11 5.5 4.78 1.34 0.245 291 45.2 -64.1 307 29.4 4.34 1.71 4.45 1.38 33.4 8.75 15.5
125x75x12 125 75 12 17.8 11 5.5 4.31 1.84 0.354 354 95.5 -105 391 58.5 3.95 2.05 4.15 1.61 43.2 16.9 22.7
125x75x10 125 75 10 15 11 5.5 4.23 1.76 0.357 302 82.1 -90.1 334 49.9 3.97 2.07 4.18 1.61 36.5 14.3 19.1
125x75x8 125 75 8 12.2 11 5.5 4.14 1.68 0.36 247 67.6 -74.2 274 40.9 4 2.09 4.21 1.63 29.6 11.6 15.5
120x80x12 120 80 12 17.8 11 5.5 4 2.03 0.431 323 114 -111 370 66.7 3.77 2.24 4.04 1.71 40.4 19.1 22.7
120x80x10 120 80 10 15 11 5.5 3.92 1.95 0.434 276 98.1 -95 317 56.8 3.8 2.26 4.07 1.72 34.1 16.2 19.1
120x80x8 120 80 8 12.2 11 5.5 3.83 1.87 0.437 226 80.8 -78.2 260 46.6 3.82 2.28 4.1 1.74 27.6 13.2 15.5
100x75x12 100 75 12 15.4 10 5 3.27 2.03 0.54 189 90.2 -75.3 230 49.5 3.1 2.14 3.42 1.59 28 16.5 19.7
100x75x10 100 75 10 13 10 5 3.19 1.95 0.544 162 77.6 -65.1 197 42.2 3.12 2.16 3.45 1.59 23.8 14 16.6
100x75x8 100 75 8 10.6 10 5 3.1 1.87 0.547 133 64.1 -53.8 162 34.6 3.14 2.18 3.47 1.6 19.3 11.4 13.5
100x65x10 100 65 10 12.3 10 5 3.36 1.63 0.41 154 51 -50.8 175 30.2 3.14 1.81 3.35 1.39 23.2 10.5 15.6
100x65x8 100 65 8 9.94 10 5 3.27 1.55 0.413 127 42.2 -42.2 144 24.8 3.16 1.83 3.37 1.4 18.9 8.54 12.7
100x65x7 100 65 7 8.77 10 5 3.23 1.51 0.415 113 37.6 -37.5 128 22 3.17 1.83 3.39 1.4 16.6 7.53 11.2
100x50x8 100 50 8 8.97 8 4 3.6 1.13 0.258 116 19.7 -26.7 123 12.8 3.19 1.31 3.28 1.06 18.2 5.08 11.4
100x50x6 100 50 6 6.84 8 4 3.51 1.05 0.261 89.9 15.4 -20.9 95.4 9.92 3.21 1.33 3.31 1.07 13.8 3.89 8.71
80x60x7 80 60 7 7.36 8 4 2.51 1.52 0.546 59 28.4 -23.8 72 15.4 2.51 1.74 2.77 1.28 10.7 6.34 9.38
80x40x8 80 40 8 7.07 7 3.5 2.94 0.963 0.253 57.6 9.61 -13 60.9 6.34 2.53 1.03 2.6 0.838 11.4 3.16 9.01
80x40x6 80 40 6 5.41 7 3.5 2.85 0.884 0.258 44.9 7.59 -10.3 47.6 4.93 2.55 1.05 2.63 0.845 8.73 2.44 6.89
75x50x8 75 50 8 7.39 7 3.5 2.52 1.29 0.43 52 18.4 -17.7 59.6 10.8 2.35 1.4 2.52 1.07 10.4 4.95 9.41
75x50x6 75 50 6 5.65 7 3.5 2.44 1.21 0.435 40.5 14.4 -14 46.6 8.36 2.37 1.42 2.55 1.08 8.01 3.81 7.19
70x50x6 70 50 6 5.41 7 3.5 2.23 1.25 0.496 33.4 14.2 -12.6 39.7 7.92 2.2 1.43 2.4 1.07 7.01 3.78 6.89
65x50x5 65 50 5 4.35 6 3 1.99 1.25 0.577 23.2 11.9 -9.72 28.8 6.32 2.05 1.47 2.28 1.07 5.14 3.19 5.54
60x40x6 60 40 6 4.46 6 3 2 1.01 0.431 20.1 7.12 -6.88 23.1 4.16 1.88 1.12 2.02 0.855 5.03 2.38 5.68
60x40x5 60 40 5 3.76 6 3 1.96 0.972 0.433 17.2 6.11 -5.91 19.7 3.54 1.89 1.13 2.03 0.86 4.25 2.02 4.79

60x30x5 60 30 5 3.37 6 3 2.15 0.681 0.255 15.6 2.6 -3.54 16.5 1.7 1.9 0.779 1.96 0.629 4.04 1.12 4.29
50x30x5 50 30 5 2.96 5 2.5 1.73 0.741 0.352 9.36 2.51 -2.75 10.3 1.54 1.57 0.816 1.65 0.639 2.86 1.11 3.78
45x30x4 45 30 4 2.25 4.5 2.25 1.48 0.739 0.433 5.75 2.04 -1.98 6.61 1.19 1.42 0.845 1.52 0.644 1.9 0.903 2.86
40x25x4 40 25 4 1.93 4 2 1.36 0.623 0.38 3.89 1.16 -1.21 4.35 0.701 1.26 0.688 1.33 0.534 1.47 0.619 2.46
40x20x4 40 20 4 1.77 4 2 1.47 0.481 0.252 3.59 0.596 -0.806 3.8 0.393 1.26 0.514 1.3 0.417 1.42 0.393 2.26
30x20x4 30 20 4 1.46 4 2 1.03 0.541 0.421 1.59 0.553 -0.53 1.81 0.33 0.925 0.546 0.988 0.421 0.807 0.379 1.86
30x20x3 30 20 3 1.12 4 2 0.99 0.502 0.427 1.25 0.437 -0.424 1.43 0.256 0.935 0.553 1 0.424 0.621 0.292 1.43
30x20x3 30 20 3 1.12 4 2 0.99 0.502 0.427 1.25 0.437 -0.424 1.43 0.256 0.935 0.553 1 0.424 0.621 0.292 1.43
Dist Dist
Section Mass to to Angle Section
Designation per Cen. Cen. x-x to Second Moment of Area Radius of Gyration (Elastic)
Dimensions Radius Rad Section
Axtxw metre of of u-u< Modulus
Grav Grav
Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Sect'n Sect'n
a b t M r1 r2 Tanα A
Cx Cy Ix Iy Ixy Iu Iv rx ry ru rv Zx Zy
mm mm mm kg/m mm mm cm cm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm cm3 cm3 cm2
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Channels Dimensions

ROYMECH
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Steel Section Index
Channels...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Dimensions
M=Mass per m , D=Depth of Section, B= Width of Section, T1=Web

thickness,
T2=Flange Thickness, R1=Root radius, R2=Toe Rad, Area=Area of Section
Serial
M D B T1 T2 R1 R2 DT D/T Area
Size
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm mm cm2
432
65.54 431.8 101.6 12.2 16.8 15.2 4.8 362.5 25.7 83.49
x102
381 x
55.1 381.0 101.6 10.4 16.3 15.2 4.8 312.4 23.4 70.19
102
305 x
46.18 304.8 101.6 10.2 14.8 15.2 4.8 239.3 20.6 58.83
102
305 x
41.69 304.8 88.9 10.2 13.7 13.7 3.2 245.4 22.2 53.11
89
254 x
35.74 254.0 88.9 9.1 13.6 13.7 3.2 194.8 18.7 45.52
89
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Channels Dimensions
254 x
28.29 254.0 76.2 8.1 10.9 12.2 3.2 203.7 23.3 36.03
76
229 x
32.76 228.6 88.9 8.6 13.3 13.7 3.2 169.9 17.2 41.73
89
229 x
26.06 228.6 76.2 7.6 11.2 12.2 3.2 178.1 20.4 33.20
76
203 x
29.78 203.2 88.9 8.1 12.9 13.7 3.2 145.3 15.8 37.94
89
203 x
23.82 203.2 76.2 7.1 11.2 12.2 3.2 152.4 18.1 30.34
76
178 x
26.81 177.8 88.9 7.6 12.3 13.7 3.2 120.9 14.5 34.15
89
178 x
20.84 177.8 76.2 6.6 10.3 12.2 3.2 128.8 17.3 26.54
76
152 x
23.84 152.4 88.9 7.1 11.6 13.7 3.2 97.0 13.1 30.36
89
152 x
17.88 152.4 76.2 6.4 9.0 12.2 2.4 105.9 16.9 22.77
76
127 x
14.90 127.0 63.5 6.4 9.2 10.7 2.4 84.1 13.8 18.98
64
102 x
10.42 101.6 50.8 6.1 7.6 9.1 2.4 65.8 13.4 13.28
51
76 x 38 6.7 76.2 38.1 5.1 6.8 7.6 2.4 45.7 11.2 8.53
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Channel Properties

ROYMECH
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Steel Section Index
Channels...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Properties
I= Moment Of Inertia, R= Radius Of Gyration, Z= Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus) = I/ymax, P = Dist. To Neutral Axis
I R Z
Serial
P Axis xx
Gross Net
mm cm cm 4 cm 4 cm 4 cm cm cm 3 cm 3
432 x102 2.32 21399 17602 628.6 16.0 2.74 991.1 80.15
381 x 102 2.52 14894 12060 579.8 14.6 2.87 781.8 75.87
305 x 102 2.66 8214 6587 499.5 11.8 2.91 539.0 66.60
305 x 89 2.18 7061 5824 325.4 11.5 2.48 463.3 48.49
254 x 89 2.42 4448 3612 302.4 9.88 2.58 350.2 46.71
254 x 76 1.86 3367 2673 162.6 9.67 2.12 265.1 28.22
229 x 89 2.53 3387 2733 285.0 9.01 2.61 296.4 44.82
229 x 76 2.00 2610 2040 158.7 8.87 2.19 228.3 28.22
203 x 89 2.65 2491 1996 264.4 8.10 2.64 245.2 42.34
203 x 76 2.13 1950 1506 151.4 8.02 2.23 192.0 27.59
178 x 89 2.76 1753 1397 241.0 7.16 2.66 197.2 39.29
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Channel Properties
178 x 76 2.20 1337 1028 134.0 7.10 2.25 150.4 24.73

152 x 89 2.86 1166 923.7 215.1 6.20 2.66 153.0 35.70
152 x 76 2.21 851.6 654.3 113.8 6.1 2.24 111.8 21.05
127 x 64 1.94 482.6 367.5 67.24 5.04 1.88 75.99 15.25
102 x 51 1.51 207.7 167.9 29.10 3.96 1.48 40.89 8.16
76 x 38 1.19 74.14 54.52 10.66 2.95 1.12 19.46 4.07
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Channels Dimensions
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use this information at your own risk.
ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Channels...BS 4: 1993
Dimensions & Properties

Plastic
Modulus Elastic Plastic
Root Toe Flange Area Gyration Modulus
per of of between of Neutral Neutral
Radius Radius Taper
Designation m Section Section Web Flange fillets Section Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis
M h b s t r1 r2 a d A Ix Iy rx ry Zx Zy Sx Sy Cy Ceq
kg/m mm mm mm mm mm degrees mm cm2 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3
432x102x65 65.5 431.8 101.6 12.2 16.8 15.2 4.8 5 362.5 83.4 21373 627 16 2.74 990 80 1205 152 2.31 0.966
381x102x55 55.01 381 101.6 10.4 16.3 15.2 4.8 5 312.6 70.1 14869 579 14.6 2.87 781 75.7 931 144 2.52 0.92
305x102x46 46.21 304.8 101.6 10.2 14.8 15.2 4.8 5 239.3 58.9 8208 499 11.8 2.91 539 66.5 638 128 2.65 0.966
305x89x42 41.81 304.8 88.9 10.2 13.7 13.7 3.2 5 245.4 53.3 7078 326 11.5 2.48 464 48.6 559 92.6 2.18 0.874
254x89x36 35.66 254 88.9 9.1 13.6 13.7 3.2 5 194.7 45.4 4445 302 9.89 2.58 350 46.7 414 89.6 2.42 0.894
254x76x28 28.18 254 76.2 8.1 10.9 12.2 3.2 5 203.9 35.9 3355 162 9.67 2.12 264 28.1 316 53.8 1.85 0.707
229x89x33 32.68 228.6 88.9 8.6 13.3 13.7 3.2 5 169.9 41.6 3383 285 9.01 2.61 296 44.8 348 86.3 2.53 1.1
229x76x26 26.08 228.6 76.2 7.6 11.2 12.2 3.2 5 177.8 33.2 2615 159 8.87 2.19 229 28.4 271 54.5 2 0.727
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Sections/chanA_dimprop.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:37:01 AM

Channels Dimensions
203x89x30 29.77 203.2 88.9 8.1 12.9 13.7 3.2 5 145.2 37.9 2492 265 8.11 2.64 245 42.4 287 81.7 2.65 1.4
203x76x24 23.85 203.2 76.2 7.1 11.2 12.2 3.2 5 152.4 30.4 1955 152 8.02 2.24 192 27.7 226 53.5 2.14 0.892
178x89x27 26.79 177.8 88.9 7.6 12.3 13.7 3.2 5 121 34.1 1753 241 7.17 2.66 197 39.3 230 75.4 2.76 1.7
178x76x21 20.84 177.8 76.2 6.6 10.3 12.2 3.2 5 128.8 26.6 1338 134 7.1 2.25 151 24.8 176 48.1 2.2 1.09
152x89x24 23.87 152.4 88.9 7.1 11.6 13.7 3.2 5 96.9 30.4 1168 216 6.2 2.66 153 35.8 178 68.6 2.87 1.99
152x76x18 17.91 152.4 76.2 6.4 9 12.2 2.4 5 105.9 22.8 852 114 6.11 2.23 112 21 130 41.2 2.21 1.15
127x64x15 14.92 127 63.5 6.4 9.2 10.7 2.4 5 84 19 482 67.2 5.04 1.88 76 15.2 89.4 29.3 1.94 1.09
102x51x10 10.4 101.6 50.8 6.1 7.6 9.1 2.4 5 65.8 13.3 207 29.1 3.95 1.48 40.8 8.14 48.7 15.7 1.51 0.759
76x38x7 6.71 76.2 38.1 5.1 6.8 7.6 2.4 5 45.8 8.56 74.3 10.7 2.95 1.12 19.5 4.09 23.5 7.78 1.19 0.673
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Joist Dimensions

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Steel Section Index
Joists ...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Dimensions
M = Mass per m , D= Depth of Section, B= Width of Section,
T = Flange Thickness, T1 = Web thickness, R1 = Root radius, R2 =Toe Rad, Area =
Area of Section
Serial
M D B T1 T R1 R2 D1 D/T Area
Size
203 x
25.33 203.2 101.6 5.8 10.4 9.4 3.2 161.0 19.5 32.3
102
178 x
21.54 178.8 101.6 5.3 9.0 9.4 3.2 138.2 19.8 27.4
102
152 x
17.09 152.4 88.9 4.9 8.3 7.9 2.4 117.9 18.4 21.8
89
127 x
13.36 127.0 76.2 4.5 7.6 7.9 2.4 94.2 16.7 17.0
76
102 x
9.65 101.6 63.5 4.1 6.6 6.9 2.4 73.2 15.4 12.3
64
76 x
6.67 76.2 50.8 3.8 5.6 6.9 2.4 50.3 13.6 8.49
51
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Joist Dimensions
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Joist properties

ROYMECH
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Steel Section Index
Joists ...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Properties
Section (Elastic)
Serial Size Moment Of Inertia (I) Radius Of Gyration
Modulus (Z)
Axis x-x Axis Y-Y Axis x-x Axis Y-Y Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Gross Net
mm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm3 cm3
203 x 102 2294 2023 162.6 8.43 2.25 225.8 32.02
178 x 102 1519 1340 139.2 7.44 2.25 170.9 27.41
152 x 89 881.1 762.1 85.98 6.36 1.99 115.6 19.34
127 x 76 475.9 399.8 50.18 5.29 1.72 74.94 13.17
102 x 64 217.6 181.9 25.30 4.21 1.43 42.84 7.97
76 x 51 82.58 68.85 11.11 3.12 1.14 21.67 4.37
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Joist (BS4 part 1@1993 Dimensions Properties
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ROYMECH
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Joists with Taper Flanges to BS 4:part 1 1993...
Dimensions & Properties

Second Section
Area Radius Plastic
Mass Depth Width Thickness of Depth Moment
of Gyration
Modulus
Modulus
Root Toe Flange of Area (I) (Z)
per of of between
Radius Radius Taper Section
Designation m Section Section Web Flange fillets
(A) Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis
M h b s t r1 r2 a d A Ix Iy rx ry Zx Zy Sx Sy
kg/m mm mm mm mm mm degrees mm cm2 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3
254x203x82 82 254 203.2 10.2 19.9 19.6 9.7 8 166.6 105 12025 2280 10.7 4.67 947 224 1077 371
254x114x37 37.1 254 114.3 7.6 12.8 12.4 6.1 8 199.3 47.3 5082 269 10.4 2.39 400 47.1 459 79.1
203x152x52 52.2 203.2 152.4 8.9 16.5 15.5 7.6 8 133.2 66.6 4798 816 8.49 3.5 472 107 541 176
152x127x37 37.2 152.4 127 10.4 13.2 13.5 6.6 8 94.3 47.5 1818 378 6.19 2.82 239 59.6 279 99.8
127x114x29 29.3 127 114.3 10.2 11.5 9.9 4.8 8 79.5 37.4 979 242 5.12 2.54 154 42.3 181 70.8
127x114x27 26.8 127 114.3 7.4 11.4 9.9 5 8 79.5 34.2 946 236 5.26 2.63 149 41.3 172 68.2
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Joist (BS4 part 1@1993 Dimensions Properties
127x76x16 16.5 127 76.2 5.6 9.6 9.4 4.6 8 86.5 21.1 571 60.8 5.21 1.7 90 16 104 26.4
114x114x27 27 114.3 114.3 9.5 10.7 14.2 3.2 8 60.8 34.5 736 224 4.62 2.55 129 39.2 151 65.8
102x102x23 23 101.6 101.6 9.5 10.3 11.1 3.2 8 55.2 29.3 486 154 4.07 2.29 95.6 30.3 113 50.6
102x44x7 7.4 101.6 44.5 4.3 6.1 6.9 3.3 8 74.6 9.5 153 7.82 4.01 0.907 30.1 3.51 35.4 6.03
89x89x19 19.5 88.9 88.9 9.5 9.9 11.1 3.2 8 44.2 24.9 307 101 3.51 2.02 69 22.8 82.7 38
76x76x15 15 76.2 80 8.9 8.4 9.4 4.6 8 38.1 19.1 172 60.9 3 1.78 45.2 15.2 54.2 25.8
76x76x13 12.7 76.2 76.2 5.1 8.4 9.4 4.6 8 38.1 16.2 158 51.8 3.12 1.79 41.5 13.6 48.7 22.4
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Universal Column Dimensions

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Universal Column...BS 4-1:1971(Superseded by BS 4: 1993 )
Universal Columns Dimensions

M = Mass per m , D= Depth of Section, B= Width of Section, T1 = Web thickness,T = Flange
Thickness, R = Root radius, A = Area of Section
Serial
M D B T1 T R1 D1 A
Size
356 x 406 634 474.7 424.1 47.6 77.0 15.2 290.1 808.1
551 455.7 418.5 42.0 67.5 15.2 290.1 701.8
467 436.6 412.4 35.9 58.0 15.2 290.1 595.5
393 419.1 407 30.6 49.2 15.2 290.1 500.9
340 406.4 403 26.5 42.9 15.2 290.1 432.7
287 393.7 399 22.6 36.5 15.2 290.1 366.0
235 381.0 395 18.5 30.2 15.2 290.1 299.8
Column
477 427.0 424.4 48.0 53.2 15.2 290.1 607.2
Core
356 x 368 202 374.7 374.4 16.8 27.0 15.2 290.1 257.9
177 368.3 372.1 14.5 23.8 15.2 290.1 225.7
153 362.0 370.2 12.6 20.7 15.2 290.1 195.2
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Universal Column Dimensions
129 355.6 368.3 10.7 17.5 15.2 290.1 164.9

305 x 305 283 365.3 321.8 26.9 44.1 15.2 246.6 360.4
240 352.6 317.9 23.0 37.7 15.2 246.6 305.6
198 339.9 314.1 19.2 31.4 15.2 246.6 252.3
158 327.2 310.6 15.7 25.0 15.2 246.6 201.2
137 320.5 308.7 13.8 21.7 15.2 246.6 174.6
118 314.5 306.8 11.9 18.7 15.2 246.6 149.8
97 307.8 304.8 9.9 15.4 15.2 246.6 123.3
254 x 254 167 289.1 264.5 19.2 31.7 12.7 200.2 212.4
132 276.4 261.0 15.6 25.1 12.7 200.2 167.7
107 266.7 258.3 13.0 20.5 12.7 200.2 136.6
89 260.4 255.9 10.5 17.3 12.7 200.2 114.0
73 254.0 254.0 8.6 14.2 12.7 200.2 92.9
203 x 203 86 222.3 208.8 13.0 20.5 10.2 160.8 110.1
71 215.9 206.2 10.3 17.3 10.2 160.8 91.1
60 209.6 205.2 9.3 14.2 10.2 160.8 75.8
52 206.2 203.9 8.0 12.5 10.2 160.8 66.4
46 203.2 203.2 7.3 11.0 10.2 160.8 58.8
152 x 152 37 161.8 154.4 8.1 11.5 7.6 123.4 47.4
30 157.5 152.9 6.6 9.4 7.6 123.4 38.2
23 152.4 152.4 6.1 6.8 7.6 123.4 29.8
Serial
M D B T1 T R1 D1 A
Size
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm 2
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Universal Column Properties

ROYMECH
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Steel Section Index
Universal Columns...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Properties
I= Moment Of Inertia, R= Radius Of Gyration, Z= Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus) = I/ymax,
I R Z
Serial Mass;
Axis xx Ratio D/
Size per m Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y
Gross Net T
mm kg cm 4 cm 4 cm 4 cm cm cm 3 cm 3
356 x
634 275140 243076 98211 18.5 11.0 11592 4632 6.2
406
551 227023 200312 82665 18.0 10.9 9964 3951 6.8
467 183118 161331 67905 17.5 10.7 8388 3293 7.5
393 146765 129159 55410 17.1 10.5 7004 2723 8.5
340 122474 107667 46816 16.8 10.4 6027 2324 9.5
287 99994 87843 38714 16.5 10.3 5080 1940 10.8
235 79110 69424 31008 16.2 10.2 4153 1570 12.6
Column
477 172391 152936 68057 16.8 10.6 8075 3207 8.0
Core
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356 x
202 66307 57806 23632 16.0 9.57 3540 1262 13.9
368
177 57153 49798 20470 15.9 9.52 3104 1100 15.5
153 48525 42250 17470 15.8 9.46 2681 943.8 17.5
129 40246 35040 14555 15.6 9.39 2264 790.4 20.3
305 x
283 78777 72827 24545 14.8 8.25 4314 1525 8.3
305
240 64177 59295 20239 14.5 8.14 3641 1273 9.4
198 50832 46935 16230 14.2 8.02 2991 1034 10.8
158 38740 35766 12524 13.9 7.89 2368 806.3 13.1
137 32838 30314 10672 13.7 7.82 2049 691.4 14.8
118 27601 25472 9006 13.6 7.75 1755 587.0 16.8
97 22202 20488 7268 13.4 7.68 1442 476.9 20.0
254 x
167 29914 27171 9796 11.9 6.79 2070 740.6 9.1
254
132 22416 20350 7444 11.6 6.66 1622 570.4 11.0
107 17510 15890 5901 11.3 6.57 1313 456.9 13.0
89 14307 12976 4849 11.2 6.52 1099 378.9 15.1
73 11360 10297 3873 11.1 6.46 894.5 305.0 17.9
203 x
86 9462 8374 3119 9.27 5.32 851.6 298.7 10.8
203
71 7647 6758 2536 9.16 5.28 708.4 246.0 12.5
60 6088 5383 2041 8.96 5.19 581.1 199.0 14.8
52 5263 4653 1770 8.90 5.16 510.4 173.6 16.5
46 4564 4035 1539 8.81 5.11 449.2 151.5 18.5
152 x
37 2218 1932 709 6.84 3.87 274.2 91.78 14.1
152
30 1742 1515 558 6.75 3.82 221.2 73.06 16.8
23 1263 1104 403 6.51 3.68 165.7 52.95 22.4
I R Z
Serial Mass;
Axis xx Ratio D/
Size per m Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y
Gross Net T
mm kg cm 4 cm 4 cm 4 cm cm cm 3 cm 3

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Universal Column To BS 4:Part 1 ; 1993
ROYMECH
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Steel Section Index
Universal Column..BS 4:Part1 1993

Plastic
Modulus
Radius
Web Flange
356x406x634 633.9 474.6 424 47.6 77 15.2 290.2 808 274845 98125 18.4 11 11582 4629 14235 7108
356x406x551 551 455.6 418.5 42.1 67.5 15.2 290.2 702 226938 82671 18 10.9 9962 3951 12076 6058
356x406x467 467 436.6 412.2 35.8 58 15.2 290.2 595 183003 67834 17.5 10.7 8383 3291 10002 5034
356x406x393 393 419 407 30.6 49.2 15.2 290.2 501 146618 55367 17.1 10.5 6998 2721 8222 4154
356x406x340 339.9 406.4 403 26.6 42.9 15.2 290.2 433 122543 46853 16.8 10.4 6031 2325 6999 3544
356x406x287 287.1 393.6 399 22.6 36.5 15.2 290.2 366 99875 38677 16.5 10.3 5075 1939 5812 2949
356x406x235 235.1 381 394.8 18.4 30.2 15.2 290.2 299 79085 30993 16.3 10.2 4151 1570 4687 2383
356x368x202 201.9 374.6 374.7 16.5 27 15.2 290.2 257 66261 23688 16.1 9.6 3538 1264 3972 1920
356x368x177 177 368.2 372.6 14.4 23.8 15.2 290.2 226 57118 20529 15.9 9.54 3103 1102 3455 1671
356x368x153 152.9 362 370.5 12.3 20.7 15.2 290.2 195 48589 17553 15.8 9.49 2684 948 2965 1435
356x368x129 129 355.6 368.6 10.4 17.5 15.2 290.2 164 40246 14611 15.6 9.43 2264 793 2479 1199
305x305x283 282.9 365.3 322.2 26.8 44.1 15.2 246.7 360 78872 24635 14.8 8.27 4318 1529 5105 2342
305x305x240 240 352.5 318.4 23 37.7 15.2 246.7 306 64203 20315 14.5 8.15 3643 1276 4247 1951
305x305x198 198.1 339.9 314.5 19.1 31.4 15.2 246.7 252 50904 16299 14.2 8.04 2995 1037 3440 1581
305x305x158 158.1 327.1 311.2 15.8 25 15.2 246.7 201 38747 12569 13.9 7.9 2369 808 2680 1230
305x305x137 136.9 320.5 309.2 13.8 21.7 15.2 246.7 174 32814 10700 13.7 7.83 2048 692 2297 1053
305x305x118 117.9 314.5 307.4 12 18.7 15.2 246.7 150 27672 9059 13.6 7.77 1760 589 1958 895
305x305x97 96.9 307.9 305.3 9.9 15.4 15.2 246.7 123 22249 7308 13.4 7.69 1445 479 1592 726
254x254x167 167.1 289.1 265.2 19.2 31.7 12.7 200.3 213 29998 9870 11.9 6.81 2075 744 2424 1137
254x254x132 132 276.3 261.3 15.3 25.3 12.7 200.3 168 22529 7531 11.6 6.69 1631 576 1869 878
254x254x107 107.1 266.7 258.8 12.8 20.5 12.7 200.3 136 17510 5928 11.3 6.59 1313 458 1484 697
254x254x89 88.9 260.3 256.3 10.3 17.3 12.7 200.3 113 14268 4857 11.2 6.55 1096 379 1224 575
254x254x73 73.1 254.1 254.6 8.6 14.2 12.7 200.3 93.1 11407 3908 11.1 6.48 898 307 992 465
203x203x86 86.1 222.2 209.1 12.7 20.5 10.2 160.8 110 9449 3127 9.28 5.34 850 299 977 456
203x203x71 71 215.8 206.4 10 17.3 10.2 160.8 90.4 7618 2537 9.18 5.3 706 246 799 374
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Universal Column To BS 4:Part 1 ; 1993
203x203x60 60 209.6 205.8 9.4 14.2 10.2 160.8 76.4 6125 2065 8.96 5.2 584 201 656 305
203x203x52 52 206.2 204.3 7.9 12.5 10.2 160.8 66.3 5259 1778 8.91 5.18 510 174 567 264
203x203x46 46.1 203.2 203.6 7.2 11 10.2 160.8 58.7 4568 1548 8.82 5.13 450 152 497 231
152x152x37 37 161.8 154.4 8 11.5 7.6 123.6 47.1 2210 706 6.85 3.87 273 91.5 309 140
152x152x30 30 157.6 152.9 6.5 9.4 7.6 123.6 38.3 1748 560 6.76 3.83 222 73.3 248 112
152x152x23 23 152.4 152.2 5.8 6.8 7.6 123.6 29.2 1250 400 6.54 3.7 164 52.6 182 80.2
Plastic
Modulus
Radius
Web Flange
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Structural Tee dimensions

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Steel Section Index
Structural Tees..BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Dimensions
M = Mass per m , A= Width of Section, B= Depth of Section, T1 = Web thickness,
T = Flange Thickness, R1 = Root radius, Area = Area of Section, S = Slope Inside Flange
Serial
M A B T1 T R1 S Area
Size
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm Per Cent cm2
305x 457 127 305.5 459.2 17.3 27.9 19.1 5 161.2
112 304.1 455.2 15.9 23.9 19.1 5 142.5
101 303.4 451.5 15.2 20.2 19.1 5 128.0
292 x 419 113 293.8 425.4 16.1 26.8 17.8 5 144.2
97 292.4 420.4 14.7 21.7 17.8 5 123.4
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88 291.6 417.4 14.0 18.8 17.8 5 111.9

267 x 381 99 268.0 384.8 15.6 25.4 16.5 5 125.
87 266.7 381.0 14.3 21.6 16.5 5 110.1
74 265.3 376.9 12.9 17.5 16.5 5 93.9
254 x 343 85 255.8 346.5 14.5 23.7 15.2 5 108.2
76 254.5 343.8 13.2 21.0 15.2 5 96.8
70 253.7 341.8 12.4 19.0 15.2 5 89.2
63 253.0 339.0 11.7 16.2 15.2 5 79.7
305 x 305 119 311.5 316.5 18.6 31.4 16.5 5 151.8
90 307.0 308.7 14.1 23.6 16.5 5 113.8
75 304.8 304.8 11.9 19.7 16.5 5 94.9
229 x 305 70 230.1 308.5 13.1 22.1 12.7 5 89.1
63 229.0 305.9 11.9 19.6 12.7 5 79.7
57 228.2 303.7 11.2 17.3 12.7 5 72.2
51 227.6 301.1 10.6 14.8 12.7 5 64.5
178 x 305 46 178.4 301.2 10.6 15.0 12.7 0 57.9
41 177.8 299.1 10.1 12.8 12.7 0 52.2
330 x 267 106 333.6 272.5 16.7 27.8 16.5 5 134.8
95 331.7 269.7 14.9 25.0 16.5 5 120.6
84 330.2 266.7 13.4 22.0 16.5 5 106.3
210 x 267 61 211.9 272.3 12.8 21.3 12.7 5 77.8
55 210.7 269.7 11.6 18.8 12.7 5 69.2
51 210.1 268.4 10.9 17.4 12.7 5 64.6
46 209.3 266.6 10.2 15.6 12.7 5 58.8
41 208.7 264.2 9.6 13.2 12.7 5 52.1
165 x 267 37 165.6 264.4 9.3 13.5 12.7 0 46.5
33 165.1 262.4 8.8 11.5 12.7 0 41.8
191 x 229 49 192.8 233.7 11.4 19.6 10.2 5 62.6
45 192.0 231.8 10.6 17.7 10.2 5 56.9
41 191.3 230.1 9.9 16.0 10.2 5 52.2
37 190.5 228.6 9.1 14.5 10.2 5 47.4
34 189.9 226.8 8.5 12.7 10.2 5 42.7
152 x 229 41 153.5 232.5 10.7 18.9 10.2 5 52.2
37 152.7 230.6 9.9 17.0 10.2 5 47.4
34 151.9 228.6 9.1 15.0 10.2 5 42.7

30 152.9 227.3 8.0 13.3 10.2 0 38.0

27 152.4 224.9 7.6 10.9 10.2 0 33.2
178 x 203 37 179.7 206.4 9.7 16.0 10.2 5 47.4
34 178.8 204.7 8.8 14.3 10.2 5 42.7
30 177.8 203.2 7.8 12.8 10.2 5 38.0
27 177.6 201.3 7.6 10.9 10.2 5 34.2
152 x 203 37 153.7 208.2 10.1 18.1 10.2 5 47.4
34 152.9 206.1 9.3 16.0 10.2 5 42.7
30 152.2 204.0 8.6 13.9 10.2 5 37.9
140 x 203 23 142.4 201.2 6.9 11.2 10.2 5 29.4
20 141.8 198.6 6.3 8.6 10.2 5 24.7
152 x 191 34 154.3 194.3 9.7 16.3 10.2 5 42.7
30 153.4 192.4 8.7 14.4 10.2 5 38.0
26 152.4 190.5 7.8 12.4 10.2 5 33.2
171 x 178 34 173.2 182.0 9.1 15.7 10.2 5 42.7
29 172.1 179.3 8.0 13.0 10.2 5 36.0
26 171.5 177.8 7.3 11.5 10.2 5 32.2
23 171.0 176.0 6.9 9.7 10.2 5 28.4
127 x 178 20 126.0 176.4 6.5 10.7 10.2 5 24.7
17 125.4 174.2 5.9 8.5 10.2 5 20.9
165 x 152 27 166.8 155.4 7.7 13.7 8.9 5 34.2
23 165.7 153.5 6.7 11.8 8.9 5 29.4
20 165.1 151.9 6.1 10.2 8.9 5 25.7
127 x 152 24 125.2 155.2 8.9 14.0 8.9 5 30.4
21 124.3 153.3 8.0 12.1 8.9 5 26.6
19 123.5 151.9 7.2 10.7 8.9 5 23.7
102 x 152 17 102.4 156.3 6.6 10.8 7.6 2 20.9
14 101.9 154.4 6.1 8.9 7.6 2 18.1
13 101.6 152.4 5.8 6.8 7.6 2 15.7
146 x 127 22 147.3 129.8 7.3 12.7 7.6 5 27.5
19 146.4 128.0 6.4 10.9 7.6 5 23.7
16 146.1 125.7 6.1 8.6 7.6 5 20.0
102 x 127 14 102.1 130.2 6.4 10.0 7.6 2 18.1
13 101.9 128.5 6.1 8.4 7.6 2 16.1
11 101.6 127.0 5.8 6.8 7.6 2 14.2

133 x 102 15 133.8 103.4 6.3 9.6 7.6 5 19.0

13 133.4 101.6 5.8 7.8 7.6 5 16.1
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Steel Section Index

Structural Tee Properties

ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Structural Tees...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Properties
I= Moment Of Inertia, R= Radius Of Gyration, E.M= Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus) = I/ymax,
Cx I R Z
Serial Size Mass/M Axis x- Axis y-
Axis xxs Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y
x y
mm mm cm cm 4 cm 4 cm cm Cx-cm Ex-cm cm 3
305x 457 127 12.03 32664 6256 14.2 6.23 2716 963.7 409.6
- 112 12.16 29001 5212 14.3 6.05 2386 869.3 342.8
- 101 12.56 26399 4316 14.4 5.81 2101 810.2 284.5
292 x 419 113 10.84 24636 5331 13.1 6.08 2272 777.2 362.9
- 97 11.11 21354 4192 13.2 5.83 1922 690.4 286.8
- 88 11.39 19560 3555 13.2 5.64 1718 644.3 243.8
267 x 381 99 9.91 17512 3850 11.8 5.54 1766 613.0 287.3
- 87 10.01 15477 3188 11.9 5.38 1547 550.9 239.1
- 74 10.20 13308 2501 11.9 5.16 1304 484.1 188.6
254 x 343 85 8.69 12025 3113 10.5 5.36 1384 463.2 243.4
- 76 8.61 10726 2695 10.5 5.28 1246 416.5 211.8
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- 70 8.66 9926 2395 10.5 5.18 1146 389.1 188.7

- 63 8.88 8984 1996 10.6 5.00 1011 369.2 157.7
305 x 305 119 7.12 12283 7487 9.00 7.02 1726 500.7 480.7
- 90 6.66 8939 5385 8.86 6.81 1341 369.2 344.3
- 75 6.45 7355 4236 8.8 6.68 1140 306.1 277.9
229 x 305 70 7.62 7739 2126 9.32 4.88 1016 333.1 184.8
- 63 7.56 6904 1838 9.31 4.80 913.7 299.7 160.5
- 57 7.62 6288 1592 9.34 4.70 825.6 276.4 139.5
- 51 7.82 5702 1329 9.40 4.54 729.6 255.7 116.8
178 x 305 46 8.68 5351 713.5 9.61 3.51 616.3 249.6 80.0
- 41 8.90 4848 601.3 9.64 3.39 544.7 230.8 67.6
330 x 267 106 5.56 7381 8032 7.40 7.72 1329 340.5 481.6
- 95 5.36 6484 7046 7.33 7.64 1209 300.0 424.8
- 84 5.23 5678 6029 7.31 7.53 1085 264.9 365.2
210 x 26 61 6.68 5178 1604 8.16 4.54 775.1 252.0 151.4
- 55 6.61 4588 1377 8.14 4.46 694.5 225.3 130.7
- 51 6.58 4277 1256 8.14 4.41 649.9 211.2 119.6
- 46 6.58 3900 1106 8.14 4.34 593.0 194.2 105.7
- 41 6.75 3511 912.8 8.21 4.18 520.3 178.5 87.5
165 x 267 37 7.35 3258 513.6 8.37 3.32 443.0 170.7 62.0
- 33 7.55 2949 431.5 8.40 3.21 390.6 157.8 52.3
191 x 229 49 5.56 2976 1108 6.90 4.21 535.4 167.1 114.9
- 45 5.50 2698 980.1 6.89 4.15 490.5 152.7 102.1
- 41 5.49 2479 873.1 6.89 4.09 451.5 141.5 91.3
- 37 5.43 2244 773.6 6.88 4.04 413.4 128.7 81.2
- 34 5.48 2034 664.2 6.90 3.95 371.5 118.2 70.0
152 x 229 41 6.03 2606 546.7 7.07 3.24 431.8 151.3 71.2
37 5.99 2362 481.3 7.06 3.18 394.3 138.4 63.0
34 5.99 2126 414.4 7.06 3.12 354.7 126.0 54.6
30 5.82 1870 397.2 7.02 3.23 321.4 110.6 52.0
27 6.03 1667 322.4 7.08 3.11 276.3 101.3 42.3
178 x 203 37 4.81 1756 724.0 6.08 3.91 365.2 110.9 80.6
34 4.74 1572 694.3 6.07 3.85 331.7 99.9 71.0
30 4.62 1382 554.2 6.03 3.82 299.2 88.0 62.3
27 4.82 1280 460.9 6.12 3.67 265.6 83.6 51.9

152 x 203 37 5.14 1823 523.3 6.20 3.32 354.3 116.3 68.1
34 5.11 1638 454.2 6.20 3.26 320.8 105.6 59.4
30 5.12 1462 384.0 6.21 3.18 285.5 95.7 50.5
140 x 203 23 5.06 1129 250.1 6.19 2.92 223.1 75.0 35.1
20 5.29 966.4 186.5 6.26 2.75 182.8 66.3 26.3
152 x 191 34 4.75 1427 473.4 5.78 3.33 300.8 97.2 61.4
30 4.67 1261 407.0 5.76 3.27 269.8 86.6 53.1
26 4.61 1097 342.7 5.75 3.21 238.1 76.0 45.0
171 x 178 34 4.01 1157 639.2 5.21 3.87 288.3 81.6 73.8
29 3.96 977.9 513.0 5.21 3.77 247.2 70.0 59.6
26 3.93 876.6 442.7 5.21 3.71 222.9 63.3 51.6
23 4.03 790.3 365.1 5.27 3.58 196.0 58.2 42.7
127 x 178 20 4.42 718.5 166.5 5.40 2.60 162.6 54.4 26.4
17 4.54 617.2 128.5 5.44 2.48 136.0 47.9 20.5
165 x 152 27 3.20 635.8 494.1 4.31 3.80 198.9 51.5 59.3
23 3.09 540.3 412.4 4.29 3.74 174.7 44.1 49.8
20 3.07 475.4 345.5 4.30 3.67 154.7 39.2 41.9
127 x 152 24 3.92 653.1 219.0 4.64 2.68 166.7 56.3 35.0
21 3.86 567.2 183.3 4.62 2.63 147.1 49.4 29.5
19 3.81 503.8 157.9 4.61 2.58 132.2 44.3 25.6
102 x 152 17 4.15 486.5 94.68 4.83 2.13 117.3 42.4 18.5
14 4.23 426.5 76.41 4.85 2.05 100.8 38.0 15.0
13 4.48 375.4 58.05 4.89 1.92 83.8 34.9 11.4
146x127 22 2.67 348.8 316.6 3.56 3.39 130.5 33.8 43.0
19 2.58 296.4 263.8 3.54 3.34 114.8 29.0 36.1
16 2.69 262.7 202.8 3.63 3.19 97.7 26.6 27.8
102 x 127 14 3.26 278.7 87.12 3.93 2.19 85.6 28.6 17.1
13 3.36 252.5 71.89 3.96 2.11 75.2 26.6 14.1
11 3.49 227.1 58.0 4.00 2.02 65.1 24.7 11.4
133 x 102 15 2.10 152.4 176.8 2.83 3.05 72.5 18.5 26.4
13 2.13 133.5 139.8 2.88 2.94 62.7 16.6 21.0
- - - - - - - - - -
Cx I R Z
Serial Size Mass/M Axis x- Axis y-
Axis xxs Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y
x y

mm mm cm cm 4 cm 4 cm cm Cx-cm Ex-cm cm 3
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Long Stalk Tee Dimensions

ROYMECH
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Steel Section Index
Long Stalk Structural Tees...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Dimensions
M = Mass per m , A= Width of Section, B= Depth of Section,T= Flange Thickness, T1 = Top
Web thickness,
T2 = Bottom Web thickness, R1 = Root radius, R2 Toe Radius Area = Area of Section, S =
Slope Inside Flange
Serial Thickness
M A B R1 R2 Area
Size T T1 T2
127 x
35.42 127.0 254.0 18.3 9.4 8.9 13.5 6.6 45.35
254
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Long Stalk Tee Dimensions
102 x
25.02 101.6 203.2 16.3 8.4 7.9 12.2 7.6 31.93
203
89 x 178 20.42 88.9 177.8 15.2 7.9 7.4 11.2 6.4 26.06
76 x 152 16.30 76.2 152.4 14.2 7.4 6.9 10.2 6.4 20.90
64 x 127 12.62 63.5 127.0 13.4 6.9 6.4 8.9 5.1 16.13
44 x 114 7.44 44.5 114.3 9.5 5.1 5.1 7.6 3.8 9.48
25 x 76 3.65 25.4 76.2 6.4 4.4 4.4 5.1 3.8 4.64
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Long Stalk Tee Properties

ROYMECH
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Steel Section Index
Long Stalk Structural Tees...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Properties
I= Moment Of Inertia, R= Radius Of Gyration, Z = Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus) = I/ymax,
Serial Cx I R Z
Mass/M
Size - Axis x-x Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y
mm kg cm cm 4 cm 4 cm cm Cx-cm cm 3
127 x 254 35.42 6.93 2811 273.0 7.85 2.46 153 42.9
102 x 203 25.02 5.84 1289 124.9 6.38 1.98 89.0 24.6
89 x 178 20.42 5.18 804.9 79.49 5.56 1.75 63.7 17.9
76 x 152 16.30 4.44 468.2 46.61 4.72 1.50 43.4 12.3
64 x 127 12.62 3.76 248.5 25.80 3.94 1.27 27.9 8.19
44 x 114 7.44 3.66 126.1 7.08 3.63 0.86 16.2 3.11
25 x 76 3.65 2.82 27.89 0.83 2.44 0.43 5.74 0.66
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Long Stalk Tee Properties
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Tee bars Dimensions

ROYMECH
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Steel Section Index
Tee Bars...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Dimensions
M = Mass per m , A= Width of Section, B= Depth of Section, T = Flange/Web Thickness, R1 =
Root radius, R2 = Toe Radius. Area = Area of Section, S = Slope Inside Flange
Radius
Serial Size M A B T Area
R1 R2
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm cm2
152 x 152 36 152.4 152.4 15.9 12.2 8.6 45.97
152 x 152 29 152.4 152.4 12.7 12.2 8.6 37.23
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Tee bars Dimensions
152 x 152 30 152.4 101.6 15.9 10.7 7.4 37.94
152 x 102 24 152.4 101.6 12.7 10.7 7.4 30.78
152 x 76 22 152.4 76.2 12.7 9.9 6.9 27.55
152 x 76 16 152.4 76.2 9.5 9.9 6.9 21.02
127 x 102 22 127.0 101.6 12.7 9.9 6.9 27.55
127 x 102 16 127.0 101.6 9.5 9.9 6.9 20.96
127 x 76 19 127.0 76.2 12.7 9.1 6.4 24.32
127 x 76 15 127.0 76.2 9.5 9.1 6.4 28.58
102 x 102 19 101.6 101.6 12.7 9.1 6.4 24.25
102 x 102 15 101.6 101.6 9.5 9.1 6.4 18.51
102 x 76 16 101.6 76.2 12.7 8.4 5.8 21.02
102 x 76 13 101.6 76.2 9.5 8.4 5.8 16.13
76 x 76 11 76.2 76.2 9.5 7.6 5.3 13.67
64 x 64 9 63.5 63.5 9.5 6.9 4.8 11.22
64 x 64 6 63.5 63.5 6.4 6.9 4.8 7.74
51 x 51 5 50.8 50.8 6.4 6.1 4.3 6.06
38 x 38 4 38.1 38.1 6.4 5.3 3.8 4.45
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Tee bar Properties

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Steel Section Index
Tee Bars...BS 4-1:1971 (Superseded by BS 4: 1993)
Properties
I= Moment Of Inertia,R= Radius Of Gyration, E.M.= Elastic Modulus
Serial Cx I R E.M
Mass/M
Size Axis xxs Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y
mm mm cm cm 4 cm 4 cm cm cm 3 cm 3
152 x 152 36 4.29 970.2 452.4 4.57 3.12 88.49 59.32
152 x 152 29 4.14 792.5 356.3 4.62 3.10 71.45 46.70
152 x 152 30 2.59 304.7 454.9 2.84 3.45 40.31 59.65
152 x 152 24 2.46 252.7 359.6 2.87 3.53 32.77 41.19
152 x 76 22 1.73 109.5 360.9 1.98 3.61 18.68 47.36
152 x 76 16 1.60 85.74 266.4 2.03 3.56 14.26 34.90
127 x 102 22 2.67 240.2 209.0 2.95 2.77 32.12 32.94

127 x 102 16 2.54 186.1 154.0 2.97 2.72 24.24 24.25
127 x 76 19 1.88 104.5 209.8 2.08 2.95 18.19 32.94
127 x 76 15 1.75 82.00 154.8 2.18 2.90 13.93 24.42
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Tee bar Properties
102 x 102 19 2.95 224.8 107.8 3.05 2.11 31.14 21.30

102 x 102 15 2.79 174.4 79.08 3.07 2.06 23.76 15.57
102 x 76 16 2.08 98.65 108.2 2.16 2.26 17.70 21.30
102 x 76 13 1.96 77.42 79.50 2.18 2.21 13.60 15.73
76 x 76 11 2.21 71.18 33.71 2.29 1.57 13.11 8.85

64 x 64 9 1.90 39.96 19.56 1.88 1.32 9.01 6.23
64 x 64 6 1.78 28.30 12.49 1.90 1.27 6.23 3.93
51 x 51 5 1.47 14.15 6.66 1.52 1.04 3.93 2.62
38 x 38 4 1.17 5.83 2.91 1.12 0.79 2.13 1.47
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Tees Cut from Universal Beams to BS4 Part 1 :1993
your own risk.
ROYMECH
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Steel Section Index
Tees cut from Universal Beams to BS4 Part 1 :1993...
Second Radius
Dim'n Section (Elastic) Plastic
Mass Width Depth Thickness of Area Moment of Plastic
Root To Modulus Modulus
per of of of Area Gyration Neutral
Radius axis
Section m Section Section Section Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis
Web Flange x-x Flange Toe Axis
Designation x-x y-y x-x y-y x-x y-y
M b a s t r Cx A Ix Iy rx ry Z xf Z xt Z y Sx Sy C eq
kg/m mm mm mm mm mm mm cm2 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm

305x457x127 126.7 305.5 459.1 17.3 27.9 19.1 12 161 32698 6651 14.2 6.42 2720 965 435 1727 685 2.64
305x457x112 112.1 304.1 455.1 15.9 23.9 19.1 12.1 143 29063 5618 14.3 6.27 2395 871 369 1566 582 2.35
305x457x101 100.4 303.3 451.4 15.1 20.2 19.1 12.5 128 26350 4711 14.4 6.07 2106 808 311 1464 491 2.91
292x419x113 113.3 293.8 425.4 16.1 26.8 17.8 10.8 144 24622 5680 13.1 6.27 2276 776 387 1384 606 2.46
292x419x97 96.9 292.4 420.3 14.7 21.7 17.8 11.1 123 21336 4533 13.1 6.06 1926 689 310 1237 487 2.11
292x419x88 87.9 291.7 417.4 14 18.8 17.8 11.4 112 19565 3899 13.2 5.9 1723 644 267 1164 421 2.21
267x381x99 98.4 268 384.8 15.6 25.4 16.5 9.89 125 17510 4087 11.8 5.71 1770 613 305 1093 479 2.34
267x381x87 86.5 266.7 381 14.3 21.6 16.5 9.98 110 15477 3425 11.9 5.58 1550 550 257 986 404 2.07
267x381x74 73.5 265.2 376.9 12.8 17.5 16.5 10.2 93.6 13245 2728 11.9 5.4 1304 481 206 868 324 1.85
254x343x85 85.1 255.8 346.4 14.5 23.7 15.2 8.67 108 12047 3315 10.5 5.53 1389 464 259 826 406 2.12
254x343x76 76.2 254.5 343.7 13.2 21 15.2 8.61 97 10755 2892 10.5 5.46 1249 417 227 743 355 1.91
254x343x70 70 253.7 341.7 12.4 19 15.2 8.63 89.2 9910 2592 10.5 5.39 1149 388 204 691 319 1.76
254x343x63 62.6 253 338.9 11.7 16.2 15.2 8.85 79.7 8976 2191 10.6 5.24 1014 358 173 643 271 1.58
305x305x119 119 311.4 317.8 18.4 31.4 16.5 7.11 152 12344 7918 9.02 7.23 1737 500 509 893 787 2.43
305x305x90 89.5 307.1 310 14.1 23.6 16.5 6.69 114 9043 5704 8.91 7.07 1353 372 371 656 572 1.86
305x305x75 74.6 304.8 306.1 11.8 19.7 16.5 6.45 95 7415 4654 8.83 7 1150 307 305 538 469 1.56
229x305x70 69.9 230.2 308.5 13.1 22.1 12.7 7.61 89.1 7741 2253 9.32 5.03 1017 333 196 592 306 1.93
229x305x63 62.5 229 306 11.9 19.6 12.7 7.54 79.7 6898 1966 9.31 4.97 915 299 172 531 268 1.74
229x305x57 56.5 228.2 303.7 11.1 17.3 12.7 7.58 72 6265 1717 9.33 4.88 826 275 150 489 235 1.58
229x305x51 50.6 227.6 301.2 10.5 14.8 12.7 7.78 64.4 5691 1457 9.4 4.76 732 255 128 456 200 1.42
210x267x61 61 211.9 272.2 12.7 21.3 12.7 6.66 77.7 5161 1694 8.15 4.67 775 251 160 446 250 1.83
210x267x55 54.5 210.8 269.7 11.6 18.8 12.7 6.61 69.4 4604 1471 8.14 4.6 697 226 140 401 218 1.65
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210x267x51 50.5 210 268.3 10.8 17.4 12.7 6.53 64.3 4245 1346 8.12 4.57 650 209 128 371 200 1.53
210x267x46 46.1 209.3 266.5 10.1 15.6 12.7 6.55 58.7 3885 1195 8.14 4.51 593 193 114 343 178 1.4
210x267x41 41.1 208.8 264.1 9.6 13.2 12.7 6.75 52.3 3527 1004 8.21 4.38 523 179 96.1 320 150 1.25
191x229x49 49.2 192.8 233.5 11.4 19.6 10.2 5.53 62.6 2967 1174 6.88 4.33 536 167 122 296 189 1.62
191x229x45 44.6 191.9 231.6 10.5 17.7 10.2 5.47 56.9 2684 1045 6.87 4.29 491 152 109 269 169 1.48
191x229x41 41 191.3 229.9 9.9 16 10.2 5.47 52.2 2474 935 6.88 4.23 452 141 97.8 250 152 1.37
191x229x37 37.1 190.4 228.4 9 14.5 10.2 5.38 47.3 2224 836 6.86 4.2 413 127 87.8 225 136 1.24
191x229x34 33.6 189.9 226.6 8.5 12.7 10.2 5.46 42.7 2034 726 6.9 4.12 372 118 76.5 209 119 1.13
152x229x41 41 155.3 232.8 10.5 18.9 10.2 5.96 52.3 2596 592 7.05 3.37 436 150 76.3 267 120 1.68
152x229x37 37.1 154.4 230.9 9.6 17 10.2 5.88 47.2 2332 523 7.03 3.33 397 135 67.8 242 107 1.53
152x229x34 33.6 153.8 228.9 9 15 10.2 5.91 42.8 2121 456 7.04 3.27 359 125 59.3 223 93.3 1.39
152x229x30 29.9 152.9 227.2 8.1 13.3 10.2 5.84 38.1 1879 397 7.02 3.23 322 111 52 199 81.5 1.25
152x229x26 26.2 152.4 224.8 7.6 10.9 10.2 6.04 33.3 1670 322 7.08 3.11 276 102 42.3 183 66.7 1.11
178x203x37 37.1 179.5 206.3 9.5 16 10.2 4.76 47.2 1736 773 6.06 4.04 365 109 86.1 194 133 1.32
178x203x34 33.6 178.8 204.6 8.8 14.3 10.2 4.73 42.8 1573 682 6.07 3.99 332 100 76.3 177 118 1.2
178x203x30 30 177.9 203.1 7.9 12.8 10.2 4.64 38.3 1395 602 6.04 3.97 301 89 67.6 157 105 1.08
178x203x27 27.1 177.7 201.2 7.7 10.9 10.2 4.83 34.5 1294 511 6.13 3.85 268 84.6 57.5 150 89.1 0.97
140x203x23 23 142.2 201.5 6.8 11.2 10.2 5.02 29.3 1123 269 6.19 3.03 224 74.2 37.8 132 59.1 1.03
140x203x20 19.5 141.8 198.9 6.4 8.6 10.2 5.32 24.8 979 205 6.28 2.87 184 67.2 28.9 121 45.4 0.964
171x178x34 33.5 173.2 181.6 9.1 15.7 10.2 4 42.7 1154 681 5.2 3.99 288 81.5 78.6 145 121 1.23
171x178x29 28.5 172.2 178.9 8.1 13 10.2 3.97 36.3 986 554 5.21 3.91 248 70.9 64.4 125 99.4 1.05
171x178x26 25.5 171.5 177.4 7.4 11.5 10.2 3.94 32.4 882 484 5.21 3.86 224 63.9 56.5 113 87.1 0.946
171x178x23 22.5 171.1 175.6 7 9.7 10.2 4.05 28.7 798 406 5.28 3.76 197 59.1 47.4 104 73.3 0.837
127x178x20 19.5 126 176.6 6.6 10.7 10.2 4.43 24.9 728 179 5.41 2.68 164 55 28.4 98.1 44.5 0.987
127x178x17 16.5 125.4 174.4 6 8.5 10.2 4.56 21.1 626 140 5.45 2.58 137 48.6 22.3 87.2 35.1 0.84
165x152x27 27 166.9 155.1 7.9 13.7 8.9 3.21 34.4 642 531 4.32 3.93 200 52.2 63.7 92.8 97.8 1.03
165x152x23 23.1 165.7 153.2 6.7 11.8 8.9 3.07 29.4 536 448 4.27 3.91 174 43.7 54.1 77.2 82.8 0.886
165x152x20 20.1 165 151.6 6 10.2 8.9 3.03 25.7 468 382 4.27 3.86 155 38.6 46.3 67.7 70.9 0.777
127x152x24 24 125.3 155.4 9 14 8.9 3.94 30.6 662 231 4.65 2.74 168 57.1 36.8 102 58 1.22
127x152x21 21 124.3 153.5 8 12.1 8.9 3.87 26.7 573 194 4.63 2.7 148 49.9 31.3 88.9 49.2 1.07
127x152x19 18.5 123.4 152.1 7.1 10.7 8.9 3.78 23.6 501 168 4.61 2.67 132 43.8 27.2 77.9 42.7 0.956
102x152x17 16.4 102.4 156.3 6.6 10.8 7.6 4.14 20.9 487 97.1 4.82 2.15 118 42.3 19 75.8 30 1.02
102x152x14 14.1 101.8 154.3 6 8.8 7.6 4.2 17.9 420 77.7 4.84 2.08 100 37.4 15.3 67.5 24.2 0.885
102x152x13 12.4 101.6 152.5 5.8 7 7.6 4.43 15.8 377 61.5 4.88 1.97 85 34.8 12.1 63.3 19.4 1.63
146x127x22 21.5 147.3 129.7 7.2 12.7 7.6 2.64 27.4 343 339 3.54 3.52 130 33.2 46 59.5 70.5 0.929
146x127x19 18.5 146.4 127.9 6.3 10.9 7.6 2.55 23.6 292 285 3.52 3.48 115 28.5 39 50.7 59.7 0.805
146x127x16 15.6 146.1 125.6 6 8.6 7.6 2.66 19.8 259 224 3.61 3.36 97.4 26.2 30.6 46 47.1 0.679
102x127x14 14.2 102.2 130.1 6.3 10 7.6 3.24 18 277 89.3 3.92 2.22 85.5 28.3 17.5 50.4 27.4 0.882
102x127x13 12.6 101.9 128.5 6 8.4 7.6 3.32 16 250 74.3 3.95 2.15 75.3 26.2 14.6 46.9 23 0.786
102x127x11 11 101.6 126.9 5.7 6.8 7.6 3.45 14 223 59.7 3.99 2.06 64.5 24.1 11.7 43.5 18.6 0.734
133x102x15 15 133.9 103.3 6.4 9.6 7.6 2.11 19.1 154 192 2.84 3.17 73.1 18.8 28.7 33.5 44.1 0.713
133x102x13 12.5 133.2 101.5 5.7 7.8 7.6 2.1 16 131 154 2.86 3.1 62.4 16.2 23.1 28.7 35.5 0.6
Second Radius
Dim Section (Elastic) Plastic
Mass Width Depth Thickness of Area Moment of Plastic
Root To Modulus Modulus
per of of of Area Gyration Neutral
Radius axis
M b a s t r Cx A Ix Iy rx ry Z xf Z xt Z y Sx Sy C eq
kg/m mm mm mm mm mm mm cm2 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm

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Tees Cut from Joists to BS4 Part 1 :1993
risk.
ROYMECH
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Steel Section Index
Tees cut from Joists to BS4 Part 1 :1993...
Second
Dim'n Radius Section (Elastic) Plastic
Mass Width Depth Thickness of Area Moment
Root Toe Flange To of Gyration Modulus Modulus Plastic
per of of of Area Neutral
Rad's Rad's Taper axis
M b a s t r1 r2 α Cx A Ix Iy rx ry Z xf Z xt Z y Sx Sy C eq
kg/m mm mm mm mm mm mm deg mm cm2 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm
203x127x41 41 203.2 127 10.2 19.9 19.6 9.7 8 2.4 52.3 464 1140 2.98 4.67 194 45 112 91.5 185 1.3
114x127x19 18.6 114.3 127 7.6 12.8 12.4 6.1 8 3 23.7 315 135 3.65 2.39 105 32.5 23.6 58.7 39.5 1.06
152x102x26 26.1 152.4 101.6 8.9 16.5 15.5 7.6 8 2.03 33.3 201 408 2.46 3.5 98.9 24.8 53.5 49.5 88.1 1.1
127x76x19 18.6 127 76.2 10.4 13.2 13.5 6.6 8 1.75 23.7 92.1 189 1.97 2.82 52.5 15.7 29.8 30.5 49.9 0.946
114x63.5x15 14.7 114.3 63.5 10.2 11.5 9.9 4.8 8 1.51 18.7 51.3 121 1.66 2.54 34.1 10.6 21.2 20.5 35.4 0.824
114x63x14 13.4 114.3 63.5 7.4 11.4 9.9 5 8 1.32 17.1 40.1 118 1.53 2.63 30.4 7.96 20.6 16.2 34.1 0.754
76x64x8 8.27 76.2 63.5 5.6 9.6 9.4 4.6 8 1.42 10.5 29.3 30.4 1.67 1.7 20.7 5.94 7.98 11.3 13.2 0.698
114x57x14 13.5 114.3 57.15 9.5 10.7 14.2 3.2 8 1.32 17.2 35.6 112 1.44 2.55 26.9 8.1 19.6 16.3 32.9 0.759
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Tees Cut from Joists to BS4 Part 1 :1993
102x51x12 11.5 101.6 50.8 9.5 10.3 11.1 3.2 8 1.22 14.7 24.3 77 1.29 2.29 20 6.3 15.2 12.6 25.3 0.725
44x51x4 3.73 44.5 50.8 4.3 6.1 6.9 3.3 8 1.35 4.75 10.5 3.91 1.49 0.907 7.79 2.83 1.76 5.14 3.01 0.552
89x45x10 9.76 88.9 44.45 9.5 9.9 11.1 3.2 8 1.12 12.4 15.8 50.6 1.13 2.02 14.1 4.76 11.4 9.56 19 0.702
76x38x8 7.51 80 38.1 8.9 8.4 9.4 4.6 8 0.977 9.57 9.22 30.5 0.981 1.78 9.44 3.25 7.61 6.47 12.9 0.606
76x38x7 6.38 76.2 38.1 5.1 8.4 9.4 4.6 8 0.811 8.12 6 25.9 0.859 1.79 7.39 2 6.79 4.42 11.2 0.537
Second
Dim'n Radius Section (Elastic) Plastic
Mass Width Depth Thickness of Area Moment
Root Toe Flange To of Gyration Modulus Modulus Plastic
per of of of Area Neutral
Rad's Rad's Taper axis
M b a s t r1 r2 α Cx A Ix Iy rx ry Z xf Z xt Z y Sx Sy C eq
kg/m mm mm mm mm mm mm deg mm cm2 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm
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Square Hollow Sections
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Square Hollow Sections-Cold Formed..BS EN 10219:1997
Table of Dimensions + Properties

Corner Second Radius Torsional Section
Radii Mass/ Area of Section Plastic Constants
Size Thick's Moment of Surface
m Section Modulus Modulus
Ext'l Int'l of Area Gyration Inertia Modulus Area
B T ro ri M/m A I r Z S J C As
mm x
mm mm mm kg/m cm2 cm4 cm cm3 cm3 cm4 cm3 m2/m
mm
20 2 4 2 1.05 1.34 0.692 0.72 0.692 0.877 1.21 1.06 0.0731
20 2.5 5 2.5 1.25 1.59 0.766 0.694 0.766 1 1.39 1.19 0.0714
25 2 4 2 1.36 1.74 1.48 0.924 1.19 1.47 2.53 1.8 0.0931
25 2.5 5 2.5 1.64 2.09 1.69 0.899 1.35 1.71 2.97 2.07 0.0914
25 3 6 3 1.89 2.41 1.84 0.874 1.47 1.91 3.33 2.27 0.0897
30 2 4 2 1.68 2.14 2.72 1.13 1.81 2.21 4.54 2.75 0.113
30 2.5 5 2.5 2.03 2.59 3.16 1.1 2.1 2.61 5.4 3.2 0.111
30 3 6 3 2.36 3.01 3.5 1.08 2.34 2.96 6.15 3.58 0.11
40 2 4 2 2.31 2.94 6.94 1.54 3.47 4.13 11.3 5.23 0.153
40 2.5 5 2.5 2.82 3.59 8.22 1.51 4.11 4.97 13.6 6.21 0.151
40 3 6 3 3.3 4.21 9.32 1.49 4.66 5.72 15.8 7.07 0.15
40 4 8 4 4.2 5.35 11.1 1.44 5.54 7.01 19.4 8.48 0.146
50 2 4 2 2.93 3.74 14.1 1.95 5.66 6.66 22.6 8.51 0.193
50 2.5 5 2.5 3.6 4.59 16.9 1.92 6.78 8.07 27.5 10.2 0.191
50 3 6 3 4.25 5.41 19.5 1.9 7.79 9.39 32.1 11.8 0.19
50 4 8 4 5.45 6.95 23.7 1.85 9.49 11.7 40.4 14.4 0.186
50 5 10 5 6.56 8.36 27 1.8 10.8 13.7 47.5 16.6 0.183
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60 2 4 2 3.56 4.54 25.1 2.35 8.38 9.79 39.8 12.6 0.233

60 2.5 5 2.5 4.39 5.59 30.3 2.33 10.1 11.9 48.7 15.2 0.231
60 3 6 3 5.19 6.61 35.1 2.31 11.7 14 57.1 17.7 0.23
60 4 8 4 6.71 8.55 43.6 2.26 14.5 17.6 72.6 22 0.226
60 5 10 5 8.13 10.4 50.5 2.21 16.8 20.9 86.4 25.6 0.223
60 6 12 6 9.45 12 56.1 2.16 18.7 23.7 98.4 28.6 0.219
60 6.3 15.75 9.45 9.55 12.2 54.4 2.11 18.1 23.4 100 28.8 0.213
70 2.5 5 2.5 5.17 6.59 49.4 2.74 14.1 16.5 78.5 21.2 0.271
70 3 6 3 6.13 7.81 57.5 2.71 16.4 19.4 92.4 24.7 0.27
70 3.6 7.2 3.6 7.24 9.23 66.5 2.69 19 22.7 108 28.7 0.268
70 4 8 4 7.97 10.1 72.1 2.67 20.6 24.8 119 31.1 0.266
70 5 10 5 9.7 12.4 84.6 2.62 24.2 29.6 142 36.7 0.263
70 6 12 6 11.3 14.4 95.2 2.57 27.2 33.8 163 41.4 0.259
70 6.3 15.75 9.45 11.5 14.7 93.8 2.53 26.8 33.8 168 42.1 0.253
80 3 6 3 7.07 9.01 87.8 3.12 22 25.8 140 33 0.31
80 3.6 7.2 3.6 8.37 10.7 102 3.09 25.5 30.2 165 38.4 0.308
80 4 8 4 9.22 11.7 111 3.07 27.8 33.1 180 41.8 0.306
80 5 10 5 11.3 14.4 131 3.03 32.9 39.7 218 49.7 0.303
80 6 12 6 13.2 16.8 149 2.98 37.3 45.8 252 56.6 0.299
80 6.3 15.75 9.45 13.5 17.2 149 2.94 37.1 46.1 261 57.9 0.293
80 8 20 12 16.4 20.8 168 2.84 42.1 53.9 307 66.6 0.286
90 3 6 3 8.01 10.2 127 3.53 28.3 33 201 42.5 0.35
90 3.6 7.2 3.6 9.5 12.1 149 3.5 33 38.9 238 49.6 0.348
90 4 8 4 10.5 13.3 162 3.48 36 42.6 261 54.2 0.346
90 5 10 5 12.8 16.4 193 3.43 42.9 51.4 316 64.7 0.343
90 6 12 6 15.1 19.2 220 3.39 49 59.5 368 74.2 0.339
90 6.3 15.75 9.45 15.5 19.7 221 3.35 49.1 60.3 382 76.2 0.333
90 8 20 12 18.9 24 255 3.25 56.6 71.3 456 88.8 0.326
100 3 6 3 8.96 11.4 177 3.94 35.4 41.2 279 53.2 0.39
100 4 8 4 11.7 14.9 226 3.89 45.3 53.3 362 68.1 0.386
100 5 10 5 14.4 18.4 271 3.84 54.2 64.6 441 81.7 0.383
100 6 12 6 17 21.6 311 3.79 62.3 75.1 514 94.1 0.379
100 6.3 15.75 9.45 17.5 22.2 314 3.76 62.8 76.4 536 97 0.373
100 8 20 12 21.4 27.2 366 3.67 73.2 91.1 645 114 0.366
100 10 25 15 25.6 32.6 411 3.55 82.2 105 750 130 0.357
100 12 36 24 28.3 36.1 408 3.36 81.6 110 794 136 0.338
100 12.5 37.5 25 29.1 37 410 3.33 82.1 111 804 137 0.336
120 3 6 3 10.8 13.8 312 4.76 52.1 60.2 488 78.2 0.47
120 4 8 4 14.2 18.1 402 4.71 67 78.3 637 101 0.466

120 5 10 5 17.5 22.4 485 4.66 80.9 95.4 778 122 0.463
120 6 12 6 20.7 26.4 562 4.61 93.7 112 913 141 0.459
120 6.3 15.75 9.45 21.4 27.3 572 4.58 95.3 114 955 146 0.453
120 8 20 12 26.4 33.6 677 4.49 113 138 1163 175 0.446
120 10 25 15 31.8 40.6 777 4.38 129 162 1376 203 0.437
120 12 36 24 35.8 45.7 806 4.2 134 174 1518 219 0.418
120 12.5 37.5 25 36.9 47 817 4.17 136 178 1551 223 0.416
140 4 8 4 16.8 21.3 652 5.52 93.1 108 1023 140 0.546
140 5 10 5 20.7 26.4 791 5.48 113 132 1256 170 0.543
140 6 12 6 24.5 31.2 920 5.43 131 155 1479 198 0.539
140 6.3 15.75 9.45 25.4 32.3 941 5.39 134 160 1550 205 0.533
140 8 20 12 31.4 40 1127 5.3 161 194 1901 248 0.526
140 10 25 15 38.1 48.6 1312 5.2 187 230 2274 291 0.517
140 12 36 24 43.4 55.3 1398 5.03 200 253 2567 322 0.498
140 12.5 37.5 25 44.8 57 1425 5 204 259 2634 329 0.496
150 4 8 4 18 22.9 808 5.93 108 125 1265 162 0.586
150 5 10 5 22.3 28.4 982 5.89 131 153 1554 197 0.583
150 6 12 6 26.4 33.6 1146 5.84 153 180 1833 230 0.579
150 6.3 15.75 9.45 27.4 34.8 1174 5.8 156 185 1922 239 0.573
150 8 20 12 33.9 43.2 1412 5.71 188 226 2364 289 0.566
150 10 25 15 41.3 52.6 1653 5.61 220 269 2839 341 0.557
150 12 36 24 47.1 60.1 1780 5.44 237 298 3231 380 0.538
150 12.5 37.5 25 48.7 62 1817 5.41 242 306 3321 389 0.536
150 16 48 32 58.7 74.8 2009 5.18 268 351 3830 440 0.518
160 4 8 4 19.3 24.5 987 6.34 123 143 1541 185 0.626
160 5 10 5 23.8 30.4 1202 6.29 150 175 1896 226 0.623
160 6 12 6 28.3 36 1405 6.25 176 206 2239 264 0.619
160 6.3 15.75 9.45 29.3 37.4 1442 6.21 180 213 2349 275 0.613
160 8 20 12 36.5 46.4 1741 6.12 218 260 2897 334 0.606
160 10 25 15 44.4 56.6 2048 6.02 256 311 3490 395 0.597
160 12 36 24 50.9 64.9 2224 5.86 278 346 3997 443 0.578
160 12.5 37.5 25 52.6 67 2275 5.83 284 356 4114 455 0.576
160 16 48 32 63.7 81.2 2546 5.6 318 413 4799 520 0.558
180 4 8 4 21.8 27.7 1422 7.16 158 182 2210 237 0.706
180 5 10 5 27 34.4 1737 7.11 193 224 2724 290 0.703
180 6 12 6 32.1 40.8 2037 7.06 226 264 3223 340 0.699
180 6.3 15.75 9.45 33.3 42.4 2096 7.03 233 273 3383 354 0.693
180 8 20 12 41.5 52.8 2546 6.94 283 336 4189 432 0.686
180 10 25 15 50.7 64.6 3017 6.84 335 404 5074 515 0.677

180 12 36 24 58.5 74.5 3322 6.68 369 454 5865 584 0.658
180 12.5 37.5 25 60.5 77 3406 6.65 378 467 6050 600 0.656
180 16 48 32 73.8 94 3887 6.43 432 550 7178 698 0.638
200 4 8 4 24.3 30.9 1968 7.97 197 226 3049 295 0.786
200 5 10 5 30.1 38.4 2410 7.93 241 279 3763 362 0.783
200 6 12 6 35.8 45.6 2833 7.88 283 330 4459 426 0.779
200 6.3 15.75 9.45 37.2 47.4 2922 7.85 292 341 4682 444 0.773
200 8 20 12 46.5 59.2 3566 7.76 357 421 5815 544 0.766
200 10 25 15 57 72.6 4251 7.65 425 508 7072 651 0.757
200 12 36 24 66 84.1 4730 7.5 473 576 8230 743 0.738
200 12.5 37.5 25 68.3 87 4859 7.47 486 594 8502 765 0.736
200 16 48 32 83.8 107 5625 7.26 562 706 10210 901 0.718
220 5 10 5 33.2 42.4 3238 8.74 294 340 5038 442 0.863
220 6 12 6 39.6 50.4 3813 8.7 347 402 5976 521 0.859
220 6.3 15.75 9.45 41.2 52.5 3940 8.66 358 417 6277 543 0.853
220 8 20 12 51.5 65.6 4828 8.58 439 516 7815 668 0.846
220 10 25 15 63.2 80.6 5782 8.47 526 625 9533 804 0.837
220 12 36 24 73.5 93.7 6487 8.32 590 712 11149 922 0.818
220 12.5 37.5 25 76.2 97 6674 8.29 607 735 11530 951 0.816
220 16 48 32 93.9 120 7812 8.08 710 881 13971 1129 0.798
250 5 10 5 38 48.4 4805 9.97 384 442 7443 577 0.983
250 6 12 6 45.2 57.6 5672 9.92 454 524 8843 681 0.979
250 6.3 15.75 9.45 47.1 60 5873 9.89 470 544 9290 711 0.973
250 8 20 12 59.1 75.2 7229 9.8 578 676 11598 878 0.966
250 10 25 15 72.7 92.6 8707 9.7 697 822 14197 1062 0.957
250 12 36 24 84.8 108 9859 9.55 789 944 16691 1226 0.938
250 12.5 37.5 25 88 112 10161 9.52 813 975 17283 1266 0.936
250 16 48 32 109 139 12047 9.32 964 1180 21146 1520 0.918
260 6 12 6 47.1 60 6405 10.3 493 569 9970 739 1.02
260 6.3 15.75 9.45 49.1 62.6 6635 10.3 510 591 10475 772 1.01
260 8 20 12 61.6 78.4 8178 10.2 629 734 13087 955 1.01
260 10 25 15 75.8 96.6 9865 10.1 759 894 16035 1156 0.997
260 12 36 24 88.6 113 11200 9.96 862 1028 18878 1337 0.978
260 12.5 37.5 25 91.9 117 11548 9.93 888 1063 19553 1381 0.976
260 16 48 32 114 145 13739 9.73 1057 1289 23986 1663 0.958
300 6 12 6 54.7 69.6 9964 12 664 764 15434 997 1.18
300 6.3 15.75 9.45 57 72.6 10342 11.9 689 795 16218 1042 1.17
300 8 20 12 71.6 91.2 12801 11.8 853 991 20312 1293 1.17
300 10 25 15 88.4 113 15519 11.7 1035 1211 24966 1572 1.16

300 12 36 24 104 132 17767 11.6 1184 1402 29514 1829 1.14
300 12.5 37.5 25 108 137 18348 11.6 1223 1451 30601 1892 1.14
300 16 48 32 134 171 22076 11.4 1472 1774 37837 2299 1.12
350 8 20 12 84.2 107 20681 13.9 1182 1366 32557 1787 1.37
350 10 25 15 104 133 25189 13.8 1439 1675 40127 2182 1.36
350 12 36 24 123 156 29054 13.6 1660 1949 47598 2552 1.34
350 12.5 37.5 25 127 162 30045 13.6 1717 2020 49393 2642 1.34
350 16 48 32 159 203 36511 13.4 2086 2488 61481 3238 1.32
400 10 25 15 120 153 38216 15.8 1911 2214 60431 2892 1.56
400 12 36 24 141 180 44319 15.7 2216 2587 71843 3395 1.54
400 12.5 37.5 25 147 187 45877 15.7 2294 2683 74598 3518 1.54
400 16 48 32 184 235 56154 15.5 2808 3322 93279 4336 1.52
mm x
mm
Home
Steel Section Index

Rectangular Hollow Sections
ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Rectangular Hollow Section Cold Formed..BS EN 10219:1997

Second
Corner Radius Of Section Plastic Torsional
Moment Of Section
Radius
Mass / Area of Gyration Modulus Modulus Constants
Size Thick's Area Surface
m Section
Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Area
Ext'l Int'l Inertia Modulus
H B T ro ri M A Ix Iy rx ry Zx Zy Sx Sy J C As
mm mm mm mm mm kg/m cm2 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3 cm4 cm3 m2/m
40 20 2 4 2 1.68 2.14 4.05 1.34 1.38 0.793 2.02 1.34 2.61 1.6 3.45 2.36 0.113
40 20 2.5 5 2.5 2.03 2.59 4.69 1.54 1.35 0.77 2.35 1.54 3.09 1.88 4.06 2.72 0.111
40 20 3 6 3 2.36 3.01 5.21 1.68 1.32 0.748 2.6 1.68 3.5 2.12 4.57 3 0.11
50 25 2 4 2 2.15 2.74 8.38 2.81 1.75 1.01 3.35 2.25 4.26 2.62 7.06 3.92 0.143
50 25 2.5 5 2.5 2.62 3.34 9.89 3.28 1.72 0.991 3.95 2.62 5.11 3.12 8.43 4.6 0.141
50 25 3 6 3 3.07 3.91 11.2 3.67 1.69 0.969 4.47 2.93 5.86 3.56 9.64 5.18 0.14
50 30 2 4 2 2.31 2.94 9.54 4.29 1.8 1.21 3.81 2.86 4.74 3.33 9.77 4.84 0.153
50 30 2.5 5 2.5 2.82 3.59 11.3 5.05 1.77 1.19 4.52 3.37 5.7 3.98 11.7 5.72 0.151
50 30 3 6 3 3.3 4.21 12.8 5.7 1.75 1.16 5.13 3.8 6.57 4.58 13.5 6.49 0.15
50 30 4 8 4 4.2 5.35 15.3 6.69 1.69 1.12 6.1 4.46 8.05 5.58 16.5 7.71 0.146
60 40 2 4 2 2.93 3.74 18.4 9.83 2.22 1.62 6.14 4.92 7.47 5.65 20.7 8.12 0.193
60 40 2.5 5 2.5 3.6 4.59 22.1 11.7 2.19 1.6 7.36 5.87 9.06 6.84 25.1 9.72 0.191
60 40 3 6 3 4.25 5.41 25.4 13.4 2.17 1.58 8.46 6.72 10.5 7.94 29.3 11.2 0.19
60 40 4 8 4 5.45 6.95 31 16.3 2.11 1.53 10.3 8.14 13.2 9.89 36.7 13.7 0.186
60 40 5 10 5 6.56 8.36 35.3 18.4 2.06 1.48 11.8 9.21 15.4 11.5 42.8 15.6 0.183
70 50 2 4 2 3.56 4.54 31.5 18.8 2.63 2.03 8.99 7.5 10.8 8.58 37.5 12.2 0.233
70 50 2.5 5 2.5 4.39 5.59 38 22.6 2.61 2.01 10.9 9.04 13.2 10.4 45.8 14.7 0.231
70 50 3 6 3 5.19 6.61 44.1 26.1 2.58 1.99 12.6 10.4 15.4 12.2 53.6 17.1 0.23
70 50 4 8 4 6.71 8.55 54.7 32.2 2.53 1.94 15.6 12.9 19.5 15.4 68.1 21.2 0.226
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70 50 5 10 5 8.13 10.4 63.5 37.2 2.48 1.9 18.1 14.9 23.1 18.2 80.8 24.6 0.223
80 40 2 4 2 3.56 4.54 37.4 12.7 2.87 1.67 9.34 6.36 11.6 7.17 30.9 11 0.233
80 40 2.5 5 2.5 4.39 5.59 45.1 15.3 2.84 1.65 11.3 7.63 14.1 8.72 37.6 13.2 0.231
80 40 3 6 3 5.19 6.61 52.3 17.6 2.81 1.63 13.1 8.78 16.5 10.2 43.9 15.3 0.23
80 40 4 8 4 6.71 8.55 64.8 21.5 2.75 1.59 16.2 10.7 20.9 12.8 55.2 18.8 0.226
80 40 5 10 5 8.13 10.4 75.1 24.6 2.69 1.54 18.8 12.3 24.7 15 65 21.7 0.223
80 60 2 4 2 4.19 5.34 49.5 31.9 3.05 2.44 12.4 10.6 14.7 12.1 61.2 17.1 0.273
80 60 2.5 5 2.5 5.17 6.59 60.1 38.6 3.02 2.42 15 12.9 18 14.8 75.1 20.7 0.271
80 60 3 6 3 6.13 7.81 70 44.9 3 2.4 17.5 15 21.2 17.4 88.3 24.1 0.27
80 60 4 8 4 7.97 10.1 87.9 56.1 2.94 2.35 22 18.7 27 22.1 113 30.3 0.266
80 60 5 10 5 9.7 12.4 103 65.7 2.89 2.31 25.8 21.9 32.2 26.4 136 35.7 0.263
90 50 2 4 2 4.19 5.34 57.9 23.4 3.29 2.09 12.9 9.35 15.7 10.5 53.4 15.9 0.273
90 50 2.5 5 2.5 5.17 6.59 70.3 28.2 3.27 2.07 15.6 11.3 19.3 12.8 65.3 19.2 0.271
90 50 3 6 3 6.13 7.81 81.9 32.7 3.24 2.05 18.2 13.1 22.6 15 76.7 22.4 0.27
90 50 3.6 7.2 3.6 7.24 9.23 94.7 37.7 3.2 2.02 21.1 15.1 26.4 17.5 89.6 25.8 0.268
90 50 4 8 4 7.97 10.1 103 40.7 3.18 2 22.8 16.3 28.8 19.1 97.7 28 0.266
90 50 5 10 5 9.7 12.4 121 47.4 3.12 1.96 26.8 18.9 34.4 22.7 116 32.7 0.263
100 40 2.5 5 2.5 5.17 6.59 79.3 18.8 3.47 1.69 15.9 9.39 20.2 10.6 50.5 16.8 0.271
100 40 3 6 3 6.13 7.81 92.3 21.7 3.44 1.67 18.5 10.8 23.7 12.4 59 19.4 0.27
100 40 4 8 4 7.97 10.1 116 26.7 3.38 1.62 23.1 13.3 30.3 15.7 74.5 24 0.266
100 40 5 10 5 9.7 12.4 136 30.8 3.31 1.58 27.1 15.4 36.1 18.5 87.9 27.9 0.263
100 50 2.5 5 2.5 5.56 7.09 91.2 31.1 3.59 2.09 18.2 12.4 22.7 14 75.4 21.5 0.291
100 50 3 6 3 6.6 8.41 106 36.1 3.56 2.07 21.3 14.4 26.7 16.4 88.6 25 0.29
100 50 4 8 4 8.59 10.9 134 44.9 3.5 2.03 26.8 18 34.1 20.9 113 31.3 0.286
100 50 5 10 5 10.5 13.4 158 52.5 3.44 1.98 31.6 21 40.8 25 135 36.8 0.283
100 50 6 12 6 12.3 15.6 179 58.7 3.38 1.94 35.8 23.5 46.9 28.5 154 41.4 0.279
100 50 6.3 15.75 9.45 12.5 15.9 176 58.2 3.32 1.91 35.1 23.3 46.9 28.6 158 42.1 0.273
100 60 3 6 3 7.07 9.01 121 54.6 3.66 2.46 24.1 18.2 29.6 20.8 122 30.6 0.31
100 60 3.6 7.2 3.6 8.37 10.7 140 63.3 3.63 2.44 28 21.1 34.7 24.3 143 35.6 0.308
100 60 4 8 4 9.22 11.7 153 68.7 3.6 2.42 30.5 22.9 37.9 26.6 156 38.7 0.306
100 60 5 10 5 11.3 14.4 181 80.8 3.55 2.37 36.2 26.9 45.6 31.9 188 45.8 0.303
100 60 6 12 6 13.2 16.8 205 91.2 3.49 2.33 41.1 30.4 52.5 36.6 216 51.9 0.299
100 60 6.3 15.75 9.45 13.5 17.2 203 90.9 3.44 2.3 40.7 30.3 52.8 36.9 223 53 0.293
100 80 2.5 5 2.5 6.74 8.59 127 90.2 3.84 3.24 25.4 22.5 30 25.8 166 35.7 0.351
100 80 3 6 3 8.01 10.2 149 106 3.82 3.22 29.8 26.4 35.4 30.4 196 41.9 0.35
100 80 4 8 4 10.5 13.3 189 134 3.77 3.17 37.9 33.5 45.6 39.2 254 53.4 0.346
100 80 5 10 5 12.8 16.4 226 160 3.72 3.12 45.2 39.9 55.1 47.2 308 63.7 0.343
100 80 6 12 6 15.1 19.2 258 182 3.67 3.08 51.7 45.5 63.8 54.7 357 73 0.339
100 80 6.3 15.75 9.45 15.5 19.7 259 183 3.62 3.04 51.8 45.7 64.6 55.4 371 75 0.333
120 60 2.5 5 2.5 6.74 8.59 161 55.2 4.33 2.53 26.9 18.4 33.2 20.6 133 31.7 0.351
120 60 3 6 3 8.01 10.2 189 64.4 4.3 2.51 31.5 21.5 39.2 24.2 156 37.1 0.35
120 60 3.6 7.2 3.6 9.5 12.1 221 74.8 4.27 2.48 36.8 24.9 46.1 28.4 184 43.2 0.348
120 60 4 8 4 10.5 13.3 241 81.2 4.25 2.47 40.1 27.1 50.5 31.1 201 47 0.346
120 60 5 10 5 12.8 16.4 287 96 4.19 2.42 47.8 32 60.9 37.4 242 55.8 0.343

120 60 6 12 6 15.1 19.2 328 109 4.13 2.38 54.7 36.3 70.6 43.1 280 63.6 0.339
120 60 6.3 15.75 9.45 15.5 19.7 327 109 4.07 2.35 54.5 36.4 71.2 43.7 289 65.1 0.333
120 60 8 20 12 18.9 24 375 124 3.95 2.27 62.6 41.3 84.1 51.3 340 75 0.326
120 80 3 6 3 8.96 11.4 230 123 4.49 3.29 38.4 30.9 46.2 35 255 50.8 0.39
120 80 4 8 4 11.7 14.9 295 157 4.44 3.24 49.1 39.3 59.8 45.2 331 64.9 0.386
120 80 5 10 5 14.4 18.4 353 188 4.39 3.2 58.9 46.9 72.4 54.7 402 77.8 0.383
120 80 6 12 6 17 21.6 406 215 4.33 3.15 67.7 53.8 84.3 63.5 469 89.4 0.379
120 80 6.3 15.75 9.45 17.5 22.2 408 217 4.28 3.12 68.1 54.3 85.6 64.7 488 92.1 0.373
120 80 8 20 12 21.4 27.2 476 252 4.18 3.04 79.3 62.9 102 76.9 584 108 0.366
140 80 4 8 4 13 16.5 430 180 5.1 3.3 61.4 45.1 75.5 51.3 412 76.5 0.426
140 80 5 10 5 16 20.4 517 216 5.04 3.26 73.9 54 91.8 62.2 501 91.8 0.423
140 80 6 12 6 18.9 24 597 248 4.98 3.21 85.3 62 107 72.4 584 106 0.419
140 80 6.3 15.75 9.45 19.4 24.8 603 251 4.93 3.19 86.1 62.9 109 74 609 109 0.413
140 80 8 20 12 23.9 30.4 708 293 4.82 3.1 101 73.3 131 88.4 731 129 0.406
150 100 4 8 4 14.9 18.9 595 319 5.6 4.1 79.3 63.7 95.7 72.5 662 105 0.486
150 100 5 10 5 18.3 23.4 719 384 5.55 4.05 95.9 76.8 117 88.3 809 127 0.483
150 100 6 12 6 21.7 27.6 835 444 5.5 4.01 111 88.8 137 103 948 147 0.479
150 100 6.3 15.75 9.45 22.4 28.5 848 453 5.45 3.98 113 90.5 140 106 992 152 0.473
150 100 8 20 12 27.7 35.2 1008 536 5.35 3.9 134 107 169 128 1206 182 0.466
150 100 10 25 15 33.4 42.6 1162 614 5.22 3.8 155 123 199 150 1426 211 0.457
150 100 12 36 24 37.7 48.1 1207 642 5.01 3.65 161 128 215 163 1573 229 0.438
150 100 12.5 37.5 25 38.9 49.5 1225 651 4.97 3.63 163 130 220 166 1606 233 0.436
160 80 4 8 4 14.2 18.1 598 204 5.74 3.35 74.7 50.9 92.9 57.4 494 88 0.466
160 80 5 10 5 17.5 22.4 722 244 5.68 3.3 90.2 61 113 69.7 601 106 0.463
160 80 6 12 6 20.7 26.4 836 281 5.62 3.26 105 70.2 132 81.3 702 122 0.459
160 80 6.3 15.75 9.45 21.4 27.3 846 286 5.57 3.24 106 71.4 135 83.3 732 126 0.453
160 80 8 20 12 26.4 33.6 1001 335 5.46 3.16 125 83.7 163 100 882 150 0.446
160 80 10 25 15 31.8 40.6 1146 380 5.32 3.06 143 95 191 117 1031 172 0.437
160 80 12 36 24 35.8 45.7 1171 391 5.06 2.93 146 97.8 204 125 1111 183 0.418
160 80 12.5 37.5 25 36.9 47 1185 396 5.02 2.9 148 98.9 208 127 1129 185 0.416
180 100 4 8 4 16.8 21.3 926 374 6.59 4.18 103 74.8 126 84 854 127 0.546
180 100 5 10 5 20.7 26.4 1124 452 6.53 4.14 125 90.4 154 103 1045 154 0.543
180 100 6 12 6 24.5 31.2 1310 524 6.48 4.1 146 105 181 120 1227 179 0.539
180 100 6.3 15.75 9.45 25.4 32.3 1335 536 6.43 4.07 148 107 186 124 1283 185 0.533
180 100 8 20 12 31.4 40 1598 637 6.32 3.99 178 127 226 150 1565 222 0.526
180 100 10 25 15 38.1 48.6 1859 736 6.19 3.89 207 147 268 177 1859 260 0.517
180 100 12 36 24 43.4 55.3 1965 782 5.96 3.76 218 156 292 194 2073 285 0.498
180 100 12.5 37.5 25 44.8 57 2001 796 5.92 3.74 222 159 300 199 2122 290 0.496
200 100 4 8 4 18 22.9 1200 411 7.23 4.23 120 82.2 148 91.7 985 142 0.586
200 100 5 10 5 22.3 28.4 1459 497 7.17 4.19 146 99.4 181 112 1206 172 0.583
200 100 6 12 6 26.4 33.6 1703 577 7.12 4.14 170 115 213 132 1417 200 0.579
200 100 6.3 15.75 9.45 27.4 34.8 1739 591 7.06 4.12 174 118 219 135 1483 208 0.573
200 100 8 20 12 33.9 43.2 2091 705 6.95 4.04 209 141 267 165 1811 250 0.566
200 100 10 25 15 41.3 52.6 2444 818 6.82 3.94 244 164 318 195 2154 292 0.557

200 100 12 36 24 47.1 60.1 2607 876 6.59 3.82 261 175 350 215 2414 322 0.538
200 100 12.5 37.5 25 48.7 62 2659 892 6.55 3.79 266 178 359 221 2474 329 0.536
200 120 4 8 4 19.3 24.5 1353 618 7.43 5.02 135 103 164 115 1345 172 0.626
200 120 5 10 5 23.8 30.4 1649 750 7.37 4.97 165 125 201 141 1652 210 0.623
200 120 6 12 6 28.3 36 1929 874 7.32 4.93 193 146 237 166 1947 245 0.619
200 120 6.3 15.75 9.45 29.3 37.4 1976 898 7.27 4.9 198 150 244 172 2040 255 0.613
200 120 8 20 12 36.5 46.4 2386 1079 7.17 4.82 239 180 298 209 2507 308 0.606
200 120 10 25 15 44.4 56.6 2806 1262 7.04 4.72 281 210 356 250 3007 364 0.597
200 120 12 36 24 50.9 64.9 3031 1368 6.84 4.59 303 228 395 278 3419 406 0.578
200 120 12.5 37.5 25 52.6 67 3099 1397 6.8 4.57 310 233 406 285 3514 416 0.576
250 100 5 10 5 26.2 33.4 2554 610 8.75 4.28 204 122 259 136 1620 217 0.683
250 100 6 12 6 31.1 39.6 2992 710 8.69 4.23 239 142 305 160 1905 253 0.679
250 100 6.3 15.75 9.45 32.3 41.1 3066 730 8.63 4.21 245 146 314 165 1993 263 0.673
250 100 8 20 12 40.2 51.2 3714 875 8.51 4.13 297 175 385 201 2439 317 0.666
250 100 10 25 15 49.1 62.6 4384 1021 8.37 4.04 351 204 462 240 2910 373 0.657
250 100 12.5 37.5 25 58.5 74.5 4868 1133 8.08 3.9 389 227 530 275 3373 425 0.636
250 150 5 10 5 30.1 38.4 3304 1508 9.28 6.27 264 201 320 225 3285 337 0.783
250 150 6 12 6 35.8 45.6 3886 1768 9.23 6.23 311 236 378 266 3886 396 0.779
250 150 6.3 15.75 9.45 37.2 47.4 4001 1825 9.18 6.2 320 243 391 276 4078 412 0.773
250 150 8 20 12 46.5 59.2 4886 2219 9.08 6.12 391 296 482 340 5050 504 0.766
250 150 10 25 15 57 72.6 5825 2634 8.96 6.02 466 351 582 409 6121 602 0.757
250 150 12 36 24 66 84.1 6458 2925 8.77 5.9 517 390 658 463 7088 684 0.738
250 150 12.5 37.5 25 68.3 87 6633 3002 8.73 5.87 531 400 678 477 7315 704 0.736
250 150 16 48 32 83.8 107 7660 3453 8.47 5.69 613 460 805 566 8713 823 0.718
260 180 5 10 5 33.2 42.4 4121 2350 9.86 7.45 317 261 377 294 4695 426 0.863
260 180 6.3 15.75 9.45 41.2 52.5 5013 2856 9.77 7.38 386 317 463 361 5844 523 0.853
260 180 8 20 12 51.5 65.6 6145 3493 9.68 7.29 473 388 573 446 7267 642 0.846
260 180 10 25 15 63.2 80.6 7363 4174 9.56 7.2 566 464 694 540 8850 772 0.837
260 180 12 36 24 73.5 93.7 8245 4679 9.38 7.07 634 520 790 615 10328 884 0.818
260 180 12.5 37.5 25 76.2 97 8482 4812 9.35 7.04 652 535 815 635 10676 911 0.816
260 180 16 48 32 93.9 120 9923 5614 9.11 6.85 763 624 977 759 12890 1079 0.798
300 100 6 12 6 35.8 45.6 4777 842 10.2 4.3 318 168 411 188 2403 306 0.779
300 100 6.3 15.75 9.45 37.2 47.4 4907 868 10.2 4.28 327 174 425 194 2515 318 0.773
300 100 8 20 12 46.5 59.2 5978 1045 10 4.2 399 209 523 238 3080 385 0.766
300 100 10 25 15 57 72.6 7106 1224 9.9 4.11 474 245 631 285 3681 455 0.757
300 100 12 36 24 66 84.1 7808 1343 9.64 4 521 269 710 321 4177 508 0.738
300 100 12.5 37.5 25 68.3 87 8010 1374 9.59 3.97 534 275 732 330 4292 521 0.736
300 100 16 48 32 83.8 107 9157 1543 9.26 3.8 610 309 865 386 4939 592 0.718
300 150 6 12 6 40.5 51.6 6074 2080 10.8 6.35 405 277 500 309 4988 479 0.879
300 150 6.3 15.75 9.45 42.2 53.7 6266 2150 10.8 6.32 418 287 517 321 5234 499 0.873
300 150 8 20 12 52.8 67.2 7684 2623 10.7 6.25 512 350 640 396 6491 612 0.866
300 150 10 25 15 64.8 82.6 9209 3125 10.6 6.15 614 417 776 479 7879 733 0.857
300 150 12 36 24 75.4 96.1 10298 3498 10.4 6.03 687 466 883 546 9153 837 0.838
300 150 12.5 37.5 25 78.1 99.5 10594 3595 10.3 6.01 706 479 912 563 9452 862 0.836

300 150 16 48 32 96.4 123 12387 4174 10 5.83 826 557 1092 673 11328 1015 0.818
300 200 6 12 6 45.2 57.6 7370 3962 11.3 8.29 491 396 588 446 8115 651 0.979
300 200 6.3 15.75 9.45 47.1 60 7624 4104 11.3 8.27 508 410 610 463 8524 680 0.973
300 200 8 20 12 59.1 75.2 9389 5042 11.2 8.19 626 504 757 574 10627 838 0.966
300 200 10 25 15 72.7 92.6 11313 6058 11.1 8.09 754 606 921 698 12987 1012 0.957
300 200 12 36 24 84.8 108 12788 6854 10.9 7.96 853 685 1056 801 15236 1167 0.938
300 200 12.5 37.5 25 88 112 13179 7060 10.8 7.94 879 706 1091 828 15768 1204 0.936
300 200 16 48 32 109 139 15617 8340 10.6 7.75 1041 834 1319 1000 19223 1442 0.918
350 250 6 12 6 54.7 69.6 12457 7458 13.4 10.3 712 597 843 671 14554 967 1.18
350 250 6.3 15.75 9.45 57 72.6 12923 7744 13.3 10.3 738 620 876 698 15291 1010 1.17
350 250 8 20 12 71.6 91.2 16001 9573 13.2 10.2 914 766 1092 869 19136 1253 1.17
350 250 10 25 15 88.4 113 19407 11588 13.1 10.1 1109 927 1335 1062 23500 1522 1.16
350 250 12 36 24 104 132 22197 13261 13 10 1268 1061 1544 1229 27749 1770 1.14
350 250 12.5 37.5 25 108 137 22922 13690 12.9 9.99 1310 1095 1598 1272 28764 1830 1.14
350 250 16 48 32 134 171 27580 16434 12.7 9.81 1576 1315 1954 1554 35497 2220 1.12
400 200 8 20 12 71.6 91.2 18974 6517 14.4 8.45 949 652 1173 728 15820 1133 1.17
400 200 10 25 15 88.4 113 23003 7864 14.3 8.36 1150 786 1434 888 19368 1373 1.16
400 200 12.5 37.5 25 108 137 27100 9260 14.1 8.22 1355 926 1714 1062 23594 1644 1.14
400 200 16 48 32 134 171 32547 11056 13.8 8.05 1627 1106 2093 1294 28928 1984 1.12
400 300 8 20 12 84.2 107 25122 16212 15.3 12.3 1256 1081 1487 1224 31179 1747 1.37
400 300 10 25 15 104 133 30609 19726 15.2 12.2 1530 1315 1824 1501 38407 2132 1.36
400 300 12 36 24 123 156 35284 22747 15 12.1 1764 1516 2122 1747 45527 2492 1.34
400 300 12.5 37.5 25 127 162 36489 23517 15 12 1824 1568 2198 1810 47237 2580 1.34
400 300 16 48 32 159 203 44350 28535 14.8 11.9 2218 1902 2708 2228 58730 3159 1.32
Second
Moment Of Section
Radius
m Section
Home
Steel Section Index

ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Square Hollow Sections-Hot Formed..BS EN 10219:1997
Square Hollow Section- Hot Formed -BS EN 10210-2:1997

mm x
mm
20 2 3 2 1.1 1.4 0.739 0.727 0.739 0.93 1.22 1.07 0.0748
20 2.5 3.75 2.5 1.32 1.68 0.835 0.705 0.835 1.08 1.41 1.2 0.0736
25 2 3 2 1.41 1.8 1.56 0.932 1.25 1.53 2.52 1.81 0.0948
25 2.5 3.75 2.5 1.71 2.18 1.81 0.909 1.44 1.82 2.97 2.08 0.0936
25 3 4.5 3 2 2.54 2 0.886 1.6 2.06 3.35 2.3 0.0923
30 2 3 2 1.72 2.2 2.84 1.14 1.89 2.29 4.53 2.75 0.115
30 2.5 3.75 2.5 2.11 2.68 3.33 1.11 2.22 2.74 5.4 3.22 0.114
30 3 4.5 3 2.47 3.14 3.74 1.09 2.5 3.14 6.16 3.6 0.112
40 2.5 3.75 2.5 2.89 3.68 8.54 1.52 4.27 5.14 13.6 6.22 0.154
40 3 4.5 3 3.41 4.34 9.78 1.5 4.89 5.97 15.7 7.1 0.152
40 3.2 4.8 3.2 3.61 4.6 10.2 1.49 5.11 6.28 16.5 7.42 0.152
40 3.6 5.4 3.6 4.01 5.1 11.1 1.47 5.54 6.88 18.1 8.01 0.151
40 4 6 4 4.39 5.59 11.8 1.45 5.91 7.44 19.5 8.54 0.15
40 5 7.5 5 5.28 6.73 13.4 1.41 6.68 8.66 22.5 9.6 0.147
50 2.5 3.75 2.5 3.68 4.68 17.5 1.93 6.99 8.29 27.5 10.2 0.194
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Sections/SHS_hf.html (1 of 5)10/24/2006 11:38:55 AM

50 3 4.5 3 4.35 5.54 20.2 1.91 8.08 9.7 32.1 11.8 0.192
50 3.2 4.8 3.2 4.62 5.88 21.2 1.9 8.49 10.2 33.8 12.4 0.192
50 3.6 5.4 3.6 5.14 6.54 23.2 1.88 9.27 11.3 37.2 13.5 0.191
50 4 6 4 5.64 7.19 25 1.86 9.99 12.3 40.4 14.5 0.19
50 5 7.5 5 6.85 8.73 28.9 1.82 11.6 14.5 47.6 16.7 0.187
50 6 9 6 7.99 10.2 32 1.77 12.8 16.5 53.6 18.4 0.185
50 6.3 9.45 6.3 8.31 10.6 32.8 1.76 13.1 17 55.2 18.8 0.184
60 2.5 3.75 2.5 4.46 5.68 31.1 2.34 10.4 12.2 48.5 15.2 0.234
60 3 4.5 3 5.29 6.74 36.2 2.32 12.1 14.3 56.9 17.7 0.232
60 3.2 4.8 3.2 5.62 7.16 38.2 2.31 12.7 15.2 60.2 18.6 0.232
60 3.6 5.4 3.6 6.27 7.98 41.9 2.29 14 16.8 66.5 20.4 0.231
60 4 6 4 6.9 8.79 45.4 2.27 15.1 18.3 72.5 22 0.23
60 5 7.5 5 8.42 10.7 53.3 2.23 17.8 21.9 86.4 25.7 0.227
60 6 9 6 9.87 12.6 59.9 2.18 20 25.1 98.6 28.8 0.225
60 6.3 9.45 6.3 10.3 13.1 61.6 2.17 20.5 26 102 29.6 0.224
60 8 12 8 12.5 16 69.7 2.09 23.2 30.4 118 33.4 0.219
70 3 4.5 3 6.24 7.94 59 2.73 16.9 19.9 92.2 24.8 0.272
70 3.2 4.8 3.2 6.63 8.44 62.3 2.72 17.8 21 97.6 26.1 0.272
70 3.6 5.4 3.6 7.4 9.42 68.6 2.7 19.6 23.3 108 28.7 0.271
70 4 6 4 8.15 10.4 74.7 2.68 21.3 25.5 118 31.2 0.27
70 5 7.5 5 9.99 12.7 88.5 2.64 25.3 30.8 142 36.8 0.267
70 6 9 6 11.8 15 101 2.59 28.7 35.5 163 41.6 0.265
70 6.3 9.45 6.3 12.3 15.6 104 2.58 29.7 36.9 169 42.9 0.264
70 8 12 8 15 19.2 120 2.5 34.2 43.8 200 49.2 0.259
80 3 4.5 3 7.18 9.14 89.8 3.13 22.5 26.3 140 33 0.312
80 3.2 4.8 3.2 7.63 9.72 95 3.13 23.7 27.9 148 34.9 0.312
80 3.6 5.4 3.6 8.53 10.9 105 3.11 26.2 31 164 38.5 0.311
80 4 6 4 9.41 12 114 3.09 28.6 34 180 41.9 0.31
80 5 7.5 5 11.6 14.7 137 3.05 34.2 41.1 217 49.8 0.307
80 6 9 6 13.6 17.4 156 3 39.1 47.8 252 56.8 0.305
80 6.3 9.45 6.3 14.2 18.1 162 2.99 40.5 49.7 262 58.7 0.304
80 8 12 8 17.5 22.4 189 2.91 47.3 59.5 312 68.3 0.299
90 3.6 5.4 3.6 9.66 12.3 152 3.52 33.8 39.7 237 49.7 0.351
90 4 6 4 10.7 13.6 166 3.5 37 43.6 260 54.2 0.35
90 5 7.5 5 13.1 16.7 200 3.45 44.4 53 316 64.8 0.347
90 6 9 6 15.5 19.8 230 3.41 51.1 61.8 367 74.3 0.345
90 6.3 9.45 6.3 16.2 20.7 238 3.4 53 64.3 382 77 0.344
90 8 12 8 20.1 25.6 281 3.32 62.6 77.6 459 90.5 0.339
100 3.6 5.4 3.6 10.8 13.7 212 3.92 42.3 49.5 328 62.3 0.391

100 4 6 4 11.9 15.2 232 3.91 46.4 54.4 361 68.2 0.39
100 5 7.5 5 14.7 18.7 279 3.86 55.9 66.4 439 81.8 0.387
100 6 9 6 17.4 22.2 323 3.82 64.6 77.6 513 94.3 0.385
100 6.3 9.45 6.3 18.2 23.2 336 3.8 67.1 80.9 534 97.8 0.384
100 8 12 8 22.6 28.8 400 3.73 79.9 98.2 646 116 0.379
100 10 15 10 27.4 34.9 462 3.64 92.4 116 761 133 0.374
120 4 6 4 14.4 18.4 410 4.72 68.4 79.7 635 101 0.47
120 5 7.5 5 17.8 22.7 498 4.68 83 97.6 777 122 0.467
120 6 9 6 21.2 27 579 4.63 96.6 115 911 141 0.465
120 6.3 9.45 6.3 22.2 28.2 603 4.62 100 120 950 147 0.464
120 8 12 8 27.6 35.2 726 4.55 121 146 1160 176 0.459
120 10 15 10 33.7 42.9 852 4.46 142 175 1382 206 0.454
120 12 18 12 39.5 50.3 958 4.36 160 201 1578 230 0.449
120 12.5 18.75 12.5 40.9 52.1 982 4.34 164 207 1623 236 0.448
140 5 7.5 5 21 26.7 807 5.5 115 135 1253 170 0.547
140 6 9 6 24.9 31.8 944 5.45 135 159 1475 198 0.545
140 6.3 9.45 6.3 26.1 33.3 984 5.44 141 166 1540 206 0.544
140 8 12 8 32.6 41.6 1195 5.36 171 204 1892 249 0.539
140 10 15 10 40 50.9 1416 5.27 202 246 2272 294 0.534
140 12 18 12 47 59.9 1609 5.18 230 284 2616 333 0.529
140 12.5 18.75 12.5 48.7 62.1 1653 5.16 236 293 2696 342 0.528
150 5 7.5 5 22.6 28.7 1002 5.9 134 156 1550 197 0.587
150 6 9 6 26.8 34.2 1174 5.86 156 184 1828 230 0.585
150 6.3 9.45 6.3 28.1 35.8 1223 5.85 163 192 1909 240 0.584
150 8 12 8 35.1 44.8 1491 5.77 199 237 2351 291 0.579
150 10 15 10 43.1 54.9 1773 5.68 236 286 2832 344 0.574
150 12 18 12 50.8 64.7 2023 5.59 270 331 3272 391 0.569
150 12.5 18.75 12.5 52.7 67.1 2080 5.57 277 342 3375 402 0.568
150 16 24 16 65.2 83 2430 5.41 324 411 4026 467 0.559
160 5 7.5 5 24.1 30.7 1225 6.31 153 178 1892 226 0.627
160 6 9 6 28.7 36.6 1437 6.27 180 210 2233 264 0.625
160 6.3 9.45 6.3 30.1 38.3 1499 6.26 187 220 2333 275 0.624
160 8 12 8 37.6 48 1831 6.18 229 272 2880 335 0.619
160 10 15 10 46.3 58.9 2186 6.09 273 329 3478 398 0.614
160 12 18 12 54.6 69.5 2502 6 313 382 4028 454 0.609
160 12.5 18.75 12.5 56.6 72.1 2576 5.98 322 395 4158 467 0.608
160 16 24 16 70.2 89.4 3028 5.82 379 476 4988 546 0.599
180 5 7.5 5 27.3 34.7 1765 7.13 196 227 2718 290 0.707
180 6 9 6 32.5 41.4 2077 7.09 231 269 3215 340 0.705

180 6.3 9.45 6.3 34 43.3 2168 7.07 241 281 3361 355 0.704
180 8 12 8 42.7 54.4 2661 7 296 349 4162 434 0.699
180 10 15 10 52.5 66.9 3193 6.91 355 424 5048 518 0.694
180 12 18 12 62.1 79.1 3677 6.82 409 494 5873 595 0.689
180 12.5 18.75 12.5 64.4 82.1 3790 6.8 421 511 6070 613 0.688
180 16 24 16 80.2 102 4504 6.64 500 621 7343 724 0.679
200 5 7.5 5 30.4 38.7 2445 7.95 245 283 3756 362 0.787
200 6 9 6 36.2 46.2 2883 7.9 288 335 4449 426 0.785
200 6.3 9.45 6.3 38 48.4 3011 7.89 301 350 4653 444 0.784
200 8 12 8 47.7 60.8 3709 7.81 371 436 5778 545 0.779
200 10 15 10 58.8 74.9 4471 7.72 447 531 7031 655 0.774
200 12 18 12 69.6 88.7 5171 7.64 517 621 8208 754 0.769
200 12.5 18.75 12.5 72.3 92.1 5336 7.61 534 643 8491 778 0.768
200 16 24 16 90.3 115 6394 7.46 639 785 10340 927 0.759
220 6 9 6 40 51 3875 8.72 352 408 5963 521 0.865
220 6.3 9.45 6.3 41.9 53.4 4049 8.71 368 427 6240 544 0.864
220 8 12 8 52.7 67.2 5002 8.63 455 532 7765 669 0.859
220 10 15 10 65.1 82.9 6050 8.54 550 650 9473 807 0.854
220 12 18 12 77.2 98.3 7023 8.45 638 762 11091 933 0.849
220 12.5 18.75 12.5 80.1 102 7254 8.43 659 789 11481 963 0.848
220 16 24 16 100 128 8749 8.27 795 969 14054 1156 0.839
250 5 7.5 5 38.3 48.7 4861 9.99 389 447 7430 577 0.987
250 6 9 6 45.7 58.2 5752 9.94 460 531 8825 681 0.985
250 6.3 9.45 6.3 47.9 61 6014 9.93 481 556 9238 712 0.984
250 8 12 8 60.3 76.8 7455 9.86 596 694 11525 880 0.979
250 10 15 10 74.5 94.9 9055 9.77 724 851 14106 1065 0.974
250 12 18 12 88.5 113 10556 9.68 844 1000 16567 1237 0.969
250 12.5 18.75 12.5 91.9 117 10915 9.66 873 1037 17164 1279 0.968
250 16 24 16 115 147 13267 9.5 1061 1280 21138 1546 0.959
260 6 9 6 47.6 60.6 6491 10.4 499 576 9951 740 1.02
260 6.3 9.45 6.3 49.9 63.5 6788 10.3 522 603 10417 773 1.02
260 8 12 8 62.8 80 8423 10.3 648 753 13006 956 1.02
260 10 15 10 77.7 98.9 10242 10.2 788 924 15932 1159 1.01
260 12 18 12 92.2 117 11954 10.1 920 1087 18729 1348 1.01
260 12.5 18.75 12.5 95.8 122 12365 10.1 951 1127 19409 1394 1.01
260 16 24 16 120 153 15061 9.91 1159 1394 23942 1689 0.999
300 6 9 6 55.1 70.2 10080 12 672 772 15407 997 1.18
300 6.3 9.45 6.3 57.8 73.6 10547 12 703 809 16136 1043 1.18
300 8 12 8 72.8 92.8 13128 11.9 875 1013 20194 1294 1.18

300 10 15 10 90.2 115 16026 11.8 1068 1246 24807 1575 1.17
300 12 18 12 107 137 18777 11.7 1252 1470 29249 1840 1.17
300 12.5 18.75 12.5 112 142 19442 11.7 1296 1525 30333 1904 1.17
300 16 24 16 141 179 23850 11.5 1590 1895 37622 2325 1.16
350 8 12 8 85.4 109 21129 13.9 1207 1392 32384 1789 1.38
350 10 15 10 106 135 25884 13.9 1479 1715 39886 2185 1.37
350 12 18 12 126 161 30435 13.8 1739 2030 47154 2563 1.37
350 12.5 18.75 12.5 131 167 31541 13.7 1802 2107 48934 2654 1.37
350 16 24 16 166 211 38942 13.6 2225 2630 60990 3264 1.36
400 8 12 8 97.9 125 31857 16 1593 1830 48695 2363 1.58
400 10 15 10 122 155 39128 15.9 1956 2260 60092 2895 1.57
400 12 18 12 145 185 46130 15.8 2306 2679 71181 3405 1.57
400 12.5 18.75 12.5 151 192 47839 15.8 2392 2782 73906 3530 1.57
400 16 24 16 191 243 59344 15.6 2967 3484 92442 4362 1.56
400 20 30 20 235 300 71535 15.4 3577 4247 112489 5237 1.55
mm x
mm
Home
Steel Section Index

Rectangular Hollow Sections- Hot Formed
ROYMECH
Home
Steel Section Index
Rectangular Hollow Section-Hot Formed-BS EN 10210-2:1997

Second
Moment Of Section
Radius
m Section
50 25 2.5 3.75 2.5 2.69 3.43 10.4 3.39 1.74 0.994 4.16 2.71 5.33 3.22 8.42 4.61 0.144
50 25 3 4.5 3 3.17 4.04 11.9 3.83 1.72 0.973 4.76 3.06 6.18 3.71 9.64 5.2 0.142
50 30 2.5 3.75 2.5 2.89 3.68 11.8 5.22 1.79 1.19 4.73 3.48 5.92 4.11 11.7 5.73 0.154
50 30 3 4.5 3 3.41 4.34 13.6 5.94 1.77 1.17 5.43 3.96 6.88 4.76 13.5 6.51 0.152
50 30 3.2 4.8 3.2 3.61 4.6 14.2 6.2 1.76 1.16 5.68 4.13 7.25 5 14.2 6.8 0.152
50 30 3.6 5.4 3.6 4.01 5.1 15.4 6.67 1.74 1.14 6.16 4.45 7.94 5.46 15.4 7.31 0.151
50 30 4 6 4 4.39 5.59 16.5 7.08 1.72 1.13 6.6 4.72 8.59 5.88 16.6 7.77 0.15
50 30 5 7.5 5 5.28 6.73 18.7 7.89 1.67 1.08 7.49 5.26 10 6.8 19 8.67 0.147
60 40 2.5 3.75 2.5 3.68 4.68 22.8 12.1 2.21 1.6 7.61 6.03 9.32 7.02 25.1 9.73 0.194
60 40 3 4.5 3 4.35 5.54 26.5 13.9 2.18 1.58 8.82 6.95 10.9 8.19 29.2 11.2 0.192
60 40 3.2 4.8 3.2 4.62 5.88 27.8 14.6 2.18 1.57 9.27 7.29 11.5 8.64 30.8 11.7 0.192
60 40 3.6 5.4 3.6 5.14 6.54 30.4 15.9 2.16 1.56 10.1 7.93 12.7 9.5 33.8 12.8 0.191
60 40 4 6 4 5.64 7.19 32.8 17 2.14 1.54 10.9 8.52 13.8 10.3 36.7 13.7 0.19
60 40 5 7.5 5 6.85 8.73 38.1 19.5 2.09 1.5 12.7 9.77 16.4 12.2 43 15.7 0.187
60 40 6 9 6 7.99 10.2 42.3 21.4 2.04 1.45 14.1 10.7 18.6 13.7 48.2 17.3 0.185
60 40 6.3 9.45 6.3 8.31 10.6 43.4 21.9 2.02 1.44 14.5 11 19.2 14.2 49.5 17.6 0.184
80 40 3 4.5 3 5.29 6.74 54.2 18 2.84 1.63 13.6 9 17.1 10.4 43.8 15.3 0.232
80 40 3.2 4.8 3.2 5.62 7.16 57.2 18.9 2.83 1.63 14.3 9.46 18 11 46.2 16.1 0.232
80 40 3.6 5.4 3.6 6.27 7.98 62.8 20.6 2.81 1.61 15.7 10.3 20 12.1 50.8 17.5 0.231
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80 40 4 6 4 6.9 8.79 68.2 22.2 2.79 1.59 17.1 11.1 21.8 13.2 55.2 18.9 0.23
80 40 5 7.5 5 8.42 10.7 80.3 25.7 2.74 1.55 20.1 12.9 26.1 15.7 65.1 21.9 0.227
80 40 6 9 6 9.87 12.6 90.5 28.5 2.68 1.5 22.6 14.2 30 17.8 73.4 24.2 0.225
80 40 6.3 9.45 6.3 10.3 13.1 93.3 29.2 2.67 1.49 23.3 14.6 31.1 18.4 75.6 24.8 0.224
80 40 8 12 8 12.5 16 106 32.1 2.58 1.42 26.5 16.1 36.5 21.2 85.8 27.4 0.219
76.2 50.8 3 4.5 3 5.62 7.16 56.7 30 2.81 2.05 14.9 11.8 18.2 13.7 62.1 19.1 0.246
76.2 50.8 3.2 4.8 3.2 5.97 7.61 59.8 31.6 2.8 2.04 15.7 12.4 19.2 14.5 65.7 20.1 0.246
76.2 50.8 3.6 5.4 3.6 6.66 8.49 65.8 34.6 2.78 2.02 17.3 13.6 21.3 16 72.5 22 0.245
76.2 50.8 4 6 4 7.34 9.35 71.5 37.5 2.77 2 18.8 14.8 23.3 17.5 79.1 23.8 0.244
76.2 50.8 5 7.5 5 8.97 11.4 84.4 43.9 2.72 1.96 22.2 17.3 28 20.9 94.2 27.8 0.241
76.2 50.8 6 9 6 10.5 13.4 95.6 49.2 2.67 1.91 25.1 19.4 32.2 23.9 108 31.2 0.239
76.2 50.8 6.3 9.45 6.3 11 14 98.6 50.6 2.66 1.9 25.9 19.9 33.4 24.8 111 32 0.238
76.2 50.8 8 12 8 13.4 17.1 113 57 2.57 1.83 29.6 22.4 39.4 29 129 36.1 0.233
90 50 3 4.5 3 6.24 7.94 84.4 33.5 3.26 2.05 18.8 13.4 23.2 15.3 76.5 22.4 0.272
90 50 3.2 4.8 3.2 6.63 8.44 89.1 35.3 3.25 2.04 19.8 14.1 24.6 16.2 80.9 23.6 0.272
90 50 3.6 5.4 3.6 7.4 9.42 98.3 38.7 3.23 2.03 21.8 15.5 27.2 18 89.4 25.9 0.271
90 50 4 6 4 8.15 10.4 107 41.9 3.21 2.01 23.8 16.8 29.8 19.6 97.5 28 0.27
90 50 5 7.5 5 9.99 12.7 127 49.2 3.16 1.97 28.3 19.7 36 23.5 116 32.9 0.267
90 50 6 9 6 11.8 15 145 55.4 3.11 1.92 32.2 22.1 41.6 27 133 37 0.265
90 50 6.3 9.45 6.3 12.3 15.6 150 57 3.1 1.91 33.3 22.8 43.2 28 138 38.1 0.264
90 50 8 12 8 15 19.2 174 64.6 3.01 1.84 38.6 25.8 51.4 32.9 160 43.2 0.259
100 50 3 4.5 3 6.71 8.54 110 36.8 3.58 2.08 21.9 14.7 27.3 16.8 88.4 25 0.292
100 50 3.2 4.8 3.2 7.13 9.08 116 38.8 3.57 2.07 23.2 15.5 28.9 17.7 93.4 26.4 0.292
100 50 3.6 5.4 3.6 7.96 10.1 128 42.6 3.55 2.05 25.6 17 32.1 19.6 103 29 0.291
100 50 4 6 4 8.78 11.2 140 46.2 3.53 2.03 27.9 18.5 35.2 21.5 113 31.4 0.29
100 50 5 7.5 5 10.8 13.7 167 54.3 3.48 1.99 33.3 21.7 42.6 25.8 135 36.9 0.287
100 50 6 9 6 12.7 16.2 190 61.2 3.43 1.95 38.1 24.5 49.4 29.7 154 41.6 0.285
100 50 6.3 9.45 6.3 13.3 16.9 197 63 3.42 1.93 39.4 25.2 51.3 30.8 160 42.9 0.284
100 50 8 12 8 16.3 20.8 230 71.7 3.33 1.86 46 28.7 61.4 36.3 186 48.9 0.279
100 60 3 4.5 3 7.18 9.14 124 55.7 3.68 2.47 24.7 18.6 30.2 21.2 121 30.7 0.312
100 60 3.2 4.8 3.2 7.63 9.72 131 58.8 3.67 2.46 26.2 19.6 32 22.4 129 32.4 0.312
100 60 3.6 5.4 3.6 8.53 10.9 145 64.8 3.65 2.44 28.9 21.6 35.6 24.9 142 35.6 0.311
100 60 4 6 4 9.41 12 158 70.5 3.63 2.43 31.6 23.5 39.1 27.3 156 38.7 0.31
100 60 5 7.5 5 11.6 14.7 189 83.6 3.58 2.38 37.8 27.9 47.4 32.9 188 45.9 0.307
100 60 6 9 6 13.6 17.4 217 95 3.53 2.34 43.4 31.7 55.1 38.1 216 52.1 0.305
100 60 6.3 9.45 6.3 14.2 18.1 225 98.1 3.52 2.33 45 32.7 57.3 39.5 224 53.8 0.304
100 60 8 12 8 17.5 22.4 264 113 3.44 2.25 52.8 37.8 68.7 47.1 265 62.2 0.299
120 60 3.6 5.4 3.6 9.66 12.3 227 76.3 4.3 2.49 37.9 25.4 47.2 28.9 183 43.3 0.351
120 60 4 6 4 10.7 13.6 249 83.1 4.28 2.47 41.5 27.7 51.9 31.7 201 47.1 0.35
120 60 5 7.5 5 13.1 16.7 299 98.8 4.23 2.43 49.9 32.9 63.1 38.4 242 56 0.347
120 60 6 9 6 15.5 19.8 345 113 4.18 2.39 57.5 37.5 73.6 44.5 279 63.8 0.345
120 60 6.3 9.45 6.3 16.2 20.7 358 116 4.16 2.37 59.7 38.8 76.7 46.3 290 65.9 0.344
120 60 8 12 8 20.1 25.6 425 135 4.08 2.3 70.8 45 92.7 55.4 344 76.6 0.339
120 60 10 12 8 24.6 31.3 503 155 4.01 2.23 83.8 51.7 112 65.6 397 86.8 0.339
120 80 3.6 5.4 3.6 10.8 13.7 276 147 4.48 3.27 46 36.7 55.6 42 301 59.5 0.391

120 80 4 6 4 11.9 15.2 303 161 4.46 3.25 50.4 40.2 61.2 46.1 330 65 0.39
120 80 5 7.5 5 14.7 18.7 365 193 4.42 3.21 60.9 48.2 74.6 56.1 401 77.9 0.387
120 80 6 9 6 17.4 22.2 423 222 4.37 3.17 70.6 55.6 87.3 65.5 468 89.6 0.385
120 80 6.3 9.45 6.3 18.2 23.2 440 230 4.36 3.15 73.3 57.6 91 68.2 487 92.9 0.384
120 80 8 12 8 22.6 28.8 525 273 4.27 3.08 87.5 68.1 111 82.6 587 110 0.379
120 80 10 15 10 27.4 34.9 609 313 4.18 2.99 102 78.1 131 97.3 688 126 0.374
140 80 4 6 4 13.2 16.8 441 184 5.12 3.31 62.9 46 77.1 52.2 411 76.5 0.43
140 80 5 7.5 5 16.3 20.7 534 221 5.08 3.27 76.3 55.3 94.3 63.6 499 91.9 0.427
140 80 6 9 6 19.3 24.6 621 255 5.03 3.22 88.7 63.8 111 74.4 583 106 0.425
140 80 6.3 9.45 6.3 20.2 25.7 646 265 5.01 3.21 92.3 66.2 115 77.5 607 110 0.424
140 80 8 12 8 25.1 32 776 314 4.93 3.14 111 78.5 141 94.1 733 130 0.419
140 80 10 15 10 30.6 38.9 908 362 4.83 3.05 130 90.5 168 111 862 150 0.414
150 100 4 6 4 15.1 19.2 607 324 5.63 4.11 81 64.8 97.4 73.6 660 105 0.49
150 100 5 7.5 5 18.6 23.7 739 392 5.58 4.07 98.5 78.5 119 90.1 807 127 0.487
150 100 6 9 6 22.1 28.2 862 456 5.53 4.02 115 91.2 141 106 946 147 0.485
150 100 6.3 9.45 6.3 23.1 29.5 898 474 5.52 4.01 120 94.8 147 110 986 153 0.484
150 100 8 12 8 28.9 36.8 1087 569 5.44 3.94 145 114 180 135 1203 183 0.479
150 100 10 15 10 35.3 44.9 1282 665 5.34 3.85 171 133 216 161 1432 214 0.474
150 100 12 18 12 41.4 52.7 1450 745 5.25 3.76 193 149 249 185 1633 240 0.469
150 100 12.5 18.75 12.5 42.8 54.6 1488 763 5.22 3.74 198 153 256 190 1679 246 0.468
160 80 4 6 4 14.4 18.4 612 207 5.77 3.35 76.5 51.7 94.7 58.3 493 88.1 0.47
160 80 5 7.5 5 17.8 22.7 744 249 5.72 3.31 93 62.3 116 71.1 600 106 0.467
160 80 6 9 6 21.2 27 868 288 5.67 3.27 108 72 136 83.3 701 122 0.465
160 80 6.3 9.45 6.3 22.2 28.2 903 299 5.66 3.26 113 74.8 142 86.8 730 127 0.464
160 80 8 12 8 27.6 35.2 1091 356 5.57 3.18 136 89 175 106 883 151 0.459
160 80 10 15 10 33.7 42.9 1284 411 5.47 3.1 161 103 209 125 1041 175 0.454
160 80 12 18 12 39.5 50.3 1449 455 5.37 3.01 181 114 240 142 1175 194 0.449
160 80 12.5 18.75 12.5 40.9 52.1 1485 465 5.34 2.99 186 116 247 146 1204 198 0.448
180 100 4 6 4 16.9 21.6 945 379 6.61 4.19 105 75.9 128 85.2 852 127 0.55
180 100 5 7.5 5 21 26.7 1153 460 6.57 4.15 128 92 157 104 1042 154 0.547
180 100 6 9 6 24.9 31.8 1350 536 6.52 4.11 150 107 186 123 1224 179 0.545
180 100 6.3 9.45 6.3 26.1 33.3 1407 557 6.5 4.09 156 111 194 128 1277 186 0.544
180 100 8 12 8 32.6 41.6 1713 671 6.42 4.02 190 134 239 157 1560 224 0.539
180 100 10 15 10 40 50.9 2036 787 6.32 3.93 226 157 288 188 1862 263 0.534
180 100 12 18 12 47 59.9 2320 886 6.22 3.85 258 177 333 216 2130 296 0.529
180 100 12.5 18.75 12.5 48.7 62.1 2385 908 6.2 3.82 265 182 344 223 2191 303 0.528
200 100 4 7.5 5 18.1 23.1 1213 414 7.25 4.23 121 82.8 149 92.4 986 142 0.587
200 100 5 7.5 5 22.6 28.7 1495 505 7.21 4.19 149 101 185 114 1204 172 0.587
200 100 6 9 6 26.8 34.2 1754 589 7.16 4.15 175 118 218 134 1414 200 0.585
200 100 6.3 9.45 6.3 28.1 35.8 1829 613 7.15 4.14 183 123 228 140 1475 208 0.584
200 100 8 12 8 35.1 44.8 2234 739 7.06 4.06 223 148 282 172 1804 251 0.579
200 100 10 15 10 43.1 54.9 2664 869 6.96 3.98 266 174 341 206 2156 295 0.574
200 100 12 18 12 50.8 64.7 3047 979 6.86 3.89 305 196 395 237 2469 333 0.569
200 100 12.5 18.75 12.5 52.7 67.1 3136 1004 6.84 3.87 314 201 408 245 2541 341 0.568
200 100 16 24 16 65.2 83 3678 1147 6.66 3.72 368 229 491 290 2982 391 0.559

200 120 6 9.45 6.3 28.7 36.5 1976 890 7.35 4.94 198 148 241 169 1943 245 0.624
200 120 6.3 12 8 29.9 38 2039 919 7.32 4.92 204 153 250 175 2034 255 0.619
200 120 8 15 10 37.3 47.6 2490 1114 7.23 4.84 249 186 309 216 2501 309 0.614
200 120 10 18 12 45.9 58.5 2978 1320 7.14 4.75 298 220 374 260 3006 366 0.609
200 120 12 18.75 12.5 54.5 69.4 3459 1515 7.06 4.67 346 253 439 304 3462 417 0.608
200 120 12.5 24 16 55.7 71 3468 1524 6.99 4.63 347 254 444 308 3568 426 0.599
250 150 5 7.5 5 30.4 38.7 3360 1527 9.31 6.28 269 204 324 228 3278 337 0.787
250 150 6 9 6 36.2 46.2 3965 1796 9.27 6.24 317 239 385 270 3877 396 0.785
250 150 6.3 9.45 6.3 38 48.4 4143 1874 9.25 6.22 331 250 402 283 4054 413 0.784
250 150 8 12 8 47.7 60.8 5111 2298 9.17 6.15 409 306 501 350 5021 506 0.779
250 150 10 15 10 58.8 74.9 6174 2755 9.08 6.06 494 367 611 426 6090 605 0.774
250 150 12 18 12 69.6 88.7 7154 3168 8.98 5.98 572 422 715 497 7088 695 0.769
250 150 12.5 18.75 12.5 72.3 92.1 7387 3265 8.96 5.96 591 435 740 514 7326 717 0.768
250 150 16 24 16 90.3 115 8879 3873 8.79 5.8 710 516 906 625 8868 849 0.759
260 180 6 9 6 40 51 4942 2804 9.85 7.42 380 312 454 353 5554 502 0.865
260 180 6.3 9.45 6.3 41.9 53.4 5166 2929 9.83 7.4 397 325 475 369 5810 524 0.864
260 180 8 12 8 52.7 67.2 6390 3608 9.75 7.33 492 401 592 459 7221 644 0.859
260 180 10 15 10 65.1 82.9 7741 4351 9.66 7.24 595 483 724 560 8798 775 0.854
260 180 12 18 12 77.2 98.3 8999 5034 9.57 7.16 692 559 849 656 10285 895 0.849
260 180 12.5 18.75 12.5 80.1 102 9299 5196 9.54 7.13 715 577 879 679 10643 924 0.848
260 180 16 24 16 100 128 11245 6231 9.38 6.98 865 692 1081 831 12993 1106 0.839
300 200 5 7.5 5 38.3 48.7 6322 3396 11.4 8.35 421 340 501 380 6824 552 0.987
300 200 6 9 6 45.7 58.2 7486 4013 11.3 8.31 499 401 596 451 8100 651 0.985
300 200 6.3 9.45 6.3 47.9 61 7829 4193 11.3 8.29 522 419 624 472 8476 681 0.984
300 200 8 12 8 60.3 76.8 9717 5184 11.3 8.22 648 518 779 589 10562 840 0.979
300 200 10 15 10 74.5 94.9 11819 6278 11.2 8.13 788 628 956 721 12908 1015 0.974
300 200 12 18 12 88.5 113 13797 7294 11.1 8.05 920 729 1124 847 15137 1178 0.969
300 200 12.5 18.75 12.5 91.9 117 14273 7537 11 8.02 952 754 1165 877 15677 1217 0.968
300 200 16 24 16 115 147 17390 9109 10.9 7.87 1159 911 1441 1080 19252 1468 0.959
350 250 6 9 6 55.1 70.2 12616 7538 13.4 10.4 721 603 852 677 14529 967 1.18
350 250 6.3 9.45 6.3 57.8 73.6 13203 7885 13.4 10.4 754 631 892 709 15215 1011 1.18
350 250 8 12 8 72.8 92.8 16449 9798 13.3 10.3 940 784 1118 888 19027 1254 1.18
350 250 10 15 10 90.2 115 20102 11937 13.2 10.2 1149 955 1375 1091 23354 1525 1.17
350 250 12 18 12 107 137 23577 13957 13.1 10.1 1347 1117 1624 1286 27513 1781 1.17
350 250 12.5 18.75 12.5 112 142 24419 14444 13.1 10.1 1395 1156 1685 1334 28526 1842 1.17
350 250 16 24 16 141 179 30011 17654 12.9 9.93 1715 1412 2095 1655 35325 2246 1.16
400 200 6 9 6 55.1 70.2 14998 5142 14.6 8.56 750 514 917 568 12049 877 1.18
400 200 6.3 9.45 6.3 57.8 73.6 15696 5376 14.6 8.55 785 538 960 594 12612 917 1.18
400 200 8 12 8 72.8 92.8 19562 6660 14.5 8.47 978 666 1203 743 15735 1135 1.18
400 200 10 15 10 90.2 115 23914 8084 14.4 8.39 1196 808 1480 911 19259 1376 1.17
400 200 12 18 12 107 137 28059 9418 14.3 8.3 1403 942 1748 1072 22622 1602 1.17
400 200 12.5 18.75 12.5 112 142 29063 9738 14.3 8.28 1453 974 1813 1111 23438 1656 1.17
400 200 16 24 16 141 179 35738 11824 14.1 8.13 1787 1182 2256 1374 28871 2010 1.16
450 250 8 12 8 85.4 109 30082 12142 16.6 10.6 1337 971 1622 1081 27083 1629 1.38
450 250 10 15 10 106 135 36895 14819 16.5 10.5 1640 1185 2000 1331 33284 1986 1.37

450 250 12 18 12 126 161 43434 17359 16.4 10.4 1930 1389 2367 1572 39260 2324 1.37
450 250 12.5 18.75 12.5 131 167 45026 17973 16.4 10.4 2001 1438 2458 1631 40719 2406 1.37
450 250 16 24 16 166 211 55705 22041 16.2 10.2 2476 1763 3070 2029 50545 2947 1.36
500 300 8 12 8 97.9 125 43728 19951 18.7 12.6 1749 1330 2100 1480 42563 2203 1.58
500 300 10 15 10 122 155 53762 24439 18.6 12.6 2150 1629 2595 1826 52450 2696 1.57
500 300 12 18 12 145 185 63446 28736 18.5 12.5 2538 1916 3077 2161 62039 3167 1.57
500 300 12.5 18.75 12.5 151 192 65813 29780 18.5 12.5 2633 1985 3196 2244 64389 3281 1.57
500 300 16 24 16 191 243 81783 36768 18.3 12.3 3271 2451 4005 2804 80329 4044 1.56
500 300 20 30 20 235 300 98777 44078 18.2 12.1 3951 2939 4885 3408 97447 4842 1.55
Second
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Elastic Bending Theory

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Beams Index
Introduction.... Superposition.... Nomenclature.... Simple Bending.... Deflection.... Area Moment Method....
Introduction
The stress, strain, dimension, curvature, elasticity, are all related, under certain assumption, by the theory of simple
bending. This theory relates to beam flexure resulting from couples applied to the beam without consideration of the
shearing forces.
Superposition Principle
The superposition principle is one of the most important tools for solving beam loading problems allowing simplification of
very complicated design problems..
For beams subjected several loads of different types the resulting shear force, bending moment, slope and deflection can
be found at any location by summing the effects due to each load acting separately to the other loads.
Nomenclature
e = strain
E = Young's Modulus = σ /e (N/m2)
y = distance of surface from neutral surface (m).
R = Radius of neutral axis (m).
I = Moment of Inertia (m4 - more normally cm4)
Z = section modulus = I/ymax(m3 - more normally cm3)
F = Force (N)
x = Distance along beam
δ = deflection (m)
θ = Slope (radians)
σ = stress (N/m2)
Simple Bending
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A straight bar of homogeneous material is subject to only a moment at one end and an equal and opposite moment at the
other end...
Assumptions
The beam is symmetrical about Y-Y

The traverse plane sections remain plane and normal to the longitudinal fibres after bending (Beroulli's assumption)
The fixed relationship between stress and strain (Young's Modulus)for the beam material is the same for tension and
compression ( σ= E.e )
Consider two section very close together (AB and CD).

After bending the sections will be at A'B' and C'D' and are no longer parallel. AC will have extended to A'C' and BD will
have compressed to B'D'
The line EF will be located such that it will not change in length. This surface is called neutral surface and its intersection
with Z_Z is called the neutral axis
The development lines of A'B' and C'D' intersect at a point 0 at an angle of θ radians and the radius of E'F' = R
Let y be the distance(E'G') of any layer H'G' originally parallel to EF..Then
H'G'/E'F' =(R+y)θ /R θ = (R+y)/R
And the strain e at layer H'G' =
e = (H'G'- HG) / HG = (H'G'- HG) / EF = [(R+y)θ - R θ] /R θ = y /R
The accepted relationship between stress and strain is σ= E.e Therefore
σ = E.e = E. y /R
σ/E=y/R
Therefore, for the illustrated example, the tensile stress is directly related to the distance above the neutral axis. The
compressive stress is also directly related to the distance below the neutral axis. Assuming E is the same for
compression and tension the relationship is the same.
As the beam is in static equilibrium and is only subject to moments (no vertical shear forces) the forces across the section
(AB) are entirely longitudinal and the total compressive forces must balance the total tensile forces. The internal couple
resulting from the sum of ( σ.dA .y) over the whole section must equal the externally applied moment.

This can only be correct if Σ(yδa) or Σ(y.z.δy) is the moment of area of the section about the neutral axis. This can only
be zero if the axis passes through the centre of gravity (centroid) of the section.
The internal couple resulting from the sum of ( σ.dA .y) over the whole section must equal the externally applied
moment. Therefore the couple of the force resulting from the stress on each area when totalled over the whole area will
equal the applied moment
From the above the following important simple beam bending relationship results
It is clear from above that a simple beam subject to bending generates a maximum stress at the surface furthest away from
the neutral axis. For sections symmetrical about Z-Z the maximum compressive and tensile stress is equal.

σmax = ymax. M / I
The factor I /ymax is given the name section Modulus (Z) and therefore
σmax = M / Z
Values of Z are provided in the tables showing the properties of standard steel sections
Deflection of Beams
Below is shown the arc of the neutral axis of a beam subject to bending.
For small angle dy/dx = tan θ = θ

The curvature of a beam is identified as dθ /ds = 1/R
In the figure δθ is small and δx; is practically = δs; i.e ds /dx =1
From this simple approximation the following relationships are derived.
Integrating between selected limits.
The deflection between limits is obtained by further integration.

It has been proved ref Shear - Bending that dM/dx = S and dS/dx = -w = d2M /dx
Where S = the shear force M is the moment and w is the distributed load /unit length of beam. therefore
If w is constant or a integratatable function of x then this relationship can be used to arrive at general expressions for S, M,
dy/dx, or y by progressive integrations with a constant of integration being added at each stage. The properties of the
supports or fixings may be used to determine the constants. (x= 0 - simply supported, dx/dy = 0 fixed end etc )
In a similar manner if an expression for the bending moment is known then the slope and deflection can be obtained at any
point x by single and double integration of the relationship and applying suitable constants of integration.
Singularity functions can be used for determining the values when the loading a not simple ref Singularity Functions
Example - Cantilever beam
Consider a cantilever beam (uniform section) with a single concentrated load at the end. At the fixed end x = 0, dy = 0 , dy/
dx = 0
From the equilibrium balance ..At the support there is a resisting moment -FL and a vertical upward force F.
At any point x along the beam there is a moment F(x - L) = Mx = EI d 2y /dx 2

Example - Simply supported beam
Consider a simply supported uniform section beam with a single load F at the centre. The beam will be deflect
symmetrically about the centre line with 0 slope (dy/dx) at the centre line. It is convenient to select the origin at the centre
line.
Moment Area Method

This is a method of determining the change in slope or the deflection between two points on a beam. It is expressed as
two theorems...
Theorem 1
If A and B are two points on a beam the change in angle (radians) between the tangent at A and the tangent at B is equal
to the area of the bending moment diagram between the points divided by the relevant value of EI (the flexural rigidity
constant).
Theorem 2
If A and B are two points on a beam the displacement of B relative to the tangent of the beam at A is equal to the moment
of the area of the bending moment diagram between A and B about the ordinate through B divided by the relevant value of
EI (the flexural rigidity constant).
Examples ..Two simple examples are provide below to illustrate these theorems
Example 1) Determine the deflection and slope of a cantilever as shown..
The bending moment at A = MA = FL

The area of the bending moment diagram AM = F.L2 /2
The distance to the centroid of the BM diagram from B= xc = 2L/3
The deflection of B = y b = A M.x c /EI = F.L 3 /3EI
The slope at B relative to the tan at A = θ b =AM /EI = FL2 /2EI
Example 2) Determine the central deflection and end slopes of the simply supported beam as shown..
E = 210 GPa ......I = 834 cm4...... EI = 1,7514. 10 6Nm 2

A1 = 10.1,8.1,8/2 = 16,2kNm
A2 = 10.1,8.2 = 36kNm
A2 = 10.1,8.2 = 36kNm
A1 = 10.1,8.1,8/2 = 16,2kNm
x1 = Centroid of A1 = (2/3).1,8 = 1,2
x2 = Centroid of A2 = 1,8 + 1 = 2,8
x3 = Centroid of A3 = 1,8 + 1 = 2,8
x4 = Centroid of A4 = (2/3).1,8 = 1,2
The slope at A is given by the area of the moment diagram between A and C divided by EI.
θA = (A1 + A2) /EI = (16,2+36).10 3 / (1,7514. 10 6)

= 0,029rads = 1,7 degrees
The deflection at the centre (C) is equal to the deviation of the point A above a line that is
tangent to C.
Moments must therefore be taken about the deviation line at A.
δC = (AM.xM) /EI = (A1 x1 +A2 x2) / EI = 120,24.10 3/ (1,7514. 10 6)

= 0,0686m = 68,6mm

Sites Providing
Relevant
Information
1. Beams, strain,
stress ,
deflections...U
of Washington .
PDF download
with lots of
useful
information
2. Pure Bending...
Mississipi State
U. Pure
Bending
Lecture Notes..
very useful
3. Review of
Simple beam
theory...MIT
Powerpoint
presentation..
4. Lecture Notes
for structural
Design...U of
Toronto - Lots
of useful notes
on beam theory
and design
Home
Beams Index

Shear Force And Bending diagrams
ROYMECH
Home
Beams Index
Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
Introduction
Normally a beam is analysed to obtain the maximum stress and this is compared to the material
strength to determine the design safety margin. It is also normally required to calculate the
deflection on the beam under the maximum expected load. The determination of the maximum
stress results from producing the shear and bending moment diagrams. To facilitate this work the
first stage is normally to determine all of the external loads.
Nomenclature
e = strain
σ = stress (N/m2)
M = Moment (Nm)
w = Distrubuted load on beam (kg/m) or (N/m as force units)
W = total load on beam (kg ) or (N as force units)
F= Concentrated force on beam (N)
S= Shear Force on Section (N)
L = length of beam (m)
x = distance along beam (m)
Calculation of external forces

To allow determination of all of the external loads a free-body diagram is construction with all of the
loads and supports replaced by their equivalent forces. A typical free-body diagram is shown
below.
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The unknown forces (generally the support reactions) are then determined using the equations for
plane static equilibrium.
For example considering the simple beam above the reaction R2 is determined by Summing the
moments about R1 to zero
R2. L - W.a = 0 Therefore R2 = W.a / L
R1 is determined by summing the vertical forces to 0
W - R1 - R2 = 0 Therefore R1 = W - R2
Shear and Bending Moment Diagram
The shear force diagram indicates the shear force withstood by the beam section along the length
of the beam.
The bending moment diagram indicates the bending moment withstood by the beam section along
the length of the beam.
It is normal practice to produce a free body diagram with the shear diagram and the bending
moment diagram position below
For simply supported beams the reactions are generally simple forces. When the beam is built-in
the free body diagram will show the relevant support point as a reaction force and a reaction
moment....
Sign Convention
The sign convention used for shear force diagrams and bending moments is only important in that
it should be used consistently throughout a project. The sign convention used on this page is as
below

Typical Diagrams
A shear force diagram is simply constructed by moving a section along the beam from (say)the left
origin and summing the forces to the left of the section. The equilibrium condition states that the
forces on either side of a section balance and therefore the resisting shear force of the section is
obtained by this simple operation
The bending moment diagram is obtained in the same way except that the moment is the sum of
the product of each force and its distance(x) from the section. Distributed loads are calculated buy
summing the product of the total force (to the left of the section) and the distance(x) of the centroid
of the distributed load.
The sketches below show simply supported beams with on concentrated force.
The sketches below show Cantilever beams with three different load combinations.

Note: The force shown if based on loads (weights) would need to be converted to force units i.e.
50kg = 50x9,81(g) = 490 N.
Shear Force Moment Relationship
Consider a short length of a beam under a distributed load separated by a distance δx.
The bending moment at section AD is M and the shear force is S. The bending moment at BC = M
+ δM and the shear force is S + δS.
The equations for equilibrium in 2 dimensions results in the equations.. Forces
S - w.δx = S + δS
Therefore making δx infinitely small then.. dS /dx = - w
Moments.. Taking moments about C
M + Sδx - M - δM - w(δx)2 /2 = 0
Therefore making δx infinitely small then.. dM /dx = S
Therefore putting the relationships into integral form.

The integral (Area) of the shear diagram between any limits results in the change of the shearing
force between these limits and the integral of the Shear Force diagram between limits results in the
change in bending moment...
Sites
Providing
Relevant
Information
1. Shear Force
and Bending
Moment
Diagrams..
UMIST notes
2. Statics and
Strength of
Materials...U
of Wisconsin
Notes
including
section on
beams
3. Statics of
bending
shear force
and Bending
moment
diagrams...
MIT Paper
Home
Beams Index

Singularity Functions
ROYMECH
Home
Beams Index
Introduction
When calculating the shear Force and the bending moment diagrams for more complex loading across
discontinuities such as concentrated loads and moments. Simple methods are not enough. For the more
complicated cases the use of singularity functions provide a convenient method.
A singularity function is expressed as
Where
n = any integer (positive or negative) including zero
a = distance on x axis along the beam,from the selected origin, identifying the location of the discontinuity.
Rules in applying singularity functions

If n >0 and the expression inside the angular brackets is positive then fn(x) = (x-a)n the
expression is a normal algbraic formula
If n > 0 and the expression inside the angular brackets is negative then fn(x) = 0
If n < 0 then fn = 1 for x = a and fn(x) = 0 otherwise
If n = 0 then fn = 1 for x >= a and fn(x) = 0 otherwise
Unit Singularity
Singularity Function as used
Function
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Beams/Singularity.html (1 of 6)10/24/2006 11:40:12 AM


Example of using singularity functions for a simply supported beam
A more complex example of using singularity functions
The requirement is to obtain the Shear load, moment, slope and deflection anywhere along the beam as
shown


The equations above can be used to determine the shear load, moment, slope and deflection for the beam from x = 0 to x = L
Sites
Providing
Relevant
Information
1. Lecture
notes 2
Singularity
functions...
Berkely
University
download -
with
informative
notes
2. Deflection of
Beams...
Michigan U.
Useful
downloads
on beam
deflection
using
singularity
functions
3. Beam
Loading...
Notes
including
section on
using
singularity
functions to
model beam
loading
Home

Beams Index

Strain Energy
ROYMECH
Home
Beams Index
Notes On Strain energy

Strain Energy
The external work done on an elastic member in causing it to distort from its unstressed state is transformed into strain energy which is a form
of potential energy. The strain energy in the form of elastic deformation is mostly recoverable in the form of mechanical work.
Nomenclature
c = distance from neutral axis to outer fibre(m)

E = Young's Modulus (N/m2)
F = Axial Force (N)
G = Modulus of Rigidity (N/m2)(m)
I = Moment of Inertia (m4)(m)
l = length (m)
M = moment (Nm)
V = Traverse Shear force Force (N)
x = distance from along beam (m)
z = distance from neutral (m)
γ = Angular strain = δ/l
δ = deflection (m)
τ = shear stress (N/m2)
τ max = Max shear stress (N/m2)
θ = Deflection (radians)
Strain Energy Pure Tension and compression
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Strain Energy
Strain Energy Pure Torsion
Strain Energy Direct Shear
Alternatively allowing z to be a variable:..

Strain Energy
Strain Energy Beam in bending
Illustrating the case when M is fixed and note related to x
Illustrating the case when M is related, very simply to x

Strain Energy
Strain Energy due to tranverse shear stress
Consider a beam subject to traverse shear loading as shown. The beam is subject to stresses as a result of bending moments. It is also
subject to stresses as a result of traverse shear load. These notes only relate to the stresses due to the traverse shear load.
Consider the beam as shown and specifically a slice dx wide.
The beam width is b
There is a linear distribution of axial stress σx at a section at a distance x along the beam =
Along the slice dx the axial stress increases to (M + Vdx)z/ I . Thus along the slice dx there is a
increase in axial stress of [(Vdx)z] / I.
The total increase in axial force over slice dx for the section of the beam from z1 to the outer fibre of
the beam is balanced by a shear force = τ xz w dx as shown below.

Strain Energy
b is width: For a rectangle b = constant: For other section b may be a function of x
Solving for τ xz
The maximum shear stress is at the neutral axis when z1 = 0 and the minimum shear stress is at the
outer fibre when z1 = c.
The equation for shear stress at any distance z from the neutral axis for a rectangular suction, with
constant width b,subject to a traverse shear force V is as shown below.
To obtain the strain energy substitute this equation into that derived for direct shear
For the solid rectangle ( c = h/2, width = b, height = h, and length = x )subject to a traverse force V
load along its length the strain energy = ...
Using similar principles the strain energy for different sections subject to traverse shear can be
identified as shown below

Strain Energy
Comparing the strain energy due to direct shear in a beam and that due to bending:
For the simply supported rectangular section beam with a central traverse force of 2V of length l the
strain energy due to bending and due to traverse shear as shown below.
For a simply supported rectangular beam loaded, with single central load, The strain energy resulting
from the bending moments is [l2 /h2]/3 times that due to traverse shear loading. For a typical beam of
l/h ratio = 10 the bending shear energy is 33 times the traverse force shear energy. The traverse force
shear energy can be neglected for most beams of significant length.
Summary
The strain energy in a member or component for each type is loading is shown below:
Note :The constant K for the traverse shear option is shown in the section on traverse shear

Strain Energy
above. For a Structural section (K = 1)
1. Strain Energy Methods ...A powerpoint presentation of the appication of strain energy methods
2. Elasticity Theory ...Very detailed notes including reference to strain energy
Home
Beams Index

Simple Beams
ROYMECH
Home
Beams Index
Simple Beams
Introduction
Simple beams are straight of single span and are generally simply supported and are therefore statically determinate
using the static equilibrium laws. The single cantilever beam which is built in at one end comes within this category.
There are three basic types of supported beam. Other beam types can be obtained by combining these three ..
Beam loading
Beams can be loaded in a variety of ways.
● Concentrated loads
● Uniformly distributed loads
● Distributed loads according to some pattern
● Concentrated moments
The superposition principle provides convenient method of calculating the stresses and deflections for beams subject to
a number of different loads. The effect of each load can be established seperately and the effect of all the loads acting
simultaneously can be obtained by summing the seperate results...
Beam Sections
Beams normally have constant sections which for structural work include a variety of forms many of which are included
in the sections part of this website ( Sections ). In mechanical engineering, generally, the sections considered are
round sections (shafts), or rectangular sections. Beams with sections which vary along their length are often
encountered i.e when completing beam calculations for springs, and gear teeth. These special cases are dealt with in
the notes related to these specific topics
Beam loading formulea

A number of the standard beam loading formulea are provided on this website Stress -Strain
Sites Providing
Relevant
Information
1. Beams,
Bending, and
Boundary
Conditions ...
Very simple
basic initial
notes include
review of beam
loading types
2. Analysis of
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Beams/Standard_beams.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:40:27 AM

Simple Beams
Statically
Determinate
Beams...U of
Tornot Notes
related to using
graphical
methods
3. Beam Types...
Efunda -
Information on
beams with
easy to use
calculators-
Subscription
required for
extended
access
4. xcalcs...
Section
information and
Calculations
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Beams Index
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Continuous & Built In Beams

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Beams Index
Continuous Beams
Introduction
Built -in (Encastre) beams are fixed at both ends. Continuous beam which are beams
with more than two supports and covering more than one span. These beams are not
statically determinate using the static equilibrium laws.
Nomenclature
e = strain
σ = stress (N/m2)
Z = section modulus = I/y max(m3 - more normally cm3)
M = Moment (Nm)
w = Distributed load on beam (kg/m) or (N/m as force units)
W = total load on beam (kg ) or (N as force units)
F= Concentrated force on beam (N)
L = length of beam (m)
x = distance along beam (m)
Built in beams
A built in beam is normally considered to be horizontal with both ends built-in at the same
level and with zero slope at both ends. A loaded built in beam has a moment at both
ends and normally the maximum moments at at one or both of the two end joints.
A built in beam is generally much stronger than a simply supported beam of the same
geometry. The bending moment reduces along the beam and changes sign at points of
contraflexure between the supports and the load. A typical built-in beam is shown below.
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It is not normally possible to determine the bending moments and the resulting stress
using static equilibrium. Deflection calculations are often used to enable the moments to
be determined.
Repeating section from Beam Theory
It has been proved ref Shear Bending that dM/dx = S and dS/dx = -w = d2M /dx
Where S = the shear force M is the moment and w is the distributed load /unit length of
beam. Therefore
Using the above beam as an example...

Using the above equations the bending moment, shear force, deflection, slope can be
determined at any point along the beam.
M = EI d 2y/dx 2 = w(- 6x2+6lx -l2)/12

at x = 0 & l then M = -wl2 /12 and at x = l/2 then M = wl2 /24
S = EI d 3y/dx 3 = w(l/2 - x)
at x = 0 then S = w.l/2 at x = l then S = -w.l/2
Continuous Beams
This type of beam is normally considered using the Clapeyron's Theorem ( Three
Moments theorem)

The three moments theorem identifies the relationship between the bending moments
found at three consecutive supports in a continuous beam. This is achieved by
evaluating the slope of of the beam at the end where the two spans join. The slopes are
expressed in terms of the three moments and the supported loads which are then
equated and the resulting equations solved.
This relationship for spans with supports at the same height and with spans of constant
section results in the following expression.
M A.L 1 + 2.M B(L 1 + L 2)+ M C.L 2 = - 6(A 1 . x 1 /L 1 + A 2 . x 2 /L 2 )
If the beams has a different section for each span then the more general expression
applies as shown below
M A.L 1/I 1 + 2.M B(L 1/I 1 + L 2/I 2 ) + M C. L2 = - 6 [A 1 . x 1 /(L 1 .I 1 ) + A 2 . x 2 / (L 2 .I 2 ) ]
Example Areas and x 1 value calculations

Examples using theorem.

Example 1)
This simple example is a two span continuous beam with the ends simple supported,
therefore with no moments at the end support points.. 1) Bending Moments.
2) Shear Forces

3) Diagrams
Example 2)
This simple example is a three span continuous beam with the ends simple supported,
therefore with no moments at the end support points..
The values of A1,x1,A2, and x2 are calculated using the methods above..


Sites Providing
Relevant
Information
1. Three
Moment
equation for
continous
beam
analysis...
Very
advanced
paper
download
2. Mitcalc...
Excel based
software
including
coded beam
calculations
3. Granta -
Solutions to
Standard
Problems...
Very
accessible
notes for
beams and
sections
4. ETBX
Engineers
Toolbox...A
number of ver
useful
mechanical
analysis tools
with useful
background
notes ..Needs
Java
Home
Beams Index

Curved Beams
ROYMECH
Home
Beams Index
Curved beams
Introduction
The beam theory can also be applied to curved beams allowing the stress to be determined for shapes
including crane hooks and rings. When the dimensions of the cross section are small compared to the
radius of curvature of the longitudonal axis the bending theory can be relative exactness. When this is not
the case even using the modified Bernoulli-Euler only provides approximate solutions
Nomenclature
ε = strain
e = eccentricity (rc -rn)-(m)
cc = Distance from centroid axis to inner surface.-(m)
ci = Distance from neutral axis to inner surface.-(m)
co = Distance from neutral axis to outer surface.-(m)
dφ= Surface rotation resulting from bending stress
σ = stress (N/m2)
rn = Radius of neutral axis (m).
rc = Radius of centroid (m).
Theory
The sketch below shows a curved member subject to a bending moment M. The neutral axis rn and the
centroid rc are not the same. This is the primary difference between a straight beam and a curved beam.
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Curved Beams
The strain =
ε = (r-rn)dφ /rφ
The strain is clearly 0 when r = at the neutral axis and is maximum when r = the outer radius of the beam
(r = ro
Using the relationship of stress/strain = E the normal stress is simply.
σ = E.ε = E(r-rn)dφ /rφ
The location of the neutral axis is obtained from summing the product of the normal stress and the area
elements over the whole area to 0
Neutral Axis for a Rectangular Section..

Curved Beams
Curved Beam in Bending
The stress resulting from an applied bending moment is derived from the fact that the resisting moment is
simple the integral over the whole section of the moment arm from the neutral axis (y) multiplied by σdA (=
dF). Moment equilibrium is achieved if

Curved Beams
The curved beam flexure formula is in reasonable agreement for beams with a ratio of curvature to beam
depth( rectangular section) of rc/h of >5. As the beam curvature/depth radius increases the difference
between the maximum stress calculated by curved beam formula and the normal beam formula reduces.
If the ratio is about 8 then a maximum stress error of only about 5% results from using the straight beam
formulae.
Note:
When completing calculations for crane hooks the bending moment is based on the neutral axis sections
bending moments and direct stresses (compressive or tensile) have to be considered together.
Example Hook Calculation

The hook is lifting a load of 25000N.
rc = 100mm
Area A = 2000mm2

Curved Beams
Eccentricity = e = rc - rn = 100 -91,024 = 8.976mm

M = 25000N.100mm = 2500kN and the axial component is 25kN.
The stress values plotting against r are shown below:
The tensile stress at the inner surface is calculated at 126.76 N/mm2 and the compressive stress at the outer surface is
calculated at -42,25 N/mm2...This section profile results in a tensile stress three times greater than the compressive stress. A
more efficient section with the stresses balanced would result from having a wider inner section and a thinner outer section.
Sites Providing
Relevant
Information
1. Thick curved
beams...U.of West
Australia ..
Comprehensive
Notes -excellent
2. Beams composite
curve,
unsymmetrical...
Washington U.
Paper download
3. software tools-
spreadsheets... A
number of
spreadsheet
models including a
simple curved
beam spreadsheet
4. Pure Bending...
Lecture Notes
including some
notes on curved
beams

Curved Beams
Home
Beams Index

Energy Methods of Beam Solutions
ROYMECH
Home
Beams Index
Notes Using Strain Energy Methods for solving beam problems

Castigliano's Method
Introduction
When external forces are applied to an beam or structure the structure distorts. The external forces
perform work and the energy is stored in the structure in the form stress and elastic deformation. In
conformance with the law of conservation of energy the work done in the small movements of the
external forces (W) must be equal to the potential energy U stored in the structure.
External Work Done = Internal Energy Stored
W=U
When the external forces are removed the beam or structure rebounds elastically, and the stored
potential energy returns to zero.....
This simple concept provides methods of investigating the deflections of beams and structures
under external loading. These methods called energy methods are completely independent of the
normal stress/strain methods described elsewhere and are often much more convenient to apply.
Castigliano theorem is the best known energy method and notes on the application of this thoerem
are provided on this webpage
The notes below provide a very basic introduction to the theorem. For detailed notes reference to
specialist literature is required..
Castiglianos's Method
This method provides a means of finding a particular deformation at a particular point. Unlike the
method of double integration, it does not provide general equations for linear and angular
deformations for every point on a beam or structure. For may problems a particular solution is often
the only information required and the energy method is the most convenient option
Castiglianos's theorem is stated below
When forces act on elastic systems subject to small displacements, the displacement corresponding to any force collinear with
the force is equal of the partial derivative to the total strain energy with respect to that force.
The sign of the displacement is positive, if the displacement is in the same direction as the force
Mathematically Catigliano's theorem is stated as follows..
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δ i is the displacement of the point of application of the force F i in the direction of F i..
For angular displacement (rotational) This equation can be expressed as follows
θ i is the rotational displacement (radians) of the moment M i in the direction of M i ..
This method is very useful for obtaining the displacement of a point where there is no force or
moment. In this case a force/ moment is created and then made zero at a suitable point in the
analysis.
Procedure
The procedure to be applied in using Castiglianos's theorem is as follows
a) To determine a deflection y i in the direction of a real or fictitious force F f
1. Obtain an expression for the total strain energy including the the loads F,M,T,V and a fictitious force if required required.
2. Obtain the linear deflection y f from the relationship y f = ∂U /∂ F f
3. If the force is fictitious set F f = 0 and solve the resulting equation
a) To determine an angular deflection θ f in the direction of a real or fictitious moment M f
1. Obtain an expression for the total strain energy including the the loads F,M,T,V and a fictitious moment if required.
2. Obtain the angular deflection from the relationship θ f = ∂U /∂M i
3. If the moment is fictitious set M f = 0 and solve the resulting equation
Examples
Some examples of the use of Castigliano's theorem are provided to illustrate the principles..
Example 1
Consider a simply supported beam with a central load F. The deflection at the central load point is
to be determined.
l= 2m, b=0,1m, h= 0,05m, F=10 000N, E=206 GPa, G = 78,610, I = 4,17.10-6m4

For this example it is assumed that the beam is a rectangle width b and depth h. The strain energy
for bending and for traverse shear is included in the consideration. Because the beam is
symmetrical the deflection at the central point is obtained by doubling the solution from 0 to l/2.
x = the distance from the left hand support.
Moment M = (F/2).x and Tranverse Force V = F/2
With reference to the webpage on strain energy Strain Energy
1) The expression for the total strain energy =
2) From Castigiano's theorem the deflection of the Force F in the direction of F y f = ∂U / ∂ F f
As can be seen from the above example the deflection resulting from the traverse shear is about
0,8% that of resulting from bending and is therefore generally ignored...
Example 2
Consider the cantilever beam with a load F at a distance b from the free end. The deflection at the
free end is required and so a fictitious load Ff has been added. The strain energy due to traverse
shear loading can be neglected.
The expression for the moment is

1) With reference to the webpage on strain energy Strain Energy The equation for the strain
energy is therefore..
2) From Castigiano's theorem the deflection of the Force Ff in the direction of Ff y f = ∂U /∂ F f
3) Setting Ff to zero and integrating for x results in
Example 3
Consider the frame as shown below with one leg free to move horizontally and the other leg
pivotted. A horizontal force F is applied to the free leg and the deflection of the free leg is
required. The strain energy due to traverse shear loading can be neglected.

The expression for the moment in CD M = Fy

The expression for the moment in BC M = FL1
The expression for the moment in AB M = Fy
The expression for the Tensile force in BC = F
1) With reference to the webpage on strain energy Strain Energy The equation for the strain
energy is therefore..
2) From Castigiano's theorem the deflection of the Force F in the direction of F δ = ∂U /∂ F f
1. Strain Energy Methods ...A powerpoint presentation of the appication of strain energy methods
2. Elasticity Theory ...Very detailed notes including reference to strain energy

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Beams Index

Collar Eyebolt dimensions

ROYMECH
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Transport
Collar EyeBolt To BS4278 Table 1
NOTES: All information on this page is for guidance only: For actual lifting capacities, dimensions and safe use requirements refer to
the standards indicated and be advised by the equipment suppliers. The safe working loads is for axial lifts only. For lifts not in line
with axes of eyebolt the SWL has to be reduced. Please refer to BS4278
Safe
Metric
Working B C D E F G H J K L
Thread
Load
tonnes dia mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
0.4 12 22 15 7 15 9 20 18 1 3 9
0.8 16 29 20 10 20 12 26 23 1 3 12
1.6 20 40 27 14 27 16 36 32 1 5 16
2.5 24 52 35 17 35 21 46 40 2 6 21
4.0 30 65 44 22 44 26 58 51 2 7 26
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Collar Eyebolt dimensions
6.3 36 81 54 27 54 32 72 63 3 9 32
8.0 42 90 60 30 60 36 80 70 3 10 36
10.0 48 101 68 34 68 40 90 79 3 11 40
12.5 52 115 76 38 76 46 102 89 3 13 46
16.0 56 128 86 43 86 51 114 100 4 14 51
20.0 64 144 96 48 96 58 128 112 4 16 58
25.0 72 162 108 54 108 65 144 128 4 18 65
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Eyebolt with link dimensions

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Lifting Index
Eyebolt with Link To BS4278 Table 2
the standards indicated and be advised by the equipment suppliers. The safe working loads is for axial lifts only. For lifts not in line
with axes of eyebolt the SWL has to be reduced. Please refer to BS4278
Safe
Metric
Working B C D E F G H J K L M Link
Thread
Load
d Bd Ld
tonnes dia mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1.0 20 39 24 9 15 12 20 27 1 4 14 12 13 24 53
1.6 24 47 29 11 18 14 23 32 1 5 16 14 15 29 63
2.5 30 60 37 14 23 18 30 41 2 6 21 18 19 37 80
4.0 36 75 46 17 29 23 38 52 2 7 26 23 24 46 102
6.3 48 94 58 22 36 29 47 65 3 9 32 29 30 58 126
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Eyebolt with link dimensions
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Lifting Index
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Dynamo Eyebolt dimensions

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Lifting Index
Dynamo EyeBolt To BS4278 Table 3
the standards indicated and be advised by the equipment suppliers. The safe working loads is for axial lifts only.
Safe Metric
B C D E F G H J K
Working Load Thread
tonnes dia mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
0.32 12 17 14 5 22 9 27 18 1 3
0.63 16 23 18 6 29 11 34 23 1 3
1.25 20 32 25 9 40 15 47 32 1 5
2.0 24 40 32 12 51 19 60 40 2 6
3.2 30 51 41 14 64 24 76 51 2 7
5.0 36 63 50 18 79 30 95 63 3 9
6.3 42 70 56 20 88 33 105 70 3 10
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Lifting/eyebolt_dyn.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:41:44 AM

Dynamo Eyebolt dimensions
8 48 79 63 22 99 37 118 79 3 11
10.0 52 89 71 26 112 42 134 89 3 13
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Lifting Index
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Large Bow Shackle Dimensions

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Lifting Index
Large Bow Shackle to BS 3032 and BS6994:1988
Large Bow Shackles to BS 3032
BS3032 is withdrawn and is actually in imperial dimensions the table below includes approx conversions and must be only used for
general guidance. For accurate dimensions and guidance of the actual lifting capacity and usage it is necesary to refer to BS 3032.
Safe
Net
Working d D W E S G
Weight
Load
tonnes mm mm mm mm mm mm kg
0.15 6 10 13 19 29 19 0.11
0.45 10 12 16 25 41 25 0.17
0.75 12 16 22 32 54 32 0.35
1.25 16 20 29 41 70 38 0.66
2.0 20 22 35 51 86 44 1.02
2.75 22 25 41 57 98 51 1.57
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3.75 25 28 44 64 108 55 2.3

4.75 28 32 51 73 124 64 3.2
5.75 32 35 57 83 137 70 4.3
8.5 38 44 70 98 168 89 6.8
11.5 45 51 86 121 206 102 11.0
15 50 57 98 140 238 114 20.0
Large Bow Shackles to BS 6994 1988
This table below is for guidance only. For the actual lifting capacity,detailed dimensions and useage refer to BS 6994
WWL d W s D G E
tonnes mm mm mm mm mm mm
0.8 10.5 18 47 14 28 28
1.25 13 21 59 16 32 34
2.0 16.5 30 74 20 40 44
3.2 20 36 92 24 48 50
4.0 22.5 41 104 27 54 57
5.0 25.5 48 119 30 60 67
6.3 28.5 52 131 33 66 74
8.0 32 59 146 36 72 83
10.0 36.5 66 164 42 84 97
12.5 42 72 185 48 96 109
16.0 45 83 207 52 104 115
20 51 94 234 59 118 135
32 64 118 293 75 150 166
40 71.5 132 328 83 166 185
50 85 152 382 91 182 226
63 95 170 427 102 204 253
80 105 191 472 116 232 280
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Lifting Index


Large Dee Shackle Dimensions

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Lifting Index
Large Dee Shackle to BS 3032 and BS6994: 1988
Large Dee Shackles to BS 3032
BS3032 is withdrawn and is actually in imperial dimensions the table below includes approx conversions and must be only used for
general guidance. For accurate dimensions and guidance of the actual lifting capacity and usage it is necesary to refer to BS 3032.
Safe
Net
Working d D W S G
Weight
Load
tonnes mm mm mm mm mm kg
0.15 6 10 13 29 19 0.10
0.45 10 12 16 41 25 0.18
0.75 12 16 22 54 32 0.33
1.25 16 20 29 70 38 0.63
2.0 20 22 35 86 44 0.98
2.75 22 25 41 98 51 1.5
3.75 25 28 44 108 55 2.18
4.75 28 32 51 124 64 3.02
5.75 32 35 57 137 70 4.05
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Lifting/Shackle_d.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:41:51 AM

Large Dee Shackle Dimensions
8.5 38 44 70 168 89 6.4

11.5 45 51 86 206 102 10.3
15 50 57 98 238 114 19.1
Large Dee Shackles to BS 6994 1988
This table below is for guidance only. For the actual lifting capacity,detailed dimensions and useage refer to BS 6994
WWL d W s D G
tonnes mm mm mm mm mm
0.8 10.5 19 42 14 28
1.25 13 23 52 16 32
2.0 16.5 29 66 20 40
3.2 20 38 80 24 48
4.0 22.5 42 90 27 54
5.0 25.5 48 102 30 60
6.3 28.5 54 114 33 66
8.0 32 59 128 36 72
10.0 36.5 67 146 42 84
12.5 39.5 75 168 48 96
16.0 45 84 180 52 104
20 51 96 204 59 118
32 64 121 256 75 150
40 71.5 135 286 83 166
50 78 150 312 91 182
63 90 173 360 102 204
80 100 193 400 116 232
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Lifting Index
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O Ring Seals
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Seals Index
O Ring Seals
Important Note: The tables and information below are for reference only. The groove dimension and the associated information has been
extracted from standards and catalogues. Selection of the O-ring parameters should include consideration of pressures, fluids, materials
etc. Final details can only be completed using information from seal suppliers.
Introduction
An O- ring is basically defined by its section diameter and the inner diameter of the O-Ring.
O rings have many advantageous features including
1. Low Cost
2. Suit static and dynamic duties
3. Space efficient
4. Seals in both direction
5. Fluid pressure assists sealing
6. Suitable for all fluids-using appropriate elastomers
There are two current standards for O-rings in the UK
BS 1806:1989 Specification for dimensions of toroidal sealing rings ('O'-rings) and their housings (inch series).
Section sizes according to this standard include: 0.04in(1.02mm), 0.05inch(1.27mm), 0.06inch(1.52m), 0.07inch(1.78mm), 0.103inch
(2.62mm), 0.139inch(3.53mm), 0.210inch(5.33mm), , 0.275inch(6.99mm)
BS 4518:1982 Specification for metric dimensions of toroidal sealing rings ('O'-rings) and their housings
Section sizes according to this standard include: 1.6mm, 2.4mm, 3.0mm, 4.1mm, 5.7mm, 8.4mm
O-Ring Reference Number
According to BS4518 the O-Ring reference number =

O-Ring Inside dia (mm - 4 digits -1 decimal place)"-" O Ring Section (mm - 2 digits - 1 decimal place)
with the decimal point excluded.
For example 0545-30 is an O-ring of 54.5mm ID with 3.0 mm section
Surface Texture
The surface texture of the surfaces in contact with the O-ring seals should not exceed
1. For Non Sealing surfaces 1.6 micrometers CLA

2. For static applications 0.8 micrometers CLA
3. For dynamic application 0.4 micrometers CLA
Notes:
Sealing surfaces are Rod, Hole, and bottom of groove.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Seals/O_Rings.html (1 of 12)10/24/2006 11:42:06 AM

O Ring Seals
For dynamic applications it is important not to have too good a surface finish(less than 0.2 micrometers) as a dry surface would result from
the seal wiping action.
Static and Rotating Shaft Seals
Lead-In dia = Shaft dia (nom) - 2x C Lead-In dia = Hole Dia (nom) + 2x C
Groove Dia max = Shaft Dia min + 2 x F max Groove Dia Max = Hole dia min - 2 x F Min
Groove Dia min = Shaft Dia max + 2 x F min Groove Dia Min = Hole dia max - 2 xF min
Hole(Cyl) Dia max = Shaft Dia min + G Shaft Dia min = Hole Dia max - G
BS 4518 sizes For Dynamic Pneumatic and Hydraulic Applications
O-Ring Size 2.4mm 3.0mm 5.7mm 8.4mm

Width E 3.2/3.4 4.0/4.2 7.5/7.7 11/11.2
Radial
Depth F 1.97/2.09 2.5/2.65 4.95/5.18 7.5/7.75
Hydraulic
Radial
Depth F 2.13/2.2 2.7/2.77 5.22/5.38 7.75/7.96
Pneumatic
Max
0.14 0.15 0.18 0.2
Clearance G
Lead_in C 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.2
Max Rad R 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0
BS 4518 sizes For Static Applications
O-Ring
1.6mm 2.4mm 3.0mm 5.7mm 8.4mm
Size

O Ring Seals
Width E 2.3/2.5 3.1/3.3 3.7/3.9 6.4/6.8 9.0/9.2

Radial
1.18/1.25 1.84/1.97 2.35/2.5 4.7/4.95 7.2/7.5
Depth F
Max
Clearance 0.12 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.2
G
Lead_in C .6 0.7 0.8 1.2 1.5
Max Rad
0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0
R
BS 4518 Sizes for Static Face Sealing Applications
- -
BS 4518 sizes For Face Seal Static Applications
O-Ring
1.6mm 2.4mm 3.0mm 5.7mm 8.4mm
Size
Depth H 1.2/1.3 1.7/1.8 2.2/2.3 4.4/4.5 6.6/6.7
Max Rad R 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0
Max Rad T 0.8 1.3 2.0 3.0 4.0
Chamfer-
2.2/2.32 3.3/3.42 4.2/4.32 7.8/7.92 11.5/11.62
M
Min.Len L 4.0 5.0 6.0 10.0 14.0
O Ring Metric Sizes to BS4518

O Ring Seals
O-Ring
1.6mm 2.4mm 3.0mm 5.7mm 8.4mm
Size
1.6mm O Ring
1.6mm +/- 0.08mm Dia O-ring

- Diameters Flange Groove Diameters
Internal Pressure External Pressure
Shaft Hole
Ref. No Vmax W(H11) V(h11) Wmin
Dia (Cyl)Dia
0031-16 3.5 6 1 6.3 3.5 7.5
0041-16 4.5 7 2.3 7.3 4.5 8.5
0051-16 5.5 8 3.3 8.3 5.5 9.5
0061-16 6.5 9 4.3 9.3 6.5 10.5
0071-16 7.5 10 5.8 10.3 7.5 11.5
0081-16 8.5 11 6.8 11.3 8.5 12.5
0091-16 9.5 12 7.8 12.3 9.5 13.5
0101-16 10.5 13 8.8 13.3 10.5 14.5
0111-16 11.5 14 9.8 14.3 11.5 15.5
0121-16 12.5 15 10.8 15.3 12.5 16.5
0131-16 13.5 16 11.8 16.3 13.5 17.5
0141-16 14.5 17 12.8 17.3 14.5 18.5
0151-16 15.5 18 14 18.3 15.5 19.5
0161-16 16.5 19 15 19.3 16.5 20.5
0171-16 17.5 20 16 20.3 17.5 21.5
0181-16 18.5 21 17 21.3 18.5 22.5
0191-16 19.5 22 18 22.3 19.5 23.5
0221-16 22.5 25 21 25.3 22.5 26.5
0251-16 25.5 28 24 28.3 25.5 29.5
0271-16 27.5 30 26 30.3 27.5 31.5
0291-16 29.5 32 28 32.3 29.5 33.5
0321-16 32.5 35 31 35.3 32.5 36.5
0351-16 35.5 38 34 38.3 35.5 39.5

O Ring Seals
0371-16 37.5 40 36 40.3 37.5 41.5
2.4mm O Ring

Shaft Hole
Dia (Cyl)Dia
0036-24 4 8 - 8.4 4 10
0046-24 5 9 1 9.4 5 11
0056-24 6 10 2.5 10.4 6 12
0066-24 7 11 4 11.4 7 13
0076-24 8 12 5 12.4 8 14
0086-24 9 13 6.4 13.4 9 15
0096-24 10 14 7.4 14.4 10 16
0106-24 11 15 8.4 15.4 11 17
0116-24 12 16 9.5 16.4 12 18
0126-24 13 17 10.5 17.4 13 19
0136-24 14 18 11.5 18.4 14 20
0146-24 15 19 12.5 19.4 15 21
0156-24 16 20 13.5 20.4 16 22
0166-24 17 21 14.5 21.4 17 23
0176-24 18 22 15.5 22.4 18 24
0186-24 19 23 16.5 23.4 19 25
0196-24 20 24 17.5 24.4 20 26
0206-24 21 25 18.5 25.4 21 27
0216-24 22 26 19.5 26.4 22 28
0246-24 25 29 22.5 29.4 25 31
0276-24 28 32 25.5 32.4 28 34
0296-24 30 34 27.5 34.4 30 36
0316-24 32 36 29.5 36.4 32 38
0346-24 35 39 32.5 39.4 35 41

O Ring Seals
0356-24 36 40 33.5 40.4 36 42

0376-24 38 42 35.5 42.4 38 44
0396-24 40 44 37.5 44.4 40 46
0416-24 42 46 39.5 46.4 42 48
0446-24 45 49 42.5 49.4 45 51
0456-24 46 50 43.5 50.4 46 52
0476-24 48 52 45.5 52.4 48 54
0496-24 50 54 47.5 54.4 50 56
0516-24 52 56 49.5 56.4 52 58
0546-24 55 59 52.5 59.4 55 61
0556-24 56 60 53.5 60.4 56 62
0576-24 58 62 55.5 62.4 58 64
0586-24 59 63 56.5 63.4 59 65
0596-24 60 64 57.5 64.4 60 66
0616-24 62 66 59.5 66.4 62 68
0626-24 63 67 60.5 67.4 63 69
0646-24 65 69 62.5 69.4 65 71
0676-24 68 72 65.5 72.4 68 74
0696-24 70 74 67.5 74.4 70 76
3.0mm O Ring

Shaft Hole
Dia (Cyl)Dia
0195-30 20 25 17 25 20 28
0215-30 22 27 19 27 22 30
0225-30 23 28 20 28 23 31
0245-30 25 30 22 30 25 33
0255-30 26 31 23 31 26 34
0265-30 27 32 24 32 27 35
0275-30 28 33 25 33 28 36

O Ring Seals
0295-30 30 35 27 35 30 38
0315-30 32 37 29 37 32 40
0325-30 33 38 30 38 33 41
0345-30 35 40 32 40 35 43
0355-30 36 41 33 41 36 44
0365-30 37 42 34 42 37 45
0375-30 38 43 35 43 38 46
0395-30 40 45 37 45 40 48
0415-30 42 47 39 47 42 50
0425-30 43 48 40 48 43 51
0445-30 45 50 42 50 45 53
0495-30 50 55 47 55 50 58
0545-30 55 60 52 60 55 63
0555-30 56 61 53 61 56 64
0575-30 58 63 55 63 58 66
0595-30 60 65 57 65 60 68
0625-30 63 68 60 68 63 71
0645-30 65 70 62 70 65 73
0695-30 70 75 67 75 70 78
0745-30 75 80 72 80 75 83
0795-30 80 85 77 85 80 88
0845-30 85 90 82 90 85 93
0895-30 90 95 87 95 90 98
0945-30 95 100 92 100 95 103
0995-30 100 105 97 105 100 108
1045-30 105 110 102 110 105 113
1095-30 110 115 107 115 110 118
1145-30 115 120 112 120 115 123
1195-30 120 125 117 125 120 128
1245-30 125 130 122 130 125 133
1295-30 130 135 127 135 130 138
1345-30 135 140 132 140 135 143
1395-30 140 145 137 145 140 148

O Ring Seals
1445-30 145 150 142 150 145 153

1495-30 150 155 147 155 150 158
1545-30 155 160 152 160 155 163
1595-30 160 165 157 165 160 168
1645-30 165 170 162 170 165 173
1695-30 170 175 167 175 170 178
1745-30 175 180 172 180 175 183
1795-30 180 185 177 185 180 188
1845-30 185 190 182 190 185 193
1895-30 190 195 187 195 190 198
1945-30 195 200 192 200 195 203
1995-30 200 205 197 205 200 208
2095-30 210 215 207 215 210 218
2195-30 220 225 217 225 220 228
2295-30 230 235 227 235 230 238
2395-30 240 245 237 245 240 248
2445-30 245 250 242 250 245 253
2495-30 250 255 247 255 250 258
5.7mm O Ring

Shaft Hole
Ref. No Vmax W(H11) V(h11) W min
Dia (Cyl)Dia
0443-57 45 55 41 55 45 59
0453-57 46 56 42 56 46 60
0493-57 50 60 46 60 50 64
0523-57 53 63 49 63 53 67
0543-57 55 65 51 65 55 69
0553-57 56 66 52 66 56 70
0593-57 60 70 56 70 60 74
0623-57 63 73 59 73 63 77

O Ring Seals
0643-57 65 75 61 75 65 79
0693-57 70 80 66 80 70 84
0743-57 75 85 71 85 75 89
0793-57 80 90 76 90 80 94
0843-57 85 95 81 95 85 99
0893-57 90 100 86 100 90 104
0943-57 95 105 91 105 95 109
0993-57 100 110 96 110 100 114
1043-57 105 115 101 115 105 119
1093-57 110 120 106 120 110 124
1143-57 115 125 111 125 115 129
1193-57 120 130 116 130 120 134
1243-57 125 135 121 135 125 139
1293-57 130 140 126 140 130 144
1343-57 135 145 131 145 135 149
1393-57 140 150 136 150 140 154
1443-57 145 155 141 155 145 159
1493-57 150 160 146 160 150 164
1543-57 155 165 151 165 155 169
1593-57 160 170 156 170 160 174
1643-57 165 175 161 175 165 179
1693-57 170 180 166 180 170 184
1743-57 175 185 171 185 175 189
1793-57 180 190 176 190 180 194
1843-57 185 195 181 195 185 199
1893-57 190 200 186 199 190 204
1943-57 195 205 191 204 195 209
1993-57 200 210 195 209 200 214
2093-57 210 220 205 219 210 224
2193-57 220 230 215 229 220 234
2293-57 230 240 225 239 230 244
2393-57 240 250 235 249 240 254
2493-57 250 260 245 259 250 264

O Ring Seals
2593-57 260 270 255 269 261 275

2693-57 270 280 265 279 271 285
2793-57 280 290 275 289 281 295
2893-57 290 300 285 299 291 305
2993-57 300 310 295 309 301 315
3093-57 310 320 305 319 311 325
3193-57 320 330 315 329 321 335
3393-57 340 350 335 349 341 355
3593-57 360 370 355 369 361 375
3793-57 380 390 375 389 381 395
3893-57 390 400 385 399 391 405
3993-57 400 410 395 409 401 415
4193-57 420 430 415 429 422 436
4393-57 440 450 435 449 442 456
4593-57 460 470 455 469 462 476
4793-57 480 490 475 489 482 496
4893-57 490 500 485 499 492 506
4993-57 500 510 495 509 502 516
8.4mm O Ring

Shaft Hole
Ref. No Vmax W(H11) V(h11) W min
Dia (Cyl)Dia
1441-84 145 160 140 160 145 165
1491-84 150 165 145 165 150 170
1541-84 155 170 150 170 155 175
1591-84 160 175 155 175 160 180
1641-84 165 180 160 180 165 185
1691-84 170 185 165 185 170 190
1741-84 175 190 170 190 175 195

O Ring Seals
1791-84 180 195 175 195 180 200

1841-84 185 200 180 200 185 205
1891-84 190 205 185 205 190 210
1941-84 195 210 190 210 195 215
1991-84 200 215 195 215 200 220
2041-84 205 220 200 220 205 225
2091-84 210 225 205 225 210 230
2191-84 220 235 215 235 220 240
2291-84 230 245 225 245 230 250
2341-84 235 250 230 250 235 255
2391-84 240 255 235 255 240 260
2491-84 250 265 245 265 250 270
Links
Providing
information on
O Ring Seals
1. James
Walker Well
known UK
Supplier
2. Garlock A
supplier of a
wide range of
seal products
3. Supaseal -
Lots of
information
and seal
dimensions
4. mdmetric
Downloads
including
information
on metric O-
rings
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O Ring Seals

Rotary Seals

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Seals Index
Rotary Seals
Introduction
These notes include descriptions of the following seal types.
1. Labyrinth Seals
2. Felt Seals
3. Lip Seals
4. FerroFluid Seals
Mechanical Seals are widely used for rotary shaft seals these are reviewed on another
page Mechanical Seals
Labyrinth Seals
A labyrinth is defined as a complicated network of passages. A labyrinth is provided the prevent the easy passage from the
entry to the exit.
The labyrinth seal provides the same function.The Labyrinth Seal restricts the passage of solid, liquid and gaseous
contaminants into the sealed area and also restricts the leakage of fluid out of the sealed containment.
Non-contacting rotary and stationary elements provide a restricted flow path and utilize centrifugal force and gravity to prevent
leakage.
Unlike other rotating e.g lip seals, the Labyrinth Seal will not damage shafts and has a virtually unlimited life, is frictionless, is
largely unaffected by high or low temperatures and can be used for high shaft rotating speeds.
Sealing depends on the form of the labyrinth gap and the length of the leakage path. Rings on the shaft and grooves in the
housing provide the basic labyrinth. At least three groves should be used to provide adequate sealing; clearances vary
between 0.25 to 1.0 mm, depending on the speed and temperature the seal is operating in.
More efficient forms of labyrinth seal use alternating teeth of alternating serrations. Smaller gaps produce less leakage but the
gap has to be large enough to avoid contact.
The obvious disadvantage of the labyrinth seal is that there is an engineered gap. This type of seal does not work well if the
shaft is not rotating and is not really effective at sealing across high pressure differentials.
Labyrinth Seal Variations
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Seals/Rotary_Seals.html (1 of 5)10/24/2006 11:42:15 AM

Rotary Seals
Felt Seals
Felt seals are mainly used with as oil or grease seals for retaining lubrication and at the same time preventing dirt or dust
entering the bearing.
Felt has long been used for sealing duties because of numerous favourable properties such as wicking and oil absorption
properties, fine filtering and resilience. This allows the felt to maintain a constant sealing pressure and as the seal wears the
felt surface remains unchanged.
Felt seals are usually pre-saturated with lubricants of a higher viscosity than the bearings offering positive bearing protection.
If the seal does run dry it will tend to protect and polish the shaft rather than cause damage. Through normal operating
temperatures and conditions the felt seal is highly economical, normally requiring replacement when the machine is
overhauled.
When the seal is correctly installed the seal is effective over a variety of operating conditions and a wide range of speeds.
Normal maximum rubbing speed is 10 m/s but can be as high as 20m/s if the rubbing surfaces are highly polished and
lubricant is always present.
Felt Seals are not suitable for oils with extremely low viscosity or the lubricant is pressurised.
Felt Seal

Rotary Seals
Lip Seals
This is an assembly consisting of a rubbing elastomer ring seal element held in place by spring. The seal friction is reduced
as an oil film is generated between the lip of the seal and the shaft. Any damage to the shaft where the seal runs will cause
leakage because the optimum oil film thickness will be exceeded locally. Therefore the shaft finish is especially important, as
leakage will occur if an irregular surface is present.
The lubricated rubbing provides the sealing action. This sealing action cannot be maintained at high speeds if the shaft is not
running perfectly true. To maintain oil film thickness the seal must follow any shaft movement. This becomes difficult when
the shaft is subject to eccentric running or vibration at high speeds. Typically these seals will operate in the region of 18 m/s
and the seals are affected by friction.
Lip Seal
Ferrofluid Seals
This is a very specialised rotary seal type which has very superior theoretical benefits.
The seal is fluid ring which is retained in place between the rotating and fixed members under the action of magnetic forces.
Ferrofluidic sealing technology takes advantage of the response of a fluid, containing a uniform distribution of magnetic
particles, to an applied magnetic field. It uses a magnet with magnetically permeable north and south pole pieces and a
magnetically permeable shaft to create a permanent magnetic circuit. The magnetic flux is concentrated in the gap under

Rotary Seals
each pole and when ferrofluid is applied to this gap it assumes the shape of a liquid o-ring and produces a hermetic seal.
Ferrofluidic seals offer provide hermetic sealing, long life, virtually frictionless sealing and smooth operation. They are non-
contaminating, highly reliable and can operate at high speeds. This type of seal can be used over a wide temperature range,
which can be increased by use of cooling, or heating circuits.
The seals have to be regularly maintained as the fluid properties deteriorate over time.
These bearings are used for very specialised applications.
Ferrofluid Seal
Other Types of Rotary Seals
Variations on the themes established above include for brush seals and finger seals.

Rotary Seals
Links
Providing
information on
Rotary Seals
1. James
Walker ...Well
known UK
Supplier
2. Garlock ...A
supplier of a
wide range of
seal products
3. British Felt...
Information on
Woolen Felts
4. MSO Seals...
Lots of
information on
rotary seals
including
profiles
5. Acorn_Ind...
Good site with
description of
various Rotary
Seals
6. ferrotec...
Ferrofluid
Seals
7. Blackmer...
Typical
labyrinth seal
specification
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Mechanical Seals

ROYMECH
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Seals Index
Mechanical Seals
Introduction
Mechanical seals are being used increasingly on fluid pumps to replace packed glands and lip seals. Pumps with
mechanical seals perform more efficiently and generally perform more reliably for extended periods of time
Mechanical seals are provided to prevent pumped fluids from leaking out along the drive shafts. The controlled leakage path
is between two flat surfaces associated with the rotating shaft and the housing respectively. The leakage path gap varies as
the faces are subject to varying external loads which tend the move the faces relative to each other.
The mechanical seal requires a different shaft housing design arrangement compared to that for the other type of seals
because the seal is a more complicated arrangement and the mechanical seal does not provide any support to the shaft.
In order for the mechanical seal to perform over an extended time period with low frictional the faces are generally
hydrodynamically lubricated. The fluid film will need to carry substantial load. If the load becomes to high for the film surface
contact will take place with consequent bearing failure. This lubricating film is generally of the order of 3 micrometres thick , or
less. This thickness is critical to the required sealing function. Mechanical seals often have one face of a suitable solid
lubricant such that the seal can still operate for a period without the fluid film.
Pressure Balance Seals
It is possible to reduce the seal contact pressure by using a pressure balanced seal design of off-set a proportion of the force
generated by the pumped fluid pressure. This principle is illustrated in the sketch below.
Design Features
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Mechanical Seals
The mechanical seal generally includes a three static seals.
● The sleeve seal - this is usually an O-Ring

● The seal between the moving seal member and the shaft or sleeve.- This is often an o-ring but can be a wedge or
vee seal. This seal may not be used for bellows type mechanical seals
● The housing seal is generally an o-ring of a gasket.
All of these seal must be compatible with the fluid being contained and the associated
environment. These seals may limit the design for high temperature applications. In this
case the bellows type alternative may be the best option.
The sealing faces are generally pressed together using some form of spring loading.
Several different spring loading systems are available.
● Single spring
● Multiple springs distributed around seal body
● Disc Springs
● Disc Springs
● Bellows
● Magnetic
For conventional mechanical seals the single spring arrangements is used. The other
spring arrangements are used in the space is restricted.
It is vitally important that the sealing surfaces perfectly flat and are parallel.
The seal faces are usually dissimilar materials with the softer face being the narrower
surface. For abrasive applications similar hard materials are used e.g tungsten carbide.
The seal surfaces must have sufficient strength to withstand the hydrostatic fluid forces
and must be able to remove the heat generated by sliding action. Carbon is often used
against bronze, cast iron, stainless steel etc.
The seal surface must be flat, smooth and square to the shaft. Both surfaces a normally
lapped to a high quality finish. The harder surface is most important because the softer
surface is designed to run-in over the initial operating period.
The shaft design is critical. It must be rigid enough to support the seal in the correct
position and the shaft surface finish must be suitable to ensure good sealing on the static
seals (0.4 micrometers CLA or better). The shaft Total Indicated Runout (TIR) should not
exceed 0.125mm. There should be minimum shaft vibration. The shaft may be subject
to fretting corrosion as a result of micro-movements of the seal and is is often desireable
to have locally hardened surfaces or to use sleeves.

Mechanical Seals
Assembly Options
There are a number of mechanical seal options
● External Seal.. This design is installed on the outside of the stuffing box with the sealed pressure inside. This
provides good access allowing the seal components to be be cleaned.
● Internal Seal.. Generally mechanical seals are mounted inside the stuffing box with the sealed pressure outside the
seal.
● Double Seals.. Mechanical seals mounted in pairs are used for sealing hazardous, toxic or abrasiv fluids and are
often provided with clean flushing fluid between the seals. Double seals also provide an additional degree of safety
were the pressure differentials are likely to reverse and/or there is a high risk of the sealing failing. There are a
number of double seal assembly options as listed below
❍ In Series - Used primarily to overcome the risk of failure of a single seal.
● Face to Face - Used when a cooling fluid interface is required . One seal is used for the process fluid the other seal
is used for the coolant.

Mechanical Seals
● Back to Back - Used when an abrasive fluid is being contained and both seals are flushed with a clean buffer fluid.
The flushing fluid is introduced at a higher pressure the process fluid
The are a large number of variant mechanical seals e.g split seals. Improved systems are constantly being introduced onto
the market
Additional Equipment
The use of mechanical seals generally involve the use of additional equipment primarily for the flushing /coolant systems.
This includes pumps, coolers, strainers, filters etc.
Links Providing
information on
Mechanical Seals
1. Chesterton High quality

mechanical seal
supplier- Various
calculators / Material
selection etc
2. Garlock A supplier of a
wide range of seal
products
3. McNally Institute A
collection of papers on
pump design including
lots of information on
mechanical seals
4. EPM Extensive

Mechanical Seals
selection of mechanical
Seals
5. GlobalSpecDatabase
including mechanical
Seals
Home
Seals Index Page

Packing Seals

ROYMECH
Home
Seals Index
Packings
Introduction
The packed gland is used primarily for sealing process valve shafts (axial movement) and for process pump shafts(rotary
movement). The packed gland has provided a low tech. convenient solution throughout the history of engineering. In
modern times the packed gland is being replaced by more exotic solutions.
Typical Packed Gland Arrangement
Pumps
The packed gland seal for pump applicataions is, due to it's high maintenance requirements, is now rarely fitted to new pumps
then mostly in conjunction with long coupled bed plate mounted pumps. Specific operating conditions require distinctly
different types packed gland seals. They require regular checks and maintenance adjustments.. Proper lubrication of the
gland packing requires a certain leakage rate. Special manufacturers recommendation's are to be observed individually.
Service life expectancy is between 1 and 2 years, this can sometimes extend to several years on favourable conditions.
Extremely bad fluid conditions (sediments, additives, overheating) can however drastically cut short their service
life. Packed glands should preferably be used in conjunction with shaft sleeves in order to avoid damage to the shaft by
aggressive fluids or due to improper treatment of the packed gland.
Valves
The packed gland is still widely used for stem sealing of various types of valves including gate valves, globe valves, and ball
valves. The packed gland provides a low cost option with the capabilities of sealing under a wide range of operating
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Packing Seals
conditions with a wide range of fluids by selecting appropriate packing materials. A packed gland is often used in conjunction
with another type of seal or fluid containment e.g an o-ring seals, bellows containment etc.
The gland packing generally creeps over time and therefore needs to be regularly tightened to maintain the seal. The
packing can be continuously spring loaded using disc springs or similar to extend the maintenance period.
General
The properties of a packing system required for good sealing and trouble free operation include
● Compatibility with the working fluid at the operating temperatures

● Plasticity to conform to the shaft under the influence of the gland force
● Lubricant insoluble and immiscible with the sealed fluid
● Non-abrasive to minimise shaft erosion
● Non-corrosive to avoid damage to the shaft of housing
● Wear resistant
● Retain properties over time
Soft Packings
Yarn packings can be based on vegetable , animal or synthetic fibres and are based on various types of fibre.
● Plaited
● Braided
● Twisted
● Plastic
Metallic Packings
In plaited and braided packings reinforcing wires are used for operation at higher temperatures and pressures. For high
temperatures, woven types of copper and aluminium packing can be produces. Metal foils of lead, aluminium, and copper
can be used to form packings.
Combinations of packings having hard metal end rings with softer inner rings are used for higher performance duties including
gases and abrasive fluids.
Lantern Rings
Annular rings are sometimes included between two sets of packings to allow introduction of lubricant, cooling or flushing fluid.
Shaft Design
The shaft/ sleeve surface in contact with the seal should have a surface finsh of 0.4 micrometres or better. The clearances
above and below the packings should be such to prevent extrusion of the packing material along the shaft. The clearance
should not be too small that contact between the static and rotating metal is possible
Temperature Range For Packing Materials
Table provided for guidance only, final design values must be obtained from suppliers

Packing Seals
Temperature
Material
Range Deg C
Jute, Flax,
0 to 60
hemp
Cotton 0 to 70
Rubberised
0 to 80
Cotton
PTFE -250 to 220
Aramid -200 to 280
Aluminium
0 to 420
Mesh
Wrapped Metal
foils-Varios 0 to 450
types
Graphite Fibre -200 to 600
Asbestos
Reinforced St. 0 to 800
Steel or Inconel
Copper Mesh 0 to 800
Aluminia Silica
filiment/ Inconel 0 to 1200
reinforced
Surface Velocity Range For Packing Materials
Table provided for guidance only, final design values must be obtained from suppliers
Surface
Material Speed Range
m/s
Aluminia- silica 0 to 0.2
Copper Mesh 0 to 0.5
Jute 0 to 4
Hemp and Cotton 0 to 6
Flax 0 to 10
PTFE 0 to 12
Wrapped Metal
0 to 20
foils-Various types

Packing Seals
Aramid 0 to 22
Aluminium Mesh 0 to 25
Asbestos (Not
0 to 25
acceptable -UK)
Grahite Fibre /Foil 0 to 50
Links
Providing
information on
Packings
1. Vulcan... A
Sheffield
company
providing a
wide range of
rotary sealing
products.
2. Flojet... A
page on
installing &
maintaining
packed
glands.
3. James
Walker ...
Supplier of
wide range of
sealing
products,
including
pump and
valve packing.
4. Klinger... A
Packing
supplier
5. Johnson
Packings ... A
supplier of
various pump
and valve
packing
materials

Packing Seals
Home
Seals Index Page

Gaskets

ROYMECH
Home
Seals Index
Gaskets
Introduction
Gaskets seals are the most widely used method of sealing contained volumes. Gaskets are generally only used as face seal
between flat surfaces including flanges of all shapes and complicated face joints. There are gasket/ jointing materials
available for virtually any fluid at any operating temperature.
Flange Design
The flange design is important when engineering a joint sealed by gaskets. The following criteria need to be considered.
● Flange surface finish -

● Area of seal surface - to ensure high clamping pressure
● Bolt placement - to ensure sufficient even clamping pressure
● Flange material strength - the surfaces must remain flat under the high clamping forces.
● Flange material to be - compatible with gasket material
● Bolt size and design - to ensure that the bolts will provide sufficient force under operating conditions
The most common flange shape is a circular pipe flange. However gaskets can be used
to seal very complicated faces which have a large number of seperate pressurised
cavities.
Gasket Variants
● Elastomer Sealing Strip - Basic elastomer solid or expanded strip or moulding - window seal etc
● Soft Cut sheet- Gaskets that are flexible including gasket papers,cork, rubbers, fibre based materials,felts, foams,
plastics etc
● Flange Gaskets- Supplied to suit flanges to standards specification i.s BST, ANSI, JIS, ASA
● Spiral Wound gaskets - for flange sealing- suitable for high pressures (700 bar), high temperatures (1600 oC)
● Corrugated Metal gaskets -suitable for irregular shapes- can be faced with sealing materials
● Solid/ expanded metal seals -for complicated shapes such as cylinder head gaskets. - Sometimes with flexible
sealing materials bonded to surfaces
● Metal reinforced gaskets i.e graphite or mica reinforce with metal perimeter rings or wire reinforcement
Gasket Materials
110 0C Max
Natural Rubber - -
Temp.
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Gaskets
Good Mechanical Properties. Resistant to Water. Fair to good

resistance to acids and alkalis. Poor resistance to oils petrol.
Poor Resistance to Weathering.
150 0C Max
Butyl -
Temp.
Very good resistance to water, alkalis, many acids. Poor
resistance to oils, petrol, and most solvents.
150 0C Max
Nitrile -
Temp.
Very good resistance to water. Fair resistance to alkalis, acids.
Excellent resistance to oils and petrol.
660C Max
Polysulphide -
Temp.
Very good resistance to water. Good resistance to alkalis, fair
resistance to acids. Excellent resistance to oils, petrol, aliphatic
and aromatic hydrocarbon solvents . Poor mechanical Properties
1200C Max
Neoprene -
Temp.
Good resistance to water and alkalis, fair resistance to acids.
good resistance to non-aromatic pertroleum, fatty oils, solvents
(except aromatic, chlorinated or ketone types). Excellent
mechanical Properties
2300C Max
Acrylic -
Temp.
Good heat resistance. Poor low temperature properties. Poor
resistance to water, alkalis and some acids. Poor resistance to
steam steam at high temperatures. Fair to good resistance to
alkalis and acids. Good resistance to oils, petrol, aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbon solvents
2300C Max
Hypalon-Chlorosulphonated Polyethylene -
Temp.

Gaskets
Good Mechanical properties Excellent resistance to oxidising

chemicals, ozone weathering. .Relatively good resistance to oils
and greas. Poor resistance to oils, petrol, aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbon solvents
2300C Max
Viton/Kel-F/Fluoroelastomer -
Temp.
Good Mechanical properties Excellent resistance to ozone
weathering. .Can be used at high temperatures with with many
fuels, lubricants, hydraulic fluids, solvents.
6000C Max
Asbestos Derivatives -
Temp.
Large number of composites and combinations- Asbestos is not
really acceptable for use in UK for health reasons
1200C Max
Cork Composites -
Temp.
Low Cost. Compressible allowing substantial deflection with
negligible side flow. Will conform to irregular surfaces. High
resistance to oils. Good resistance to water and many
chemicals. Should not be used with inorganic acids and alkalis,
oxidising solutions, live steam
1500C Max
Cork Rubber -
Temp.
Low Cost. Defined compressiblity. good fatigue resistance.
Chemical resistance dependent on rubber used
2500C Max
PTFE/Teflon/ PolyTetrfluoroethylene -
Temp.
Excellent resistance to allmost all chemicals and solvents. Good
heat resistance. Exceptional low temperature properties. Low
compressibility. Low resilience tends to creep under stress.
up to 2500C
Filled PTFE/Teflon -
Max Temp.
Improved mechanical properties - however filling material can
impair chemical properties

Gaskets
up to 2500C
PTFE/Teflon composites(lined) -
Max Temp.
Chemical properties comparable with virgin PTFE. Inner gasket
material providing improved resiliance and deformability
700C Max
Polythene -
Temp.
Resists most solvents- Poor heat properties
800C Max
Neoprene Impregenated wood fibre -
Temp.
No porous - good for glycol, oil, and petrol
1050C Max
SBR bonded Cotton -
Temp.
Good Water resistance
1050C Max
Nitrile Rubber - Cellulose fibre -
Temp.
Oil Resistant up to reasonably high temperatures
10000C Max
Inorganic Fibre -
Temp.
Excellent heat properties - poor mechanical properties
10000C Max
Graphite /Carbon Fibre -
Temp.
Excellent heat properties - Excellent chemical and mechanical
properties based on product selected.
Felt-Pure - -
Resilient, compressible, and strong but not impermeable.
Resists medium strength mineral acids and dilute mineral
solutions if not intermitently dried. Resists oils greases, waxes,
most solvents. Damaged by alkalis.
1300C Max
Felt-PTFE Impregated -
Temp.
Good chemical and heat resistance

Gaskets
2600C Max
Lead -
Temp.
Good general chemical resistance. Best conformity of all metals
2600C Max
Tin -
Temp.
Good resistance to neutral chemicals . Attacked by acids and
alkalis
4300C Max
Aluminium -
Temp.
High corrosion resistance. Slightly attacked by strong acids and
alkalis
4300C Max
Copper & Brass -
Temp.
Good corrosion resistance at moderate temperatures
7600C Max
Nickel -
Temp.
High corrosion resistance
6500C Max
Monel -
Temp.
High corrosion resistance. Good for use with wide range of
acids and alkalis. Attacked by strong hydrochloric and oxidising
acids.
10000C Max
Inconel -
Temp.
Excellent heat and oxidising resistance.
6000C Max
Stainless Steel -
Temp.
High corrosion resistance depending on grade used.
1000C Max
Leather -
Temp.

Gaskets
Low cost. Limited chemical and heat resistance. Not

recommended against pressurised steam, acid or alkli solutions.
Links
Providing
information on
Gaskets
1. James
Walker Well
known UK
Supplier
2. Garlock A
supplier of a
wide range of
seal products
3. Allstate
Gaskets
Gasket
Information
including
Chemical
Resistance
Chart
4. Klinger... A
Packing
supplier
5. Johnson
Packings ... A
supplier of
various pump
and valve
packing
materials
Home
Seals Index Page

Peripheral Pumps / Regenerative Pumps
ROYMECH
Home
Fluids Page
Back to Pumps
Peripheral Pumps /Regenerative Pumps
Note: In the sections below this type of pump is designated a regenerative pump.. The regenerative pump produces
large head at comparatively small flows. The design of the pump includes for a special impeller with a large number
of radial blades. As the fluid is discharge from on blade it is tranferred to the root of the next blade and given
additional energy. The fluid heads developed in this type of pump can be very high and the pump should not be used
without a close coupled relief valve in the system.
In a regenerative pump, liquid enters and exits the pump during several revolutions of the impeller. The velocity and
pressure increases of the liquid are therefore gradual compared to the centrifugal pump. Liquid entering the pump
near its vapor pressure is less likely to experience the pressure change that can cause cavitation due to the smaller
pressure gradient. Therefore, regenerative pumps, typically, require lower net positive suction heads than centrifugal
pumps.
This pump is generally made from special materials to combat the corrosive conditions resulting from the high degree
of turbulence experienced within the casing. The figure below shows in outline the operating principles of the
peripheral pump
Comparison between Regenerative and Centrifugal Pumps
1) The regenerative pump can handle liquids with 20% entrained gases. Under the same conditions a centrifugal
pump would experience vortexing or cavitation.
2) If the fluid supply source runs dry the regenerative pump cavity remains filled with liquid, unlike centrifugal pumps.
This allow the pump to operate under dry suction conditions in this event.
3) The regenerative pump is capable of reversible impeller rotation, with an accompanying reversal of the suction and
discharge porting.
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4) The head capacity curve of a regenerative turbine pump has a different shape compared to a centrifugal pump. It is
nearly linear sloping downward. At lower heads, the flow is typically much smaller than for a centrifugal pump. The
slope never approaches a horizontal plane. Therefore, throttling a valve for a regenerative pump will permit more
precise changes in flow, without major overshooting or undershooting of the duty point.
Useful Links
1. Dynaflow Engineering .. Pump supplier Providing useful notes comparing Centrifugal and Regenrative Pumps
2. Uengineer.. A site including fluid calculations and various data sheets
Home
Fluids Page
Back to Pumps


Rotodynamic Pumps
Disclaimer:
The
information
on this
page has
not been
checked by
an
independent
person. Use
this
information
at your own
risk.
ROYMECH
Home
Fluids Page
Back to Pumps
Rotodynamic Pumps
Rotodynamic Pumps
These pumps are based on bladed impellors which rotate within the fluid to impart a tangential accelaration to the fluid
and a consequent increase in the energy of the fluid. The purpose of the pump is to convert this energy into pressure
energy of the fluid to be used in the associated piping system.
Specific Speed
The specific speed of a rotodynamic pump is a numerical value used to classify and compare various pump types and
for the analysis and graphical representation of design parameters..
specific speed = ns = sqrt( n 2. q / h 3/2 )

Note: Various sources (See links below) provide different values of Q (m 3/h, m 3/s, m 3/min) please refer to all reliable
sources before completing any detailed design evaluatons..
● N = Rotational Speed... Revolutions/Minute

● Q = Flow Rate ...m 3/Hour
● H = Total Developed Head ...m
The majority of rotodynamic pumps have specific speeds of 900 - 16000. The following factors are important related to
the specific speed.
1. The specific speed is normally evaluated for the design, duty or best efficiency point
2. The specific speed is not a dimensionless unit and different values will result it different units are used
3. For multi-stage units the specific speed is normally evaluated for one stage only
4. The specific speed is effectively the speed required to deliver unit flow against unit head. It is only used for
general comparison. It has no practical use for pump design.
Internation standard ISO 3548 provides a dimensionless form of the specific speed K defined as below ;
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Rotodynamic Pumps
K = 2 . π . n. Q 0.5 / (g.H) 3/4
● Q = Flow ..m 3/s

● n = rotational speed ..Revolutions/s
● Total head developed For all stages...m
There are three main classifications of rotodynamic pumps
1. Radial Flow (Centrifugal Pumps

2. Mixed Flow (Screw )Pumps
3. Axial Flow (Propeller) Pumps
Rotodynamic pumps include a number of parts in their construction..
Impeller.
In radial flow and Mixed flow pumps may enter the impeller from one side in the single entry pump or from both
directions in the double entry pumps. The range of impeller designs include for closed impellers, open impellers and
semi-open impellers. e.g. in the closed impeller design the fluid is directed through the impeller through a number of
enclose channels fabricated in the impeller body.
Casing
The prime purpose of the casing is to energy from the fluid leaving the impeller into useful pressure energy. The
design of the casing is of equal importance to that of the impeller. There are two types of casing design
1. Volute
2. Guide Vane ( Diffuser)
The sketch below related to the centrifugal pump is included to illustrate the difference.
Shafts , Bearings and Seals.

The shafts bearings and seals are provided to support, and allow controlled rotation of the impeller and to ensure that
the fluid is contained within the system. These are important items and are generally the limiting the pump reliability
and convenience of maintenance.
Rotodynamic pumps can be mounted horizontally or vertically. The trend for sealed pumps is to use mechanical
seals . Notes on mechanical seals are provide on this website Mechanical Seals

Rotodynamic Pumps
Radial Flow Pumps
The radial pump is the most common type of pump used in industry. These pumps have low specific speed (Ns = 900
to 4500) . These means that low shaft velocities are require to deliver unit flow at unit head. Single stage centrifugal
pumps with one or two inlets genally have volute casing. Multi-Stage pumps generally have diffuser casing with return
guide-vanes..
The centrifugal pump is the most commonly used pump . It has the advantage of providing a smooth flow and is
capable of handling fluids with solids contents. The Centrifugal pump is a very simple low cost design and is reliable
for continuous operations over extended time periods.
A typical radial flow centrifugal pump is shown below;-
Mixed Flow Pumps
These have specific speed ranges Ns = 3500 to 7000. They are recongnise by having screw like impellers. Mixed
flow pumps are generally single inlet.
Axial-flow Pumps
These pumps have a high specific speed range Ns = 9000 to 16500. These pumps are always single entry and are
generally single stage. The pump cases are concentric with inline inlet and outlet connectons. The casing is normally
fitted with guide vanes.
Pump Characteristics
The relationship of the pump developed head with the pump discharge flow at constant speed in generally called the
pump characteristic. The complete definition of the pump performanc also includes the efficiency and the NPSH and
the power requirements over the flow range.
A following relationships are useful in predicting the performance of centrifugal pumps.

Rotodynamic Pumps
Impeller Speed = s
1. Flow rate is directy proportional to the rotation speed s

2. Differential head is directly proportional to the s 2
3. The power required is directly proportional to (Flow x Head) i.e s 3
Impeller Diameter = d
1. Flow rate is directy proportional to the rotation speed d

2. Differential head is directly proportional to the d 2
3. The power required is directly proportional to (Flow x Head) i.e d 3
Generally a pump head developed (measured in m of the fluid being transferred) is the same for any fluid. The head
will be the same but the actual developed pressure measured in bar will be relatd to the fluid density. The power
therefor will also vary with the density of the fluid. On a normal pump characteristic curve provided by a pump supplier
the curve will be based on water as the fluid. Therefore to obtain the power required from a characteristic curve based
on water it is necessary to multiply the power curve by the sg of the fluid being pumped.
Useful Links
1. Fluid Design .. A Site with information and formulas related to Pump calculation :
2. Uengineer.. A site including fluid calculations and various data sheets
3. The Engineering Page.. A site including various Engineering Calculators - Very good pump calculator
4. ER_Online.. Useful software downloads - Very good pump calculator
5. McNally Institute .. An excellent reference site for all matters concerning pumps
6. Engineers Toolbox.. Provides similar and probably more reliable information on this subject
Home
Fluids Page
Back to Pumps

Reciprocating Pumps
ROYMECH
Home
Fluids Page
Back to Pumps
Reciprocating Pump Notes
Reciprocating Pumps
There are two general types of reciprocating pumps. The piston pump and the diaphragm pump.
These types of pump operate by using a reciprocating piston or diaphragm. The liquid enters a pumping chamber via
an inlet valve and is pushed out via a outlet valve by the action of the piston or diaphragm.
Reciprocating pumps are generally very efficient and are suitable for very high heads at low flows.
This type of pump is self priming as it can draw liquid from a level below the suction flange even if the suction pipe is
not evacuated.
The pump delivers reliable discharge flows and is often used for metering duties delivering accurate quantities of fluid.
The reciprocating pump is not tolerant to solid particles (See notes below on air operated diaphragm pumps) and
delivers a highly pulsed flow. If a smooth flow is required then additional the discharge flow system has to include
features such as accumulators to provide even flows.
Reciprocating pumps designed for delivering high pressueres must include methods or releasing excessive fluid
pressures. The pumps should include for built in relief valves or relief valves should be included in the fluid circuit
which cannot be isolated from the pump. This feature is not required for safety for the air operated diaphragm valve.
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Reciprocating Pumps
Piston Pumps /Plunger pumps
A piston pump can be based on a single piston or, more likely, multiple parallel pistons. The pistons are reciprocated
using cams or crankshafts. The stroke is generally adjustable. This type of pump can deliver heads of up to 1000
bar. The largest sizes of piston pumps can deliver flows of 40m3 /hr. In practice these pumps are more likely to be
used for metering low flow rate fluids at more modest pressures in laboratories and chemical process plants. Piston
pumps are not generally suitable for transferring toxic or explosive media.
Note: This description does not refer to the rotary piston pump as described in on the page on Rotary Positive
Displacement Pumps...

Reciprocating Pumps
Diaphragm Pumps
There are two types of diaphragm pumps. The hydraulically operated diaphragm metering pumps and the air actuated
type.
Hydraulically operated diphragm pump

The hydraulically operated diaphragm metering pump is used for similar duties as the piston pump. It has some
significant advantages compared to the piston pump in that the design does not require glands or piston seals The
diaphragm in the hydraulically operated diaphragm pump shown below is actuated using a plunger pump arrangement.
This provides full support of the diaphragm allowing high pressure operation. The pump can include for duplex
diaphragms with the interface being monitored for failure of the diaphragm in contact with the fluid. This type of pump
can be used for pumping toxic and explosive fluids. The pump can deliver heads of up to 700 bar and transfer flows of
up 20 m 3 /hr. These pumps require continuous monotoring as the diaphram is under high fatigue loading and the inlet
and outlet valves are subject to erosion and blocking. Under a high quality maintenance regime these pumps are very
reliable.
Air Operated Pump

The air operated pump is generally a low cost work horse pump used for transferring any type of liquid including
sludge. The inlet and outlet valves are often low cost easily replaced flap or ball valves. The pump is comprises two
circular chambers each split by a large elastomeric diaphagm. The two diaphragm centres are mechanically coupled
together with a shaft. An interlocked valve admits air pressure to one side of one of the chambers and exhaust the air
from the opposite side of the other chamber. This causes both diaphagms to move. One diaphragm pushing fluid out
through a non return valve. The other diaphragm drawing fluid in through a non return valve. On completion of a full
stroke the valve reverses the air supply and exhaust directions causing the diaphragms to move back. The diaphragm
which was pushing fluid out of the pump now sucks fluid and the diaphragm admitting fluid now pushes fluid out. The
system is therefore double acting.
The pump capacity is limited by the air pressure available (generally 7 bar) and the design of the diaphragm. An
elastomeric diaphragm has a limited life and will only operate for a few million cycles. A flow rate of about 40 m3 /hr is
a reasonable maximum achievable flow with a larger pump.
For any air operated diaphragam pump the higher the flow the lower the discharge head possible.

Reciprocating Pumps
Useful Links
1. FMI Pumps..A piston pum design with no valves

2. Glossary of Pumps.. Animated pictures and detailed sections for most types of pumps
3. Lewa Pumps.. Diaphragm Pumps
4. Bran_Luebbe.. Piston Pumps and Diaphragm Pumps
5. Diaphragm Pumps Co Uk.. A directory of diaphragm pump suppliers
Home
Fluids Page
Back to Pumps

Pump Information
ROYMECH
Home
Fluids Page
Back to Pumps
Positive Displacement Pump
Positive Displacement Pump Duties
Fluid Transfer Duties.. when used in the medical area , chemical processing, domestic and industrial water supply, fire
fighting , heating and cooling fluids, food and beverages, petro-chemical products, pharmaceutical products, sewage
and effluents etc.
Power Transfer Duties..when used for high pressure oil and water for brakes, servo mechanisms, hydraulic motors,
and aeroplane controls
Process duties.. When used for descaling plant , high pressure water jetting , concrete cutting etc..
Positive Displacement Pump Descriptions
These notes include descriptions of the following pump types

1. External Gear Pump
2. Internal Gear Pump
3. Lobe Pump
4. Sliding Vane Pump
5. Multi_Screw Pump
6. Peristaltic Pump
7. Flexible Impeller Pump
8. Helical Rotor Pump
9. Piston Pump
Below are identified various types of positive displacement pumps with notes identifying operating information.
External Gear Pump
The gear pump is used for fluid transfer and power transfer and process duties. The gear pump is widely used in the
agricultural and mobile vehicle industry for hydraulic transmission systems.
The pump can be used for transferring a wide variety of fluids depending on the materials of construction.
The pump includes two gears one gear is driven by the prime mover. The pump bearings are generally provided with
internal bearings and packed glands or mechanical seals. The most popular gear types are straight spur. These can
be noisy and subject to vibration if they are not manufactured to high standards. Helical gears can be used to
minimise vibration but high side loads result. The used of double helical gears to eliminate side loads results in
expensive costly units.
These pumps are reliable low cost units which can be run for long periods if operated correctly. They have good high
pressure operating characteristics. Close tolerances are required between the internal components for the pump to
operate effectively
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Pump Information
The gear pump has moderate efficiency and it not recommended for handling suspended solids. Because the gears
are in contact the fluid can be highly sheared as it is transferred.
These pumps can transfer fluids at reasonable flow rates at developed heads of up to 200 bar. For pressures above 50
bar the pumps have to be specially designed with hydraulic balancing. These pumps have moderate self priming
capabilities
Internal Gear Pump
The internal gear pump has similar characteristics to the external gear pump. The pump has improved suction and
delivery characteristics and is smoother in operation.
The internal gear pump is however more complicated and expensive to manufacture and maintain.
The internal gear pump can develop liquid pressures of 200 barg.
Lobe Pump
This pump is based on two parallel rotors located within a shaped case. The rotors include a number of lobes these
are arranged such that as the rotors are rotated they contain spaces which increase and reduce in volume. Fluid
enters these spaces through the inlet connnection and is trapped as the rotors rotate. The fluid is compressed and
forced out of the discharge connection as the rotor continues to rotate. This pump is effectively a development of the

Pump Information
external gear pump.
The rotors are synchronised by external timing gears and therefore the internal contact between the lobes is a sealing
contact and not a driving contact. The rotors need not actually contact.
Various shapes of rotor are used, the tri-lobe rotor is probable the most popular. The lower the number of lobes the
better the pump is for handling viscous and solids laden fluids. The rotor can be made from a wide selection of
materials from exotic steel to synthetic rubber-with steel internal support. When soft rotors are used this type of pump
can achieve high levels of volumetic efficiency.
This type of pump includes for relatively low internal fluid velocities with low level of shear. The resulting flow includes
some level of pulsation. The pump can run dry, subject to the design of the bearings and the pump is self priming
especially if the rotors are wetted. As the pump has clean internal surface with few crevices the pump can be used for
hygiene related applications.
The pump can tranfer fluid at flowrates up to 500 m3/hr (200 dia pump) and can deliver total heads of 20 bar.
Sliding Vane Pump
The vane pump includes a ring mounted inside a cylinderical case The ring includes a number of radial slots in which
are located sliding vanes. The ring is mounted eccentric to the case and the vanes are designed to press against the
inside wall of the case. The vanes are forced against the wall by hydraulic pressure or spring force or due the the
centrifugal force resulting as the ring is rotated.
The prime mover is use to rotate the ring and liquid flow into compartments between the vanes and the case inner
circumference. As the ring rotates the liquid is trapped in the compartment and is then compressed and forced out
through the discharge connection.
The older designs of vane pump are based on an eccentric ring as described above . These are not hydraulically
balanced and are thus limited in the hydraulic presssure which can be developed. More modern designs include for an
elliptical inner ring which results in two pressure cycle per revolution. These pumps can develop much higher
pressures at high rotational speeds.
The vanes outer edges are subject to continuous wear and the vanes need to be replaced after periods of continuous
use. Modern pumps are design for convenient maintenance by having the internal components design as cartidges.
The hydraulic circuit based on these pumps should include a relief valve. This design of pump include a large number
of mechanical parts related to its duty.
In transfer duties these pumps can develop high suction heads. They are smooth operating and have higher efficiency
compared to gear pumps. They can handle suspended non-abrasive solids. Certain designs can tolerate significant
vane wear. (carbon vanes)

Pump Information
This type of pump when pumping hydraulic oil can develop head of 200 barg.
Multi- Screw Pump
These pumps are used in the chemical process industry and in the oil industry for applications on oil rigs. They are
used for pumping fuel oil, lubrication oil, sea water, paints etc...
For multi-screw pumps the fluid is transferred under the action of a number of screws meshed together in a casing
provided with a channels to suit the screws. In twin screw pumps timing gears are using to control the relative motion
of the screws. In pumps with more than two screws a single central screw causes the complimentary rotation of the
adjacent screws.
Multiple screw pumps have the following characteristics.
1. Output is smooth
2. Internal flow velocities and fluid shear in minimised
3. A wide range of fluid viscosities can be handled
4. The pump is self priming especially when the screws are wetted
5. The volumetric and mechanical efficiency if good
6. The pumps are quiet operating
7. The pumps have a high level of reliability
8. The pumps can be compact
These pumps are relatively expensive and are not conveniently maintainable.
These pumps can provide flowrates of up to 2000 m3/h and can deliver heads of up to 180 bar.
Peristaltic Pump

Pump Information
This pump is based on a elastomeric tube through which the process fluid is forced. The fluid is forced along the tube
by the action of a number of lobes or rollers which progressively squeeze along the length of the tube. The tube
should be closed by at least one lobe/roller at throughout the pumping cycle. The squeezing items are generally
located on the rotating support which is drivern by a variable speed drive. This system includes no glands and is very
spooth operating.
The flowrate of the pump is related directly to the diameter of the tube and the the speed of rotation of the drive. The
pump duty is limited by the tube material of construction. The suction capabilities are related to the tubes ability to
rapidly expand after the compression cycle.
This pump can generate heads of up to 5m at flows of up to 10 m3/hr.
Flexible Impeller Pump
The flexible impeller pump is low cost unit comprising of one moving parts.. The performance of this pump is directly
related to the material and design of the flexible impeller material. Neoprene is often used as a vane material.
This pump is useful for low intermittent duties and has a short life between maintenance if used on continous duty
cycle. High internal fricton and low suction capabilities.
This type of pump can deliver flows up to 25 m3 hr at heads of up to 4 bar.
Helical rotor/ Mono Pump
This highly innovative pump includes a stator (case) having a two start helical cavity which mates with the rotor which
rotates and creates and internal void which progresses along the stator. The stator is normally made from an
elastormeric material such as nitrile. The rotor material is selected for the process duty includes carbon steel and

Pump Information
stainless steel. The stator is often coated with wear-restant metal.
The Helical Rotor pump can be supplied as a multi-stage configuration. The head generated at each stage is about 5
bar maximum. The pump can supply fluid at flow ranges up to 150 m3 /hr.
This pump can handle a vast range of fluids at a wide range of viscosities and with high level of suspended solid and
entrained gases. The pump is self priming and the flow is continuous and smooth. The is simple in design with no
valves and to timing gears.
Rotary Piston Pumps
This general type of pump includes a number of variations some of which are described below.
1. Radial Piston Pump

2. Swashplate Piston Pump
3. Wobble Plate Pump
4. Bent Axis Piston Pump
General
The pumps are extensively used for power transfer applications in the off shore , power transmission , agricultural,
aerospace and construction industries,.. to list just a few. All of these pumps work on a similar principle.
The pump includes a block with a number of symetrically arranged cylindrical pistons around a common centre line.
The pistons are caused reciprocate in and out under the action of a Separate fixed or rotating plate (axial Pistons) or
and eccentric bearing ring (radial pump) or some other mechanical feature. Each piston is interfaced with the inlet and
outlet port via a special valve arrangement such that as it moves out of its cyclinder it draws fluid in and as it moves
back it pushes the fluid out. The pumps are engineered to allow rotational speeds from less the 1 RPM to over
25,000RPM.
Radial Piston Pumps.

Radial Piston pumps include a rotating cylinder containing equally spaced radial pistons arranged radial around the
cylinder centre line. A springs pushes the pistons against the inner surface of an encircling stationay ring mounted
eccentric to the cylinder. The pistons draw in fluid during half a revolution and drive fluid out during the other half.
The greater the ring eccentricity the longer the pistons stroke and the more fluid they transfer.

Pump Information
Swashplate Pumps.
Swashplate pumps have a rotating cylinder containing parallel pistons arranged radially around the cylinder centre line.
A spring pushes the pistons against a stationary swash plate located at one end of the cylinder , which sits at an angle
to the cylinder. The pistons draw in fluid during half a revolution and drive fluid out during the other half. The greater
the swashplate angle relative to the cylinder centre line the further the longer the pistons stroke and the more fluid they
transfer.
Wobble Plate Pumps.

This pump includes a stationary piston block containing a number parallel pistons arranged radially around the block
centre(at least five). The end of each piston is forced against a rotating wobble plate by springs. The wobble plate is
shaped with verying thickness arround its centre line and thus as it rotates it causes the pistons to reciprocate at a fixed
stroke. The pistons draw in fluid from the cavity during half a revolution and drive fluid out at the rear of the pump
during the other half. The fluid flow is controlled using non-return valves for each piston.
These pumps can generate pressures of up to 700 bar.

Pump Information
Bent Axis Pump.

Bent axis piston pumps have a rotating cylinder containing parallel pistons arranged radially around the cylinder centre
line. The cylinder is driven by an shaft which is arranged at an angle to the cylinder axis. the shaft includes a flange
with a mechanical connection to each piston. As the shaft rotates the pistons are made to reciprocate over a stroke
based on the relative angle of the shaft and cylinder.
Useful Links
1. Glossary of Pumps.. Animated pictures and detailed sections for most types of pumps

Pump Information
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Engineering Standards and Regulations .. Design

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Standards Index
Reference Standard...Mechanical Design

Design Standards
Technical product documentation (TPD). Specification for
1 BS 8888:2002
defining, specifying and graphically representing products
Technical drawings. General principles of presentation.
2 BS ISO 128-20:1996
Basic conventions for lines
3 BS ISO 128-21:1997
Preparation of lines by CAD systems
4 BS ISO 128-22:1999 Basic conventions and applications for leader lines and
reference lines
Technical drawings. General principles of presentation. Lines
5 BS ISO 128-23:1999
on construction drawings Current 20 pgs.
Technical drawings. General principles of presentation. Lines
6 BS ISO 128-24:1999
on mechanical engineering drawings Current 20 pgs.
BS EN ISO 2162-
Technical product documentation. Springs. Simplified
7 1:1996 ( BS 308-
representation Current 20 pgs.
1.17:1996)
BS EN ISO 2162- Technical product documentation. Springs. Presentation of
8 2:1996 ( BS 308- data for cylindrical helical compression springs Current 20
1.18:1996) pgs.
BS EN ISO 2162-
Technical product documentation. Springs. Vocabulary
9 3:1996 ( BS 308-
Current
1.19:1996)
BS EN ISO 2203:1997
10 Technical drawing. Conventional representation of gears
( BS 308-1.16:1997)
Specification for metric keys and keyways. Parallel and taper
11 BS 4235-1:1972
keys
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BS 4235-2:1972 ( ISO Specification for metric keys and keyways. Woodruff keys
12
3912-1977) and keyways
Technical drawings. Tolerancing of linear and angular
13 BS ISO 406:1987
dimensions.
14 BS4500/ BS EN20286 ISO Limits and Fits
Geometrical product specification (GPS). Surface texture.
15 BS EN ISO 4287:2000 Profile method. Terms, definitions and surface texture
parameters Current 40 pgs.
Geometrical product specifications (GPS). Geometrical
16 BS EN ISO 5458:1999
tolerancing. Positional tolerancing Current 20 pgs.
Technical drawings. Geometrical tolerancing. Datums and
17 BS ISO 5459:1981
datum-systems for geometrical tolerances Current 24 pgs.
General tolerances. Tolerances for linear and angular
BS EN 22768-1:1993
18 dimensions without individual tolerance indications Current
( ISO 2768-1:1989)
24 pgs.
BS EN 22768-2:1993 General tolerances. Geometrical tolerances for features
19
( ISO 2768-2:1989) without individual tolerance indications Current 20 pgs.
Technical drawings. Method of indicating surface texture
20 BS ISO 1302:1992
Current 22 pgs.
BS308 :Parts 1-
21 Engineering Drawing Practice : General Principles
Withdrawn
BS308 :Parts 2- Engineering Drawing Practice : Dimensioning and
-
Withdrawn Tolerancing
BS308 :Parts 3-
- Engineering Drawing Practice : Geometric Tolerancing
Withdrawn
Quality Systems - specifications for design, development,
22 ISO9001(1994)
production, installation and servicing.
Quality Systems - specifications for production, installation
- ISO 9002(1994)
and servicing.
- ISO 9003(1994) Quality Systems - specifications for final inspection and test
23 BS 5760:Pt 0: 1993 Introductory guide to reliability
- BS 5760:Pt 2: 1994 Guide to assessment of reliability
- BS 5760:Pt 3: 1993 Guide to reliability practices: examples
- BS 5760:Pt 5: 1991 Guide FMEA and FMECA
- BS 5760:Pt 6: 1993 Guide to Fault Tree Analysis
BS EN 292 Pt 1 and Pt Safety of Machinery Basic concepts , general principles for
24
2 design

Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding, brazing

25 BS 499-1:1991
and thermal cutting
BS EN 22553:1995 Welded, brazed and soldered joints. Symbolic representation
26
ISO 2553:1993 on drawings.
Welding, brazing, soldering and braze welding of metals.
27 BS EN ISO 4063:2000 Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers for
symbolic representation on drawings
28 BS 7373:1998 Guide to the preparation of specifications
Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel
29 BS 5493:1977
structures against corrosion
BS EN ISO 12944-1 to Paints and varnishes. Corrosion protection of steel structures
30
8:1998 by protective paint systems.....
Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for
31 BS 5950-1:2000
design. Rolled and welded sections.....
Structural use of steelwork in building. Specification for
- BS 5950-2:2001 materials, fabrication and erection. Rolled and welded
sections.....
Structural use of steelwork in building. Design in composite
- BS 5950-3.1:1990 construction. Code of practice for design of simple and
continuous composite beams.....
- BS 5950-4:1994
design of composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting.....
- BS 5950-5:1998
design of cold formed thin gauge sections.....
- BS 5950-6:1995
design of light gauge profiled steel sheeting.....
Structural use of steelwork in building. Specification for
- BS 5950-7:1992
materials and workmanship: cold formed sections.....
- BS 5950-8:2003
fire resistant design.....
- BS 5950-9:1994
stressed skin design.....
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Engineering Standards and Regulations...Mechanical Components

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Standards Index
Standards and Regulations Use to Mechanical Engineers (English)
Reference Standards...Mechanical Components
Machine Components
1 BS6613:1991 ISO4863 Methods of specifiying resilient shaft couplings
2 BS3170 Specification for flexible couplings for power transmission
Specification for industrial belt drives - dimensions of pulleys
3 BS7620:1993
and v-ribbed belts of PH, PJ, PK, PL and PM profiles
Specification for synchronous belt drives for industrial
4 BS4548:1987
applications.
5 BS4235:Pt 1:1986 Parallel and Taper Keys
Specification for ISO metric precision hexagon bolts, screws
6 BS3692: 1967
and nuts. Metric units
Specification for metal washers for general engineering
7 BS 4320:1968
purposes. Metric series
BS 6322-1: 1982 Tolerances for fasteners: Specification for tolerances of
8
ISO 4759/1:1991 bolts, screws,nuts..
BS 6322-3: 1982 Tolerances for fasteners: Specification for tolerances of plain
-
ISO 4759/3:1991 washers ..
Undercuts and runouts for screw threads: part 2.
9 BS 1936:Part 2:1991
specification for ISO metric threads.
Parallel involute gears - ISO system of accuracy. (Related to
10 ISO 1328:1975
BS436)
Rules For Design of Cranes. Specification for Classification,
11 BS 2573-Pt 1:1983
stress, Calculations and design criteria for structures
Rules For Design of Cranes. Specification for Classification,
- BS 2573-Pt 2:1980
stress, Calculations and design of Mechanism
BS6105:1981
12 Corrosion Resistant stainless steel Fasteners.
ISO 3506:1979
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Guide to Design Considerations of The Strength of Screw

13 BS3580:1964
Threads
Mechanical properties of fasteners made of carbon steel and
14 BS EN ISO 898-1:1999
alloy steel. Bolts, screws and studs
BS EN 20898-2:1994, Mechanical properties of fasteners. Nuts with specified
15
ISO 898-2:1992 proof load values. Coarse thread
Mechanical properties of fasteners made of carbon steel and
16 BS EN ISO 898-5:1999 alloy steel. Set screws and similar threaded fasteners not
under tensile stresses
Mechanical properties of fasteners. Nuts with specified proof
17 BS EN ISO 898-6:1999
load values. Fine pitch thread
Mechanical properties of fasteners. Torsional test and
BS EN 20898-7:1995,
18 minimum torques for bolts and screws with nominal
ISO 898-7:1992
diameters 1 mm to 10 mm
BS EN 20273:1992,
19 Fasteners. Clearance holes for bolts and screws
ISO 273:1979
Specification for spring retaining rings. Carbon steel circlips -
20 BS 3673-4:1977
metric series
BS 6186-1:1981, ISO Specification for straight cylindrical involute splines: metric
21
4156:1981 module, side fit. Dimensions and tolerances
Spur and helical gears. Basic rack form, pitches and
accuracy (diametral pitch series).
22 BS 436-1:1967
The BS 436 series to be withdrawn as they are superseded
by the IS0 1328 series.
Spur and helical gears. Basic rack form, modules and
accuracy (1 to 50 metric module).
- BS 436-2:1970
Spur and helical gears. Method for calculation of contact and
root bending stress limitations for metallic involute gears.
- BS 436-3:1986
Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values of
BS 436-4:1996, ISO deviations relevant to corresponding flanks of gear teeth.
-
1328-1:1995 The BS 436 series to be withdrawn as they are superseded

Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values of

deviations relevant to radial composite deviations and runout
BS 436-5:1997, ISO
- information.
1328-2:1997
Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Basic
23 BS ISO 6336-1:1996
principles, introduction and general influence factors
Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears.
- BS ISO 6336-2:1996
Calculation of surface durability (pitting)
- BS ISO 6336-3:1996
Calculation of tooth bending strength
- BS ISO 6336-5:2003
Strength and quality of materials
BS 6186-1:1981, ISO Specification for straight cylindrical involute splines: metric
24
4156:1981 module, side fit. Dimensions and tolerances
Specification for spring retaining rings. Carbon steel circlips -
25 BS 3673-4:1977
metric series
26 BS EN ISO 1234:1998 Split pins
BS EN ISO 3506- Mechanical properties of corrosion-resistant stainless-steel
27
1:1998 fasteners. Bolts, screws and studs
-
2:1998 fasteners. Nuts
Mechanical properties of corrosion-resistant stainless-steel
BS EN ISO 3506-
- fasteners. Set screws and similar fasteners not under
3:1998
tensile stress
Specification for screwed studs for general purposes. Metric
28 BS 4439:1969
series
-
4:2003 fasteners. Tapping screws
Prevailing torque type wire thread inserts. Specification for
- BS 7751-2:1994
ISO metric fine pitch threads
Prevailing torque type wire thread inserts. Specification for
29 BS 7751-1:1994
ISO metric coarse pitch threads
Free running type wire thread inserts. Specification for ISO
30 BS 7752-1:1994
metric coarse pitch threads
Free running type wire thread inserts. Specification for ISO
- BS 7752-2:1994
metric fine pitch threads

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Engineering Standards and Regulations..Pumps & Piping

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Standards Index
Standards and Regulations Use to Mechanical Engineers (English)
Reference Standards...Pumps & Piping

Pumps & Piping Standards
Simple unfired pressure vessel designed to contain air or
1 BS EN 286-1:1991
nitrogen
2 TEMA 1985 Standards for Design and Construction of Heat Exchangers
3 BS5500: 1997 Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels
ISO 2548:1973 Specification for acceptance tests for Centrifugal mixed flow
4
BS5316 Pt1 1976 and axial pumps.- class C tests
5
BS5316 Pt2:1977 and axial pumps.- class B tests
Circular Flanges for pipes valves and fittings (PN
6 BS4504-3.1:1989
designated). Steel, cast iron and copper alloy flanges
Circular Flanges for pipes valves and fittings (PN
- -
designated). Copper alloy and composite flanges
7 BS5950:Pt1:1989 Structural Use of Steelwork in Building.
8
BS5326 Pt3:1988 and axial pumps.- Precision Class Tests
9 API 610 8th ed. 1995 Centrifugal Pumps for general and refinery service
Seamless steel tubes for pressure purposes. Technical
10 BS EN 10216-1:2002 delivery conditions. Non-alloy steel tubes with specified room
temperature properties
Welded steel tubes for pressure purposes. Technical delivery
11 BS EN 10217-1:2002 conditions. Non-alloy steel tubes with specified room
12 BS EN 10217-2:2002 conditions. Electric welded non-alloy and alloy steel tubes
with specified elevated temperature properties
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Engineering Standards and Regulations..Pumps & Piping

13 BS EN 10217-3:2002
conditions. Alloy fine grain steel tubes
14 BS EN 10217-4:2002 conditions. Electric welded non-alloy steel tubes with
specified low temperature properties
15 BS EN 10217-5:2002 conditions. Submerged arc welded non-alloy and alloy steel
tubes with specified elevated temperature properties
16 BS EN 10217-6:2002 conditions. Submerged arc welded non-alloy steel tubes with
specified low temperature properties
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Engineering Standards and Regulations- Materials

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Reference Standard...Materials

Material Standards
1 BS 1452:1990 Specification for flake Graphite Cast Iron.
Specification for spheroidal graphite or nodular graphite Cast
2 BS 2789:1985
Iron
3 BS 6681:1986 Specification for malleable CI.
4 BS 970 : Part 1 :1996 Wrought Steels - Carbon and Manganese Steels
Wrought Steels- Direct hardening alloy steels - Withdrawn/
- BS 970: Part 2:1988
superseded
Wrought Steels- Case Hardening steels- Withdrawn/
- BS 970: Part 3:1991
superseded
Wrought Steels- Stainless, Heat Resisting and valve steels -
- BS 970: Part 4:1970
Withdrawn/Superseded
- BS 970: Part5:1972 Wrought Steels- Spring steels- Withdrawn/Revised
- BS 970: Part 6:1972 SI metric values for parts 1 to 5 - Withdrawn/Revised
Steel plate, sheet and strip. Carbon and carbon-manganese
5 BS 1449-1.1:1991
plate, sheet and strip. General specification
- BS 1449-1.8:1991 plate, sheet and strip. Specification for hot rolled narrow strip
based on formability
plate, sheet and strip. Specification for hot rolled narrow strip
- BS 1449-1.14:1991
supplied in a range of conditions for heat treatment and
general engineering purposes
Other versions of BS 1449 withdrawn /revised/ superseded-
- BS 1449....
See B.S Online for replacement standards..
Specification for copper alloy ingots and copper alloy and
6 BS 1440:1985
high conductivity copper castings :.withdrawn/superseded
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Specification for wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys for

general engineering purposes: plate, sheet and strip.
7 BS 1470:1987
Withdrawn superseded /replaced by Parts 1 to 4 of BS EN
485, BS EN 515:1993 and Parts 1 to 4 of BS EN 573.
Wrought Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys.Drawn Tube
8 BS 1471:1972 withdrawn /superseded/Replaced by BS EN 515:1993, Parts
3 and 4 of BS EN 573 and Parts 1, 2, 7 and 8 of BS EN 754.
Wrought Aluminium and Aluminium alloys ,. Bar, extruded
round tube and sections.
9 BS 1474:1987 Withdrawn/superseded /replaced by BS EN 515:1993, Parts
3 & 4 of BS EN 573, Parts 1 - 9 of BS EN 755, and Parts 1 &
2 of BS EN 12020.
Steels for fired and unfired pressure vessels - Plate
10 BS 1501:Part 1:1980 Withdrawn, superseded/replaced by Parts 1 to 3 of BS EN
10028:1993 and BS EN 10029:1991.
Steels for pressure purposes. Specification for alloy steels:
plates
- BS 1501:Part 2:1988
Withdrawn, superseded/replaced BS EN 10028-4:1995, BS
EN 10029:1991
Steels for pressure purposes. Specification for corrosion -
and heat-resisting steels: plates, sheet and strip:..
- BS 1501:Part 3:1990 Withdrawn, superseded/Replaced by BS EN 10028-7:2000,
BS EN 10029:1991, BS EN 10048:1997, BS EN 10051:1992,
BS EN 10258:1997 and BS EN 10259:1997.
Steels for fired and unfired pressure vessels - Forgings
11 BS 1503:1989 Withdrawn/superseded/replaced by Parts 1 to 5 of BS EN
10222.
Specification for Class 1 welding of ferritic steel pipework for
12 BS 2633:1987
carrying fluids
Specification for Class 2 welding of carbon steel pipeword for
13 BS 2971:1991
carrying fluids
Specification for steel castings for general engineering
14 BS 3100:1984
purposes
15 BS 1504:1984 Specification for steel castings for pressure purposes
Specification for Pre-Hardened and Tempered Carbon and
16 BS 2803:1980
Low alloy round steel wire for gen. eng. purposes
Specification for patented cold drawn steel wire for
17 BS 5216:1991
mechanical springs
Structural steel sections. Specification for hot-rolled sections
18 BS 4-1:1993
(taper flange joists and channels)

Specification for cold rolled steel sections. Withdrawn/

19 BS 2994:1976
superseded/replaced by BS EN 10162:2003
20 BS 5950-1:2000
design. Rolled and welded sections
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British European Based Engineering Standards and Regulations-Steels

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European Based Steel Standards

Material Standards
1 BS EN 39:2001 Loose Steel Tubes for Tube and Coupler Scaffolds.
Non-alloy steel rods for drawing and/or cold rolling. General
2 BS EN 10016-1:1995
requirements
Non-alloy steel rods for drawing and/or cold rolling. Specific
2 BS EN 10016-2:1995
requirements for general purpose rod
Non-alloy steel rods for drawing and/or cold rolling. Specific
- BS EN 10016-3:1995 requirements for rimmed and rimmed substitute low carbon
steel rod
Wrought Non-alloy steel rods for drawing and/or cold rolling.
- BS EN 10016-4:1995
Specific requirements for rod for special applications
Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels. Technical
3 BS EN 10025:1993
delivery conditions
Designation Systems for Steel : Part 1 Steel Names,
4 BS EN 10027-1: 1992
Principal Symbols
- BS EN 10027-2: 1992 Designation Systems for Steel : Part 2 Steel Numbers
Specification for flat products made of steels for pressure
5 BS EN 10028-1:2000
purposes. General requirements
- BS EN 10028-2:2003 purposes. Non-alloy and alloy steels with specified elevated
Flat products made of steels for pressure purposes -
- BS EN 10028-2:2003 Part 2. Non-alloy and alloy steels with specified elevated
- BS EN 10028-3:2003 purposes.
Part 3.Weldable fine grain steels, normalized
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Flat products made of steel for pressure purposes

- BS EN 10028-4:2003 Part 4. Nickel alloy steels with specified low temperature
propertie
- BS EN 10028-5:2003
Part 5. Weldable fine grain steels, thermomechanically rolled
- BS EN 10028-6:2003
Part:6 Weldable fine grain steels, quenched and tempered
Flat products made of steels for pressure purposes
- BS EN 10028-7:2003
- Part 7: Stainless steels
Tolerances on Hot Rolled steel plate sections 3mm thick or
6 BS EN 10029:
over
Hot rolled steel equal flange tees with radiused root and
7 BS EN 10055:1996
toes. Dimensions and tolerances on shape and dimensions
Specification for structural steel equal and unequal angles.
8 BS EN 10056-1:1999
Dimensions
9 BS EN 10079 Definition of Steel Products
10 DD ENV 10080:1996 Steel for the reinforcement of concrete
Quenched and tempered steels:Technical delivery conditions
11 BS EN 10083-1:1991
for special steels
Quenched and tempered steels: Technical delivery
- BS EN 10083-2:1991
conditions for unalloyed quality steels
Quenched and tempered steels: Technical delivery
- BS EN 10083-3:1996
conditions for boron steels
12 BS EN 10084:1998 Case hardening steels - Technical delivery conditions
13 BS EN 10085:2001 Nitriding steel. Technical delivery conditions
Free cutting steels. Technical delivery conditions for semi-
14 BS EN 10087:1999
finished products, hot rolled bars and rods
15 BS EN 10088-1:1995 Stainless steels. List of stainless steels
Stainless steels. Technical delivery conditions for sheet/plate
- BS EN 10088-2:1995
and strip for general purposes
Stainless steels. Technical delivery conditions for semi-
- BS EN 10088-3:1995 finished products, bars, rods and sections for general
purposes
Hot rolled steels for quenched and tempered springs.
16 BS EN 10089:2002
Technical delivery conditions.
17 BS EN 10090:1998 Valve steels and alloys for internal combustion engines
18 BS EN 10095:1999 Heat resisting steels and nickel alloys

Cold rolled non-oriented electrical steel sheet and strip

19 BS EN 10106:1996
delivered in the fully processed state
Grain oriented electrical steel sheet and strip delivered in the
20 BS EN 10107:1996
fully processed state
Continuously hot rolled low carbon steel sheet and strip for
21 BS EN 10111:1998
cold forming
22 BS EN 10113-2:1993 Hot rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steel
- BS EN 10113-3:1993 Hot rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steel
23 BS EN 10120:1997 Steel sheet and strip for welded gas cylinders
Cold-rolled uncoated low carbon and high yield strength steel
24 BS EN 10131:1991 flat products for cold forming. Tolerances on dimensions
and shape
Cold rolled electrical non-alloy steel sheet and strip delivered
25 BS EN 10126:1996
in the semi-processed state
26 BS EN 10130:1999 Cold rolled low carbon steel flat products for cold forming
27 BS EN 10132-2:2000 Cold rolled narrow steel strip for heat treatment
- BS EN 10132-2:2000 Cold rolled narrow steel strip for heat treatment
Plates and wide flats made of high yield strength structural
28 BS EN 10137-2:1996
steel
Plates and wide flats made of high yield strength structural
- BS EN 10137-3:1996
steel
29 BS EN 10139:1998 Cold rolled uncoated mild steel narrow strip for cold forming
Continuously hot dip zinc coated mild steel strip and sheet
30 BS EN 10142:2000
for cold forming
31 BS EN 10147:2000 Continuously hot dip zinc coated steel strip and sheet
Hot rolled flat products made of high yield strength steels for
32 BS EN 10149-2:1996
cold forming
Hot rolled flat products made of high yield strength steels for
- BS EN 10149-3:1996
cold forming
33 BS EN 10151:2002 Stainless steel strip for springs
34 BS EN 10152:1994 Electrolytically zinc coated cold rolled steel flat products
Electrolytically zinc coated cold rolled steel flat products for
35 BS EN 10152:2003
cold forming
Continuously hot-dip aluminium-silicon (AS) coated steel
36 BS EN 10154:2002
strip and sheet

Structural steel with improved atmospheric corrosion

37 BS EN 10155:1993
resistance
Cold rolled electrical alloy steel sheet and strip delivered in
38 BS EN 10165:1996
the semi processed state
Cold reduced tinmill products - Electrolytic tinplate and
39 BS EN 10202:2001
electrolytic chromium/chromium oxide coated steel
Cold reduced black plate in coil form for the production or
40 BS EN 10205:1992 tinplate or electrolytic chromium/chromium oxide coated
steel
41 BS EN 10207:1992 Steels for simple pressure vessels
42 BS EN 10208-1:1998 Steel pipes for pipelines for combustible fluids
Steel pipe for pipelines for combustible fluids. Technical
43 BS EN 10208-2:1997
delivery conditions
Cold rolled low carbon steel flat products for vitreous
44 BS EN 10209:1996
enamelling
Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine
45 BS EN 10210-1:1994
grain structural steels. Technical delivery requirements
Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine
- BS EN 10210-2:1997 grain structural steels. Tolerances, dimensions and sectional
properties
Technical delivery conditions for steel castings for pressure
46 BS EN 10213-2:1996
purposes
- BS EN 10213-3:1996
purposes
- BS EN 10213-4:1996
purposes
Continuously hot-dip zinc-aluminium (ZA) coated steel strip
- BS EN 10214:1995
and sheet
Continuously hot-dip zinc-aluminium (ZA) coated steel strip
47 BS EN 10215:1995
and sheet
Seamless tubes for pressure purposes - Non-alloy steel
48 BS EN 10216-1:2002
tubes with specified room temperature properties">
Seamless tubes for pressure purposes - Non-alloy and alloy
- BS EN 10216-2:2002
steel tubes with specified elevated temperature properties
Seamless tubes for pressure purposes - Alloy fine grain steel
- BS EN 10216-3:2002
tubes
Seamless tubes for pressure purposes - Non-alloy and alloy
- BS EN 10216-4:2002
steel tubes with specified low temperature properties

Welded steel tubes for pressure purposes - Non-alloy steel

49 BS EN 10217-1:2002
tubes with specified room temperature properties
Welded steel tubes for pressure purposes - Electric welded
- BS EN 10217-2:2002 non-alloy and alloy steel tubes with specified elevated
Welded steel tubes for pressure purposes - Alloy fine grain
- BS EN 10217-3:2002
steel tubes
Welded steel tubes for pressure purposes - Electric welded
- BS EN 10217-4:2002 non-alloy steel tubes with specified low temperature
properties
Welded steel tubes for pressure purposes - Submerged arc
- BS EN 10217-5:2002 welded non-alloy and alloy steel tubes with specified
elevated temperature properties
Welded steel tubes for pressure purposes - Submerged arc
- BS EN 10217-6:2002 welded non-alloy steel tubes with specified low temperature
properties
Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy
50 BS EN 10219-1:1997
and fine grain steel
Steel forgings for pressure purposes. General requirements
51 BS EN 10222-1:1998
for open die forgings
Steel forgings for pressure purposes. Ferritic and martensitic
- BS EN 10222-2:2000
steels with specified elevated temperature properties
Steel forgings for pressure purposes. Nickel steels with
- BS EN 10222-3:1999
specified low-temperature properties
Steel forgings for pressure purposes. Weldable fine-grain
- BS EN 10222-4:1999
steels with high proof strength
Steel forgings for pressure purposes. Martensitic, austenitic
- BS EN 10222-5:2000
and austenitic-ferritic stainless steels
Non-alloy steel tubes and fittings for the conveyance of
52 BS EN 10224:2002
aqueous liquids including water for human consumption
Weldable structural steels for fixed offshore structures.
53 BS EN 10225:2001
Technical delivery conditions
54 BS EN 10248-1:1996 Hot rolled sheet piling of non-alloy steels
55 BS EN 10249-1:1996 Cold formed sheet piling of non-alloy steels
56 BS EN 10250-2:1999 Open die steel forgings for general engineering purposes
- BS EN 10250-3:1999 Open die steel forgings for general engineering purposes
- BS EN 10250-4:1999 Open die steel forgings for general engineering purposes
57 BS EN 10253-1:1999 Butt welding pipe fittings

Steel rod, bars and wire for cold heading and cold extrusion -
58 BS EN 10263-2:2001 Part 2: Technical delivery conditions for steels not intended
for heat treatment after cold working
Non-alloy steel tubes and fittings for the conveyance of
59 BS EN 10224:2002 aqueous liquids including water for human consumption.
Weldable structural steels for fixed offshore structures.
60 BS EN 10225:2001
Hot rolled sheet piling of non alloy steels. Technical delivery
61 BS EN 10248-1:1996
conditions
Cold formed sheet piling of non alloy steels. Technical
62 BS EN 10249-1:1996
delivery conditions
Open steel die forgings for general engineering purposes.
63 BS EN 10250-1:1999
General requirements
- BS EN 10250-2:1999
Non-alloy quality and special steels
- BS EN 10250-3:1999
Alloy special steels
- BS EN 10250-4:1999
Stainless steels
Butt-welding pipe fittings. Wrought carbon steel for general
64 BS EN 10253-1:1999
use and without specific inspection requirements
Steel rod, bars and wire for cold heading and cold extrusion.
65 BS EN 10263-1:2001
General technical delivery conditions
- BS EN 10263-2:2001 Technical delivery conditions for steels not intended for heat
treatment after cold working
- BS EN 10263-3:2001
Technical delivery conditions for case hardening steels
- BS EN 10263-4:2001 Technical delivery conditions for steels for quenching and
tempering
- BS EN 10263-5:2001
Technical delivery conditions for stainless steels
Steel wire and wire products. Steel wire for ropes. General
66 BS EN 10264-1:2002
requirements
Steel wire and wire products. Steel wire for ropes. Cold
- BS EN 10264-2:2002
drawn non alloy steel wire for ropes for general applications

Steel wire and wire products. Steel wire for ropes. Round
- BS EN 10264-3:2002
and shaped non alloyed steel wire for high duty applications
Steel wire and wire products. Steel wire for ropes. Stainless
- BS EN 10264-4:2002
steel wire
Magnetic materials. Specification for steel sheet and strip
67 BS EN 10265:1996 with specified mechanical properties and magnetic
permeability
Ferritic-pearlitic steels for precipitation hardening from hot-
68 BS EN 10267:1998
working temperatures
Cold-rolled flat products made of high yield strength micro-
69 BS EN 10268:1999
alloyed steels for cold forming. General delivery conditions
Steels and nickel alloys for fasteners with specified elevated
70 BS EN 10269:1999
and/or low temperature properties.
Steel wire for mechanical springs. Patented cold drawn
71 BS EN 10270-1:2001
unalloyed spring steel wire
Steel wire for mechanical springs. Oil hardened and
- BS EN 10270-2:2001
tempered spring steel wire
- BS EN 10270-3:2001 Steel wire for mechanical springs. Stainless spring steel wire
Electrolytically zinc-nickel (ZN) coated steel flat products.
72 BS EN 10271:1999
73 BS EN 10272:2000 Stainless steel bars for pressure purposes
Hot rolled weldable steel bars for pressure purposes with
74 BS EN 10273:2000
specified elevated temperature properties
75 BS EN 10277-1:1999 Bright steel products. Technical delivery conditions. General
Bright steel products. Technical delivery conditions. Steels
- BS EN 10277-2:1999
for general engineering purposes
Bright steel products. Technical delivery conditions. Free
- BS EN 10277-3:1999
cutting steels
Bright steel products. Technical delivery conditions. Case-
- BS EN 10277-4:1999
hardening steels
Bright steel products. Technical delivery conditions. Steels
- BS EN 10277-5:1999
for quenching and tempering
Hot rolled steel channels. Tolerances on shape, dimension
76 BS EN 10279:2000
and mass
77 BS EN 10283:1999 Corrosion resistant steel castings
78 BS EN 10295:2002 Heat resistant steel castings

Welded circular steel tubes for mechanical and general

79 BS EN 10296-1:2003 engineering purposes. Technical delivery conditions. Non-
alloy and alloy steel tubes
Seamless circular steel tubes for mechanical and general
80 BS EN 10297-1:2003 engineering purposes. Technical delivery conditions. Non-
alloy and alloy steel tubes
81 BS EN 10302:2002 Creep resisting steels, nickel and cobalt alloys
82 BS EN 10304:2001 Magnetic materials (iron and steel) for use in relays
Steel tubes for precision applications. Technical delivery
83 BS EN 10305-1 : 2002
conditions. Seamless cold drawn tubes
- BS EN 10305-2 : 2002
conditions. Welded cold drawn tubes
- BS EN 10305-3 : 2002
conditions. Welded cold sized tubes
- BS EN 10305-4:2003 conditions. Seamless cold drawn tubes for hydraulic and
pneumatic power systems
- BS EN 10305-5:2003 conditions. Welded and cold sized square and rectangular
tubes
Magnetic materials. Specification for sintered soft magnetic
84 BS EN 10331:2003
materials
Wrought steels for mechanical and allied engineering
purposes. Requirements for carbon, carbon manganese and
85 PD 970:2001
alloy hot worked or cold finished steels- to replace BS 970-
1 :1996
BS EN 25817:1992, Arc Welded joints in steel: guidance on quality levels for
86
ISO 5817:1992 imperfections
Home
Standards Index

European Based Aluminium Standards

ROYMECH
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Standards Index
Standards for Aluminium Alloys
Ref Number Titles

Aluminium and aluminium alloys. Sheet,
1 BS EN 485-1:1994 strip and plate. Technical conditions for
inspection and delivery
2 BS EN 485-2:2004
strip and plate. Mechanical properties
3 BS EN 485-3:2003 strip and plate. Tolerances on dimensions
and form for hot-rolled products
4 BS EN 485-4:1994 strip and plate. Tolerances on shape and
dimensions for cold-rolled products
Aluminium and aluminium alloys. Wrought
5 BS EN 515:1993
products. Temper designations
Aluminium and aluminium alloys. Chemical
6 BS EN 573-1:1995 composition and form of wrought products.
Numerical designation system
Chemical symbol based designation system
Chemical composition
Forms of products
Aluminium and aluminium alloys. Extruded
10 BS EN 755-1:1997 rod/bar, tube and profiles. Technical
conditions for inspection and delivery
11 BS EN 755-2:1997 rod/bar, tube and profiles. Mechanical
properties
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12 BS EN 755-3:1996 rod/bar, tube and profiles. Round bars,
tolerances on dimensions and form
13 BS EN 755-4:1996 rod/bar, tube and profiles. Square bars,
14 BS EN 755-5:1996 rod/bar, tube and profiles. Rectangular bars,
15 BS EN 755-6:1996 rod/bar, tube and profiles. Hexagonal bars,
16 BS EN 755-7:1998 rod/bar, tube and profiles. Seamless tubes,
17 BS EN 755-8:1998 rod/bar, tube and profiles. Porthole tubes,
18 BS EN 755-9:2001 rod/bar, tube and profiles. Profiles,
Specification for aluminium and aluminium
19 BS EN 2070-1:1991 alloy wrought products. Technical
specification. General requirements
alloy wrought products. Technical
20 BS EN 2070-2:1991
specification. Sheet, strip formed profiles
and plate
specification. Bar and section
specification. Tube for structures
specification. Tube used under pressure
specification. Rivet wire


specification. Wrought forging stock
Founding. Technical conditions of delivery.
26 BS EN 1559-4:1999 Additional requirements for aluminium alloy
castings
Aluminium and aluminium alloys. Castings.
27 BS EN 1706:1998 Chemical composition and mechanical
properties
Aluminium and aluminium alloys.
Designation of unalloyed and alloyed
28 BS EN 1780-1:2002 aluminium ingots for remelting, master
alloys and castings. Numerical designation
system
alloys and castings. Chemical symbol based
designation system
alloys and castings. Writing rules for
chemical composition
Links Providing information on Aluminium
1. Alubook A lexical knowledge about aluminium

2. EAA Standards A number of European Standards downloads
Home
Standards Index

Thermodynamics Fundamentals
ROYMECH
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Thermos Index
Work..... Energy..... Heat..... System..... Boundary..... Surroundings..... State..... Property.....

Process..... Reversible / Irreversible processes..... Ideal Gas..... Perfect Gas..... Semi Perfect Gas..... Thermal Efficiency.....
Introduction
This page identifies the factors that are fundamental to understanding thermodynamics.
Work
Work is defined simply as the product of force (SI units = newtons) and the distance moved in the
direction of the force (SI units = metres). If a block is moved against a constant frictional force of 1
N through a distance of 1 m then 1 N.m (= 1 Joule), of work has been exerted in moving the
block.....
Energy
Energy at is simplest level is the capacity of a system to do work. A compressed spring has
potential energy because, when released it can exert, a force over a distance until the spring has is
no longer compressed.
A water in motion possesses kinetic energy which can be used to do work using a water turbine..
Potential energy is the form of energy which is stored e.g a body has potential energy due to its
position in a gravitation field. kinetic energy is the form of energy possesses because of motion.
Energy can have many different forms including
● Thermal energy: sub-microscopic particles in motion. (form of kinetic energy)

● Mechanical energy: macroscopic objects in motion. (form of kinetic energy)
● Electrical energy: movement of electrons through a conductor.(form of kinetic energy)
● Sound energy: compression/expansion of spaces between molecules. (form of kinetic energy)
● Chemical potential energy: position of electrons relative to atomic nuclei in bound atoms. (form of potential energy)
● Gravitational energy: position of an object in a gravitational field. (form of potential energy)
● Electrostatic energy: relative position of charged particles.(form of potential energy)
The total stored energy of a body, substance or system is a property and is given the symbol E and
is generally used not as an absolute value but as measure of change between different states
∆E. The change of internal energy can be obtained from measurements of heat and work.
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The stored energy of a body, substance or system which is independent of electricity, atomic,
sound, magnetism, surface tension, motion and gravity is called the internal energy is given the
symbol U.
Notes on the internal energy and the total stored energy and its relevance to the first law are
provided on webpage Thermodynamic Laws
Energy is intangible ..It is not practical to measure the total stored energy of a body, substance or
system. Its presence can only be recognised by its effects on its surrounding or connected
materials or mechanisms. A rock located at ground level in a normal environment does not seem to
possess any energy but it has sufficient potential energy to destroy a creature standing below it in a
deep hole: it has sufficient kinetic energy in the form of heat to melt ice: it may have sufficient
chemical energy to heat a house ( if it is coal): it may have sufficient nuclear energy to destroy a
city.....
Heat
Heat is the energy form which is transferred by a difference in temperature. If a body at 50 deg C is
positioned in a fluid at 10 deg C. The fluid temperature rises as heat is transferred from the body.
(At the microscopic level the energy possessed as a result of its temperature is kinetic energy of
the molecules and atoms.)
System
In thermodynamics a system is a 3D region in space under study. A system can be an isolated,
adiabetic, closed system or an open system and it is surrounded by a defined boundary.. The
outside of the boundary is called the surroundings
For isolated system matter and energy do not cross the boundary..it is not influenced in any way by
the part of space which is external to the system boundaries.
For adiabetic systems matter and heat do not cross the boundary..(energy in the form of work can
cross the boundary)
For a closed system a fixed amount of matter which is enclosed by a boundary. Only heat and
work can be transferred across the boundary.
For an open system matter, heat and work flow across the boundary.
A simple system is a system that does not contain any internal adiabatic, rigid and impermeable
boundaries and is not acted upon by external forces.

A composite System is a system that is composed of two or more simple systems.
Closed System
Boundary
The boundary encloses a system and may be real (physical) or imaginary.
A real boundary may be fixed e.g. a gas in a bottle, or movable e.g a gas in a cylinder which is
compressed or expanded by movement of a piston.
An imaginary boundary is one not based on a physical control surface e.g. an engine could be
analysed as a system contained within an imaginary boundary.
Imaginary and Real Boundaries

Control Surface
An open system is often called a control volume and its boundary and most specifically the
boundary under scrutiny is called the control surface. Mass may flow across a control surface. A
cylinder piston in motion may be a control surface.
Surroundings
Everything outside a system boundary is called the surroundings. Normally the term surroundings
is restricted to those outside the system that in some way interact with the system or affect the
behaviour of the system.
Thermodynamic State of a System

The condition of the system as characterized by the values of its state properties.
Stable equilibrium is a state in which the system is not capable of finite spontaneous change to
another state without a finite change in the state of the surroundings.... Many types of equilibrium
must be fulfilled -- thermal, mechanical, phase (material) and chemical.
State postulate: The equilibrium state of a simple closed system can be completely characterized by
two independently variable properties and the masses of the species contained within the system.
Property ..A characteristic of a system

In the context of a thermodynamic system a "state property" identifies a condition of the system (or
substance) at an equilibrium state which is independent of the path of the process by which the
state has been reached. The change in the pressure (P) or the temperature (T) of a system
between two equilibrium states is the same for all paths and therefore the pressure and temperature
are properties. All properties of equilibrium states e.g. P,V,m and T are characteristics of the
activities of large quantities of molecules..
Extensive properties are those properties with values representative of the sum of parts are called
extensive properties e.g. m (mass), V (volume), (H) total enthalpy.
Intensive properties are those with values not representative of the sum of parts are called intensive
properties e.g. the temperature (T). Pressure is also an intensive property
Specific properties are extensive properties per unit mass. Specific properties are intensive.
Some Typical Thermodynamic (extensive) properties of fluids include..
● (V) Volume (m3)

● (m)Mass (kg)
● (H)Enthalpy (J)
● (U) Internal Energy (J)
● (S) Entropy (J)

Some Typical Thermodynamic (intensive) properties of fluids include..
● T temperature [K]
● ρ density [kg/m3]
● cp specific heat at constant pressure [J/kg·K]
● cv specific heat at constant volume [J/kg·K]
● μ dynamic viscosity [N/m2s]

● ν kinematic viscosity [m2/s]
● k thermal conductivity [W/m·K]
● α thermal diffusivity [m2/s]
● β volumetric thermal expansion coefficient [K-1]
● h specific enthalpy [J/kg]
● s specific entropy [J/kg·K]
● G gibbs free energy [J/kg]
A primitive property can in principle be specified by describing an simple operation or test to which
the system is subjected.e.g using mechanical measurements ... pressure, volume, thermometric
temperature (T) and heat capacity.
A derived property is a property that is mathematically defined in terms of primitive properties.
Process
A thermodynamic process may be defined as the progress of a thermodynamic system proceeding
from an initial state to a final state. The series of states the substance or system experiences as it
progresses through the process is called the path of the process.
Typically, a thermodynamic process can be characterised, according to what system property e.g.
temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed. Furthermore, it is useful to group these
properities into pairs, in which the variable held constant is one member of the pair. The six most
common thermodynamic processes are shown below:
● An isobaric process occurs at constant pressure...∆P= 0

● An isochoric process, or isometric process, occurs at constant volume...∆V= 0
● An isothermal process occurs at a constant temperature...∆T= 0
● An isentropic process occurs at a constant entropy...∆S= 0 ( Adiabetic and reversible)
● An isenthalpic process occurs at a constant enthalpy...∆h= 0
● An adiabatic process occurs without loss or gain of heat...∆Q= 0
● A cyclic process occurs with same initial and final states
● A polytropic process has the relationship pV k = constant
There are a number of thermodynamic process types encountered by engineers including non-flow,
steady flow, semi-flow and unsteady flow. These are described as follows:
● Non flow processes are those involving no flow of matter across the system boundaries
● Steady flow processes involve fluid entering and leaving the system control volume these flows do not change with time and the
internal energy of the control is also fixed in the time period under consideration
● A Semi-flow process involves fluid flow into a control volume which may be rigid charging a gas bottle or flexible -blowing up a
balloon

● An unsteady flow process is one with a variable internal energy- i.e changing liquid level in a boiler
Reversible /Irreversible Process

If the substance or system passes through a continuous series of equilibrium states in progressing
through the process as it receives or rejects energy it is referred to as a reversible process. The
path of this theoretical process is generally shown on diagrams as a full line. If the process is
reversed, in the thermodynamic sense, it would leave no trace of itself.
In the real world there are no reversible processes..All processes are irreversible and are shown on
diagrams as broken lines...Factors which make a process irreversible include friction, unrestrained
gas expansion, heat transfer across finite temperature difference, mixing,chemical reactions etc.
etc...
Ideal Gas
An ideal gas is one that behaves according according to the assumptions that the volume of a gas
molecules can be discounted and that molecules do not attract each other. Various relationships
have been arrived at for and ideal gas including Charles Law, Boyle's Law and Avogradros Law. ref.
Ideal Gas .. An ideal gas conforms to the ideal gas law
Pv = nRT
● P = Pressure = (Pa) N/m 2

● v = Volume = m 3
● T = Absolute Pressure = deg Kelvin
● R = Universal Gas Constant = 8,314 J /mole.K = 8 314 J /kmole.K
● n = Number of moles
The laws and rules for ideal gases are only reasonable accurate for gases at low pressures and
moderately high temperatures...At pressures around 1 bara or less the ideal gases are generally
reasonably accurate for real gases.
Perfect Gas
A perfect gas is an ideal gas for which the values of the specific heats cp and cv are assumed
constant. ref. Properties This is an idealisation of the behaviour of real gases at low pressures e.g.
oxygen and nitrogen at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature.
Semi-Perfect Gas
Semi perfect gases are those subject to a wide variation of temperature such that it cannot be
assumed that the specific heats are constan. Semi Perfect gases are ideal gases for which the

values of the specific heats cp and cv are allowed to vary as function of T alone. ref. Properties.
Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency is a measure of the success of a thermodynamic process. It is generally
expressed is simple terms as the ration of the energy desired and the energy expended.
Typical efficiencies include
● Automobile IC engines ...12-15%

● Gas Turbine ...12-16%
● Steam Power Plant ...38-41%
● Solar Cell ...15%
● Fuel Cell ...40-60%
● Electric Motors ...90%
Relevant Links

3. Classical Thermodynamics.. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.. Very useful notes
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Thermos Index

Thermodynamics Heat Transfer
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Thermos Index
Heat Engines
Introduction
This page provides a limited notes on thermodyamics and heat transfer that may be useful to
mechanical engineers.
Notation

cp Specific Heat Capacity at
kJ/(kg K)
Constant pressure
cv Specific Heat Capacity at
kJ/(kg K)
Constant Volume
p Absolute Pressure N/m2
T Absolute Temperature K
v volume per unit mass m3
W Work Output per unit mass kJ/kg
M Molecular Weight -
Ro Universal Gas Constant =
kJ /(kg mole.K)
8,31
Q Heat Quantity kJ
R Gas Constant = R o / M kJ /kg.K
U Internal energy (thermal) kJ
Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer takes place by Conduction, Convection and Radiation
Heat Transfer by Conduction
● q = Heat Flow Rate W

● t 1 & t 2 = temperature, K (heat flows down (-))
● A = Area, m 2
● k = Coefficient of thermal conductivity, W m -1K -1
● U = Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient,W m -1K -1
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● h = Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient, W m -2K -1

● R = Thermal Resistance, W -1.m -1.K
dq = kA(-dt/dx)
q = (k.A /x). (t 1-t 2)
U = k/x
Therefore q = U.A(t 1-t 2)
Thermal resistance R = 1 / U.A
The heat has to pass through the surface layers on both sides of the wall
q = A.h s1(t s1 - t 1) = k.A(t 1 -t 2) / x = Ah s2(t 2 -t s2)

U = 1 / (1/h s1 + x/k + 1/h s2 )
R = 1/A.h s1 + 1/A.h s2 + x/A.k = R s1 + R s2 + R
Table Showing Various values for k at 20 oC

Misc. k= Wm-
Metal k=Wm-1K-1 k =Wm-1K-1 Liquids
solids 1K-1
Aluminium 237
Asphalt 1.26 Benzene 0.16
Antimony 18.5
Bitumen 0.17 Carb Tet'ide 0.11
Beryllium 218
Br'ze Block 0.15 Acetone 0.16
Brass 110
Brickwork 0.6 Ether 0.14
Cadmium 92
Brick-Dense 1.6 Glycerol 0.28
Cobalt 69
Carbon 1.7 Kerosene 0.15
Constantan 22
Conc-LD 0.2 Mercury 8
Copper 398
Conc-MD 0.5 Methanol 0.21
Gold 315
Conc-HD 1.5 Machine Oil 0.15
Iridium 147
Firebrick 1.09 Water 0.58
Cast Iron 55
Glass 1.05 Sodium 84
Pure Iron 80.3
Glass -Boro. 1.3
Wr't Iron 59
Ice 2.18 k= Wm
Lead 35.2 Gases
Limestone 1.1 -1K -1
Magnesium 156
Mica 0.75 Air 0.024
Molybdenum 138
Cement 1.01 Ammonia 0.022
Monel 26
Parafin Wax 0.25 Argon 0.016
Nickel 90.5
Porcelain 1.05 Carbon Dio 0.015
Platinum 73
Sand 0.06 Carbon Mon 0.023
Silver 427
C.Steel 50 Helium 0.142
Insulation Hydrogen 0.168
St.Steel 25

Tin 67 Balsa 0.048 Methane 0.030

Zinc 113 Straw-Comp 0.09 Nitrogen 0.024
Cotton Wool 0.029 Oxygen 0.024
Plastics Polystyrene- Water Vap. 0.016
0.03
Acrylic 0.2 Expanded
Nylon 6 0.25; Felt 0.04
Polythene Glass Wool 0.04
0.5
High Den Kapok 0.034
PTFE 0.25 Magnesia 0.07
PVC 0.19 Plywood 0.13
Rock Wool 0.045
Sawdust 0.06
Slag Wool 0.042
Wood 0.13
Heat Transfer by Radiation
Emissivity Values
Refer to link Emissivity Values for better table
Surface Material Emmissity Surface Material Emmissity

Aluminium-
0.11 Tile 0.97
Oxidised

Aluminium-
0.05 Water 0.95
Polished
Aluminium
0.77 Wood-Oak 0.9
anodised
Aluminium rough 0.07 Paint 0.96
Asbestos Board 0.94 Paper 0.93
Black Body -Matt 1.00 Plastics 0.91 Av
Brass -Dull 0.22 Rubber-Nat_Hard 0.91
Brass- Polished 0.03 Rubber _Nat_Soft 0.86
Brick -Dark 0.9 Steel_Oxidised 0.79
Concrete 0.85 Steel Polished 0.07
St.Steel-
Copper-Oxidised 0.87 0.85
Weathered
Copper -Polished 0.04 St.Steel-Polished 0.15
Glass 0.92 Steel Galv. Old 0.88
Plaster 0.98 Steel Galv new 0.23
Heat Transfer by Convection
Convective heat transfer occurs between a moving fluid and a solid surface.The rate of convective heat transfer between a surface and a
fluid is given by the Newton’s Law of Cooling;

It is customary to express the convection coefficient (average or local), in a non-dimensional form called the Nusselt Number.
Natural convection
Nu = C(Gr.Pr) n C and n are tabled below
Note: Convection heat transfer values are very specific to the geometry of the surface and the heat transfer conditions - These example
equations are very general in nature and should not be used for serious calcs. The links below provide much safer equations..
Surface (Gr.Pr) C n
10 4 to 10 9 0.59 0.25
Vertical Plates/Cylinders
10 9 to 10 12 0.13 0.33
Horizontal Pipes 10 3 to 10 9 0.53 0.25
10 5 to 2 x
Horizontal Plates 0.54 0.25
10 7
Heated Face up or Cooled
Face Down 2 x10 7 to 3
0.14 0.33
x10 10
Horizontal Plates
3 x10 5 to 3
Heated Face up or Cooled 0.27 0.25
x10 10
Face Down

Forced Convection
Laminar flow over Plate Nu = 0.664(Re) 1/2(Pr) 1/3
Fully Developed pipe flow Nu = 0.0866(D/L)Re.Pr / (1+0.04[D / L(Re.Pr)] 2/3) + 3.66
Turbulent Flow Over Flat Plate Nu = 0.036Pr 1/3Re 0.8
Turbulent Flow In Pipe Nu = 0.023Pr 0.4Re 0.8
Typical Values of Heat Transfer Coefficient h = W.m -2K -1
● Free Convection Over Various Shape - Air 2 - 23

● Free Convection Over Various Shape - Water 300 - 1700
● Turbulent Convection Over Various Shape and through tubes - Air 6 - 1400
● Turbulent Convection Over Various Shape and through tubes - Water 1100 - 9000
Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers normally transfer energy from a hot fluid to a colder fluid. The energy in = The energy out.
If the fluids are the same with the same specific heat. The mass flowrate x the temp drop of the hot fluid = the mass flow rate x the temp
rise of the cold fluid.

Typical Values for Overall Heat transfer U are
● Plate Heat Exchanger, liquid to liquid U range 1000 > 4000 W. m.-2K.-1
● Shell and Tube, liquid inside and outside tubes U range150 > 1200 W. m.-2K.-1.
● Spiral Heat Exchanger, liquid to liquid U range 700 > 2500 W. m.-2K.-1


3. Designing Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger..Notes on Designing Heat Exchangers
4. Watlow.. Heat Losses From various Surfaces ->Reference -> Heat Transfer
5. APV_Phewizard... Free Plate Heat Exchanger Software for specify plate HX
6. Guide to Compact Heat Exchangers... A very informative document
7. Emissivity Values... A table of emissivity values
8. Cheresources... Various heat transfer values -Useful
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Thermodynamics
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Thermodynamics
Nomenclature..... Polytropic process..... Equation of State..... Relationships between P,V,T..... Adiabatic process.....
Isothermal Process..... Internal Energy..... Constant Volume Process..... Constant Pressure Process.....
Introduction
This page provides a limited notes on thermodynamic relationships useful to mechanical engineers.
Nomenclature

cp Specific Heat Capacity at
kJ/(kg K)
Constant pressure
cv Specific Heat Capacity at
kJ/(kg K)
Constant Volume
P Absolute Pressure N/m2
V volume m3
m mass kg
W Work Output per unit mass kJ/kg
Ro Universal Gas Constant =
kJ /(kg mole.K)
8,31
Q Heat Quantity kJ
R Gas Constant = R o / M kJ /kg.K
U Internal energy (thermal) kJ
γ Ratio cp / cv -
Thermodynamic Process Relationships
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Thermodynamics
General Polytropic Process

The majority of frictionless processes for ideal gases are called polytropic processes and are in
accordance with the following relationship
PV n = constant
That is PV n = c
therefore P = cV -n
Equation of state for and Ideal Gas
PV = mRT
Thermodynamic Relationships between P,V & T
Consider a piston in a frictionless cylinder
The work done on/by the gas in moving the piston δx = (PA)δx = P δ V = δ W
The gas is assume to be expanding in balanced resisted reversible process.

The equation of state for an ideal gas is assumed to apply i.e PV = mRT
The total work done in moving the piston from state 1 to state 2 =

Thermodynamics
For a perfect gas - The relationship between Temperature , Pressure and Volume over a cycle
Adiabatic Process.
For an adiabatic process with no transfer of heat across the system boundary.(Q = 0 )
Consider a fixed mass of gas in a cylinder which is expanding in a reversible manner...
For an adiabatic process there is no heat transfer.

Therefore applying the first law of thermodynamics ..heat transfer (= 0) = increase in internal energy +external work done by gas...
Therefore the increase in internal energy = - External work done by gas

Thermodynamics
It is shown below that cp - cv = R = cv ( cp / cv -1) and therefore
γ = 1.4 for Air, H 2, O 2, CO, NO, Hcl
γ = 1.3 for CO 2, SO 2, H 2O, H 2S, N 2O, NH 3, CL 2, CH 4, C 2H 2, C 2H 4
Isothermal Process In a isothermal process the temperature = constant and therefore
PV = c and P = c / V
Internal Energy, Cp and Cv

Thermodynamics
Although it is not possible to determine the absolute value of the internal energy of a substance. The internal energy change
between the initial and final equilibrium states of any process is definite and determinable.
It can be easily proved that the internal energy of a fluid depends on the temperature alone and not upon changes in the pressure or
volume.
Heating at constant volume....
If a definite mass of gas (m) at constant volume is a closed system is heated from initial conditions
P1, V, T1, U1 to P2, V , T2,U2. As the volume is fixed then no work has been done. Then in
accordance with the First Law of Thermodynamics (δQ = δU + δW ).
mCv (T2 - T1) = (U2 - U1) + 0

or U2 - U2 = mCv (T2 - T1)
Heating at constant pressure....
If a definite mass of gas (m) at constant volume is a closed system is heated from initial conditions P, V1, T1, U1 to P, V1 , T2,U2. As
the volume is fixed then no work has been done. Then n accordance with the First Law of Thermodynamics (δQ = δU + δW ).
mcp (T2 - T1)

= (U2 - U1) + P (V2 - V1)
= (U2 - U1) + mR (T2 - T1)
mcv (T2 - T1) = U2 - U1 therefore mcp (T2 - T1) = mcv (T2 - T1) + mR (T2 - T1) therefore
cp = cv + R... and ..
cp - cv = R = PV/mT
Thermodynamic Links

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Thermodynamics Laws
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Laws of Thermodynamics
Introduction
The three laws of thermodynamics as noted below are very simple relatively obvious statements
based on observations of the laws of nature. They are however of fundamental importance to all
physical and chemical processes.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics...
When two objects are separately in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third they are in equilibrium with each other
Objects in thermodynamic equilibrium are at the same temperature.
The measuring of temperature with thermometers is really in accordance with this law.
First Law of Thermodynamics...
This law expresses the general law of conservation of energy. and states that heat and work are mutually convertible
Heat In = Work Out over complete cycle

or Sum (d Q ) = sum (d W )
Over a complete cycle the algebraic sum of the quantities of heat supplied to a system is equal to
the algebraic sum quantities of work performed by the system i.e.
In a cyclic process any property of the system are the same at the end of a cycle as at the beginning. Throughout the path of a cycle (δQ -
δW) represents a change in the total stored internal energy property of the system δE . The basic energy equation results from this
δQ = δE + δW
The total stored internal energy E includes for various forms of energy including
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Thermodynamics Laws
● the various forms of potential energy (gravity, magnetic, electrical)

● thermal energy
● chemical energy
● atomic energy
● kinetic energy
● surface tension energy
Note: In classical thermodynamics as applicable to mechanical engineering the atomic energy and
the chemical energy are not considered....
E = U + P.E + K.E + S.E
P.E = total potential energy, K.E = total kinetic energy, S.E = total surface energy . The intrinsic
internal energy U is the total internal energy minus the energies of motion, gravitational, magnetic
and surface forces energies . The first law can be written using U as
δQ = δU + δW
This is termed the restricted energy conservation equation for a system. U is dependent on
temperature and is not dependent on pressure or volume.
Examples of various non flow processes using the restricted energy conservation equation Non-
Flow Processes
Steady flow equation notes...Steady Flow Equation
Second Law of Thermodynamics...

This law is derived from the whole field of physical experience. Although it is not possible to prove
the law or deduce it from other laws , no exception to it has yet been found.
This law in its simplest states that heat can only flow from hot to cold and not vice versa. In terms of
real thermodynamic engine cycles the law states that the gross heat supplied to a system in a
complete cycle must exceed the work done by the system. Therefore heat must be rejected. The
thermal efficiency of an heat engine must be less than 100%. The maximum theoretical efficiency
achievable is by use of the Carnot cycle. This is based on reversible cycles using ideal gases ref
Carnot Cycle
There are a number of sources for this law each providing a different interpretation.
● Clausius - No system or device may operate so that the only process is the heat transfer from a cooler to a hotter body
● Planck - It is impossible to make an engine cycle which will use only one heat reservoir and thence convert all the heat into work
● Kelvin - If a body is at a temperature below that of its surroundings none of it heat may be transferred into work unaided.
Some simple conclusions resulting from this law are..
● Work and Heat are mutually interchangeable(First law) but not completely (Second Law).
● A refrigerator cannot be designed to cool below the ambient temperature without use of an additional energy source
● A real heat engine can only be made to operate if there is a heat source and a heat sink

Thermodynamics Laws
Clausius Inequality
The Clausius inequality is a corollary of the second law and states that if a system completes a
cycle then.
This principle can be tested by considering a system A which completes a complete cycle
receiving heat Q1 from heat source R1 and heat Q2 from source R2. In accordance with the first law the work done by A over a complete
cycle = Q1 + Q2. This system can now be isolated from the heat sources. A second system C is provided which then completes a Carnot
cycle which is arranged to reject Q1 to the heat source R1 and receive heat Q2from R2. The carnot engine can be adjusted to match the
conditions by setting of the isotherms and if necessary by having multiple cycles
The notes below show that for a simple system the Clausius Inequality conforms to the Second Law of thermodynamics.
The case of a more complicated cycle (A) with variable temperatures and consequent heat flows over the cycle is simply dealt with by using
more and more matching Carnot cycles i.e. infinite of matching Carnot cycles with dQ heat transfer... .
Entropy
The value (dQ/T ) is a measure of the value of a property of the system called the entropy. Entropy
is defined as

Thermodynamics Laws
Notes on entropy are found on webpage Entropy
Thermodynamic Law Links

3. Clausius inequality..A very nice page on the Clausius Inequality
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Thermodynamics Steam Flow
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Thermodynamics-Steam Flow Energy Equation
Introduction
The steady flow energy equation relates to open systems working under steady conditions i.e in
which conditions do not change with time.
The boundary encloses a system through which fluid flows at a constant rate, whilst heat transfer
occurs and external work is done all under steady conditions ,that is , the rates of mass flow and
energy flow are constant with respect to time.
The equation for steady flow ( the steady flow energy equation ) is generally written per unit mass
as
q = heat transfer across boundary per unit mass

w = external work done by system per unit mass
z = fluid height
v = fluid velocity
h = fluid enthalpy ( u (internal energy + pv (pressure.specific volume)
Note in the examples below the system control volumes are defined by the red dashed line.
Heater.. The steady flow equation as applied to a fluid heater..
Potential energy (z) assumed to be constant..

Kinetic energy changes (1 to 2) assumed to be very small
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Heater
w = 0 therefore
q = h2-h1
Turbine ..(Assumed Adiabetic Expansion)..The steady flow equation as applied to a turbine..

Kinetic energy changes (1 to 2) assumed to be very small
Turbine
q = 0 therefore
w = h2-h1
Throttling ..(Assumed Adiabetic )...The steady flow equation as applied to a orifice..

The higher velocity at orifice section is dissipated in tube downstream of the orifice and therefore
the kinetic energies at 1 and 2 are similar

Orifice
q = w = 0 therefore
therefore h1 = h2
Nozzle..(Assumed Adiabetic )...The steady flow equation as applied to smooth nozzle..

Kinetic energy changes are assumed to be significant
Nozzle
q = w = 0 therefore
(v22 - v12 ) /2 = (h1 - h2 )

Steady flow links
1. Steady Flow Energy Equation..MITOPENCOURSEWARE notes ..Relevant and useful

2. Engineersedge Thermodynamics..Various useful notes (imperial)
3. Taftan Steady Flow systems..Clear notes- Relevant Freeware , Shareware, and commercial software
4. Thermodynamics II..Powerpoint Presentation- Thermos summary is five minutes..
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Thermodynamics Properties
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Thermodynamics-Properties
Introduction
This section includes notes on certain important thermodynamic properties including enthalpy (h), Specific heat (cv,cp), gas constant
(R), and Entropy (S)
Enthalpy
In many thermodynamic fluid process analyses the sum of the internal energy (U) and the product of pressure (P) and volume(V) is
present. The combination (U + PV) is called the enthalpy of the fluid. H is a thermodynamic fluid property but is does not have an
absolute value(because it includes internal energy U )value and therefore enthalpy changes are generally applied or enthalpy
values are identified relative to a fixed state e.g. water at 273 deg.K . It is important to note that enthalpy is simply a combination of
properties ..it is not a form of stored energy although for certain applications it can be treated as energy.
H = U + PV ..........(extensive property)
per unit mass
h = u + Pv ...........(intensive property)
When referring for water and steam and other fluids at different states in tables the following enthalpy designations are used
● hg..specific enthalpy of saturated vapor

● hf..specific enthalpy of saturated liquid
● hi..specific enthalpy of saturated solid
● hfg..specific latent heat of vaporisation = h g - h f
● hif..specific latent heat of fusion = h f - h i
● hig..specific heat of sublimation = h g - h i
Specific Heat Capacity

The heat capacity of a substance is classically defined as the amount of heat needed to raise unit mass of a substance one degree
Centigrade.
In SI units the specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise 1 kg mass through 1 degree kelvin. (Unit kJ/kg.K)
Note:The specific heat of a substance is the ratio of the heat capacity of a substance relative to a reference substance generally
water.
The heat capacity of water is one calorie per degree C (classical) or (4180 J/kg.K ) The specific heat of a substance relative to
water will be numerically equal to its heat capacity in classical units, but not in SI units ;
The term specific heat is often used when the heat capacity actually is meant. This page is concerned only with heat capacity (to be
called specific heat capacity). Because the heat capacities of most substances vary with changes in temperature, the temperatures
of both the specified substance and the reference substance must be known in order to give a precise value for the specific heat.
Specific Heat Capacities of Gases

Four specific heats are of gases are used. Specif
● Cv = Molar specific heat at constant volume.

● Cp = Molar specific heat at constant pressure.
● cv = Specific heat at constant volume.
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● cp = Specific heat at constant pressure.
Note: The molar specific heats are mainly used for chemical studies
The specific heat varies with temperature and pressure. The graph below this illustrates this characteristic for cp. for air
Tables below show the variation of cp and cp with temperatures...
Variation of cp (for Air) with temperature and pressure
Latent Heat
The latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to convert unit mass a substance from solid to liquid without change of
temperature..
The latent heat of vaporisation is the amount of heat required to convert unit mass of a substance from liquid to vapour without
change of temperature.
Gas Constant R
The gas constant R is derived from the equation of state
Pv = RT .. for unit mass of gas
PV = mRT
The gas constant R is different for each gas and has different units depending on the unit systems used. Typical units are (kJ/kg.K).
The universal gas constant Ru is the same for all gases and is defined by
PV = NRuT

● R = Gas Constant = Ru /M
● Ru = Universal Gas Constant
● v = Gas volume (m3 )
● V = Gas Volume (m3 )
● N = Number of Moles
● T = Absolute Temperature deg K
● M = Molar mass (kg)
● P = Absolute Pressure N/m3 (kg)
Table of Gas Properties for Various Gases
Based on a pressure of 1.032 bar and at 0oC
Gas cp cv cp / cv cp - c v
Acetylene 1.616 1.3 1.2431 0.316

Air 1.005 0.718 1.3997 0.287
Ammonia 2.056 1.568 1.3112 0.488
Argon 0.52 0.312 1.6667 0.208
Carbon
0.816 0.627 1.3014 0.189
Dioxide
Carbon
0.582 0.473 1.2304 0.109
Disulphide
Carbon
1.038 0.741 1.4008 0.297
Monoxide
Chlorine 0.473 0.36 1.3139 0.113
Coal Gas 2.14 1.59 1.3459 0.55
Ethylene 1.47 1.173 1.2532 0.297
Helium 5.2 3.121 1.6661 2.079
Hydrochloric
0.795 0.567 1.4021 0.228
Acid
Hydrogen 14.05 9.934 1.4143 4.116
Hydrogen
0.992 0.748 1.3262 0.244
Sulphide
Krypron 0.25 0.151 1.6556 0.099
Methane 2.19 1.672 1.3098 0.518
Neon 1.03 0.618 1.6667 0.412
Nitrogen 1.038 0.741 1.4008 0.297
Oxygen 0.909 0.649 1.4006 0.26
Propane 1.549 1.36 1.1390 0.189
Sulphur
0.586 0.456 1.2851 0.13
Dioxide
Water Vapor 1.842 1.381 1.3338 0.461
Xenon 0.16 0.097 1.6495 0.063
Zero Pressure - (pseudo ideal gas) Gas properties - Showing Temperature relationships

Air Carbon Dioxide Carbon Monoxide

cp - cp - cp -
Temperature cp cv cp / cv Temperature cp cv cp / cv Temperature cp cv cp / cv
cv cv cv
0 1.004 0.717 1.4003 0.287 0 0.817 0.628 1.3010 0.189 0 1.04 0.743 1.3997 0.297
50 1.006 0.719 1.3992 0.287 50 0.869 0.68 1.2779 0.189 50 1.041 0.745 1.3973 0.296
100 1.01 0.723 1.3970 0.287 100 0.916 0.727 1.2600 0.189 100 1.045 0.748 1.3971 0.297
150 1.016 0.729 1.3937 0.287 150 0.958 0.769 1.2458 0.189 150 1.05 0.754 1.3926 0.296
200 1.024 0.737 1.3894 0.287 200 0.995 0.806 1.2345 0.189 200 1.074 0.777 1.3822 0.297
400 1.068 0.781 1.3675 0.287 400 1.113 0.924 1.2045 0.189 400 1.106 0.809 1.3671 0.297
600 1.115 0.828 1.3466 0.287 600 1.195 1.006 1.1880 0.189 600 1.157 0.86 1.3453 0.297
800 1.154 0.867 1.3310 0.287 800 1.253 1.064 1.1776 0.189 800 1.199 0.902 1.3293 0.297
1000 1.185 0.898 1.3196 0.287 1000 1.294 1.105 1.1710 0.189 1000 1.231 0.934 1.3180 0.297
1500 1.235 0.948 1.3027 0.287 1500 1.354 1.165 1.1622 0.189 1500 1.28 0.983 1.3021 0.297
2000 1.266 0.978 1.2945 0.288 2000 1.387 1.198 1.1578 0.189 2000 1.306 1.01 1.2931 0.296
2500 1.287 1 1.287 0.287 2500 1.407 1.218 1.1552 0.189 2500 1.323 1.026 1.2895 0.297
Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen
cp - cp - cp -
Temperature cp cv cp / cv Temperature cp cv cp / cv Temperature cp cv cp / cv
cv cv cv
0 14.19 10.07 1.4091 4.12 0 1.039 0.742 1.4003 0.297 0 0.915 0.655 1.3969 0.26
50 14.37 10.25 1.402 4.12 50 1.04 0.743 1.3997 0.297 50 0.922 0.663 1.3906 0.259
100 14.46 10.33 1.3998 4.13 100 1.042 0.745 1.3987 0.297 100 0.934 0.674 1.3858 0.26
150 14.49 10.37 1.3973 4.12 150 1.046 0.749 1.3965 0.297 150 0.948 0.688 1.3779 0.26
200 14.51 10.38 1.3979 4.13 200 1.052 0.755 1.3934 0.297 200 0.963 0.703 1.3698 0.26
400 14.59 10.46 1.3948 4.13 400 1.091 0.795 1.3723 0.296 400 1.024 0.764 1.3403 0.26
600 14.79 10.66 1.3874 4.13 600 1.139 0.842 1.3527 0.297 600 1.069 0.809 1.3214 0.26
800 15.12 10.99 1.3758 4.13 800 1.181 0.885 1.3345 0.296 800 1.1 0.84 1.3095 0.26
1000 15.53 11.41 1.3611 4.12 1000 1.215 0.918 1.3235 0.297 1000 1.122 0.863 1.3001 0.259
1500 16.58 12.46 1.3307 4.12 1500 1.269 0.972 1.3056 0.297 1500 1.164 0.904 1.2876 0.26
2000 17.45 13.33 1.3091 4.12 2000 1.298 1.001 1.2967 0.297 2000 1.2 0.94 1.2766 0.26
2500 18.12 14 1.2943 4.12 2500 1.316 1.019 1.2915 0.297 2500 1.234 0.975 1.2656 0.259
Steam Properties Links

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Thermodynamics Entropy
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Thermodynamics-Entropy
Introduction
Entropy is a measure of the quality of energy and how usable it is....
Entropy (S)is very difficult to visualise because it does not represent anything tangible. The
entropy increase δS is the heat transfer to a substance δQ divided by the absolute temperature of
the substance (T) during a reversible heat-transfer process.
At the very simplest level , on a plot of Absolute Temperature (T) against Entropy (Q/T = S) for a
reversible cyclic process (as shown below) the area enclosed = Q
Note: The reversible cyclic process shown below is actually the theoretical Carnot cycle.
1->2 being isothermal expansion.
2->3 being adiabetic expansion.
3->4 being isothermal compression.
4->1 being adiabetic compression.
The change in entropy ( δS ) of a substance is that quantity which when multiplied by the absolute
temperature at which the change took place results in the amount of energy ( δQ ) flow reversibly by
heat transfer across the boundary enclosing the substance.
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Total entropy is a property (extensive) of a substance and therefore the change in entropy during a
process, from an initial to a final state, is the same whatever the path taken. The change in entropy
resulting from any real (irreversible) process is the same as that resulting from a reversible process
with the same initial and final states. Therefore to determine the change in entropy resulting from a
real irreversible process an equivalent reversible process must be envisaged to replace the real
process from initial to final states before integration of the following
Typical SI units for total entropy (S) change are kJ /K. SI units for specific entropy (s) change are
kJ/kg.K
Entropy Change for ideal fixed mass closed system gas processed
For an ideal constant volume process... (dQ = mcvdT )
For an ideal constant pressure process... ( dQ = mcpdT )

For an ideal adiabetic process...
For an ideal isothermal process...

There is no change in temperature and therefore there is no change in internal energy U.
From the first law of thermodynamic dQ = dU + dW. If dU = 0 then dQ = dW.
Entropy changes in terms of properties of a perfect gas
From the definition of entropy i.e δQrev = TδS

and from the first law of thermodynamics is dQ = dE + dW which, for a reversible process can be
written as δQrev =δE + PδV...
it can be deduced that dE = TdS - PdV for a reversible process and if the substance is a gas of
mass m then
For a perfect gas PV = mRT and assuming Cv is constant.

a) Entropy change in terms of V and T

b) Entropy change in terms of P and T
c) Entropy change in terms of P and V
Example ..Entropy Change in Joules Experiment

To determine the entropy change in the irreversible adiabetic expansion of

Joules experiment....
In this experiment a gas at high pressure (properties P1, V1,T )in chamber A
which is connected to a second evacuated chamber B via a valve. When the
valve is opened the gas in chamber A moves by free unresisted expansion
into chamber B until the pressures equalise (final properties P2, V2,T ).
The gas is supposed perfect and the temperature does not change (no work
has been done). An irreversible expansion has taken place.
The equipment is so arranged that there is no heat transfer between the

surroundings and the system (δQ = 0). Although δQ = 0 the process is
irreversible and therefore δQ is not zero.
To determine the change in entropy the process is replaced by a reversible

process which has the same initial and final conditions i.e. an isothermal
process.
For an isothermal process the change in entropy =
In this case although the process is adiabetic because it is not reversible it is

not isentropic. There is a resulting increase in entropy reflecting the various
irreversible energy losses in this process
Adiabetic ,Isentropic, and Isothermal Processes - Real and Reversible

Ideal reversible adiabetic and isothermal processes are straight lines on the TS chart as shown
above ac = ideal isothermal process and ab = ideal isentropic process. An adiabetic process is one
which is insulated against heat transfer and an isentropic process is one with a constant entropy.
δQ may be zero during a adiabetic process but if the process is not reversible then δS = δQ /T does
not apply and δS is not zero.
If the process is reversible then δQ = 0 and δS = 0 i.e the process is adiabetic and isentropic.
A isentropic process is not necessarily reversible for a real expansion or compression-with all the
associated eddies and friction associated with real processes may have sufficient heat transfer to
maintain the entropy of the relevant substance constant (δS = 0 ). A real process could be isentropic
but would not at the same time be adiabetic because some heat transfer would be necessary. The
following relationships are possible
● In a real (irreversible) adiabetic process δQ = 0 but δS > 0

● In a reversible adiabetic process δQ = 0 and δS =0 0
● In a real (irreversible) isentropic process δS = 0 but δQ < 0
● In a reversible isentropic process δS = 0 and δQ = 0 0
Steam Turbine Links
1. EntropySite.com ..A website devoted to entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
2. An Introduction to Entropy..Article reflecting a generalised view of entropy
3. Hyperphysics Second Law: Entropy ..Clear precise notes
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Thermodynamics Carnot Cycle
ROYMECH
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Thermodynamics Cycles
Introduction
Various internal combustion engine types have been devised and represented by various idealised
cycles (otto cycle for four stroke, diesel cycle etc.. These idealised cycles cycles are useful for
determining the practical limitations and efficiencies possible. They do not however provide the
answer to the question..
"What is the greatest fraction of the heat transfer from a energy source is it possible to convert into
work i.e. what is the limiting efficiency of conversion"
Carnot introduced a theoretical gas cycle based of ideal reversible process which provides this
information
Carnot Cycle
Carnot in 1824 arrived at the "carnot cycle" which is an idealised gas cycle that obtains the maximum
amount of work from and engine working in a thermodynamically reversible manner. This cycle
provides a maximum efficiency for any thermodynamic heat engine
The Carnot cycle for perfect gases is and idealised cycle composed of four reversible processes
1. an isothermal expansion of fixed mass of gas (say in a cylinder- causing a piston to move out)
2. an adiabetic expansion the gas (say in a cylinder- causing a piston to move out)
3. an isothermal contraction of the gas (say in a cylinder- causing a piston to move in)
4. an adiabetic contraction of the gas (say in a cylinder- causing a piston to move in)
This imaginary working fluid is contained in the (cylinder)closed system and simply receives and
rejects energy to a source and sink using perfect heat transfer (with no temperature difference ). As
a result of receiving and rejecting energy it expands and contracts during four ideal reversible "no-
flow" processes. The fluid is an ideal gas following the ideal gas laws.
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The work done through during a complete cycle is determined using the relationships identified on
webpage Polytropic processes....
From the general relationship for adiabatic polytropic processes the following relationship is
identified. Relationships
Heat Transfer
at T1 Heat Rejected
at T2 from Change in
Reversible to Working Work done by
Internal Energy
Process Fluid Working Fluid working fluid
of Fluid
From Hot From Sink
Source
Isothermal
RmT1loger 0 RmT1loger 0
Expansion
Adiabatic Rm(T1 - T2 )/ -Rm(T1 - T2 )/

0 0
Expansion (1- γ ) (1- γ )
Isothermal
0 RmT1loger -RmT1loger 0
Compression
Adiabatic -Rm(T1 - T2 )/ Rm(T1 - T2 )/

0 0
Compression (1- γ ) (1- γ )

Rm(T1- T2 )
Totals RmT1loger = Q1 RmT1loger = Q2 0
loger= W
From the table it can clearly be seen that the total work done by the carnot cycle is Rm(T1 - T1 )loge r
= Q1 - Q2.
The energy supplied = RmT1 loge r = Q1. Therefore
This is the maximum efficiency achievable by an reversible thermodynamic cycle working with a ideal
perfect gas.
The following relationship results from the above....
Air Standard cycles

Although the Carnot cycle is theoretically the most efficient it is in no way a practical device. Also
the energy transfers would be far too slow for any real benefits to be realised. Internal combustion
engines work on non cyclic processes because the fuel-air mix enters the system and products of
combustion exit the system. . However theoretical cycles based on the hypothesis that air is the
working fluid in a closed system receiving an rejecting energy to external sinks allows provide very
crude estimations on the theoretical efficiencies possible internal combustion engines.
For the purpose of the air standard cycles the suction and exhaust strokes are not considered.T
The Otto Cycle or constant volume cycle has been proposed to provide an approximation of the 4
stroke Internal combustion cycle designed by Otto. The diesel cycle is used to approximate a cycle
with heat being added at constant pressure..
Otto Cycle

The Otto cycle is comprised of four reversible processes of air in a closed system:
● a -> c adiabatic compression,

● c -> 1 constant volume heat addition
● 1 -> 2adiabatic expansion,
● 2 -> a and constant volume heat rejection
●
The diagram for this process is shown above.
The compression ratio r = V2 / V1
Heat is added (Q1) between c and 1 = mcv(T1 - Tc) and Heat is rejected (Q2 )between 2 and b= mcv
(T2 - Ta)
There is no heat added or rejected during the adiabatic expansion or compression therefore the
thermal efficiency of this ideal process is
This expression can be simplified using the following adiabatic relationship Relationships
The thermal efficiency of and otto cycle is therefore.

Diesel Cycle
This hypothetical cycle is one with heat being rejected at constant pressure. The stages of the cycle
are shown below
● c - > 1 Energy is added by heat transfer at constant pressure

● 1 - >2 Adiabatic expansion
● 2 - > a Energy rejected by heat transfer at constant volume
● a - > c Adiabatic compression
Energy supplied during c-1 = mcp (T1 - Tc )

Energy rejected during 2-a = mcv (T2 - Ta )
The thermal efficiency of the cycle =
This can be simplified as follows:
The Thermal efficiency is now simplified as follows...

Air Cycle Links

3. Clausius inequality..A very nice page on the Clausius Inequality
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Thermodynamics
ROYMECH
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Thermodynamics Heat Engines
Introduction
The function of a heat engine is to transform energy which is supplied by heat transfer into
mechanical energy and make it available for doing useful work...Any system which enables a
substance or working agent to undergo a cyclic process by receiving and rejecting energy by heat
transfer with some of this energy converted into work is called a heat engine.
A heat engine is, strictly, one which involves the transfer of energy in the form of heat and work but
with no transfer of matter - it is a closed circuit system. A closed circuit steam power plant and a
closed circuit gas turbine are heat engines but an, open circuit, internal combustion engine is not a
heat engine.
For the majority of heat engines the end product is a rotating shaft. A shaft is effectively a conduit
through which work is transmitted.
Heat Engine Principle
For the typic heat engine as shown the working agent is assumed to complete a cyclic
process. There is no net gain or loss of energy within the boundary (∆ E = 0). In accordance with
the First Law of Thermodynamics or the law of conservation of energy.
Qi + Wi = Qo + Wo
Also the net work done by the engine is equal to the Work out - The work expended.
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Thermodynamics
W = Wo - Wi
The efficiency of the heat engine is the ratio of the useful work output and the energy input i.e.
Heat Engine components

All heat engines have the following essential components
● A source..This is a hot region which is part of the surroundings from which energy flows by heat transfer..e.g A furnace, a nuclear
reactor, the sun
● The working agent...This undergoes changes of state as part of a continuous cycle. e.g. Steam-water, air
● A sink .. This is a relatively cold region which is part or the surroundings into which heat is rejected by heat transfer. e.g. cooler,
river, lake, the atmosphere
All other parts of the heat engine are provided for the successful operation and functioning of the
three essential components identified above.
....More notes to follow....

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Thermodynamics Two / Four Stroke Engine Notes
ROYMECH
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Thermodynamics Four Stroke Engines
Introduction
Petrol,parafin, gas and oil internal combustion engines generally work on four-stroke or two stroke
cycles. The four stroke completes one engine cycle for every four strokes of the piston, that is
every two revolutions of the crankshaft. The two stroke completes one engine cycle for every two
strokes of the piston, that is each revolution of the crankshaft. Engines mechanisms working on
either cycle can be designed for spark-ignition or compression ignition (diesel) as the method of
initiating combustion according to the engine speed, size, and type of fuel used.
Four Stroke Engines

In essence in a four stroke internal-combustion engine an explosive mixture is drawn into the
cylinder on the first stroke,it is compressed and ignited on the second stroke; work is done on the
third stroke and the products of combustion are exhausted on the fourth stroke.
Spark ignition cycle...(otto cycle)
● The inlet valve is open prior to commencement of the first stroke

● In the first stroke (charging) the piston moves out and the cylinder air-fuel is drawn into the cylinder
● The inlet valve is closed
● In the second stroke (compression) the piston compresses the mixture.
● At the end of the compression stroke the fuel-air mixture is ignited by a spark
● The third stroke - the working/power stroke results from the hot products of combustion expanding driving the piston out
● At the end of the power stroke the exhaust valve is opened.
● The fourth stroke is the exhaust stroke when the products of combustion are driven out of the cylinder
Note: The motion of the piston during the charging, compression and exhaust strokes is driven by
the inertia of the a flywheel which is used to ensure smooth continuous motion.
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Compression ignition cycle...(diesal cycle)
● The inlet valve is open prior to commencement of the first stroke

● In the first stroke (charging) the piston moves out and the cylinder air is drawn into the cylinder
● The inlet valve is closed
● In the second stroke (compression) the piston compresses the mixture.
● At the end of the compression stroke the fuel is injected into the air which has been compressed to high pressure and temperature
above the flash point of the fuel. Spontaneous combustion occurs
● The third stroke - the working/power stroke results from the hot products of combustion expanding driving the piston out
● At the end of the power stroke the exhaust valve is opened.
● The fourth stroke is the exhaust stroke when the products of combustion are driven out of the cylinder
Notes on the theoretical consideration of the otto and deisel cycles are found on page
Thermodynamic cycles
Two Stroke Engines

Two stroke engines are used for motor cycles,lawn mowers, chain saws and marine engines.

Operating Principles
In the combustion phase an ignited charge exerts pressure on the piston crown whilst a fresh
charge is drawn through the carburettor into the crankcase via inlet port I.
During the exhausting phase the piston moving down partly uncovers the exhaust port E allow the
combustion gases to start to discharge. The downward movement of the piston also compresses
the fuel air mixture in the crankcase.
At the end of the first stroke the exhaust port are fully open and the fuel inlet port P is now open
allow the compressed fuel mixture to enter the cylinder above the piston. The piston crown is so
shaped that the mixture is deflected upwards above the residue of the escaping exhaust gases.
the mixture aids is sweeping out the exhaust gases.
During the upward compressing stroke covers the transfer ports , compresses the charge and
creates a small vacuum in the crankcase. At the end of the upward stroke (inner dead centre)
ignition occurs resulting in the ignited charge expanding and exerting pressure on the piston.
Four Stroke Engines Links
1. Keveney - Four Stroke..Animated two stroke cycle

2. How stuff Works - Four stroke engines..Very clear animation and notes
3. The otto cycle..Warwick University Notes - very clear notes
4. Hyperphysics -Otto cycle ..Very clear notes and diagrams
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Thermodynamics Steam Turbine
ROYMECH
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Thermodynamics-Steam Turbine
Introduction
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that converts thermal energy in presssurised steam into
useful mechanical work. The original steam engine which largely powered the industrial revolution
in the UK was based on reciprocating pistons. This has now been almost totally replaced by the
steam turbine because the steam turbine has a higher thermodynamic efficiency and a lower power-
to-weight ratio and the steam turbine is ideal for the very large power configurations used in power
stations. The steam turbine derives much of its better thermodynamic efficiency because of the
use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam. This results in a closer approach to the ideal
reversible process.
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 0.75 kW units used as mechanical
drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 1,500,000kW turbines used to
generate electricity. Steam turbines are widely used for marine applications for vessel propulsion
systems. In recent times gas turbines , as developed for aerospace applications, are being used
more and more in the field of power generation once dominated by steam turbines.
Steam Turbine Principle

The steam energy is converted mechanical work by expansion through the turbine. Th expansion
takes place through a series of fixed blades (nozzles) and moving blades each row of fixed blades
and moving blades is called a stage. The moving blades rotate on the central turbine rotor and the
fixed blades are concentrically arranged within the circular turbine casing which is substantially
designed to withstand the steam pressure.
On large output turbines the duty too large for one turbine and a number of turbine casing/rotor units
are combined to achieve the duty. These are generally arranged on a common centre line (tandem
mounted) but parallel systems can be used called cross compound systems.
Two Turbine Cylinders Tandem Mounted
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There are two principles used for design of turbine blades the impulse blading and the reaction
blading.
Impulse Blading
The impulse blading principle is that the steam is directed at the blades and the impact of the steam
on the blades drives them round. The day to day examples of this principle is pelton wheel. In this
type of turbine the whole of the stage pressure drop takes place in the fixed blade (nozzle) and the
steam jet acts on the moving blade by impinging on the blades.
Velocity diagram impulse turbine stage
z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative velocity, V wa & V wb- represents the
tangential component of the absolute steam in and steam out velocities
The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed.
Power /stage= (V w a - V wb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam
Reaction Blading
The reaction blading principle depends on the blade diverting the steam flow and gaining kinetic
energy by the reaction. The Catherine wheel (firework) is an example of this principle. FOr this
turbine principle the steam pressure drop is divide between the fixed and moving blades.

Velocity diagram reaction turbine stage
z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative velocity, V wa & V wb- represents the
tangential component of the absolute steam in and steam out velocities
The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed.
Power /stage= (V w a - V wb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam
The blade speed z is limited by the mechanical design and material constraints of the blades.
Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is a steam cycle for a steam plant operating under the best theoretical conditions
for most efficient operation. This is an ideal imaginary cycle against which all other real steam
working cycles can be compared.
The theoretic cycle can be considered with reference to the figure below. There will no losses of
energy by radiation, leakage of steam, or frictional losses in the mechanical componets. The
condenser cooling will condense the steam to water with only sensible heat (saturated water). The

feed pump will add no energy to the water. The chimney gases would be at the same pressure as
the atmosphere.
Within the turbine the work done would be equal to the energy entering the turbine as steam (h1)
minus the energy leaving the turbine as steam after perfect expansion (h2) this being isentropic
(reversible adiabatic) i.e. (h1- h2). The energy supplied by the steam by heat transfer from the
combustion and flue gases in the furnace to the water and steam in the boiler will be the difference
in the enthalpy of the steam leaving the boiler and the water entering the boiler = (h1 - h3).
Basic Rankine Cycle
The ratio output work / Input by heat transfer is the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle and is
expressed as
Although the theoretical best efficiency for any cycle is the Carnot Cycle the Rankine cycle provides
a more practical ideal cycle for the comparision of steam power cycles ( and similar cycles ). The
efficiencies of working steam plant are determined by use of the Rankine cycle by use of the
relative efficiency or efficiency ratio as below:
The various energy streams flowing in a simple steam turbine system as indicated in the diagram
below. It is clear that the working fluid is in a closed circuit apart from the free surface of the hot
well. Every time the working fluid flows at a uniform rate around the circuit it experiences a series of
processes making up a thermodynamic cycle.
The complete plant is enclosed in an outer boundary and the working fluid crosses inner boundaries
(control surfaces).. The inner boundaries defines a flow process.
The various identifiers represent the various energy flows per unit mass flowing along the steady-

flow streams and crossing the boundaries. This allows energy equations to be developed for the
individual units and the whole plant...
When the turbine system is operating under steady state conditions the law of conservation of
energy dictates that the energy per unit mass of working agent ** entering any system boundary
must be equal to the rate of energy leaving the system boundary.
**It is acceptable to consider rates per unit mass or unit time whichever is most convenient
Steady Flow Energy Equations
Boiler
The energy streams entering and leaving the boiler unit are as follows:
F + A + h d = h 1 + G + hl b hence F + A = G + h 1 - h d + hl b
Turbine
h 1 = T + h 2 + hl t hence 0 = T - h 1 + h 2 + hl t

Condenser Unit
W i + h 2 = W o + h w + hl c hence W i = W o + h w - h 2 + hl c
Feed Water System

The energy streams entering and leaving the Feed Water System are as follows:
h w + d e + d f= h d + hl f hence d e + d f = - h w + h d + hl
The four equations on the right can be arranged to give the energy equation for the whole turbine
system enclosed by the outer boundary
That is ..per unit mass the of working agent (water) the energy of the fuel (F) is equal to the sum of
● the mechanical energy available from the turbine less that used to drive the pumps (T - (d e+ d f)
● the energy leaving the exhaust [G - A] using the air temperature as the datum.
● the energy gained by the water circulating through the condenser [W o - W i]
● the energy gained by the atmosphere surrounding the plant Σ hl
The overall thermal efficiency of a steam turbine plant can be represented by the ratio of the net
mechanical energy available to the energy within the fuel supplied. as indicated in the expressions
below...
Turbine Vapour Cycle on T-h Diagram

Steam cycle on Temp - Enthalpy Diagram
This cycle shows the stages of operation in a turbine plant. The enthalpy reduction in the turbine is
represented by A -> B . The reversible process for an ideal isentropic (reversible adiabetic) is
represented by A->B'. This enthalpy loss would be (h g1 - h 2 ) in the reversible case this would be
(h g1 - h 2s ).
The heat loss by heat transfer in the condenser is shown as B->C and results in a loss of enthalpy
of (h 2- h f2) or in the idealised reversible process it is shown by B'-> C with a loss of enthalpy of (h
2s- h f2).
The work done on the water in extracting it from the condenser and feeding it to the boiler during
adiabetic compression C-> D is (h d - h f2 ) = length M
The energy added to the working agent by heat transfer across the heat transfer surfaces in the
boiler is (h g1 - h d ) which is approx.( h g1 - h f2 )
The Rankine efficiency of the Rankine Cycle AB'CDEA is

The efficiency of the Real Cycle is
For notes on the Rankine Cycle modified for superheat Rankine superheat ....More notes to
follow....
Steam Turbine Links
1. Wikipedia- Steam Turbines..A series of very informative notes and diagrams

2. Steam Turbines..A one page article with very good graphics
3. Technology Characterization Steam Turbine ..A downloadable paper including lots of useful relevant information
4. Tpub-Steam Turbines ..Lots of useful Information and very nice sketches
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Thermodynamics Air compressors & motors
ROYMECH
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Thermodynamics Air Compressors & Motors
Introduction
Compressors
The object of all compressors is to raise the pressure of a gas with the minimum expenditure of
energy... There are four principle types of air compressors
● Reciprocating compressors..Gas is compressed by positive displacement pistons in cylinders. Flow being controlled by valves.
● Turbomachinery .. Gas is driven by high speed impellers rotating in confined case
● Rotary Machines.. Gas is compressed by rotors provided with lobes, gears, vanes.. Near positive displacement
● Ejectors .. Gas is moved using kinetic energy induced by high velocity jet through nozzles
When considering turbo machinery a number of different designations are used
● Pumps - mainly for liquids

● Fans move gases against small pressure differences with little change in density
● Blowers- move gases with some slight pressure differences
● Compressors are used to move gases and provide significant pressure increases
Reciprocating compressors
Reciprocating compressors are often used with air reservoirs to provide compressed air for
industrial and civil duties driving air tools etc. Reservoirs have to be used because reciprocating
compressors provide a pulsating air delivery..
The figure below shows a hypothetical indicator diagram for a single stage -single acting
reciprocating compressor.
● a ->1... Air is drawn into the cylinder on the suction stroke

● 1 ->2... The suction valve is closed and air is compressed according to the law Pvn = c
● 2 ->b... The delivery valve opens and air is delivered under pressure
● b ->a... The delivery valve closes and the suction valve opens
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The cycles shown is assumed to follow a series of equilibrium states and the gas is assumed to
follow the equation of state . PV = RmT throughout.... The theoretical work done on the air per cycle
is the area enclosed by [ a-1-2-b- a ] which equals
ref..Polytropic Process
If c is the rate at which the cycles are repeated then the rate at which energy is imparted to the air =
The ideal compression requiring the minimum amount of work is the perfect reversible isothermal
which obeys Boyle's law PV = c. This is represented by 13. The work saved ber cycle is [ 1-2-3-
1 ]. If the compression was isothermal the work done per cycle would be [ a-1-3-b-a ] which is
The compressor isothermal efficiency is a measure of the departure from the ideal compression
process and is defined as

Clearance Volume effect

A practical single stage compressor cylinder will a small clearance at end of stroke. This clearance
will have a significant effect on the work done per cycle.
In operation the air in the clearance volume expands to 5 before any fresh air is drawn into the
cylinder. The stroke is from 1 to 2 with a swept volume of (V2 - V1 ) but the suction is only from 5 to
2 giving a volume of (V2 - V5 ) taken into the cylinder on each stroke.
Effect of Clearance Volume
The volumetric efficiency obtained from the hypothetical indicator diagram is :
Assuming compression curve 2->3 and the expansion curve 4->5 follow the same law PVn = c
then..
The volumetric ratio of compression (V2 /V 3 ) = the volumetric ratio of expansion (V5 /V 4 ) = r
v. The volumetric efficiency =
That is

It is clear that the smaller the clearance volume Vc the larger the volumetric efficiency will be. In
practice is is possible to get the clearance volume down to 3 to 5% of the stroke....
When clearance is taken into account the work done per cycle =
The hypothetical power of a single stage compressor (kW working on c cycles /s)
Multi-stage
Actual compressor diagrams differ from hypothetical diagrams because of valve opening and
closing delays and component inertias. A typical actual indicator diagram is shown below.
A good approximation of the volumetric efficiency is idicated by the ration of x to y measured at the
atmospheric pressure line..
The actual performance of a reciprocating compressor used as pump is measured by the ratio.
Multi-stage
When air at high pressure is required, multi-staged compression is more efficient than using a
single stage compressor. Also single stage compressors delivering high pressures result in high
gas temperatures which effect the lubrication and increase the risk of burning.

It is required to compress air from P1 to P4. The diagram below shows the curve for single stage
compression .a-b-c-k-h. The curve for ideal isothermal compression is also shown a-b-j-h. The
area enclosed by the curves indicates the work done per cycle and it is clear that the work done in
the ideal isothermal process is far less than that done in the single stage compression.
Assume a three stage compressor process is used.

The air is compressed from P1 to P 2 (a -> c) and the air is transferred into a receiver and cooled to
its original temperature (c -> d) and the air is then transferred from the receiver to a second cylinder
and compressed to P3 (d -> e) .
The air is then transferred to a second receiver and cooled back to its original temperature (e -> f)
and transferred again to a third cylinder and compressed to P4 (f -> g).
The overall process is represented by curve a-b-c-d-e-f-g-h. The cooling brings the process closer
toward the ideal isothermal (constant temperature) curve. The saving in work done per cycle is
identified by the shaded area.
Rotary and Turbo Compressors

Rotary or turbo-compressors deal with larger flow rates of air than reciprocating compressors but
usually at lower delivery pressures. Rotary compressors can be driven by high speed electric
motors, steam turbines, and internal combustion engines. They are usually multi-stage machines of
the centrifugal or axial-flow types.
In centrifugal compressors a number of impellers are mounted on a a common rotor in a robust

casing. Air from the atmosphere enters the eye of the first impeller it then acquires kinetic energy
from the rotating impellers. The air is directed from the periphery of the impeller into a stationary
diffuser vanes which are designed to convert the kinetic energy of the gas to increased pressure.
The gas is directed inwards to the eye of the next impeller and the process is repeated as it passes
through each stage the pressure being progressively increased.
In the axial-flow compressor, the air is compressed while continuing its original direction of flow .

The rotor has fixed blades that force the air rearward much like an aircraft propeller. In front of the
first rotor stage are the inlet guide vanes . These vanes direct the intake air toward the first set of
rotor blades. Directly behind each rotor stage is a stator. The stator directs the air rearward to the
next rotor stage Each consecutive pair of rotor and stator blades constitutes a pressure stage.
Higher duty rotary compressors are usually provided with water cooling with intercoolers. The
volumetric efficiency of turbo-compressors is usually defined by the ratio.
Although minimum work input is usually achieved with a constant temperature (isothermal)
reversible process, compression in rotary compressors is most often assessed relative to the
reversible adiabetic process ( isentropic -constant s processes). The pv diagram below shows the
different processes.
An ideal compression process with no losses would be adiabetic and real processes are compared
to this by having using the adiabetic- isentropic efficiency which is defined as.
The power for reversible adiabatic compression is calculated from.
c = cycles traced per unit time and m = mass of air pumped per unit time. As cp = γ R /(γ-1) and cp

(T2s- T1 ) = (h2s - h1 ) the above expression can be rewritten
The isentropic efficiency of a rotary compressor based on the hypothetical indicator diagram is
calculated by
The isentropic efficiency of a uncooled rotary compressor when all the energy is used in increasing
the enthalpy of the fluid can be expressed as
Motors
There are many kinds of air motors used for powering tools and mechanisms which use
compressed air. These are specially designed units which are very compact and are able to
operate at high speeds with built in torque limitation.
Typical designs of air motors include rotary vane, axial piston, radial piston, gerotor, turbine, V-type,
and diaphragm. Rotary vane, axial- and radial-piston, and gerotor air motors are most commonly
used for industrial applications. These designs operate with highest efficiency and longevity from
lubricated air.
Unlike steam air cannot, conveniently, be used expansively because the resulting cooling effect
would result in freezing of the moisture being carried in the air. If the moisture in the air is removed
then the air can be used more flexibly.
The efficiencies of air motors based on non-expansion cycles is about 20%. With the effiencies or
compressors being about 60% then pnuematic drive systems have efficiencies of less than 12%.
This compares unfavourable with internal combustion electric motor drive systems.
The primary advantages justifying the use of pneumatic drive systems are
● Safety - air motors can be used in locations with explosive risk resulting from ignitions sources due to electrical device
● Convenience - air motors are generally very compact and include built in oveload protection
● Capital Costs - Air motors are often very low cost units
● Maintenance/Opertion - Air motors cost little in maintenance and can be easily operated by semi-skilled operatives
● Installation - Most industrial sites have compressed air systems installed.
..... Notes to be added...

Links to Thermodynamics Air Compressors Motors
1. Thermodynamic Compressers..A single page of useful notes

2. Thermodynamics of Gas compressors..Download with very useful information
3. Air Motors..Detailed notes on air motors
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Thermodynamics Boilers
ROYMECH
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Boilers
Introduction..... Boiler Types..... Boiler Operation..... Fire Tube Boilers.....

Water Tube Boilers..... Boiler Auxiliaries.... Standards..... Boiler Efficiency..... Fuels.....
Introduction
A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated under pressure. The steam or hot
fluid is then circulated out of the boiler for use in various process or heating applications..
The boiler system includes two prime processes
● To generate heat by combustion, or using some other process (nuclear, solar , waste heat).
● To transmit energy by heat transfer to the fluid being heated.
The efficiency of the heat generation side is known as the combustion efficiency
The efficiency of the heat transfer process is known as the transmission efficiency
The overall efficiency is known as the boiler efficiency
The boiler efficiency = Energy transmitted to Fluid / Heating value or calorific value of fuel
Types of Boilers
There are two principle types of boilers,fire tube boilers and water tube boilers.
Fire Tube Boilers...Fire-tube boilers force hot combustion gases through tubes submerged in
water.
Fire Tube Boiler
Water Tube Boilers circulate water in tubes within a furnace enclosure. Hot flue gases pass over
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the tubes, heat the water, and then exit through a stack.
Water Tube Boiler
Water-tube boilers are usually specified in all situations where operating pressures of 20 barg or
greater are required because of their greater structural integrity.
Fire-tube boilers are usually preferred in low-pressure applications between 0,5 kg/s (approx.
75kW) and 5kg/s (approx. 750kW boiler ) of steam. In sizes below 0,5kg/s and above 5 kg/s, water-
tube units are often preferred.
Boiler Operation
Energy is continuously added to water in a closed system (vessel or piping) array and the water
evaporates to steam and the pressure and temperature increases as long as the strength of the
containment is not exceeded. The relationships between temperature, pressure and volume of the
contained fluid are shown in steam tables. There will be a point where the energy supplied is just
sufficient to maintain steam conditions and evaporation will stop....
If the contained steam is released to drive a turbine or engine the pressure will tend to fall allowing
increased evaporation. So long as the temperature is maintained constant the pressure will also be
constant as it supplies steam, under steady conditions, to the plant being driven. The operation of
the boiler is controlled to ensure a sufficient supply of water to make up for the steam being
supplied and to ensure sufficient energy input to maintain constant pressure in the steam system.
In modern boilers over 80% of the heating value of the fuel is transmitted to the fluid in the boiler.
The rest of the heating value is lost in the exhaust gases or is lost by conduction radiation and
convection on the external surfaces of the boiler system..
A vital part of any boiler system is the system designed to release the steam pressure to ensure
safe conditions are maintained. The safety system is generally based on using high integrity safety
relief valves.
Fire Tube Boilers

Fire Tube Boilers are widely used in small installations to heat buildings and to provide power for
factory processes. Fire-tube boilers are also used in steam locomotinves Fire-tube boilers have
the advantage of being easy to install and operate.
The main disadvantage of the fire tube boiler is that the steam is generated in a large containment
vessel which is at risk of catastrophic failure due to the high stresses developed at high pressures....
Water Tube Boilers

Water tube boilers were developed to satisfy the the demand for large quantities of steam at
pressures and temperatures far exceeding those possible with fire-tube boilers. The tubes are
outside the steam drum, which has no heating surface and is much smaller than in the fire-tube
boiler. For this reason, the drum of the watertube boiler is better able to withstand higher pressures
and temperatures. A wide variety of sizes and designs of watertube boilers are used in power
stations, ships and factories.
Water tube boilers have the following advantages.
● Low risk of disastrous explosion compared to fire box boiler

● Space saving
● Rapid steam raising
● Ease of transportation
● Large capacity and pressure units available
Watertube boilers have the following disadvantages.
● The supply water has to be pure and specially treated to protect the steam tubes
● Water tube boiler systems are often complicated require special maintenance procedures
● Water tube boiler cannot serve as steam reservoirs because the fluid volume is minimised
● The water feed system has to be very accurate - (small fluid volume)
Boiler Auxiliaries
The following auxiliaries are mostly applicable to industrial scale water tube boilers
a) De-aerating Plant
De-aerating plant is often used before the economizer and boiler to remove gases and thus prevent
corrosion. De-aration also avoids air passing, with the steam, into the condensor are reducing the
necessary vacuum. Turbine operation
Pressurised water at about 1,5 barg is sprayed into a chamber which is at a reduced pressure
relative to the feed water. The chamber is fed with steam.
The reduction of pressure and the heating of the water particles by contact with the steam results in
the liberation of the gases from the water.
b) Feed Heaters
Feed Heaters are used for supplying boilers with hot feed water. An important benefit of feed
heaters is that most of the dissolved gases are liberated before the feed water enters the
boiler. The feed water flow passes through tubes which are exposed to partially expanded steam

brought from, typically, one or more points in the turbine system. The turbine exhausted steam is
thus used to some advantage. It has been established that heating the boiler feed water is this way
improves the overall efficiency of the turbine plant.
c) Economizer
Most of the energy waste in the boiler system is in the waste heat in the exhaust gases routing to
the stack (chimney). The economizer is often used to enable feed water to be preheated by routing
the feed water through banks of water pipes (economizer) through which the exhaust gases are
diverted.
d)Superheater
The steam generated from water in the boiler drum is saturated steam which does not attain a unity
dryness value- it is wet steam. Turbine plant is generally operated at higher efficiency if the turbine
feed steam is superheated.
To superheat the steam it is fed from the boiler drum via banks of steam tubes (superheater)
through the region of the combustion chamber where the hottests gases are flowing. The
superheater only slightly increased the boiler efficiency but there is a significant benefit in the
turbine efficiency because there is a reduced steam consumption in the turbine or engine resulting
from use of superheated steam.
Reference Standards
BS EN 12953-1:2002...Shell boilers:General
BS EN 12953-2:2002...Shell boilers:Materials for pressure parts of boilers and accessories
BS EN 12953-3:2002...Shell boilers:Design and calculation pressure parts
BS EN 12953-4:2002...Shell boilers:Workmanship and construction of pressure parts of boiler
BS EN 12953-5:2002...Shell boilers:Inspection during construction, documentation and marking of
pressure parts of the boiler
BS EN 12953-6:2002...Shell boilers:Requirements for equipment for the boiler
BS EN 12953-7:2002...Shell boilers:Requirements for firing systems for liquid and gaseous fuels for
the boilers
BS EN 12953-8:2002...Shell boilers:Requirements for safeguards against excessive pressure
BS EN 12953-10:2002...Shell boilers:Requirements for feedwater and boiler water quality
BS EN 12953-11:2002...Shell boilers:Acceptance tests
BS EN 12953-12:2002...Shell boilers:Requirements for grate firing systems for solid fuels for the
boiler
BS EN 12953-13:2002...Shell boilers:Guidelines for the involvement of an inspection body
independent of the manufacturer
Boiler Efficiency
The boiler efficiency is based on the calorific value of the fuel used and the enthalpy change from
water to steam. Notes on the calorfic value of the fuels are provided below...

● m s = Mass flow rate of steam (kg/s)

● m f = Mass flow rate of fuel (kg/s)
● h = specific enthalpy of generated steam (kJ/kg)
● h w = specific enthalpy of feedwater (kJ/kg)
Boiler Fuels
A boiler can be fueled using solid , liquid, or gaseous fuels. Below are a list of fuels with the
relevant calorific values . The calorfic value is the quantity of heat obtained per kilogram for solid
or liquid fuel or per m3 for gaseous fuel when burnt with an excess of oxygen in a calorimeter.
If H 2O is present in the products of combustion as liquid then the Higher Calorific value ( HCV)
results from the test. If H 2O is present in the products of combustion as a vapour then the Lower
Calorific value ( LCV) results.
Higher
Lower Calorific
Calorific Value
Value
Fuel (Gross
( Net Calorific
Calorific
Value )
Value )
Solid Fuel -kJ/kg at 15 deg. C
Anthracite 34600 33900
Bitumous Coal 33500 32450
Coke 30750 30500
Lignite 21650 20400
Peat 15900 14500
Liquid Fuel-kJ/kg at 15 deg C
Petrol 47000 43900
Benzole 42000 40200
Kerosene
46250 43250
( Parafin)
DERV (Deisel) 46000 43250
Light Fuel Oil 44800 42100
Heavy Fuel Oil 44000 41300
Residual Fuel
42100 40000
Oil
Gas -(kJ m3 at 15 deg C - 1 bara )
Coal Gas 20000 17850
Producer Gas 6040 6000

Natural Gas 36200 32600

Blast Furnace
3410 3370
Gas
Carbon
11790 11790
Monoxide
Hydrogen 11850 10000
For combustion Notes Combustion Notes
Links To Boilers
1. An Introduction to Steam Boilers and Steam Raising..general overview of steam boilers and associated equipment.
2. FireCad - Boiler Calculations..Site includes lots of software and online calculations
3. 3 The Boiler House..Spirax Sarco Learning Modules
5. Types of Boilers..Useful site describing boilers and maintenance requirements
6. Integrated Publishing -Chapter 4 Boilers..Boiler design and classification.(Marine applications)
7. Calorific Value of fuels..Table of calorific value of fuels
8. Calorific Value of fuels..Page includes short table of calorific value of substances
9. Coal Fired Boiler Design..Very informative power point download
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Thermodynamics Combustion
ROYMECH
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Combustion
Introduction..... Composition of Air..... Combustion Notes..... Combustion Equations.....
Introduction
The notes below relate to the combustion process. Combustion is a rapid reaction between a fuel
and oxygen that produces heat (the chemical energy content of a fuel is converted to heat energy).
Composition of Dry Air

Oxygen is involved in the majority of combustion reactions and this is present in the air.
The composition of dry air as mole fractions is 0,7809 N2, 0,2095 O2, 0,0093Ar, and 0,003 CO2.
For combustion equations it is convenient and practical to treat Ar and CO2 as Nitrogen. The
composition of molar air can then be taken as (approx.) 0,79kmol N2 and 0,21 kmol O2 per kmol of
Air.
Note: I am using kmols (The molar volume is 22,414 m³/kmol at 0 °C and 101.325 kPa absolute
pressure )
The equivalent mass fractions of air are 0,768N2 and 0,232 O2 per unit of air. These values are
conveniently represented as
1 kmol O2 + 3,76 kmol N2 = 4,76 kmol Air

1 kg O2 + 3,31 kg N2 = 4.31 kg Air
Combustion Notes
When considering the combustion of fuels with air equations are used to determine the proportions
of the various chemicals involved. The fuels generally are composed of carbon, hydrogen and
sulphur with other substances including oxygen and ash. The carbon, hydrogen and sulphur
combine with oxygen in the air and the nitrogen and other gases in air are assumed to take no part
in the combustion process.....
The proportion of air for complete combustion is called the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. Normally an
excess of air is available and the mixture is weak or lean. When insufficient air is available for
complete combustion the mixture is rich...
Some of the terms used in combustion are identified below.....
● Air/Fuel Ratio R = (Amount on air) /(Amount of fuel)
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● Stoichiometric air/fuel Ratio for complete combustion = R s

● Percentage excess Air E = [(R - R s) /R s]100%
>
● Mixture Strength M s = ( R s /R )100 %
Weak mixture M s less than 100%

Rich mixture M s greater than 100%
It is important to note that the total combustion of a fuel requires ideal conditions. The fuel must be
intimately mixed with the oxygen, the temperature must be appropriate, the ignition cannot start
without a source of activation energy ( a spark, or flame, or local high temperature). Once the
ignition has commence the combustion will generally spread spontaneously. For an car engine it
may be desireable to have a rich mixture to allow for maximum power or at start up. A boiler
requires an excess or air to ensure complete combustion of the fuel for efficient operation....
Combustion Equations
The following typical equations are used to determine the combustion process
● Carbon ...C + O 2 -> CO 2

● Carbon ...2C + O 2 -> 2CO...Incomplete Combustion
● Hydrogen ...2H 2C + O 2 -> 2H 2O
● Sulphur ...S + O 2 -> SO 2
Reaction equations are generally based on volumes for gases and masses for liquids and solids.
An reaction equation can include the enthalpy change ∆ H at the end of the equation eg
C H4 + 2 O 2 -> CO 2 + 2 H2 - ∆ H
The enthalpy term is negative if the reaction is exothermic and positive if the reaction is
endothermic.

Consider the combustion of Propane gas (C3 H8 )as an example...

Writing down the basic reaction equation without identifying the quantities
C 3 H 8 +x O 2 -> y C O 2 + z H 2 O..x, y z being unknown
There are three carbon atoms on the LHS and therefore y = 3. There are 8 Hydrogen
atoms on the left hand side ( H 8) and therefore z = 4 (4.H2) . The equation resulting is
therefore
C 3 H 8 +x O 2 -> 3 C O 2 + 4 H 2 O..x being unknown
To determine x it is easily calculated that there are now 10 Oxygen atoms on the RHS
(3 O2 + 4 O) x is therefore 5. The reaction equation is therefore .
C 3 H 8 +5 O 2 -> 3 C O 2 + 4 H 2 O..
In terms of kmoles 1 kmol C 3 H 8 + 5 kmol O 2 = -> 3 kmol C O 2 + 4 kmol H 2 O
Transfer into mass units ( 1 - kmol has a mass in kg = Molecular Weight)
[1 kmol of C 3 H 8 = 44kg + 5 kmol of O 2 = 160 kg ] -> [3 kmol of C O 2 = 132 kg + 4 kmol of H2 O = 72 kg ]
Now considering the equations with respect to Air. For each volume of O2 there are
4,76 volumes of Air. Therefore the stoichiometric ratio of for combustion of propane is
1 to 5.4,76 = 1:23.8 based on volume..
Table showing various substances involved in combustion with their Molecular Weights
Approx.
Substance Formula molecular
Weight
Benzene C 6H 6 78
Butane C 4H 10 -
Carbon C 12
Carbon
CO 28
Monoxide
Carbon CO 2 44
Dioxide
Ethane C 2H 6 30

C 2H
Ethanol 46
5OH
Ethene C 2H 4 28
Hydrogen H2 2
Methane CH 4 16
Nitrogen N2 28
Octane C 8H 18 114
Oxygen O2 32
Pentane C 5H 12 72
Propane C 3H 8 44
Propene C 3H 6 42
Sulphur S 32
Sulphur
SO 48
Monoxide
Sulphur SO 2 64
Dioxide
Water H 2O 18
For combustion Notes Combustion Notes ....More notes to follow....
Links To Boilers
1. Combustion Notes..pdf Download - a short paper

2. Reaction Types - Combustion..Short Tutorial
3. Calculating Heat of reactions..Set of useful notes and diagrams
4. Combustion..pdf download - Informative paper
5. Calorific Value of fuels..Table of calorific value of fuels
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Thermodynamics Condensers & Cooling Towers
ROYMECH
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Thermodynamics Condensers
Introduction
A condenser in is simplest terms is a heat transfer device which reduces a thermodynamic fluid
from its vapor phase to its liquid phase. The main use of a condenser is to receive exhausted
steam from a steam engine or turbine and condense the steam. The benefit being that the energy
which would be exhausted to the atmosphere is utilised and the engine turbine exhaust conditions
are stable and controllable.
A steam condenser generally condenses the steam to a pressure significantly below

atmostpheric. This allows the turbine/engine to do more work. The condenser also converts the
discharge steam back to feedwater which is returned to the steam generator /boilere
In the condenser the latent heat of condensation is conducted to the cooling medium flowing
through the cooling tubes.
Nomenclature.
● m s = mass flow rate for steam (kg/s)

● m w = mass flow rate for water(kg/s)
● h = specific enthalpy for vapor = ( h f =x h fg) (kJ/kg>
● h g= specific enthalpy for vapor (kJ/kg>
● h f= specific enthalpy for saturated water (kJ/kg>
● h d= specific enthalpy for outlet water (kJ/kg>
● h fg= specific enthalpy of evaporation (kJ/kg>
● t c = Condensate outlet temperature (C)
● t sat = steam saturation temperature (C)
● t i = cooling water temperature (C)
● t o = Water outlet temperature (C)
● x= steam quality
● r= radiated heat (kJ/s)
Condenser Types
There are two principal types of condensers the jet condenser which employs a jet of cold water to
condense the steam and a surface condenser which employs cold metal surfaces. The surface
condenser is used for the majority of steam engine & steam turbine applications...
Jet Condenser
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The principle elements of a jet condenser are shown in the figure below..
Jet Condenser
This type of condenser is suitable where conditions permit condensation of exhaust steam by direct
contact with the cooling water. It can maintain a pressure of less than 0,07 bara and can condense
over 12000 kg/hr of steam. The vacuum is created in the chamber by an air ejector. The cooling
water is sprayed into the chamber an the fine spray contacts the steam. The steam condenses and
falls to the bottom of the condenser chamber with the injection water. The condensed steam and
injection water is withdrawn using a centrifugal extraction pump. The jet condenser is generally
provided with safety features to guard against flooding
Under steady state conditions the energy equation for the condenser for the system enclosed with
the boundary as shown is
m s (h - h d ) = m w (t o - t i ) + r = m sx h fg + m s(t sat- t d ) = mw (to - t i ) + r
Thus, neglecting radiation, the ratio of the mass of jet water to the mass of steam condensed is :
These notes do no include consideration of the air/gas removal system.....
Surface Condenser
The surface condenser is the most important type of condenser in present day use. Its main
functions are to condense low pressure steam exhausted from turbines and also to maintain the
vacuum at the exhaust end of the turbines. It has the advantage that the condensate and the
cooling water are entirely separate. The condensate is thus delivered to the boiler feed system as
distilled water and is at a higher temperature compared to the discharge of in jet condenser... The
principle elements of a jet condenser are shown in the figure below.. This type of condenser has a
large area of cooling surfaces compared to the system volume. The steam passes through the
condenser and condenser on contact with the cooling surfaces. The condensate collects in the

bottom of the condenser from where it is pumped away to the boiler feed system...
Surface Condenser
The heat transfer process in the condenser is such that the energy lost by the steam = the energy
gained by the water...
m s[ x h fg + (t sat- t c) ]) = mw (to - t i ) + r
Thus the ratio of the mass of cooling water to the mass of steam condensed is :
Thermodynamic Condensers
1. Condenser steam turbines - Wikepedia..Very good series of notes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condenser_(steam_turbine)
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Thermodynamics Steam Tables Index
ROYMECH
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Thermodynamics And Heat Transfer Index
Introduction
The pages linked provide steam table data including temperature-pressure referenced specific volume,
internal energy, enthalpy and entropy values. The information is listed in SI units
A typical plot which can be produced using the tables is shown below for the T vs h. Similar plots could
be produced for v. s. and u. The critical point C at which the there is no difference between the liquid
and gaseous phase is at 221.2 bar and 374.15 oC.
The Triple point at which solid ,liquid and gas phases can all exist together is at 0.0061 bar and 0.01
oC. This triple point is used as the zero datum for specific enthalpy, entropy, and internal energy.
Superheated steam ( 150oC-

Saturated Steam-Pressure Saturated Steam-Temperature
160oC-180oC )
Superheated steam (200oC- Superheated steam (300oC- Superheated steam ( 450oC-
220oC-250oC ) 350oC-400oC ) 550oC-650oC )
Note: As stated above 0.1o C is the datum (zero) point for enthalpy, entropy, and internal energy values
Notation
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Thermodynamics Steam Tables Index
● P = Absolute pressur (bar) - conditions in steam tables are directly related to the pressure
● t s = Saturation temperature (boiling point) in deg Celsius at pressure P
● v f = Specific volume of saturated liquid (No gas content but at the temperature of evaporation)..m3/kg
● v g = Specific Volume of dry saturated gas (No liquid content-but no superheat)..m3
● u f = Specific Internal Energy of saturated liquid ....(units kJ/kg)
● u fg = Specific Internal Energy of change of phase form liquid to gas at stated condions ..kJ/kg
● u g = Specific Internal Energy of dry saturated gas (No liquid content-but no superheat)..kJ/kg
● h f = Specific Internal Energy of saturated liquid ..kJ/kg
● h fg = Specific Latent heat or Enthalpy of change of phase..kJ/kg
● hg = Specific Enthalpy of dry saturated gas (No liquid content-but no superheat) ..kJ/kg
● s f = Specific Entropy of saturated liquid ..kJ/kg.K
● s fg = Specific Entropy of change of phase form liquid to gas at stated condions ..kJ/kg.K
● s g = Specific Entropy of dry saturated gas (No liquid content-but no superheat)..kJ/kg.K
When using steam tables it is often necessary to determine to property of a steam/water mixture. In
this case the quality (x) of the steam is used. This is defined as the mass of steam per unit mass of the
mixture. The following relationships apply.
1. Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer Handbook..Lots of easily accessible useful information (Imperial Units)
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Control

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Control Notes
Introduction
Control systems are in essences systems for controlling other systems. There are two
general classification of Control Systems
1. Open Loop System for which the control action is independent of the output.
2. Closed Loop System for which the control action is dependent, in some way, on the output.
Closed loop systems are also called feedback systems. They often complicated to
analyse requiring differential calculus.
Open loop systems have two important features....:

1) They depend on their calibration for accurate operation.
2) They are not normally affected by stability problems. There is very little risk that an
input will result in an unexpected output result.
The concept of feedback is the important feature that distinguishes closed loop systems
from open loop systems. The systems that produce the feedback, the methods of
comparing the feedback with the desired (input) variables and the actions resulting from
the comparisons are the basis of closed loop control systems...
Most control systems used by man are basic manual control system e.g. opening a tap to
fill a tank with water and then closing the tap. This basic system includes a number of
parameters.
● The input requirement - Filling the tank to a set waterlevel

● The feedback signal - Viewing the level of water in the tank
● Signal comparison - Comparing the tank water level with the required level
● Control Output - Decision to open /close filling valve
● Plant operation - Opening /closing the filling valve
● Output - Level of water in tank
This control system is typical of most engineered control systems. In practice there is not
economic basis to provide an engineered system for this duty. However are many
control requirements which are done more economically by computers and machines and
the notes below relate to these systems.
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Control
A typical control system is illustrated by the following diagram..
The control system notes below relate to linear control systems in which the relationships
can be described with linear differential equations with constant coefficients. In the real
world systems generally include non-linearities e.g slip-stick ,non constant delays,
hysteresis effects. These are difficult to analyse and the overall system performance
can often be closely approximated by using linear techniques...
Control System Definitions
● System...A system is an arrangement or collection of entities such that they form and act as a single unit.
● Control System...A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner
as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system
● Input...A stimulus or excitation applied to a control system from an external energy source to produce a specified
response from the control system
● Output ... The output is the actual response obtained from the control system. It may or may not be equal to the
response implied by the input.
● Open loop ... An open loop control system is one in which the control action is independent of the output.
● Closed loop ... An closed loop control system is one in which the control action is related to the output.
● Feedback ... Feedback is that property of a closed loop system which permits the output ( or some other controlled
variable of the system ) to be compared with the input to the system ( or an input to another part of the system) so
that the appropriate control action may be completed as some function of the input and output
● Servomechanism ... A power -amplifying feedback control system in which the controlled variable is mechanical
position, or a time derivative of position such as velocity or acceleration. The primary purpose is to cause the
controlled output to follow variable input. e.g. a plane guidance system
● Regulator ... A feedback control system in which the reference input is fixed over the operating time period. The
primary purpose of a regulator is to maintain a constant output
Feedback characteristics
Including feedback into the control of a system results in the following advantages:
● Increased accuracy . The output can be made to reproduce the input

● Reduced sensitivity to system characteristics
● Reduction in effect of non-linearities
● Increased bandwidth. The system can be made to respond to a larger range of input frequencies
The major disadvantages resulting from feedback are the increase risk of instability and
the additional cost of design and implementation..
Control Models

Control
In the study of control systems the systems are generally modelled using
1. Differential equations and other mathematical devices

2. Block Diagrams
3. Signal Flow Diagrams
Block diagrams and signal flow paths are shorthand graphical representations of either
the schematic representation of the physical system or the set of mathematical equations
characterising the component parts of the system.
The block diagram generally includes the following elements...
The Block
Symbol usually contains a description or name of the element or the symbol for the
mathematical operation to be performed. The arrows represent direction of information
or signal..
The Summing Point

This has appropriate arrows representing flow of information or signals and a + or - to
indicate if sign of the operations to be performed on the signals."" The summing point
generally has two or more inputs and one output to which the sum of the inputs is routed.
The Take-off point.

In order to route the same variable to a number of blocks or summing points a take-off is
used as shown below..
A generalised feedback control system based on the above symbols is shown below

Control
Sites & Links

For Control
Information
1. Control Laws..
Paper
reviewing
control system
design related
to robotics
2. Theorem Net..
Site with
various links,
articles and
downloads
3. Lorien..
Multivariable
control , A PDF
download
4. Lorien..Some
Conventional
Control
Schemes, A
PDF download
5. Samson..A
number of
useful control
tutorials
6. Software
Integration..
Web-Based
Control System
Design and
Analysis
7. Lecture Notes
on Classical

Control
Control Theory..
U of sheffield
(Dr E.Kappos )-
Very detailed
Notes -
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Control System Response

ROYMECH
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Control Index
Introduction
A typical system requiring control is a tool carrier moving along a slide by the action of a DC
motor which is controlled by a control which has an input set position signal and slide position
signal..The characteristic of the DC motor is that the developed torque is proportional to the
applied voltage. The motor drives the carrier using a direct drive system such that the force is
directly proportional to the motor torque.
The carrier has a mass (M)... The motor indirectly produces a force on the carrier (F).... The
force from the motor is proportional to the voltage from the control F = k 1.V ..... The voltage
from the control is proportional to the difference in the set position signal x i and the carrier
position x o... It is assumed that control voltage V = k 2 ( x i — x o) = k 2 .x e...
Therefore the control action of the system ...
F = k 1 .k 2.x e = k 1 .k 2 ( x o—x i )
The response of the motion of the system assuming negligible damping (Force = mass x
acceleration) ...
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F = M d 2x /d 2 t
In control engineering it is common to use the operator "D" in place of d/dt. ...
Therefore k 1.k 2 ( x o — x i ) = M.D 2 x o
M.dx o2 /dt 2 + k 1.k 2 x o = k 1.k 2 .x i
Using Block Diagram notation this is shown as
System Response Definition
The total response of a linear constant differential equation is the sum of the free response and
the forced response.Another way of defining the total response is as follows..
● The total response is the sum of the Steady State response and the Transient Response
● The Steady State Response is that part of the total response which does not approaches zero as time approaches infinity
● The Transient Response is that part of the total response which approaches zero as time approaches infinity
System Response
It is a primary function of control engineering to establish the response of the system to a

particular input.. Considering a step input of x i = x a.. applied from time t = 0. It can be proved
that the response of the system =
x o = x a (1—cos ω n.t ) .... By making ω n2 = (k 1k 2 )/M

Note: In reality the actual mass would not oscillate but would tend to stop due to friction forces
within the system.
Assuming zero or low friction the reponse is clearly unacceptable. The ideal response is for the
system to rapidly move to the required position x a.
This can be conveniently achieved by introducing additional damping to the system. Damping is
included by attaching a viscous damper to the mass. This damping would introduce a Force (F
d ) which is proportional the velocity of the mass. F d = — C.Dx o where C is the damping factor.
Motion with Damping
The equation of motion for the system now becomes
M.dx o2 /dt 2 + C. dx o/dt + k 1.k 2 x o = k 1.k 2 .x i
The control block diagram is modified as follows..
Replacing k 1k 2 with K..... and using the D operator The equation of motion becomes
M.D2x o + C. D.x o + K. x o = K .x i
Dividing throughout by M and Replacing ω n2 = K / M and using the damping factor ζ = (C/2) √

(KM)
the equation becomes the standard equation for free vibration of a damped system.
(D2 + 2 ζ.ω n D + ω n2 ).x o = ω n2.x i
For the step input x i = x a standard solutions are obtained.
Velocity Feedback
For this requirement damping provides an improvement. However viscous damping absorbs
power and is accurate control using viscous damping is difficult. It is more practical to achieve
the same effect by introduction of velocity feedback (C. D.x o ). This control scheme is shown
below..

The equation of motion can be derived from the block diagram as follows.
The error x e = x i — x o
The signal to the motor = V = k 2 .(x i — x o ) — k 3. D.x o
The force from the motor F = k 1 ( k 2 .(x i — x o ) — k 3. D.x o ) = k 1. k 2. x i — k 1. k 2. x o — k 1. k 3.
D .x o
The resulting motion of the mass = D2.x o

The resulting motion equation D2.x o = k 1. k 2. x i — k 1. k 2. x o — k 1. k 3. D .x o
Substituting K for k 1. k 2 and C for k 1. k 3 the following recognisable equation results
M.D2x o + C. D.x o + K. x o = K .x i
The damping C coefficient can be adjusted by simply adjusting the electrical signal from the
velocity feedback sensor. This method of providing damping is called output velocity feedback.
A variation of this principle is obtained by use of Proportional + Derivative control action ( P.D )
Reducing System Errors

The system error equation includes the error terms on the LHS and the input variables on the
RHS. The error equation relating to the above system is as follows
(M.D2 + C. D + K) x i - x e = K .x i..therefore
(M.D2+ C.D + K ) . x e = (M.D2 + C.D ). x i
If the input control requirement is a constant value i.e x a The derivatives of this with respect to
time = 0. Therefore for a constant input value the error equation becomes..
(M.D2+ C.D + K ) . x e = 0
The error value is the input value the output value ( x i — x o ) . Therefore the solution to the

above equation for a constant value x a is conveniently obtained from the above solutions as
follows:
The error resulting from inputs which are time related i.e ramp or sinusoidal are much more
complicated.
Consider the case x i = r a.t. The RHS of the error equation becomes..
(M.D2 + C.D ). r a t = C. r a
The error equation becomes
(M.D2+ C.D + K ) . x e = C. r a
The is very similar to the equation of motion for the system with damping with x o replaced by x e
and K .x i replaced by C. r a
The complete solution of the equation includes a complimentary function and a particular
integral.
● The complimentary solution which is the transient component of the solution which function dies away over time if sufficient
positive damping is present
● The particular integral or steady state solution remains after the transients have died away.

The transient component are obtained as above.

The steady state error is obtained from the basic equations with the components M.D2. x e and
C.D. x e = 0 as the error is constant with respect to time.
K . x e = C. r a Therefore x e = (C /K ). r a
Having a residual error is normally not satisfactory. A method of eliminating this error is to
include an Integral control action...This may be done by adding an integral function to the error
signal conditioning unit as follows
In the D notation this is shown as follows
The block diagram is modified accordingly as follows:
The equation of motion can be derived from the block diagram as follows.
The error x e = x i —x o

The signal to the motor = V = k 2 .(x i — x o ) + (k 4 /D ) .(x i — x o ) — k 3. D.x o

The force from the motor F = k 1 [ k 2 .(x i — x o ) + (k 4 /D ) . (x i — x o ) — k 3. D.x o ]
= k 1. k 2. x i — k 1. k 2. x o + (k 1. k 4 /D ) . x i — (k 1. k 4 /D ) . x o — k 1. k 3. D .x o
The resulting motion of the mass = M. D2.x o

The resulting motion equation M.D2.x o = k 1. k 2. x i — k 1. k 2. x o + (k 1. k 4 /D ) . x i — (k 1. k 4 /
D ) . x o — k 1. k 3. D .x o
Substituting K for k 1. k 2 and C for k 1. k 3 and I for k 1. k 4 the following equation results
(M.D2 + C.D + K + I/D ) x o = (K + I/D ) x i
Replacing x o with x i -x e results in the equation for error vs input x e vs x i
(M.D2 + C.D + K + I/D ) (x i - x e) = (K + I/D ) x i therefore

(M.D2 + C.D + K + I/D ).x e = (M.D2 + C.D ) x i
Again consider the case x i = r a.t. The RHS of the error equation becomes..
(M.D2 + C.D ). r a t = C. r a
The error equation becomes
(M.D2+ C.D + K + I /D ) . x e = C. r a
To convert this to a pure differential equation it is simply differentiated through with respect to
time which effectively involves multiplying x D. The RHS (C.r a ) is a constant which when
differentiated with respect to time = 0..
(M.D3+ C.D2 + K.D + I ) . x e = D.C. r a = 0
The introduction of the Integral function has eliminated the constant steady state error but has
raising the order of the control equation from a two to three and the result of this has been to
increase the risk of stability problems...Stability is covered separately...
Control Analysis
The above outline notes introduce the general control principles in the time domain. Much of the
analysis of control systems are completed by taking laplace transforms and analysing the

resulting equations using root loci, Nyquist of Bode plots.. These areas of work are covered in
outline on the following pages.
● Stability review
● Laplace Transforms Basics
● Root locus method using the s domain plot
● Frequency Response notes.
● Using Nyquist diagrams via frequency domain techniques
● Using Bode Plots via frequency domain techniques
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Control Index

Control System Block Manipulation

ROYMECH
Home
Control Index
Block Operation Original Arrangement Modified Arrangement Equation
y = V1.V2.
Blocks In Series
x
y = (V1 ±
Blocks in Parallel
V2) . x
Blocks in y = V1( x
Feedback Loop ± y . V2)
Moving a
Summing Block y = V1.x -
Ahead of an z
element
Moving a
Summing Block y = V1. (x
beyond of an -z)
element
Moving an take-
off point y = V1. (x
ahead of an -z)
element
Moving an take-
off point y = V1. (x
beyond an -z)
element
Removing an y = x.
element from ( V1- V2 )
a forward path
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Control/Blocks.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:47:36 AM

Inserting an y = V1. x
element from
in a forward path -x
y = V1 .x /
Removing an
element from ( 1 + V1.
a feedback path V2)
Inserting an
element y = V1 .x /
in a feedback ( 1 + V1 )
path
Rearrangement y = x1 -
of summing
x2 - x3
points
Interchange of y = x1 +
summing points x2 - x3
Moving a Take-
off point y = x1 -
ahead of a x2
summing point
Moving a Take- y = x1 - x2
off point x1 = y +
beyond a
summing point x2
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Information
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Systems..
Notes On
control
system
diagrams
2. pdhcenter.
com/
courses..
Automatic

Control
Systems -
Part I:Block
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and Transfer
Functions
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Control Index

Control System Stability

ROYMECH
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Control Index
Introduction
The stability of a control system is often extremely important and is generally a safey
issue in the engineering of a system. An example to illustrate the importance of stability
is the control of a nuclear reactor. An instability of this system could result in an
unimaginable catostrophe.
Definitions
The stability of of system relates to its response to inputs or disturbance. A system which
remains in a constant state unless affected by an external action an which returns to a
constant state when the external action is removed can be considered to be stable.
A systems stability can be defined in terms of its response to external impulse inputs..
Definition .a :
A system is stable if its impulse response approaches zero as time approaches infinity..
The system stability can also be defined in terms of bounded (limited) inputs..
Definition .b:
A system is stable if every bounded input produces a bounded output.
Stability Notes
Control analysis is concerned not only with the stability of a system but also the degree of
stability of a system.. A typical system equation without considering the concept of
integral action is of the form.
[ a 2 D 2 + a 1 D + a 0 ].x = f(D) y
This is defined as be the highest order of D on the LHS as a equation of order 2.
The transient response, and as a result the stability, of such a system depends on the
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coefficients a 0, a 1 , a 2.
Assuming a 0 >0 then provided that a 1 >0 and a 2 >0 the complementary function will not
contain any positive time exponentials and the system will be stable. If either a 1 < 0
(negative damping) or a 2 < 0 (negative mass) the transient response will contain positive
exponentials and the system will be unstable..
If a 1 = 0 (As resulting from zero damping) then the complementary function will oscillate
indefinitely. This is not an unstable response but this marginally stable response is not
satisfactory. Following are a number of plots to illustrate the types of stability responses
resulting from an input...
Routh -Hurwitz stability conditions
The notes below relate specifically to the Hurwitz stability criterion and is applied to time
domain equations. The similar and more generally used Routh stability criteria is
described on a separate page with respect to Laplace transformed equations (using the
complex variable s ) Routh Stability Criteria
Consider the generalised control equation
[a n.Dn + a n-1.Dn-1 +..... a 1.D + a 0 ]x = f(D) y
Assuming (or making) a 0 is positive..
A determinant is created of the coefficients

a1 a0 0 0 0 0 0 . . .

a3 a2 a1 a0 0 0 0 . . .
a5 a4 a3 a2 a1 a0 0 . . .
a7 a6 a5 a4 a3 a2 a1 a0 . .
a9 a8 a7 a6 a5 a4 a3 a2 a1 a0
If an equation of order n is under consideration all factors of an and above are replaced by
0
For stability of an equation of degree 4 the necessary conditions are as follows
1)... a 1 > 0 , a 2 > 0 , a 3 > 0, a 4 > 0

2)...Determinant
a1 a0
>0
a3 a2
That is (a 1. a 2 — a 0.a 3 ) > 0
3)...Determinant
a1a00
a3a2a1 >0
0 a4a3
That is a 1(a 2.a 3 — a 1 a 4 ) — a 0 (a 3. a 3 - a 1 .0 ) > 0
Marginal Stability
Considering a control system which has an output loop variable x of the form x = A cos
( ωn. t ) as the complimentary function (transient) part of the complete solution..
Treating this in exponential form x = Re.( A.e jωnt ) where ω is the natural frequency and A
is the real amplitude.. considering the third order equation..
[ a 3 D 3 + a 2 D 2 + a 1 D + a 0 ]. A.e jωnt = 0
Now

ω ω
D. A.e j nt = jωn.A.e j nt
ω ω
D2. A.e j nt = (jωn)2.A.e j nt
ω ω
D3. A.e j nt = (jωn)3.A.e j nt
or in general terms
ω ω
Dr. A.e j nt = (jωn)r.A.e j nt
The equation above becomes.
ωnt
(a 3. (jωn)3 + a 2. (jωn)2 + a 1.(jωn)1 + a 0 ) .A.e j =0
ω
As A.e j n t is not zero the equation can be written..
(a 3. (jωn)3 + a 2. (jωn)2 + a 1.(jωn)1 + a 0 ) = 0
Bring the real and imaginary terms together..
(- a 2.ωn2 + a 0 ) + ωn.(- a 3. ωn2 + a 1 ).j = 0
The real parts and the imaginary parts must each be equal to zero therefore..
ωn2 = a0 / a2 = a1 / a3
These conditions identify that the third order system is marginally stable and will oscillate
continuously at a circular frequency ωn...
Stability analysis
Know that the system is stable is not generally sufficient for the requirements of control
system design. There is a need for stability analysis to determine how close the system is
to instability and how much margin when disturbances are present and when the gain is
adjusted..
The objectives of stability analysis is the determination of the following
● The degree or extent of system stability

● The steady state performance

● The transient response
The standard method of completing a system analysis includes the following steps..
● Determine the equations or transfer functions for each component

● Create a model - generally a block diagram
● Formulate the system model by appropriately connecting the blocks nodes and branches
● Determine the system characteristics
A number of methods are available for determining the system characteristics including
the following.
● Root locus method using the s domain plot

● Frequency Response notes.
Sites & Links

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1. Control Laws..
Paper
reviewing
control system
design related
to robotics
2. Theorem Net..
Site with
various links,
articles and
downloads
3. Lorien..
Multivariable
control , A PDF
download
4. Lorien..Some
Conventional
Control
Schemes, A
PDF download
5. Samson..A
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Control Index

Lapace Transforms

ROYMECH
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Control Index
Laplace Transforms
Introduction
In control system design it is necessary, to analyse the performance and stability of a

proposed system before it is built or implemented. Many analysis techniques use
transformed variables to facilitate mathematical treatment of the problem. In the analysis
of continuous time dynamical systems, this generally involves the use of Laplace
Transforms
Applying Laplace Transforms is analogous to using logarithms to simplify certain types of

mathematical operations. By taking logarithms, numbers are transformed into powers of
10 or e (natural logarithms ). As a result of the transformations, mathematical
multiplications and divisions are replaced by additions and subtractions respectively.
Similarly, the application of Laplace Transforms to the analysis of systems which can be
described by linear, ordinary time differential equations overcomes some of the
complexities encountered in the time-domain solution of such equations.
Laplace Transforms are used to convert time domain relationships to a set of equations
expressed in terms of the Laplace operator 's'. Thereafter, the solution of the original
problem is effected by simple algebraic manipulations in the 's' or Laplace domain rather
than the time domain.
The Laplace Transform of a time variable f(t) is arrived at by multiplying f(t) by e -st and
integrating from 0 to infinity..
f(t) must be a given function which is defined for all positive values of t.
s is a complex variable defined by... s = α +jω and j = sqrt (-1).
A table of laplace transforms is available to transform real time domain variables to

laplace transforms. The necessary operations are carried out and the laplace transforms
obtained in terms of s are then inverted from the s domain to the time (t) domain. This
tranformation from the s to the t domain is called the inverse transform...
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Lapace Transforms
The contour integral which defines the inverse Laplace Transform is shown below... for
reference only, for in practice, this integral is seldom used as table lookup are generally
all the operations required for the inverse transform procedure..
Laplace Transform Operations.
Operation f(t) F(s)

Linearity x 1 f 1 (t) + x 2 f 2 (t) x 1 F 1 (s) + x 2 F 2 (s)
Constant Multiplication a.f(t) a.F(s)
Complex shift ±
e a.t.f(t) F(s a.t )
Theorem
Real shift Theorem f( t - T ) e -Ts F(s) for (T >= 0 )
Scaling Theorem f( t / a ) a F(as)
First Derivative f' (t) sF(s) — f(0+)
s 2 (F(s) — sf(0+) —
2nd Derivative f'' (t)
f'(0+)
s 3 (F(s) — s 2. f(0+)
3rd Derivative f''' (t)
— s.f'(0+) — f''(0+)
4th 5th .. Derivative follow principles established above
First Integral (1/s).F.(s)
Convolution Integral F 1(s). F 2(s)
Table showing selection of Laplace Transforms.
Laplace Transforms
No Time Function = f(t) Laplace Transform = F(s)

Lapace Transforms
1 δ ( t )..Unit impulse 1
2 δ(t - T)..Delayed impulse e -Ts
3 t ...Unit ramp 1/s2
4 tn n ! / s ( n+1 )
5 e - at 1/(s+a)
6 e at 1/(s-a)
7 (1 / a) .(1 - e -at ) 1 / {s.( s + a )}
1 /(s + a ) n - 1...n =
8 (t n / n !)e - at
1,2,3,4,...
9 sin ωt ω / (s 2 + ω 2 )
10 cos ωt s / (s 2 + ω 2 )
11
12
13 (1 / ω 2) .(1 — cos ωt ) 1 / {s.( s 2 + ω 2 )}

14 (1 / a 2) .(a.t — 1 + e -at ) 1 / {s 2.( s + a )}
15
16
17 u(t) or 1 ...Unit step 1/s

18 u(t - T)...Delayed step ( 1 / s )e -Ts
u(t) - u(t - T) or 1 ...
19 ( 1 / s ) (1- e -Ts )
Rectangular Pulse
21 e — at cos ωt (s+a) / { (s+a) 2 + ω 2 }
22 (1 / a 2 )(1 — e -at — ate -at ) (1 / s) ( s + a) 2
23
24 1 / [( s + a ) 2 + ω 2 ] (1/ω).e -at sin ωt
25
26
Derivation of table values

examples on how the table values have been derived are provided below.

Lapace Transforms
From above the transform for a unit step i.e f(1) is easily obtained by setting a = 0 ( e 0.t) =
1)
From above the transform for cos ωt and sin ωt is obtained by setting a = jω
Laplace transform example

An example of using Laplace transforms is provided below

Lapace Transforms
The manipulation of the laplace tranform equation into a form to enable a convenient
inverse transform often involves use of partial fractions...
Partial Fraction Expansion

The splitting up of a ratio of polynomials is often necessary to produce simpler ratios from
which inverse Laplace transforms are more conveniently obtained. The most favoured
procedure for converting using hands-on (as opposed to using computers) is the
"Heaviside cover up" procedure..
An example application including partial fraction expansion is as follows.....

Lapace Transforms
Partial Fraction Expansion process using the Heaviside cover up method
The Laplace operations generally result in a ratio
This must be proper in that the order of the denominator D(s) must be higher than the
numerator N(s). If the function is not proper then the numerator N(s) must be divided by
the denominator using the long division method.
The next step is to factor D(s)
a 1,a 1 etc are the roots of D(s).

Lapace Transforms
D(s) is then rewritten in partial fraction form..
To obtain a 1 simply multiply both sides of the equation by (s - a 1 ) letting s = a 1 This

results in all terms on the RHS becoming zero apart from a 1...
G(s).( s-a 1 )| s = a 1 = a 1
The LHS is multiplied be (s - a 1) thus cancelling out (s - a 1)in the denominator. ... and all
instances of s are then replaced by a 1
Note: If one of the terms in the numerator is s then this is simply equivalent to (s- a x) with
a x = 0.
Repeated Roots....
When the denominator has repeated roots the breakdown into partial fractions is treated
differently as shown below...
The factor b 0 is obtained in exactly the same way as above..
The factor b 1 is obtained by first differentiating G(s).(s-b) with respect to ds and then
substituting s with b as before. This will generally involve the differentiation d(u/v) = (vdu -
udv)/v 2..

Lapace Transforms
The factors b 2 to b r is obtained by progressive differentiation of G(s)(s-b) and dividing

the result by the factorial of the level of differentiation (if d/ds 2 then divide by 2!, if , d/ds 3
then divide by 3!(6))...
Complex Roots....

Lapace Transforms
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Introduction to
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Control Index

Routh Criteria

ROYMECH
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Control Index
Routh Stability Critera
Introduction
The Routh stability criterion provides a convenient method of determining a control

systems stability. It determines the number of characteristic roots within the unstable
right half of the s-plane, and the number of characteristic roots in the stable left half, and
the number of roots on the imaginary axis. It does not locate the roots. The method may
also be used to establish limiting values for a variable factor beyond which the the system
would become unstable...
The characteristic equation being tested for stability is generally of the form
a ns n + a n-1s n-1 +....a 1s + a 0 = 0...
The Routh Array is constructed as follows

Col 1 Col 2 Col 3
Row 0 sn an a n-2 a n-4
Row 1 s n-1 a n-1 a n-3 a n-5
Row 2 s n-2 b1 b2 b3
Row 3 s n-3 c1 ... ...

. ... ... ... ...
. ... ... ... ...
Row n- y1 y2
s1
1
Row n s0 z1
b 1= ( an-1.an-2 - an. a n-3 )/ an-1

b 2= ( an-1 .an-4 - an. a n-5)/ a n-1
The numerator in each case is formed from the elements in the two rows above in col 1
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Routh Criteria
(pivot column) and in the column to the right of the element being calculated. The
calculated element is made 0 if the row is too short to complete the calculation. The last
row will have just one element.
c 1= ( b1 .an-3 - an-1. b 2 ) / b1
c 2= ( b1 .an-5 - an-1. b 3 ) / b2
Routh Stability Criteria

For system stability the primary requirement is that all of the roots of the characteristic
equation have negative real parts....
All of the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts only if the elements
in column 1 of the routh array are the same sign,
The number of sign changes in column 1 is equal to the number of roots of the
characteristic equation with positive real parts..
Example ..
To test the stability of a system having a characteristic equation
F(s) = s 3 + 6 s 2 + 12 s + 8 = 0
The Routh Array is constructed as follows..

Col 1 Col 2 Col 3
Row 0 s3 1 12 0
Row 1 s2 6 8 0
Row 2 s1 64/6 0
Row 3 s0 8
Column 1 (pivot column) includes no changes of sign and therefore the roots of the
characteristic equation have only real parts and the system is stable.
Special cases for resolving Routh Stability Array

1)....
If a zero appears in the first column 1 of any row marginal stability or instability is
indicated. The normal method of constructing the array cannot be continued because the
divisor would be zero. A convenient method or resolving this method is to simply replace
the zero by a small number δ and continue as normal. The limit as δ -> 0 is then
determined and the first column is checked for sign changes..

Routh Criteria
Example.
To test the stability of a system having a characteristic equation
F(s) = s 5 + 2 s 4 + 2 s 3 + 4 s 2 + s + 1
The Routh Array is constructed as follows
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3

Row 0 s5 1 2 1
Row 1 s4 2 4 1
Row 2 s3 δ 0,5
Row 3 s2 -1/δ 1
Row 4 s1 0.5 0
Row 5 s0 1
There are two sign changes in column 1 and there are therefore 2 positive roots and the
system is unstable..
2)....If a all of the elements in a row is zero (two rows are proportional)
This indicates that the characteristic polynomial is divided exactly by the polynomial one
row above the all zero row (always even-ordered polynomial). Call this polynomial N(s).
This also indicates the presence of a divisor polynomial N(s) whose roots are all
symmetrically arranged about the origin i.e. they are of the form
s = ±α ..or s = ± j ω ..or s = - α ± j ω and s = + α ± j ω
An all zero row will always be associated with and odd power of s

Routh Criteria
In order to complete the array the previous row is differentiated with respect to s and the
array is completed in the normal way..
When assessing this modified array the number of sign changes in the first column
(before the all zero row) indicates the number of roots of the remainder polynomial with
positive real parts..... From the all zero row down, each change of sign in column 1
indicates the number of roots in the divisor polynomial with positive real roots and as the
roots are symmetrical this would indicate the number of roots in the right half s plane and
the number of roots in the left- hand s plane. Root not accounted for in this way i.e no
sign change, must lie of the imaginary axis
Example .. Consider a closed loop control system with negative feedback which has an
open loop transfer function.
KGH(s) = K / (s (s+1). ( s 2 + s + 1) ..
The closed loop characteristic equation =
F(s) = s 4 + 2s 3 + 2s 2 + s + K = 0
The Routh Array is constructed as follows=
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3

Row 0 s4 1 2 K
Row 1 s3 2 1
Row 2 s2 3/2 K
(3/2 -2 K)/
Row 3
(3/2) s1
In this array row 3 becomes an all zero row if K = 3/4 and the divisor polynomial of row 2
= (3/2) s 2 + 3/4 = 0 ...= 2 s 2 + 1
By dividing F(s) by (2 s2 + 1) the equation is obtained....... F(s) = ( 1/2 s 2 + s + 3/4)

N(s)= (2 s 2 + 1)
The array is completed when K = 3/4 by differentiating N(s) with respect to s.

The coefficients of N'(s) are used to replace the zero coefficients in row 3
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3
Row 0 s4 1 2 K
Row 1 s3 2 1

Routh Criteria
Row 2 s2 3/2 3/4

Row 3 s1 4
Row 4 s0 3/4
There are no sign changes up to/including row 2 indicating the roots of the remainder
polynomial are in the right hand s plane.
As there are no changes of sign from row 2 down the roots of the divisor polynomial must
lie on the imaginary axis.
To locate these roots set s in N(s) to jω
i.e 2 ( j ω ) 2 + 1 = 0 therefore .... ω = 1/ √2 rads/unit time
It is sometimes required to find a range of values of a parameter for which the system is
stable. This can be achieved by use of the Routh Criteria using the method illustrated by
the following example...
The system characteristic equation =
F(s) = s 3 + 3 s 2 + 3s + K = 0
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3

Row 0 s3 1 3 0
Row 1 s2 1+K 0
Row 2 s1 (8-K)/3 0
Row 3 s0 1 +K
In order for the system to be stable there should be no sign change in column 1. To
achieve this K must be greater than -1 and K must be less than 8. Therefore for system
stability .... -1 < K < 8..
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1. Stability of
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Systems..
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instructive

Routh Criteria
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Control Index

Frequency Response Methods

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Control Index
Frequency (Harmonic)Response Methods
Introduction
The frequency response is a representation of the system's open loop response to

sinusoidal inputs at varying frequencies. The output of a linear system to a sinusoidal
input is a sinusoid of the same frequency but with a different amplitude and phase. The
frequency response is defined as the amplitude and phase differences between the input
and output sinusoids. The open-loop frequency response of a system can be used to
predict the behavior of the closed-loop system .
The frequency response method may be less intuitive than other methods. However, it
has certain advantages, especially in real-life situations such as modeling transfer
functions from physical data. The frequency response of a system can be viewed two
different ways: via the Bode plot or via the Nyquist diagram. Both methods display the
same information; the difference lies in the way the information is presented.
To plot the frequency response, it is necessary create a vector of frequencies (varying

between zero (DC) and infinity) and compute the value of the system transfer function at
those frequencies. If G(s) is the open loop transfer function of a system and ω is the
frequency vector, we then plot G(j.ω) vs. ω. Since G(j.ω) is a complex number, we can
plot both its magnitude and phase (the Bode plot) or its position in the complex plane (the
Nyquist plot). Harmonic response methods can be completed using algebraic
manipulation and can also be completed by testing actual systems..
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Control/Frequency_Response.html (1 of 5)10/24/2006 11:48:37 AM

Advantages
● The tests involve measurements under steady state conditions which are more simpler to analyse compared to
measurements of transient responses
● The tests are made on open loop systems which are not subject instability problems
● The results give convenient access to control system order, gain, error constants, resonant frequencies etc
Disadvantages
● It is not always easy to deduce transient response characteristics from a knowledge of the frequency response
● In completing tests it can be difficult to generate low-frequency signals and obtain the necessary measurements.
Normal frequencies of 0,1 to 10 Hz are used. However for process control frequencies of one cycle over several
hours may be required while for fluid servos frequencies of > 100 Hz may be experienced
Frequency Response Theory Using Laplace Transfer Functions
Consider a basic open loop transfer function..
The system response to a sinusoidal input is considered by providing an input signal = a.

sin(ω t)
G( jω) and G(-jω) are complex values of the Open loop transfer function with s replaced
by jω.

M the Magnification factor (Magnitude ratio) =y(t) / r(t). This is a function of the frequency
ω.
The frequency of y(t) is the same as (r(t) but the phase is advanced by α.
A frequency response analysis (without using Laplace Transforms )
The response includes a transient response (complimentary function) and a steady state
(forced) response(particular integral). In frequency response analysis only the steady
state response needs to be considered. The system is linear and the output will thus be
sinusoidal at a frequency ω.

If G (j ω ) = -1 ( unity gain at a phase shift of 180 ) it can be proved that the closed loop
system with unity feedback will be unstable.
It can be proved that the value of ω for a value of |G(jω)| = 1 =
Phase difference between input and output =
The Nyquist plot is simply a plot of G(jω) on an argand diagram for a range of frequencies
from
Frequency Response Systems Characteristics

In closed loop system , if at some frequency the signal undergoes no change in amplitude
but is shifted in phase by 180 deg. ( π ) the system will be unstable. The feedback signal
arriving at the summing point will reinforce the input signal and the progressive
cumulative input will result in a theoretically infinite output. The feedback signal will be
effectively a 100% positive feedback..
It can be therefore concluded that in the open loop version of the above system if the
signal is modified resulting in unity amplitude change and a change in a phase shift of π
then the system will be unstable..
In an open loop positioning control system a D.C. test signal (ω = 0) will result in the drive
running continuously resulting in the output position increasing without limit. A high
frequency input signal would produce zero output because the inertia of system would
prevent oscillatory movement.
In velocity controlled systems the output speed is (ideally) proportional to the applied

signal.- the drive acts as and integrator and the phase lag at ω = 0 is π. /2.
In torque controlled systems the output acceleration is (ideally) proportional to the applied
signal.- the drive acts as and double integrator and the phase lag at ω = 0 is π .
More information is available on plotting the frequency response assessments on the

links below .

Sites & Links For

Control
Information
1. U of
Massachusetts ..
Maths Course
Materials -
Includes notes on
Frequency
Response Methods
2. Control Hut ..
Download.. Control
Design Frequency
Domain- Course
Notes
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Root Locus Methods

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Root Locus Analysis of Control Systems
Introduction
A root loci plot is simply a plot of the s zero values and the s poles on a graph with real
and imaginary ordinates. The root locus is a curve of the location of the poles of a transfer
function as some parameter (generally the gain K) is varied.
The locus of the roots of the characteristic equation of the closed loop system as the gain
varies from zero to infinity gives the name of the method. Such a plot shows clearly the
contribution of each open loop pole or zero to the locations of the closed loop poles. This
method is very powerful graphical technique for investigating the effects of the variation of
a system parameter on the locations of the closed loop poles. General rules for
constructing the root locus exist and if the designer follows them, sketching of the root loci
becomes a simple matter.
The closed loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation of the system. From
the design viewpoint, in some systems simple gain adjustment can move the closed loop
poles to the desired locations. Root loci are completed to select the best parameter
value for stability. A normal interpretation of improving stability is when the real part of a
pole is further left of the imaginary axis.
Open and Closed Loop Transfer Functions
A control system is often developed into an equation as shown below
D(s) = (s -p 1).(s -p 2).. (s -p n) is the characteristic equation for the system ...
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Control/root_locus.html (1 of 13)10/24/2006 11:48:56 AM

Root Locus Methods
Normally n > m.
F(s) = 0 when s = z 1,z 2... z n..These values of s are called zeros
F(s) = infinity when s = p 1, p 2....p n...These values of s are called poles..
Below is shown a root loci plot with a zero of -2 and a pole of (-2 + 2 j ω ). In practice one
complex pole /zero always comes with a second one mirrored around the real axis
The Transfer function F(s) can also be written in polar form using vectors(modulus-
argument.
The complex numbers in polar form have the following elementary properties..
|z 1 .z 2 |= |z 1 |.|z 2 |..&..|z 1 / z 2 | = |z 1 | / |z 2 |
A typical feedback system is shown below

Root Locus Methods
The open-loop transfer function between the forcing input R(s) and the measured output
Y1(s) =
T1(s) = K.G(s)H(s)
The closed-loop transfer function =
K is the value of the open loop gain>

1+ KG(s)H(s) is the characteristic equation
A closed loop pole (when T(s) = infinity) must satisfy
K.G(s).H(s) = -1
This is can be interpreted using vectors
If G(s) = Q(s)/P(s) and H(s) = W(s)/V(s) Then the characteristic equation for the open loop
transfer function =
P(s).V(s)= 0
The corresponding characteristic equation for the closed loop system =
P(s).V(s) + K.Q(s)W(s) = 0
Examples
Example 1
Consider system as diagram above with G(s) = 1/ s(s+2) , H(s) = 1

( P(s) = 1, V(s) = s(s+2), Q(s) =1, W(s) = 1)
The closed loop characteristic equation = s 2 + 2s + K = 0

Root Locus Methods
The roots of the characteristic equation
When K = 0 , the poles at s = 0, and s = -2

When K = 1, the pole is at s = -1
The relevant root locus is shown below
Example 2
Consider system as diagram above with G(s) = 2s / ( s 2+1) , H(s) = 1

( P(s) = s(s+1) , V(s) = 1, Q(s) =2s, W(s) = 1)
The closed loop characteristic equation = P(s).V(s) + K.Q(s)W(s) = 0

therefore s2 + 2Ks +1 = 0
The roots of the characteristic equation
When K = 0 , the poles at s = +j, and s = -j

When K = 1, the pole is at s = -1
The relevant root locus is shown below

Root Locus Methods
The system has the best stability point at K = -1, at values below this root loci moves
towards the instability boundary.
Rules for Constructing Root Loci
These rules are listed with minimum clarification..For more details refer to reference links
and reference texts.. The rules below are simple rules which obviate the need to
completely solve the characteristic equation allowing the methods to be used for relatively
complex systems. The rules are based on those devised be R.Evans in an important
paper in 1948. They are therefore known as Evans Rules. The rules only relate to
positive changes in K. For negative values of K a set of similar rules are used.
These rules relate to the open loop transfer function M(s)..
1) Number of root loci.(branches)

The number of root loci is equal to the order of the closed loop characteristic equation F
(s).. This is, for rational systems, the same order as the characteristic equation for the
open loop transfer function i.e.the denominator of M(s)
2) Symmetry of loci
The roots of the characteristic equation having real coefficient are symmetrical with
respect to the real axis
3) Poles of M(s)
The poles of M(s) lie on the root loci and correspond to K = 0.
4) Zeros of M(s)
The zeros of M(s) lie on the root loci and correspond to K = infinity. If there are t more
poles than zeros then t loci will become infinite as K approaches infinity
5) Asymptotes of root loci

If F(s) has t more poles than zeros, the root loci are asymptotic to t straight lines making

Root Locus Methods
angles..
(2 b + 1)π / t, b = 0,1,2,...t-1,
with the real axis . The root loci approach symptotes when K -> infinity..
Symptote angle with real axis for

Poles - zeros (t) = 1 -4
t= 1...Angle = π
t = 2...Angles = π / 2 ,3 π /2
t = 3 ...Angles = π/ 3 , π, (5 /3) π
t = 4...Angles = π / 4 , 3 π /4 , 5
π/ 4, 7 π /4
6) Point of Intersection of asymptotes

Asymptotes intersect on the real axis at a point with abscissa
σo = (1/t). [(p1 + p2 + ...pn) - (z1 + z2 + ...zm)]
p's and z's are respective poles and zeros of M(s).
7) Root loci on real axis

If M(s) has one or more real poles or zeros ,then the segment of the real axis having and
odd number of real poles and zeros to its right will be occupied by a root locus.
8) Singular Points
Singular points indicate the presence of multiple characteristic roots, and occur at those

Root Locus Methods
values of s which for which dK/ds = 0..
9) Intersection of root loci with imaginary axis

The intersections of root loci with the imaginary axis can be located by calculating the
values of K which result in the imaginary characteristic roots.
10) Slopes of root loci at complex poles and zeros

The slope of a root loci at a complex pole or zero of F(s) can be found at at point in the
neighborhood of the pole or zero using the method shown below
11) Calculation of K on the root loci.

The absolute magnitude of the value of K corresponding to any point so on a root locus
can be found by measuring the lengths of the vectors drawn to so from the poles and
zeros of F(s) and then evaluating
Examples of using Evans rules

Example 3)
Consider the system with the open loop transfer function ( K > 0 & H(s) = 1 )
H(s)G(s) = K / (s2 + 3s + 2 ) = K / (s+1) (s+2)

Root Locus Methods
Using Evans rules
System characteristic equation =

1 + K /(s+1)(s+2) = 0.... therefore (s+1)
(s+2) + K = 0
1) The order of the characteristic

Solving the Characteristic equation
equation = 2 therefore 2 poles.
Assuming negative feedback the 2) The roots are symmetrical wrt the
characteristic equation = real axis
s2 + 3s + 2 + K = 0 3) Poles correspond to K = 0, pole at -

2, & - 1
The Roots =
4) Poles correspond to K = infinity no
[-3 ± √(9 - 4(2 + K)) ] / 2 = -1.5 ± √(0.25 -K ) zeros
5) The asymptotes angles... 2 more

The plot below is simple obtain by
poles than zeros therefore angles are
establishing the roots for values of K
from 0 to infinity.. π /2 & 3 π /2
K = 0 ....s= -1, -2 6) Point of intersection of the

K = 0.25 ....s= -1.5 asymptotes with the real axis
= (sum of poles - sum of zeros)/t = -1.5
K ->∞....s -> ±∞
7) The root loci lie to the left of the odd
pole. (first pole)
8) Location of a singularity is at dK/ds

= 0 = -1.5.
9), 10) & 11) Not necessary.
The plot below can easily be obtained..

Root Locus Methods
Example 4).
System has an open loop transfer function
KHG(s) = K (s + 1)/ (s2 (s + 9)
closed loop characteristic equation i ..1 + KHG(s) = 0 therefore
(s3 + 9s + K(s) + K = 0
Completing Evans Method.
1) There are three roots.
2) The characteristic equation has real coefficients so the loci is symmetrical about the
real axis.
3) When K = 0 there is a double pole at s = 0 (singular point) and also a a pole at s = -9
4) When K = infinity there are loci at s = -1 (zero) and s = infinity.
5) The asymptotes angles... 2 more poles than zeros therefore angles are π /2 & 3 π /2
6) The location of the asymptotes intersect the real axis at is calculated by .. ( 0 - 9 - (-

1) ) /2 = 4
7) Loci are to the left of odd poles/zeros's i.e left of -1 (between -1 & -9)
8) The break point (singularity point on the real axis ) is obtained by determining the value
of s which satisfies the equation dK/ds = 0..
Solving the closed loop characteristic equation for K =
K =-(s3 + 9s) / (s+1)

Root Locus Methods
Differentiating (using du/dv = (vdu-udv)/v2 )
(s3 + 9s2)-(s+1)(3s2 +18s) = 0 ...Therefore.. -2s3 - 12s2 -18s = 0 ... and.. -2s(s+3)2 - 0
Three solutions for s are at s = 0, s = -3 These are associated with a positive value of K
when substituted into F(s).
9) A Routh array is constructed to determine the imaginary axis crossing points. ref Routh
Stability Criteria
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3
Row 0 s3 1 K 0
Row 1 s2 9 K 0
Row 2 s1 K 0
Row 3 s0 K
There is no sign change in column 1 for positive values of K so there is locus does not
enter the right hand side of imaginary axis..
10 ) Rule not needed for this example..
The root locus plot is produced for this system as shown below...
Closed Loop Transient Response The transient response of a closed-loop system is

closely related to the location of the closed loop poles.

Root Locus Methods
Many control systems can be represented by the general second order differential
equation..
The coefficient (assumed positive) ωn is the undamped natural frequency and ζ is the
damping ratio.

Root Locus Methods
● If ζ > 1 Then both poles are negative and real

● If ζ = 1 Then both poles are equal,negative and real ( s = - ω n)
● If 0 < ζ < 1 The poles are complex conjugates with negative real parts. s = -ζω n ± j ω n.Sqrt( 1 - ζ 2 )
● If ζ = 0 Then both poles are imaginary and complex conjugate s = ± j ωn
● If ζ <0 Then both poles are in the RHS of the plane
The results of this equation can be shown on a s plane plot as below..
Sites & Links

For Control
Information
1. The root loci

method..
Brunel U
Tutorial
2. 21 Control
System
Analysis ..
Claymore -
Useful paper
include notes
on root loci
3. Control Hut ..

Root Locus Methods
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Frequency Response Methods Bode
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Bode Graphs
Bode graphs
Bode graphs are representations of the magnitude and phase of G(j*ω) (where the frequency vector
ω contains only positive frequencies). These consist of two graphs.
The first plot is a plot of log modulus i.e.|G(j ω)| (in decibels) versus frequency. The magnitude of |
G(j ω)| of any transfer function for any value of ω is plotted on a logarithmic scale in decibels where
db = 20log10| P(j ω) |
The second plot is the phase shift (in degrees) versus frequency (ω).
Both plots usually have the frequency (ω) in logarithmic scale from 0 to ∞ .
Producing Bode Plots

It is very easy to produce Bode plots by hand or by using proprietary software packages such as
Matlab. Links below show how Bode plots can be produced using Excel and using Mathcad. The
example plots below have been produced using Mathcad
When considering relatively complicated transfer functions which are the product of a number of
terms i.e
The bode magnitude plots can be obtained by adding the bode magnitudes (20Log10|G(iω)|) plots
for the individual factors i.e
20 log10|G(ω)| = 20 log10|100| + 20 log10|(1 +j ω| + 20 log10|(2 +j 3ω| + 20 log10| /(2 +j ω|

+ 20 log10| 1 / (3 - j ω| + 20 log10| 1 / (2 + j 2ω|
Arg G(ω) = ArgG(100) + ArgG((1 +j ω) + ArgG((2 +j 3ω) + ArgG(1 /(2 +j ω) + ArgG( 1 / (3 -

j ω) + Arg(G( 1 / (2 + j 2ω)
Relative stability assessments Using Bode Plots
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Control/Bode.html (1 of 6)10/24/2006 11:49:10 AM

Two relative stability indicators "Gain Margin" and "Phase Margin" are easily obtained from Bode
Plots. As 0 db is the corresponds to a magnitude of 1 the gain margin is the number of db that |G
(iω)| is below 0db at the phase frequency when the phase arg(G(iω)= 180o (Phase crossover). The
phase margin in the number of degrees arg(G(iω) is above -180o frequency associated with a gain |
G(iω)|= 1 (0db) (Gain crossover)
If the gain margin and phase margin are both positive the system will be stable. The stability
should also be checked using Nyquist or other noted methods for complete certainty.
These are illustrated by plotting two typical Bode plots together as shown below
Typical Bode Plots
A small number of typical bode plots are provided to indicate the various shapes. Relatively
complicated bode plots can easily be produced by combining the plots below and adding the
appropriate log values for constant products and divisors...


Many control systems are described by a general second order differential equation..

The resulting frequency response function and the associated normalised bode plots are show
below

Sites & Links For

Control
Information
1. Michigan Tech Uni.

Paper..Tutorial On
using Mathcad to
create Bode &
Nyquist Plots
Paper..Tutorial On
using Excel to
create Bode &
Nyquist Plots
3. U of
Massachusetts ..
Maths Course
Materials -
Includes notes on
Frequency
Response Methods
4. Control Hut ..
Download.. Control
Design Frequency
Domain- Course
Notes
5. Bode Plots..Very
clear pages
explaining Bode
Plots and how to
produce them
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Stability analysis using Nyquist Plots

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Nyquist Stability graphs
Polar graphs
There are a number of polar graph options for studying control systems including the
nyquist, inverse polar plot and the nichols plot. The nyquist open loop polar plot indicates
the degree of stability, and the adjustments required and provides stability information for
systems containing time delays. Polar plots are not used exclusively because,without
powerful computing facilities, they can be difficult to generate at a detailed level and they
do not directly yield frequency values.
The Nyquist plot is obtained by simply plotting a locus of imaginary(G(j ω)) versus Real(G
(j ω)) at the full range of frequencies from ( - ∞ to + ∞ ) It is very easy to produce nyquist
plots by hand or by using proprietary software packages such as Matlab. Links below
show how bode and nyquist plots can be produced using Excel and using Mathcad. The
plots below have been produced in minutes using Mathcad..
The nyquist plot fundamentals are shown below....
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Control/Nyquist.html (1 of 8)10/24/2006 11:49:14 AM

Velocity Feedback control
Basic Rules for constructing Nyquist plots

In control systems a transfer function to be assessed is often of the form
This transfer function is modified for frequency response analysis by replacing the s with
jω
Assuming the function is proper and n > m..he Nyquist plot will have the following
characteristics. Crude plots to be may be produced relatively easily using these
characteristics.
1. Asymptotic behavior.. For n - m > 1, the Nyquist plot approaches the origin at an asymptotic angle of -(n-m) π/2...
2. Assuming G(s) = K(s)/s k. For k poles at zero, the Nyquist plot comes in from infinity at an angle of -(n-m) π/2
3. In a system with no OL zeros, the plot of G(jω) will decrease monotonically as ω rises above the level of the largest
imaginary part of the poles; This will also be true for large enough ω even in the presence of zeros.(Ref plot 1 below).
4. The plot will cross the imaginary axis when Real G(jω) =0 and will cross the real axis when Imaginary G(jω) = 0,
( for crossing of the negative real axis use Arg- G(jω)= π )
Relative stability assessments Using the Nyquist Plot

As identified in the page on frequency response Frequency response The nyquist plots
are based on using open loop performance to test for closed loop stability. The system
will be unstable if the locus has unity value at a phase crossover of 180 o ( π ).
Two relative stability indicators "Gain Margin" and "Phase Margin" may be determined
from the suitable Nyquist Plots. The degree of gain margin is indicated as the amount
the gain is less than unity when the plot crosses the 180 o axis (Phase crossover). The
phase margin is the angle the phase is less than 180 o when the gain is unity. The values
are generally identified by use of Bode plots
The phase margin is clearly illustrated below
Nyquist Stability Criterion.
In the nyquist plots below the area covered to the right of the locus(shaded) is the Right
Hand Plane (RHP)

A closed loop control system is absolutely stable if the roots of the characteristic equation
have negative real parts. This means the poles of the closed loop transfer function, or the
zeros of the denominatior ( 1 + GH(s)) of the closed loop tranfer function, must lie in the
(LHP). The nyquist stability criterion establishes the number of zeros of (1 + GH(s) in the
RHP directly from the Nyquist stability plot of GH(s) as indicated below.
The closed loop control system whose open loop transfer function is GH(s) is stable only
if..
N = -Po ≤ 0
where
1) P o = the number of G(s) poles in the RHP ≥ 0
2) N = total number of CW encirclements of the (-1,0) in the G(s) plane.
If N > 0 the number of zeros (Z o) in the RHP is determined by Z o = N + P o
If N ≤ 0 the (-1,0) point is not enclosed by the nyquist plot.

If N ≤ and P 0 then the system is absolutely stable only if N = 0. That is if and only if the (-
1,0) point does not lie in the shaded region..
Considering the LH plot above of 1/s(s+1). The (-1,0) point is not in the RHP therefore
N<= 0. The poles are at s =0, and s=-1, both outside of the RHP and therefore P o = 0.
Thus N = -P o = 0 and the system is therefore stable.

Considering the RH plot above of 1/s(s-1). The (-1,0) point is enclosed in the RHP and
therefore N > 0 (N= 1). The poles of GH are at s= 0 and s = +1 . S= +1 is in the RHP
and therefore P o = 1.
N ≠ - P o Indicating that this system is unstable..
There are Z o = N + P o zeros of 1+GH in the RHP.
Nyquist Plots A number of typical nyquist plots are shown below to illustrate the various
shapes.
Plot 1..... 1 /(s + 2)
1 /(s + 2)
Note that G(i0) = 0.5 and as ω increases to ∞ the plot approaches zero along the negative
locus.
G(jω) moves from 0 to 0.5 as ω - ∞ to 0
G(j ∞) = 0
The asymptotic angle approaching 0 is = -90 o and
Plot 2.....1 /(s 2 + 2s + 2)

1 /(s 2 + 2s + 2)
The zero-frequency behaviour is:G(j0) =0.5

G(j ∞) = 0
The asymptotic angle is = -180 o
Plot 3.....s(s+1) /(s 3 + 5.s 2 +3.s + 4 )
s(s+1) /(s 3 + 5.s 2 +3.s +4 )
Plot 4.....(s+1) /[(s+2)(s+3)]

((s+1) /[(s+2)(s+3)]
Plot 5.....1 /s(s-1).. an unstable regime
(1 /s (s-1)

Sites & Links For

Control
Information

Paper..Tutorial On
using Mathcad to
create Bode &
Nyquist Plots
Paper..Tutorial On
using Excel to
create Bode &
Nyquist Plots
3. U of
Massachusetts ..
Maths Course
Materials -
Includes notes on
Frequency
Response Methods
4. Control Hut ..
Download.. Control
Design Frequency
Domain- Course
Notes
Home
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Chemistry Fundamentals
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Chemistry Index
Six important factors are important to the understanding of chemistry.
1. Structure
2. Acids and Bases
3. Attraction
4. Stability
5. Reactions
6. Equilibrium
Structure
This term to refers to the manner in which the atoms that compose a molecule of a specific
compound are attached (bonded) to one another and oriented in space. Information on how atoms
are attached, and to some extent how they are oriented, is provided by a structural formula i.e a
lewis dot structure; Three important aspects of structural formulas are:
● Composition: The kinds and numbers of atoms that compose a molecule of a compound.
● Constitution: The manner in which the component atoms of a molecule are bonded to each other. Different compounds having the
same composition but different constitutions are called isomers. The prefix iso is from the Greek word for "the same or alike".
● Configuration: The shape of a molecule in three-dimensional space. Isomers differing only in configuration are called
stereoisomers.
Acids and Bases

Robert Boyle in the seventeenth century first identified substances as either acids or bases (he
called bases alkalis)....
Acids are compounds which include hydrogen atoms. When they are dissolved in water they
release hydrogen ions (H+) into solution. A typical acid is hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Bases dissolve in water to release hydroxide ions (OH-) into solution. A typical base is sodium
hydroxide (NaOH):
This subject is covered on a separate web page...Acids-Bases
Attraction
Opposite electrostatic charges (plus & minus) are attracted to each other, and like charges
repel. Such charges are produced by removing (or adding) electrons from (or to) an object.
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Charged atoms or molecules are called ions, and the principle of attractions and repulsion governs
their interactions. ref Ions - Cations
Many organic reactions are influenced by a similar factor. Electron deficient species, which may or
may not be positively charged, are attracted to electron rich species, which may or may not be
negatively charged.
Stability
Stability implies an object, system or situation that is likely to remain unchanged for a significant
period of time. In chemistry, two kinds of stability are important.
● Thermodynamic Stability: ... The potential energy of a compound relative to a reference state.
● Chemical Stability:... The resistance of a compound or mixture of compounds to chemical change.
(More notes to follow)
Reactions
Chemical reactions are the heart of chemistry. A chemical reaction is when one or more
substances are changing into other substances. Reactions are identified in chemistry using simple
equations. An example reaction equation, of iron reacting with oxygen in the corrosion process, is
provided below;
The reactants are shown on the left of the equation and the products are shown on the right. The
law of conservation of mass states there is no loss of mass in the reaction process. The number of
atoms of each element will therefore be the same on both sides of the equation.
It is important first to define the components of a reaction. It is also necessary to understand that
several competing reactions may take place in a given system, and their relative velocities (rates)
will generally influence the composition of the products.
This subject is covered on a separate web page...Chemical Reactions
Equilibrium..
Many chemical reactions are reversible. This means they may proceed in both directions (from
reactants to products, or from products to reactants). As an example consider the reaction below ..
The reactants and products are both gases. At the temperature of the reaction (20 deg. C) the
products are not totally stable and there is the simultaneous reaction taking place as follows..

This type of reaction is said to be reversible and is indicated as follows..
In such cases as the one shown above an equilibrium state occurs, in which the rates of the two
reactions are identical. An equilibrium always favors the more thermodynamically stable side of the
equilibrium.
This subject is covered on a separate web page...ref. Equilibrium Notes
Relevant links..
1. Fundamentals of Chemistry.... ... A good starting point

2. Chemguide Helping you understand chemistry... Menu driven site introducing most chemistry topics
3. Organic Chemistry Online... Very professional site useful for students
4. World of Chemistry... Ralph Logan- An excellent chemistry reference site
6. Chemical Equilibrium... Clear study Notes
7. ChemTutor Reactions... Lots of typical reactions with notes.
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The states of matter

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Physical Chemistry
Introduction
This page relates to the physical factors affecting chemical processes..
States of matter
Matter exists mainly in three states gas, liquid and solid. A material such as water can
exist as a gas (steam) a liquid (water) or a solid (ice). Its state results from its condition
of temperature and pressure.
A gas has no bounding surface it fills all of the space it occupies. Its density is very
much related to the quantity of matter the temperature and the pressure.
A liquid has no shape. It takes the shape of the vessel it occupies. It does however have
a surface which limits the volume it occupies. It is normally has a greater density than a
gas. Its volume and related density is affected to some extent by temperature and to a
lesser effect by pressure. Liquids are often assumed to be incompressible
A solid has a fixed shape and its volume changes by only a relative small amount on
changes of pressure and temperature.
In normal conditions a solid can be converted to a liquid if its temperature is raised to its
melting point temperature and a liquid can be converted to a gas if its temperature is
raised to its evaporation tempature which is related to the local pressure..
Ideal Gas Real Gas Liquid Solid
Relevant sites..
2. Chemical Engineers Calculators...Loads of Information for Chemical Engineers
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The states of matter
4. Wikipedia Physical Chemsistry... Lots of useful reference information- users can contribute
5. Physical Chemistry by P.Atkins & J.D Paula... An Online reference book- Excellent reference material
Home
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Inorganic Chemistry
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Inorganic Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry
Inorganic chemistry relates to chemical reactions for substances which generally do no include
carbon.
Introduction
The area is covered in relationship to the periodic table.. Periodic Table The periodic table
arranges all elements in increasing proton number and shows the similarity of elements with related
electronic configurations.
For atoms to combine to form compounds they must lose electrons or gain or share electrons. The
electrons lost gained or shared mostly inhabit the outer shell of the atom. The stable number of
electrons in the outer shell is generally eight. If the outer shell is full of electrons then the atom is
stable and does not easily form compounds e.g. Helium, Neon etc.
The periodic table as shown includes the tradition method of identifying the vertical columns
(groups) IA to VIIA and IB to VIIB, and 0 for the noble gases. The periodic table as shown also
includes the modern group numbering system 1 to 18.
The horizontal rows are called periods. The top three rows are called short periods. the lower four
rows are called long periods and include the transition elements. Within a period the elements all
have the same number of shells. The shell with increasing numbers of electrons in the outer shell
along the columns.
The periodic table identifies a very general overall characteristics : In moving down a group the
elements show more metallic characteristics as the atoms size increases: Moving across the table
the atoms change from a metallic (electropositive) behaviour to a non-metallic (electronegative )
behaviour. Thus the most metallic elements are to the bottom left of the table and the most non-
metallic tend to be at the top right of the table.
Chemical Characteristic Identifiable from the Periodic Table
Group 0 ( 18): Inert gases.. (filled outer electron shell, stable electron configuration )
Includes Helium, Neon, Argon, Crypton, Xenon and Radon. All these elements are gases which
stable and do not readily react to form compounds. They are generally identified as noble
gases. These have eight electrons consisting of four pairs. Because their valence electrons are all
paired up the Noble gases don't normally form bonding associations. Their valency is therefore
considered to be zero. There are only a handful of compounds formed, mostly with Xenon and
Radon.
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Inorganic Chemistry
Group VIIA(col 17): Halogens.. (one electron short of stable structure )

This group includes Fluorine, Bromine, Chorine, Iodine, Astatine**. Halogens have similar
electronic structures to the Inert gases but do not have complete outer shells with one electron
being missing. The halogens are therefore typical non-metals i.e they have high electonegativies-
high electron affinities and high ionisation energies.
Group VIA (16): Beginning with Oxygen the elements have six valence electrons. These include
two sets of paired electrons and two unpaired electrons. Unpaired electrons are considered
excellent candidates for bonding electrons. These elements generally form co-valent bonding when
combined with non-metals. They are said to form di-valent covalent bonding.
Groups VA (15) : Beginning with Nitrogen these elements include five valency electrons with two
paired up electrons. The paired electrons are not be candidates for bonding and are referred to as
"non-bonding" electrons. These elements usually form co-valent bonding when combined with
other metalloids or non-metals. They generally are considered tri-valent atoms and form three
covalent bonding pairs.
Groups IVA, VA (14) Topped by Carbon and Silicon are considered tetra-valent capable of forming
four covalent bonds with other atoms or group of atoms.
Group IIIA (13) Starting with Boron atoms are said to be tri-valent and generally form co-valent
bonding associations.
Groups IIIB to IIB (cols 3 to 12): Transition metals (partially filled d electron states, one or two
electrons in next shell ).
Groups 2A (cols 2): Alkaline earth metals ( Two electron in excess of stable structure )
These are referred to as di-valent atoms and generally form ionic bonding with non-metals and
metalloids.
Groups 1A (cols 1 ): Alkali metals ( One electron in excess of stable structure )

These elements are mono-valent and generally form ionic bonding with non-metals or metalloids.
They form mono-valent bonding because they only have one unpaired electron in their valence
region. Unpaired electrons are excellent candidates as bonding electrons.
Groups IIIA ,IVA, VA (cols 13,14,15) : Intermediate characteristics by virtue of valence electron
stucture
Most metal elements are electropositive (capable of donating a few valence electrons )
Relevant Links..
1. Inorganic Chemistry...Wikipedia free encyclopedia.. Useful notes with donor contributions.

3. Understanding Chemistry - Inorganic Chemistry... Set of clear notes on inorganic chemistry and associated topics
4. Introduction to Atomic Structure... An extensive single page document with lots of information
5. MolData.. INORGANIC CHEMISTR... A website linking to extensive useful chemistry resources

Inorganic Chemistry
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Organic /Inorganic Chemistry
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Organic Chemistry
Important Notes
This page is intended to give simple notes on organic chemistry. For detailed information please consult reputable references and/or use
the links provided at the foot of the page.
The structures I have used are based on lewis dot structures. These structures do not provide clear 3D geometric information of the
molecules and sometimes may provide misleading information on the relative positions of the bonds.
Organic Chemistry
The branch of chemistry that is concerned with compounds of carbon. Therefore this deals with
living matter, oil products, plastics etc etc. Because of the extraordinary bonding properties of
carbon there are many more organic compounds than inorganic compounds
Until the early 1800's chemical substances relating to living matter were called "organic" materials
and were considered fundamentally different to other substances, mainly of mineral based, which
were called inorganic substances. It was considered a "vital force" was necessary to form living
(organic) matter. In 1828 this theory was discredited by Wohler but the term organic has remained.
Most organic substances contain Hydrogen(H) and Carbon(C) and many contain Oxygen(O),
Nitrogen, Sulphur (S), Phosphorous (P)and the Halogens Flourine(F), Bromine(Br), Chlorine(Cl)
and Iodine(I). These and other elements are normally bonded to carbon by covalent bonds as
opposed to ionic bonds which are typical of inorganic compounds.
The covalent bonds which are relatively weak compared to the ionic bond. Therefore organic
compounds typically have low critical temperatures...
The Pauling electronegativity value for carbon of 2,5 is approximately in the middle of the scale (0,8
to 4,0) covered by all elements. ref electronegativity values ) This number provides a measure of
the bonding characteristic. Carbon being in the middle of the range will for the majority of cases
combine with other elements with covalent bonds. In these bonds the electrons will not be attracted
to of from either or the bonded atoms to any great extent.
Organic Chemistry Families

The total field of organic chemistry is so large that it is necessary to break it down into sub-groups
or families of compounds .
Some of these "families are identified below-with links to relevant notes
● Alkanes (all single bonds)

● Alkyl Halides (involving at least one halogen bonded to a carbon)
● Alkenes (one or more Carbon - Carbon double bond
● Alkynes (one or more Carbon- Carbon triple bond)
● Aromatic Compounds (involving the molecule Benzene, Napthalene, Anthracene, etc)
● Alcohols (one or more OH group)
● Thiols (similar to alcohols except Sulfur (SH) instead of Oxygen
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● Ethers (one or more Oxygen single bonded to two carbons)

● Thioethers(similar to ethers except a Sulfur atom in place of an Oxygen atom)
● Aldehydes (one or more formyl group -CH=O)
● Ketones (one or more keto group C=O)
● Carboxylic Acids (at least one carboxyl group -COOH)
● Esters ( Formed by reactions with acids and alcohols)
● Amines (one or more Nitrogen bonded to Hydrogen or carbon atoms)
● Amino Acids (one or more amino group NH2 and one carboxyl group -COOH)
● Carbohydrates ( several OH groups and a formyl or keto group)
● Organometallics (with ionic bonding between a metal and a carbon structure)
Naming Organic Chemicals
The IUPAC (The international Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) has produced an accepted
naming convention (systematic Nomenclature) for chemicals.. The name includes
● a prefix, which describes the substituents

● a stem , which describes the longest chain
● a suffix , which describes the compound type
A simple molecule illustrating the naming convention is shown below
Aliphatic Compounds
An aliphatic compound is any chemical compound belonging to the organic class in which the
atoms are not linked together to form a ring. A major structural groups of organic molecules, the
aliphatic compounds include the alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes, and substances derived from them,
by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms by atoms of other elements or groups of atoms.

Alkanes (paraffins)
These saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CnHn+2. All of these substances end with -
ane(the IUPAC suffix) and include those listed below. The stem names relate to the number of
carbon atoms in the molecules as shown below
● 1 Carbon atom - meth

● 2 Carbon atom - eth
● 3 Carbon atom - prop
● 4 Carbon atom - but
● 5 Carbon atom - pent
● 6 Carbon atom - hex
● 7 Carbon atom - hept
etc.etc.
There is no IUPAC prefix for the alkanes as described here.
The lower members of the series are gases and the higher molecular weight alkanes are waxy
solids. Alkanes are obtained from natural gas and petroleum.
Note; A methyl group is simply CH3.The straight alkane chains are formed by the successive
replacement of the end hydrogen atom by a methyl group as shown below...
Methane (CH4)......
Ethane (C2H6)......
Propane (C3H8)......

Butane (C4H10)......
Pentane (C5H12)......
Hexhane (C6H14)......
Heptane (C7H16)......

etc. etc.
Alkyl Halides (Haloalkanes)
These are organic compounds in which more one or more hydrogen atoms of the alkane series
have been replaced by halogen atoms(atoms with one electron short of stable structure )..Example
are chloromethane CH3Cl, Dibromethane CH2BrCH2Br etc. These can be formed by direct
radiation between the constituent substances with ultravoilet light..
Alkenes
These are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one double carbon bond. The general
formula for alkenes with only one double bond in the molecule is CnH2n where n is the number of
carbon atoms in the molecule.
The double bond between two carbon atoms is not twice as strong, -the second bond formed
between the carbon atoms is weaker than the first. Thus, the second bond is more vulnerable to
attack by suitable reagents, even under fairly mild conditions. The reactions of this second bond
tend to be addition reactions causing the unsaturated carbon atoms become saturated. The
alkenes are therefore more reactive than alkanes.
The alkenes are highly flammable and burn readily in air, forming carbon dioxide and water,. For
example, ethene burns as follows :
C2H4 + 3 O2 ==> 2 CO2 + 2 H2O
The first three alkenes are gases, the intermediate alkenes are liquids and higher members of the
olefin series are wax like solids at room temperature. The alkenes are insoluble in water, but are

soluble in organic solvents. The liquids and solids have a density less than water.
Alkynes
These are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one triple carbon bond.
The names of all alkynes end in "-yne". In the case of higher members of the alkene series, the
triple bond may be between the terminal carbon atoms of the chain, or may be between internal
carbon atoms in the chain.
.
Alkyne properties
Alkynes are compounds which have low polarity, and have physical properties that are similar to
those of the alkanes and alkenes.
● They are insoluble in water.

● They are quite soluble in the usual organic solvents of low polarity .
● They are less dense than water.
● Their boiling points show the usual increase with increasing carbon number.
● They are very nearly the same as the boiling points of alkanes or alkenes with the same carbon skeletons.
Lewis structures for two alkynes are shown below..
Aromatic Compounds
Aromatic Compounds

Aromatic compounds are a major class of chemical compounds whose molecular structure includes
one or more planar rings of atoms joined by covalent bonds of two different kinds. The term
aromatic was first used in 1860 for a group of hydrocarbons isolated from coal tar and characterised
by their strong odours. In chemistry, aromaticity has come to denote the chemical behaviour of this
class of molecules.
An aromatic is a organic compound that contains a benzene ring in is molecule or has very similar
chemical properties to benzene. Aromatic compounds are unsaturated yet they do easily complete
addition reactions.
Benzene comprises a hexagonal ring of carbon atoms possible lewis structures are shown below.
However in practice the carbon-carbon bonds would not be double and single..they would be would
be bonds intermediate between double and single...
Alcohols (at least one OH group)
All alcohol compounds end with ..ol e.g. methanol, ethanol.
Primary alcohols have two hydrogen atoms on the carbon joined to the -OH groups. Secondary
alcohols have only one hydrogen atom on the carbon joined to the OH group. Tertiary alcohols
have no hydrogen atoms on the carbon attached to the -OH molecule.

For example
The ethanol formula can be written CH3 CH2OH
this is a primary alcohol.
The 2- propanol molecule can be written as shown below..This is a secondary alcohol
The molecule "2-methylpropan-ol" can be written as shown below..This is a tertiary alcohol
Thiols (similar to alcohols except Sulfur (SH) instead of Oxygen
Note: Thio -> sulphur containing
Thiols have an older name "mercaptan" . This relates to their ability to react with mercury. They are
named according to the hydrocarbon e.g ethane thiol C2H5SH.
These chemicals generally have a strong odour. They are, unlike alcohols strongly acidic forming
saltlike substances when reacting with metals and alkalis.
Ethers (at least one Oxygen single bonded to two carbons)
These are usually liquids with pleasant odour , but some aromatic and the higher aliphatic ethers
are crystalline solids. They are insoluable in water but soluble in alcohol and diethyl ether. The
commonest ether diethyl ether is usually simply called ether. Diethyl ether (ethoxyethene) is an

anaesthetic and a very useful organic solvent
These compounds are volatile and highly flammable.
The ethers are made by dehydrating alcohols using sulphuric acid.
Thioethers- Sulphides (similar to ethers except a Sulfur atom in place of an Oxygen atom)
Thio 0> Suphur containing..

Thioethers are organic compounds containing the group -S- linked to two hydrocarbon groups.
The thioethers are named according to the linked organic molecules. The organics molecules
identified in alphabetic order see examples below.
These compounds are generally more reactive than the related ethers.
Aldehydes (at least one formyl group -CH=O)
These are organic compound containing the group as shown below attached directly onto another
carbon atom.
Methanal (formaldahyde) HCHO is a member of this group although it is not a typical aldehyde.
Aledehydes are normally colourless liquids (aliphatic) or solids ((higher aromatics) with

characteristic colours. These compounds are oxidized to acids and reduced to primary alcohols.
Aldehydes are formed by oxidation of primary alcohols.
Ketones (at least on keto group C=O)
Chemistry naming conventions always end this range of chemicals with -one Where Aldehydes
have the C=O group (carbonyl) on an end carbon atom Ketones have it on a middle carbon atom.
Secondary alcohols can be oxidixed into ketones.
Acetone (propanone) as shown below is the simplest ketone. It is made by the oxidation of propan-
2-ol . It is a solvent and is used in the manufacture of plastics.
Carboxylic Acids (at least one carboxyl group -COOH))
These include at least one carboxyl group -COOH as shown below
Typical carboxylic acids include methanoic (formic) acid (HCOOH->HCO2H), ethanoic acid-acetic
acid (CH3COOH), butanoic acid (CH3CH2CH2COOH ). Because carboxylic acids have both a lone
oxygen and an OH group, they are strongly hydrogen-bonded to each other, therefore having high

boiling points.
Because a large number of carboxylic acids occur naturally in fats and oils these are therefore also
known as "fatty acids". The carboxyl group is weakly acidic and all carboxylic acids neutralize OH-.
Esters
Esters are organic compounds formed by reactions between alcohols and acids . Esters containing
simple hydrocarbon groups are volatile fragrant substances used as flavourings in the food
industry. In esters one of the oxygens has a double bond the other oxygen atom is bonded to a
carbon atom of a hydrocarbon.
Amines (at least one Nitrogen bonded to Hydrogen or carbon atoms)
These organic compounds are produced by replacing one or more of the hydrogen atoms in
ammonia with an organic group.
Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on whether one, two, or three of
the hydrogen atoms of ammonia have been replaced by organic groups. Diamines, triamines, and

polyamines contain two, three, or more nitrogen groupings of the types identified.
Amines are alkaline to various levels of intensity. Amines can be aliphatic or aromatic in nature..
Aniline, ethanolamines, and numerous other amines are major industrial chemicals used in making
rubber, dyes, pharmaceuticals, and synthetic resins and fibres and in a host of other applications.
The lower molecular weight amines have a fishy-putrid odour. The aliphatic amines have densities
600 to 800 kg/m3 and aromatic amines have densities about + 1000kg/m3.
Amino Acids (at least one amino group NH2 and one carboxyl group -COOH)
A large group of organic compounds containing both the carboxyl group COOH and the amino
group NH2. These include Glycine H2NCH2COOH. Many proteins are built up entirely of amino
acid groupings by condensation between the NH2 and COOH groups.

The amino acids are colourless, crystalline substances which melt with decomposition. They are
mostly soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol.
The two simplest amino acids are shown below:...
Carbohydrates (at least several OH groups and a formyl or keto group)
A group of organic compounds based on the general formula C x(H 2O) y. The simplest

carbohydrates include sugars (saccharides)including glucose and sucrose.
Carbohydrates perform vital roles in living organisms . Sugars, including glucose, and their
derivatives are essential intermediates in the conversion of food to energy. Starch and other
saccharides serve as energy stores in plants.....
Organometallics (with an ionic bonding between a metal and a carbon structure)
These are compounds in which metals ions or atoms are bound to organic groups via a carbon to
metal bond. These may have single metal to carbon bonds as in Aluminium Alkyls (Al(CH3)3. The
compounds can also be more complicated double bonds...
A more precise description is "Organometallics relates to compounds in which an organics group is

attached through carbon to an atom which is less electronegative than carbon."
Organometallics predates organic chemistry and is now one of the largest forms of chemistry mainly
in the petrochemical industry. This chemistry breaks down the barriers between organic and
inorganic chemistry.
It is recommended that further reference on this topic is made to Organometallics
Links relevant to organic chemistry..
1. Virtual textbook of organic chemistry....Essential link for learning about organic chemistry
2. Alkenes Chemical Properties... Useful detailed notes
3. Organic Chemistry Online... Very useful tutorials for students
4. Organic Mechanisms Menu... Mechanism for various organic reactions
6. Organometallics... A very professional website devoted to organometallics
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Chemical Metals and Non metals
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Metals and Non-metals
Chemical Properties of Metals

In the Periodic Table Group(1) IA and Group(2) IIA (the alkali metals) are the most active metals.
The transition elements, groups (3 to 12 ) IB to VIIIB, are also considered metals.
Most metals have positive valences i.e. during a reaction, they tend to give away electrons to the
substances they react with. The therefore enter chemical reactions as positive ions (cations) Also,
metals have low combining power, in that when they react and mix, they easily lose electrons.
Characteristics of metals
The vast majority of metals form lattice structures such as Body centred cubic (BCC). Face
centred cubic -Close packed cubic(CCP) and hexagonal close=packed structures (HCP).
Bonding between metal atoms is by the metallic bond.
● Solids at room temperature (except mercury)

● High melting points
● High densities
● Large atomic radii
● Low ionization energies
● Usually, high deformation, malleable, and ductile
● Usually good thermal and electrical conductors
● Metallic lustrous appearance
Chemical Properties of Non-Metals

Non-metals have negative valences unlike metals. They either react mildly (carbon group, nitrogen
group and oxygen group) or they are non-reactive (noble gases). Non-metals also tend to gain
more electrons during a reaction.
Characteristics of non-metals
● High ionization energies

● High electronegativities
● Poor thermal conductors
● Poor electrical conductors
● Brittle solids
● Little or no metallic luster
● Gain electrons easily
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Chemical Metals and Non metals
1. Hyperphysics - Metals and Non metals....Identifies basic characteristics of metals and non-metals
2. Periodic Properties of the Elements ... Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids- concise notes
3. Metals.... Non-Metals Notes identifying characteristics of metals and non-metals
4. Sci-net elements... Clear basic notes on metals -non-metals
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Physical Chemistry Oxidation- Reduction
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Oxidation and Reduction
Introduction
The earliest view of oxidation and reduction is that of adding oxygen to form an oxide (oxidation) or
removing oxygen (reduction). They always occur together.
For example, in the combustion of hydrogen to form water the following reaction takes place.
2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O
The hydrogen is oxidized and the oxygen is reduced.
This developed into a more general view of the process in which oxidation is the loss of electrons
and reduction as the gain of electrons. These processes always occur simulataneously and are
known as redox reactions (reduction - oxidation..As an example the reaction.
4Na + O2 - >2Na2O
The solid sodium atoms lose electrons and are therefore oxidised. The gaseous oxygen ions gain
electrons and are reduced..
The species which brings about oxidation is the oxidising agent and this is reduced as part of the
reaction. The species which brings about reduction is the reducing agent and this itself is oxidised
as part of the reaction..
Oxidation state or number

The number of electrons lost by an element as a result of a chemical change is known as its
positive oxidation state and the total number of electrons gained by an element as a result of a
chemical change is known as its negative oxidation state...
Another method of explaining the oxidation state of number is that it is the number of electrons that
must be added to or subtracted from an atom within a molecule to convert it to the elemental form; i.
e., in barium chloride ( BaCl2) the oxidation number of barium is +2 and of chlorine is -1. Many
elements can exist in more than one oxidation state.
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Rules for determining the oxidation state
● Free elements have an oxidation state of zero

● In their compounds , the highly electopositive elements of group 1 always have and oxidation state of +1 and group II elements
always have an oxidation state of +2.
● Flourine, is the most electro negative element as an oxidation state of -1, while oxygen the second most electronegative element
has and oxidation state of -2 except in peroxides and in compounds with flourine.
● Chlorine has and oxidation state of -1 . except when combined with flourine and oxygen
● Hydrogen generally has an oxidation state of +1 except in salt like hydrides.
● In neutral compounds the algebraic sum of the oxidation states of teh different element is zero. In ions the oxidation state is equal
to the charge of the ion
The values indicated as fixed are useful in determining the oxidation states of other elements.
The Hydrogen Electrode

Each redox couple creates its own electrical potential difference. It is not possible to measure
absolute electrode potentials but it is possible to determine relative values using a reference
hydrogen electrode.
Relative electrode potentials are determine by comparison with a standard hydrogen electrode
which is assigned a value of zero under standard thermodynamic conditions. The potential
difference between the standard hydrogen electrode and other redox couples in which the
concentration of the active ions in solution is effectively molar at at temperature of 298 K is known
as the standard electode potential (or redox) potential.....
A table of the standard electrode potentials of some elements is provided below . It is possible to
determine the electical potential across a cell with two electrodes of different elements inimmersed
in an aqueous solution using the values in this table. E.g. a cell made up from a zinc and a copper
electrode would generate a potential difference of (0.34V)- (-0,76) = 1,1, Volts
Table of Available Oxidation States
Ox'n Ox'n Ox'n Ox'n

Element Element Element Element
States States States State
Group(1) IA
Hydrogen +1 Lithium +1 Sodium +1 Potassium +1
Rubidium +1 Ceasium +1 Francium +1 - -
Group(2) IIA
Beryllium +2 Magnesium +2 Calcium +2 Strontium +2

Barium +2 Radium +2 - - - -
Group(3) IIIB
Scandium +3 Yttrium +3 Lanthanum +3 Actinium +3
Group(4) IVB
Titanium +4 +3 Zirconium +4 Hafnium +4 - -
Group(5) VB
+5 4
Vanadium Niobium +5 +3 Tantalum +5 Dumnium -
+3
Group(6) VIB
+3
Chromium Molybdenum +6 +5 +4 Tungsten +6 +5 +4 Seaborgium -
+2 6
Group(7) VIIB
+2 +7 -1
Manganese Technetium +7 Rhenium Bhorium -
+3 +4 +6
Group(8) VIIIB
Iron +2 +3 Ruthenium 3 +4 +6 Osmium +4 2 +3 Hassium -
Group(9) VIIIB
Cobalt +2 +3 Rhodium +3 +2 +4 Iridium +4 +2 +3 Meitnerium -
Group(10) VIIIB
Nickel +2 +3 Palladium +2 +4 Platinum +4 +2 Ununnilion -
Group(11) IB
Copper +2 +1 Silver +1 Gold +3 +1 Unununion -
Group(12) IIB
Zinc +2 Cadmium +2 Mercury +2 +1 Ununbion -
Group(13) IIIA
Boron +3 Aluminium +3 Gallium +3 Indium +3
Thallium +1 +3 UuT - - - - -
Group(14) IVA
+4 - +4
Carbon Silicon +4 Germanium +4 Tin
4 +2 +2
Lead +2 +4 - - - - - -
Group(15) VA
+3 - +5 -3 +3 -3 +3 -
Nitrogen Phosphorus Arsenic Antimony
3 +5 +3 +5 3 +5

Bismuth +3 +5 UuT - - - - -
Group(16) VIA
+4 -2 +4 -
Oxygen -2 Sulphur 6 -2 +2 Selenium Terrulium
+6 2 +6
Polonium +4 +2 Uuh - - - - -
Group(17) VIIA
1 -1
Flourine -1 Chlorine 1 -1 +3 Bromine 1 -1 +5 Iodine
+5
+1 -
Astatine Uus - - - - -
1 +3
Group(18) VIIIA
Helium - Neon - Argon - Krypton -
Xenon - Radon - - - - -
Standard Electrode Potentials of Selected Element
In the table below the half reaction is the state of equilibrium in which the reduced element is in
equilibrium with the oxidised state (the element ions). The electrons remain with the element..a
potential difference exists between the element and the solution. The values below indicate this
potential difference relative to that of a hydrogen electrode.
Electrode
Half Cell
Element Potential
Reaction
(Volts)
Lithium Li + + 2e- -->Li -3,04
Potassium K + +e- -->Li -2.92
Calcium Ca 2+ +2e- -->Ca -2.87
Barium Ba 2++2e- -->Ba -2.91
Sodium Na + +e- -->Na -2.71
Magnesium Mg 2++2e- -->Mg -2,37
Aluminium Al 3++3e- -->Al -1,67

Manganese Mn 2++2e- -->Mn -1,18
Zinc Zn 2++2e- -->Zn -0,76
Chromium Cr 3++3e- -->Cr -0,74
Iron Fe 2++2e- -->Fe 0,45
Cadmium Cd 2++2e- -->Cd -0.4
Cobalt Co 2++2e- -->Co -0.28
Nickel Ni 2++2e- -->Ni -0,26
Tin Sn 2+ +2e- -->Sn -0,14
Lead Pb 2+ +2e- -->Pb -0,13
Hydrogen 2H + + 2e- -->H 0,00
Selenium Se 2+ + 2e- -->Se +0,93
Copper Cu 2+ + 2e- -->Cu 0,34
Silver Ag ++ e- -->Ag +0,8
Gold Au 3++ 3e- -->Au +1.5
Chlorine Cl -+ e- -->Cl +1,36
Flourine F2 - + 2e- -->Fl +2,87
Chemistry Sites..
1. Redox Menu... Chemguide _ useful guidance notes excellent primer on topic

2. Chemical Equations, Oxidation States and Balancing of Equations... Kiwi-Web Chemistry and NZ - Clear useful notes
3. Metal Oxidation Calculator... Chemputer Calculator
4. Table of Common Oxidation States for Ions... Oxidation state look up tables

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Chemistry Index
Physical Chemistry

Chemistry Acids and Bases
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Acids and Bases
Acids and Bases

Robert Boyle in the seventeenth century first identified substances as either acids or bases (he
called bases alkalis) according to the following characteristics:
● Acids taste sour, are corrosive to metals, change litmus (a dye extracted from lichens) red, and become less acidic when mixed
with bases.
● Bases feel slippery, change litmus blue, and become less basic when mixed with acids.
Bases also damage protein . This results in the "slippery" feeling on hands when exposed to base.
Strong bases that dissolve well in water , such as sodium or potassium lye are very dangerous
because a great amount of the structural material of human beings is made of protein.
It has been observed that water can dissolve many compounds by separating them into their
individual ions. Acids are compounds which include hydrogen atoms. When they are dissolved in
water they release hydrogen ions (H+) into solution. A typical acid is hydrochloric acid (HCl)>
Bases dissolve in water to release hydroxide ions (OH-) into solution. A typical base is sodium
hydroxide (NaOH):
Neutralization:
When a base is mixed with an acid the acidity is reduced and vice versa. This is called
Neutralisation. As you can see above, acids release H+ into solution and bases release OH-. If
we were to mix an acid and base together, the H+ ion would combine with the OH- ion to make the
molecule H2O, or plain water:
Defining Acids and Bases

The modern definition Acids and Bases is based on Johannes Brønsted's and Thomas Lowry's
versions both definitions were published in the early 1920's and were similar. Acids and bases are
defined in accordance with Brønsted-Lowry as follows.
An acid is any substance that can donate a hydrogen ion (which is a proton). Acids are often
referred to as proton donors.
A base is defined as any substance that can accept a hydrogen ion. In essence, a base is the
opposite of an acid. NaOH and KOH, as we saw above, would still be considered bases because
they can accept an H+ from an acid to form water. The Brønsted-Lowry definition also explains why
substances that do not contain OH- can act like bases. Baking soda (NaHCO3), for example, acts
like a base by accepting a hydrogen ion from an acid .
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Salt
A salt is the combination of an anion (- ion) and a cation (a + ion) ( ref Ions and cations). A salt
results from the combination of the anion of a certain acid combined with the cation of a certain
base. The neutralization of potassium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid produces water and the
salt, potassium chloride. In a solid salt, the ions are held together by the difference in charge.
Solid salts generally form crystals, posssible including specific amounts of water, called water of
hydration into the crystal. If a salt dissolves in water solution, it normally separates into the anions
and cations that make up the salt.
Table salt, NaCl, has a neutral pH in water. Other salts may not be neutral e.g...
a) Salts made of the anion of a strong acid and the cation of a strong base will be neutral salts, that
is, the water solution with this salt will have a pH of seven.
b) Salts made of the anion of a strong acid and the cation of a weak base will be acid salts, that is,
the water solution with this salt will have a pH of less than seven. (example - ammonium chloride)
c) Salts made of the anion of a weak acid and a strong base will be an alkali salt. The pH of the
solution will be over seven. (example - sodium bicarbonate)
Strong Acids
The common acids that are almost one hundred percent ionized are:
● HNO3 - nitric acid

● HCl - hydrochloric acid
● H2SO4 - sulfuric acid
● HClO4 - perchloric acid
● HBr - hydrobromic acid
● HI - hydroiodic acid
The acids on this short list are called strong acids, because the amount of acid quality of a solution
depends upon the concentration of ionized hydrogens. Other acids are incompletely ionized,
existing mostly as the unionized form. Incompletely ionized acids are called weak acids, because
there is a smaller concentration of ionized hydrogens available in the solution. Strong and weak
acids are not the same as dilute and concentrated acids. The differences in concentration of the
entire acid will be termed dilute or concentrated. Muriatic acid is the name given to an industrial
grade of hydrochloric acid that is often used in the finishing of concrete.
Strong Bases
● LiOH - lithium hydroxide

● NaOH - sodium hydroxide
● KOH - potassium hydroxide
● RbOH - rubidium hydroxide
● CsOH - cesium hydroxide
● Mg(OH)2 - magnesium hydroxide
● Ca(OH)2 - calcium hydroxide
● Sr(OH)2 - strontium hydroxide
● Ba(OH)2 - barium hydroxide
This is a short list of strong bases i.e ones that completely ionize into hydroxide ions and a
conjugate acid. All of the bases of Periodic Table Group I and Group II metals except for beryllium

are strong bases. The bases of Group II metals, magnesium, calcium, barium, and strontium are
strong, but all of these bases have somewhat limited solubility. Magnesium hydroxide has a
particularly small solubility.
pH Notes
Hydrogen ion concentrations are measured as as the number of gram ions of hydrogen present per
litre of solution. Since these concentrations are usually small the concentration is generally
expressed as the pH of the solution: the pH being the logarithm i.e pH = - log[H+]. The pH can be
measured using a glass electrode or less accurately using coloured indicators...
An acid in the aqueous system is defined as a substance which is capable of forming hydrogen ions
when dissolved in water. Hydrogen ion concentration can cover a wide range from about 10-
14gram ions (or less) per litre in alkaline solutions to 1 gm ion(or more) per litre in acid solutions.
Therefore the pH scale varies from 0 (Acid) to 14 (alkali).
Table identifying Acids/Bases

Acid/Base H+ pH Example
1x 100 0 HCl
Stomach
1x 10-1 1
acid
Lemon
1x 10-2 2
juice
Acid
1x 10-3 3 Vinegar
1x 10-4 4 Soda
1x 10-5 5 Rainwater
1x 10-6 6 Milk
Pure
Neutral 1x 10-7 7
Water
1x 10-8 8 Egg whites
Baking
1x 10-9 9
Soda
1x 10-10 10 antacid
Base 1x 10-11 11 Ammonia
Mineral
1x 10-12 12
Lime
1x 10-13 13 -
1x 10-14 14 NaOH

Links relevant Acids and Bases..
1. Chapter 12 Acids and Bases....One Page summary of all essential properties of Acids and bases.
2. Chemystery- Acids and Bases... Comprehensive Notes at elementary level
3. Chemtutor Acids and Bases... Very useful tutorials for students
4. Chemical Bonding... Vision Learning - An excellent set of notes
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Chemistry Index

Physical Chemistry - Pauling Electronegativity values
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Physical Chemistry
Pauling Electronegativity Values
Introduction
Electronegativity describes the tendency of atoms to gain electrons forming negative ions. The
halogens ..Periodic Table Group VIIA(col 17): are typical electronegative ions.. Considering the
hydrogen chloride molecule the chlorine atom is more electronegative than the hydrogen atom and
consequently the molecule is polar. The chlorine atom has a negative charge.
The most common method of assigning values to this property is to use the Pauling scale. This is
based on the bond dissociation energies for which flourine, the most electronegative element is
given a value 4
Electronegativity in atomic bonds
The electronegativity to can be used to estimate whether a given bond will be nonpolar covalent,
polar covalent, or ionic. It is expected that the electronegativity of an atom in a molecule to be
related to its ionization energy and electron affinity, which are properties of isolated atoms.
It is possible to use the difference in electronegativity between two atoms to gauge the polarity of
the bonding between them. The greater difference in electronegativity, the more polar the bond.
Compounds with an electronegativity (EN) difference δEN > 1.7 are generally classified as ionic;
those with δEN < 1.7 are covalent.
Table of Pauling Electronegativity Values
E. E. E. E.
Element Element Element Element
Value Value Value Value
Group(1) IA
Hydrogen 2,20 Lithium 0,98 Sodium 0,93 Potassium 0,82
Rubidium 0,82 Ceasium 0,79 Francium 0,70 - -
Group(2) IIA
Beryllium 1,57 Magnesium 1,31 Calcium 1,00 Strontium 0,95
Barium 0,89 Radium 0,90 - - - -
Group(3) IIIB
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Scandium 1,36 Yttrium 1,22 Lanthanum 1,10 Actinium 1,10

Group(4) IVB
Titanium 1.54 Zirconium 1.33 Hafnium 1.30 - -
Group(5) VB
Vanadium 1.63 Niobium 1.60 Tatalum 1.50 Dumnium -
Group(6) VIB
Chromium 1.66 Molybdenum 2,16 Tungsten 2,36 Seaborgium -
Group(7) VIIB
Manganese 1.55 Technetium 1,90 Rhenium 1,90 Bhorium -
Group(8) VIIIB
Iron 1.83 Ruthenium 2,20 Osmium 2,20 Hassium -
Group(9) VIIIB
Cobalt 1.88 Rhodium 2,28 Iridium 2,20 Meitnerium -
Group(10) VIIIB
Nickel 1.91 Palladium 2,20 Platinum 2,28 Ununnilion -
Group(11) IB
Copper 1.90 Silver 1,93 Gold 2,54 Unununion -
Group(12) IIB
Zinc 1.65 Cadmium 1,69 Mercury 2,00 Ununbion -
Group(13) IIIA
Boron 2,04 Aluminium 1,61 Gallium 1,81 Indium 1,78
Thallium 2,04 UuT - - - - -
Group(14) IVA
Carbon 2,55 Silicon 1,90 Germanium 2,01 Tin 1,96
Lead 2,33 - - - - - -
Group(15) VA
Nitrogen 3.04 Phosphorus 2,19 Arsenic 2,18 Antimony 2,05
Bismuth 2,02 UuT - - - - -
Group(16) VIA
Oxygen 3.44 Sulphur 2,58 Selenium 2,55 Terrulium 2,10
Polonium 2,00 Uuh - - - - -
Group(17) VIIA

Flourine 3.98 Chlorine 3,16 Bromine 2,96 Iodine 2,66

Astatine 2,20 Uus - - - - -
Group(18) VIIIA
Helium - Neon - Argon - Krypton -
Xenon - Radon - - - - -
Chemistry Sites..
1. Electronegativity values... Page very similar to mine - Can be used as a check on my infor
2. Electonegativity.... Set of very clear notes. Comprehensive but not too detailed..
3. An Intro'n to the Electronic Structure of Atoms and Molecules.... Notes on molecular bonding
4. Downloadable Chemistry Software- Schools and Lab....Useful and comprehensive package at reasonable cost
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Physical Chemistry

Chemical Bonds
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Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonds ..Ref. Molecular Bonds
There are a number of elements that have been discovered and are listed in the periodic table.
These elements have their individual properties. There are and infinite number of compounds that
can be made up from these elements each with its own characteristics. The compounds are
formed when elements combine or react with each other in a particular way in certain
proportions. A compound is formed when two or more atoms chemically bond together, the
resulting compound is unique both chemically and physically from its parent atoms.
G.N.Lewis in about 1916) observed that many elements are most stable when they contained eight
electrons in their valence shell. He suggested that atoms with fewer than eight valence electrons
bond together to share electrons and complete their valence shells.
There are a number of bonding types including Ionic, Covalent, Metallic, Van der Waals ref.
Molecular Bonds.
Bonds form tending to stabilise a chemical system by releasing energy. The larger the amount of
energy released during the formation of a bond, the more stable the bond will be. .
The bond forming process is exothermic. If two atoms release energy by forming a bond, then the
atoms will be more stable by staying together than they would be as individual atoms.
Ionic Bonds
The bond between two different atoms when one atom (the cation) donates its valence electrons to
another atom (the anion). The resulting electrostatic charge bonds the two atoms together. ref.
Cations -ions
There are simple rules relating to ionic bonds
● Ionic bonds form between metals and non-metals

● In naming simple ionic compounds, the metal is always first, the non-metal second (ie. sodium chloride)
● Ionic compounds dissolve easily in water and other polar solvents
● In solution, ionic compounds easily conduct electricity.
,
● Ionic compounds tend to form crystalline solids with high melting temperatures.
A compound illustrating ionic bonds is salt (Sodium Chloride). For this compound a metal bonded to
a non-metal: the metal is first in the chemical name:Salt dissolves easily in water,: saline solutions
are conductive: salt is a crystalline solid with a melting point of 800°C...
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Chemical Bonds
Covalent Bonds
This bond most commonly occurs when two non-metals bond together. This type of atomic
bonding occurs when atoms share electrons. As opposed to ionic bonding in which a complete
transfer of electrons occurs, covalent bonding occurs when two (or more) elements share
electrons. Covalent bonding occurs because the atoms in the compound have a similar tendency
for electrons (generally to gain electrons). Because both of the non-metals will want to gain
electrons, the elements involved will share electrons in an effort to fill their valence shells.
A good example of a covalent bond is that which occurs between two hydrogen atoms. Atoms of
hydrogen (H) have one valence electron in their first electron shell. Since the capacity of this shell
is two electrons, each hydrogen atom will 'want' to pick up a second electron. In an effort to pick up
a second electron, hydrogen atoms will react with nearby hydrogen (H) atoms to form the
compound H2. Because the hydrogen compound is a combination of equally matched atoms, the
atoms will share each others single electron, forming one covalent bond. In this way, both atoms
share the stability of a full valence shell.
There are two types of covalent bond the polar and the non-polar bond. A good example of a non-
polar bond is the hydrogen atom. Because both atoms in the bond are the same with similar
electrical properties there is no preference for the electron to be close to either of the atoms. In
reality whenever two atoms of the same type form a covalent bond the bond is non-polar.
A good example of a non-polar covalent bond is water . This molecule has one large oxygen atom
bonded to two small hydrogen atoms. The oxygen atom shares two valency electrons and each
hydrogen atom shares one. The oxygen atom is a much larger atom than hydrogen atom and has a
larger number of electrons. The oxygen atom has a larger attraction for the elctrons compared to
the hydrogen atom and the participating electrons are within the influence of the oxygen atom for a
greater proportion of the time. The hydrogen atoms therefore have a tendency to be positively
charged and the oxygen atom tend to be negatively charged. This type of atom is called a dipole.
Metallic Bonds
This bond relates to metals. Metals in the solid phase consist of a crystal lattice of the metal
cations, with the valence electrons being shared among all the cations.. Because the valence
electrons are not associated with any particular atom, they are free to move under the influence of
external electrical forces, as long as they remain within the bounds of the crystal.
All metals are made up of a vast collection of ions that are held together by metallic bonds. A metal
atom has a positive nucleus with negative electrons outside of it. In a solid, each atom loses the
outermost electron, which takes part in bonding. They form a lattice of regularly spaced positive
ions. Each cation has no control over its bonding electron.
The positive metal cations are attracted to the negatively charged delocalised electrons. The
negative electrons are in turn attracted towards the positive metal cations. It is these attractions
that hold the structure together forming metallic bonds.
Van der Waals bond

Chemical Bonds
This type of bond the result of an intermolecular attractions. Thses attractions are between
molecules and a neighbouring molecules. The dipole molecules in liquid water are attracted to
each other by electrostatic forces, and these forces have been described as van der Waals forces.
Even though the water molecule as a whole is electrically neutral, there is a dipole moment across
the molecule (see above) this is a minute separation of the positive and negative charge centers.
This results in a net attraction between such polar molecules which causes some attraction
between water molecules and contributes to viscosity and surface tension. It is accepted that the
van der Waals forces holds water in the liquid state until thermal agitation becomes violent enough
to break those van der Waal bonds at 100°C. With cooling, residual electrostatic forces between
molecules cause most substances to liquify and eventually solidify.
Nonpolar molecules also experience weak van der Waals bondng because they can be polarised
and experience fluctuating dipole moments which result in net atractions between molecules over
time.
Links relevant to Chemical Bonds..
1. Hyperphysics- Chemical Bonds....Very clear presentation covering chemical bonds

2. Vision Learning module- Chemical Bonding ... Good chemistry reference site - Split into modules
3. Chemical Bonding lecture notes... By Clive Buckley - A informative set of lecture notes.
4. Chemical Bonding... Notes and audio Link (which doesn't work for me
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Chemistry Lewis Dot structure
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Lewis dot structures
Lewis dot Structure
The structure of carbon and its compound can be expressed using the Lewis-dot structure This system
identifies how the atoms that compose a molecule of a specific compound are attached (bonded) to one
another and (to some extent) oriented in space. An atom is indicated by its symbol with a number of dots
representing the number of valency electrons e.g Hydrogen would be H with a single dot, Carbon would be a
C with four dots. When two valency electrons are paired they are represent by two adjacent dots. Paired
valency electrons are not normally available for forming bonds with other atoms.
Lewis diagrams are useful for visualizing both ionic and covalent bonds
Outline rules for Lewis dot Structure
1. Determine whether the compound is covalent or ionic. Bonds If covalent, treat the entire molecule. If
ionic, treat each ion separately. Compounds of low electronegativity metals with high electronegativity (i.e
With difference in electonegativity Values greater than 1,6 ) nonmetals are ionic as are compounds of metals
with polyatomic anions. For a monoatomic ion, the electronic configuration of the ion represents the correct
Lewis structure. For compounds containing complex ions, it is necessary to recognise the formulas of
cations and anions. Ions and Cations
2. Determine the total number of valence electrons available to the molecule by examining the formula.
If there is a negative charge add one electron to the total for every negative charge.
If there is a positive charge indicated on the molecular formula subtract one electron for every positive
charge indicated.
Then divide the total number of available electrons by 2 to obtain the number of electron pairs (E.P.)
available.
3. Organize the atoms so there is a central atom by (outer) atoms.The central atom usually has two or more
valancy electrons. Hydrogen is never the central atom as it only has one valency electron.
4. Arrange the central atoms and the other atoms distributed as symmetrical as possible around the central
atoms and determine a provisional electron distribution by arranging the electron pairs (E.P.) in the following
manner until all available pairs have been distributed:
i) One pair between the central atom and outer atom.
ii) Three additional pairs on each outer atom (except hydrogen, which has no additional pairs). This results
in 4 E.P. (i.e., an octet) around each outer atom when the bonding pair is included in the count.
iii) Remaining electron pairs (if any) on the central atom.
5) Using the valence electrons available from step 2, connect all the atoms together in one structure using
bonding pairs symbolized by a dash for each bonding pair and double dots for each electron pair
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6. Calculate the formal charge (F) on the central atom.
a) Count the electrons shared as bonds. Total = b

b) Count the electrons owned as lone pairs. Total = n
c) F = V - (n + b/2), where V = number of valence electrons for the atom.
7. If the central atom formal charge is zero or is equal to the charge on the Formula, the provisional electron
distribution from (4) is correct. Calculate the formal charge of the outer atoms to complete the Lewis
structure.
8. If the structure is not correct, calculate the formal charge on each of the outer atoms. Then to obtain the
correct structure, form a multiple bond by sharing an electron pair from the outer atom that has the most
negative formal charge.
a) For a central atom from the second (n = 2) row of the periodic table continue this process sequentially
until the central atom has 4 E.P. (an octet).
b) For all other elements, continue this process sequentially until the formal charge on the central atom is
reduced to zero or two double bonds are formed.
9. Recalculate the formal charge of each atom to complete the Lewis structure.
Typical Lewis dot Structures
1) Elements...
The notes below relate to the arrangement of elements in the periodic table Periodic Table...
All elements in Group 1 (alkali metals)represented by their elemental symbol with one dot.
All elements in Group 2 called the alkali earth metals would have their electron dot structure represented by
their respective elemental symbol with two dots.
Group 13 Beginning with Boron would have three dots all separated, unpaired, and considered bonding
electrons.
Group 14 Topped by Carbon would have four dots representing four valence electrons all unpaired.
Group 15 Starting with Nitrogen would have five dots two of which would be clustered together as a pair.
Group 16 Beginning with Oxygen would have six valence electron consisting of two pairs of dots and two
dots unpaired.
Group 17 beginning with Fluorine would have seven valence electrons consisting of three pairs of dots and
one single dot.
Group 18 are the Inert Gas or better known as the Noble Gases is group 18. They would have eight
electrons consisting of four pairs of dots.

2) Compounds

1. Lewis dot structure tutorial....Extremely simple to follow tutorial

2. Flowchart for lewis structures... Covering most aspects
3. Lewis dot structures... A clear staged example
4. Lewis dot structures... Lewis Dot Structures, Formal Charge, Resonance Forms & Arrows
5. Lewis Dot Structures... A more detailed set of Notes
6. Rules for Lewis Dot Structures... Precise set of rules...
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Chemistry Ions and Cations
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Ions and Cations
Introduction
Ions are divided into two groups; cations and anions. Cations have a positive charge. Typical
cations include sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca++ = Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg++ = Mg2+ ). Anions
have a negative charge. Typical anions include chloride (Cl-), sulfates (SO4 -- = SO42-), and
bicarbonates (HCO3-).
Table of some Monatomic Cations and Anions..
Cations Anion
Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol Name
mercury(I)
H+ hydrogen ion Hg22+ H- hydride
mercurous
mercury(II)
Li+ lithium ion Hg2+ F- fluoride
mercuric
iron(II)
Na+ sodium ion Fe2+ Cl- chloride
ferrous
potassium iron(III)
K+ Fe3+ Br- bromide
ion ferric
lead(II)
Rb+ rubidium ion Pb2+ I- iodide
plumbous
beryllium
Cs+ cesium ion Be2+ O 2- oxide
ion
lead(IV) tin(II)
Pb4+ Sn2+ S2- sulfide
plumbic stannous
magnesium tin(IV)
Mg2+ Sn4+ Se2- selenide
ion stannic
strontium
Ca2+ calcium ion Sr2+ Te2- telluride
ion
cobalt(II) cobalt(III)
Co2+ Co3+ * *
cobaltous cobaltic
chromium
Ba2+ barium ion Cr2+ (II) * *
chromous
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chromium
Ag+ silver ion Cr3+ (III) N3- nitride
chromic
aluminum
Ra2+ radium ion Al3+ * *
ion
gold(I)
Ni2+ nickel ion Au+ P3- phosphide
aurous
gold(III)
Zn2+ zinc ion Au3+ As3- arsenide
auric
copper(I) copper(II)
Cu+ Cu2+ * *
cuprous cupric
Table of some Polyatomic Anions..
Anions
Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol Name
NO3- nitrate ClO4- perchlorate SO42- sulfate
NO2- ClO3- HSO4- hydrogen

nitrite chlorate
sulfate
CrO42- chromate ClO2- chlorite SO32- sulfite
Cr2O72- dichromate hydrogen

ClO- hypochlorite HSO3-
sulfite
CN- cyanide IO4- periodate C2O42- oxalate
HC2O4 hydrogen
MnO4- permanganate IO3- iodate
- oxalate
OH- hydroxide IO- hypoiodite PO43- phosphate
O22- peroxide BrO3- bromate HPO42- hydrogen

phosphate
NH2- amide BrO- hypobromite PO33- phosphite
CO32- carbonate HCO3- hydrogen H2PO4- dihydrogen

carbonate phosphate
1. List of anions and cations.... Arkansas State U'y Student look-up information
2. Table of common anions and cations... Useful table -site also include lots more chemical tables
3. Chemical Nomenclature - Ions and Cations... A download pdf tutorial- Excellent reference material

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Chemistry Reactions
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Chemical Reactions
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Reactions
Chemical reactions are the heart of chemistry. A chemical reaction is when one or more
substances are changing into other substances. Chemical reactions are evidenced by the
disappearance of characteristics of the starting substances and the appearance of new properties
that identify the products;
Typical chemical reactions include burning, decay, fermentation, corrosion of steel and digestion of
food.
The law of conservation of mass states there is no loss of mass in the reaction process.
Reaction Equations
Reactions are identified in chemistry using simple equations. An example reaction equation, of iron
reacting with oxygen in the corrosion process, is provided below;
The reactants are shown on the left of the equation and the products are shown on the right. The
number of atoms of each element will therefore be the same on both sides of the equation.
It is important first to define the components of a reaction. It is also necessary to understand that
several competing reactions may take place in a given system, and their relative velocities (rates)
will generally influence the composition of the products.
Energy changes during reactions

A reaction can be exothermic (exoergic) or endothermic (endoergic) or for very rare cases athermic
(aergic).
Exothermic reactions give out energy, usually as heat. The combustion reactions such as gas or
wood burning, are examples of exothermic reactions. Endothermic reactions take in energy from
the surroundings. Reactions that need a continuous supply of heat or electrical energy, such as
thermal decomposition reactions and electrolysis, are endothermic reactions. Athermic reactions
involve no exchange of energy
During the course of a reaction, chemical bonds are broken and new bonds formed. The process
of making bonds releases energy and the process of breaking bonds requires energy input.
A reaction process where more energy is evolved in bond making than is absorbed in the bond
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Chemistry Reactions
breaking is exothermic. Conversely a reaction where more energy is absorbed in the bond breaking
than is evolved in the bond breaking is endothermic. The majority of spontaneous reactions are
exothermic
In the process of the reaction the reactants become activated as they gain energy and it is only
when they reach a minimum activation energy (Ea) that the products are formed..
This activation energy value is a barrier to be overcome before the successful compeletion of the
reaction to the product stage. The figures below show the energy levels throughout a typical
reaction process. Ea1 represents the activation energy of the forward direction and Ea2 is the
activation energy of the reverse process..
Basic Types of Reactions

There are four basic types of reactions
● Substitution- involves the direct displacement of an atom(group) by another atom (group)

● Addition- An unsaturated compound combines with another compound to produce one product
● Elimination-Involves removal of atoms or groups of atoms from adjacent atoms to form multiple bonds or increase the degree of
unsaturation in an existing unsaturated bond
● Rearrangement-This is the migration of an atom or group of atoms from one site on the main molecular skeleton to another site
Types of Reactions
The main types of reactions are:..
● Oxidation -Reduction
● Acid Base
● Acid - Metal Oxide
● Acid - Metal
● Acid - Carbonate
● Esterification
● Hydrolysis
● Hydrogeneration

Chemistry Reactions
Oxidation- Reduction
This is typically a reaction where one chemical is oxidised and another is reduced i.e one chemical
gains oxygen and the other loses oxygen. This definition has developed into a more general view
of the process in which oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction as the gain of electrons. Ref.
Oxidation - Reduction
Acid Base
A reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water as the only products. A typical Acid-
Base reaction is that between reactants Sulphuric acid and potassium hydroxide resulting in
products potassium sulphate and water i.e.
H2SO4 + 2KOH --> K2SO4 + 2H2O
More notes are found on webpage Acid and Bases
Acid - Metal Oxide
A reaction between an acid and a metal oxide forms a salt and water as the only products.
Acid - Metal
A reaction between an acid and a metal, forming a metal salt and hydrogen as the only products.
Acid - Carbonate
A reaction between an acid and a carbonate forming a salt, carbon dioxide and water as the only
products.
Esterification
A reaction forming an ester. Usually this is a reaction between an organic acid and and an alcohol
forming an ester and water as the only products. Ref Organic Esters
Hydrolysis

Chemistry Reactions
A reaction where reactants water and a larger molecule are split into two smaller product molecules,
one of which has the hydrogen from the water and the other has the OH group from the water.
Just having water present as the solvent does NOT make a reaction hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is
actually a special type of substitution reaction.
Hydrogeneration
A reaction where hydrogen is added across a double bond or even a triple bond. Example
Ethene and hydrogen --> ethane
CH2=CH2 + H2 ---> CH3CH3
Relevant links..
1. Reaction Types... Useful Notes

2. Six Types of Reaction... Defining the six Principle types of reaction
3. Reactions... Notes on Chemical Reactions
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Chemistry Index

Physics Light

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Light
Light
Light waves , radio waves and X-Rays, and gamma rays are all types of electromagntic
waves.
The velocity of light in a vacuum (c) = 3.00 x 10 8 m/s. The velocity of all magnetic waves
are the same in a vacuum.
The brightness of a light source is called its luminous intensity (I )and the unit of
brightness is the candela. The candela is defined as the light emitted by a blackbody at
the freezing temperature of platinum, (1773oC). The intensity of a light source is often
called its candlepower.
The amount of light that falls on a given surface is called luminous flux (F) . This has a
unit of the lumen (lm). One lumen is equal to the luminous flux which falls on each m2 of
a sphere of 1m radius when a 1 cd isotropic light source is at the centre of the sphere.
The area of a sphere is 4 . π . r2
For a light source emitting light equally in all directions (isotropic) ..
Luminous Flux = 4 . π luminous intensity.

F = 4. π. I
Note :
The angle θ in radians is the length of the circle arc divided by the radius.
The solid angle Ω in steradians is the area of the surface of the sphere divided by the
radius2
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Physics Light
The flux of a 1 cd source results in a luminous intensity of 1 lumen/ steradian. The

definition of liminous flux is ;-
Luminous Flux = F = I . Ω
The illumination (E) of a surface is the liminous flux per unit area that reaches the
surface. The unit of illumination is the lux (lx).
Illumination E (lx) = F (lm) /A (m2)
Reflection of Light
When a beam of light is reflected from a reflective plane surface the angle of reflection
equals the angle of incidence. The image has the same shape and size as the object but
with left and right reversed. The image is perceived to be the same distance behind the
mirror as the object is in front.
Refraction of Light
The velocity of life is different in different mediums. When a beam of light passes from
one medium to another at an angle its direction changes. The greater the differences in
the velocity of light in the different mediums the greater is the angle.
The index of refraction of a transparent medium is the ratio between the velocity of light in
free space (c) and the velocity of light in the medium (v)
Index of refraction = n = c/v
Snells Law = Sin i/Sin r = v1 / v2 = n2 / n1
● i = angle of incidence
● r = angle of refraction
● v1 = velocity of light in first medium
● v2 = velocity of light in second medium

Physics Light
● n1 = index of refraction of first medium

● n2 = index of refraction of second medium
The index of refraction varies with the frequency of light. White light comprises a number
of primary colours all of which have a different frequency. If light passes through a glass
object with parellel sides the light will bend as it enter one side of the and bend back on
leaving the object. If it passes through and object which does not have parallel sides e.g
a prism ,the light is effectively split into its primary colours.
If light is passes from a medium of high refractive index to one of low refractive index e.g
glass to air, there is an angle of incidence above which the angle of refraction is above
90o. Above this angle (critical angle) the light is reflected back into the into the original
medium. This principle is used in the design of prisms used to bend light..

Physics Light
Sites Physics -Light
1. Optical Research
Associates ....A
compilation of
useful Physics
documents
2. GCSE Physics -
Waves....Lots of
very pretty and
informative tutorials
3. Micro_Magnet ....
Lens Java Tutorial.
4. Optical Research
Associates ....A
compilation of
useful Physics
documents
5. U of Calgary Optics
Lecture notes....A
very informative
document
download on light
and optics
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Physics - Nuclear _Atomic

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Mirrors - Lenses
Mirrors & Lenses
Spherical Mirrors
Spherical Mirrors can be either Concave or Convex.
The focal length (f) is the distance from the mirror face to the focal point (F) where the
reflected rays or parallel light meet. For a spherical mirror with a surface radius R.
Concave mirror f = + R/2

Concave mirror f = - R/2
Note: for the convex mirror the focal point is a virtual point located behind the surface of the mirror.
Mirror Equation
For an object located a distance p from a mirror the image is located at a distance q from
the mirror surface as difined below:
1/p+1/q=1/f
Therefore :
p = q.f / ( q - f ) and q = p.f / ( p-f ) and f = p.q / ( p + q )
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Magnification
The linear magnification ( m ) of any optical system is the ratio between the size (height or
width or other transverse dimension ) of image and the associated size of the relevant
object. In the case of a mirror
m = h' / h = - q / p
The magnification = Image Height/ Object Height = image distance / object distance.
A positive magnification indicates a image in the same direction as the object. A

negative image indicates a inverted image...
Lenses
These notes related only to simple thin lenses with neglible glass thickness...
A lens is defined by the two surface radii ( R1 & R2 ) and its focal length(f) for a convex
lens the focal point (F) is a virtual focal point..
The equation is used to calculate the focal length
1 / f = ( n - 1 ) . ( 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 )
n = the index of refraction of the lens material relative to the surrounding medium.
R1 and R2 are positive for convex lens and negative for concave lens
The lens equation
The object distance, the image distance and the focal length of a lens are related by the
following formula.
1 / f = 1 /p + 1 / q

Therefore
p = q.f / (q -f) and q = p . f / ( p - f ) and f = p . q. / ( p + q )
Magnification... The same as for mirrors as indicated above
.. The linear magnification ( m ) of any optical system is the ratio between the size (height
or width or other transverse dimension ) of image and the associated size of the relevant
object. In the case of a mirror
m = h' / h = - q / p
The magnification = Image Height/ Object Height = image distance / object distance.
A positive magnification indicates a image in the same direction as the object. A

negative image indicates a inverted image...
Sites & Links for physics

of lens and mirrors
1. Thin Lens ....A

Java applet site
demonstrating
lens optics
2. GCSE Physics -
Waves....Lots of
very pretty and
informative
tutorials
3. U of Calgary
Optics Lecture
notes....A very
informative
document
download on
light and optics
4. Physics Lab....
An easy to use
applet site
demonstrating
mirror and lens
Optics
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Physics - Sound

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Sound
Note: This page does not relate to electromagnetic (Radio waves) which can transfer
energy in a vacuum..
Waves
Waves in the context of this page are waves which propagate through a medium (solid,
liquid, or gas) at a wave speed which depends on the elastic and inertial properties of that
medium. There are two basic types of wave motion : longitudinal waves and transverse
waves . In a longitudonal wave the medium motion is parallel to the direction of wave
propagation In a transverse wave the medium movement is perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.
Examples of periodic wave motions are
● A long rope, string or pipe shakes at one end results in traverse waves to move to the other end
● Waves in the sea is a combination of longtitudonal and transverse waves.
● Sound waves are essentially waves
Waves generally have a number of properties.
1. Period (T) is the time for a wave to complete one cycle

2. Frequency (f) is the number of cycles per unit time : f = 1 /T
3. Amplitude (A) The maximum value of the periodic wave on either side of the equilibrium position
4. Crest of a wave is the highest value of the wave above its equilibrium point.
5. Trough of a wave is the lowest value of the wave below its equilibrium point.
6. Wavelength γ The distance between adjacent crests or troughs
7. Intensity (I) The rate of which the wave conveys energy
Sound
Sound waves are longitudonal waves which travel in solid liquids and gases. The transfer
of energy is by the cyclic compression and expansion of the medium at the source. The
velocity of sound in different mediums is listed below;
Velocities of sound (approximate) in various mediums at 0o C
1. Velocity of Sound in dry air = 331.4 + 0,6.t m/s .....t= Temperature (Celsius)
2. Velocity of Sound in water = 1,540 m/s
3. Velocity of Sound in Pine Timber = 3,340 m/s
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Physics - Sound
4. Velocity of Sound in Brick = 3660 m /s

5. Velocity of Sound in Steel = 5400 m /s
The loudness of sound is a perception of the comparative strength of the sensation

received by the human ear. The useful measurement of sound is simple as sound is is
largely a biological effect depending on the human ear. Sound mostly depends on the
energy transferred to the human ear. The amount of energy in ergs which passes in one
second through an area of 1 cm2 is a measure of the intensity of sound
The loudness of sound varies as the square of the amplitude and inversely as the square
of the distance from the source. This does not apply in an enclosed space or if the sound
source is large compared to the distance of the listener . The ear perceives sound on a
logarithmic level and is attuned to a small range of sound frequencies.
Sound level measurements in decibels are generally referenced to an accepted standard

threshold of hearing at 1000 Hz for the human ear which can be stated in terms of sound
intensity:
Threshold Level for human hearing Io = 10 -16 Watts / cm2 = 10 -9 ergs / s / cm2
The most accepted method of measuring relative sound level is by the use of the decibel
scale.
I (dB) = 10 . log 10. (I / Io )
At the threshold level defined above the dB value is 0.

A sound energy level increase of 10 result is a db value of 10.
A sound energy level increas of 100 results in a dB value of 20
Sound
Common sound Effect
Level dB
Rocket launching
Irreversible
pad (no ear 180
hearing loss
protection)
Carrier deck jet
Painfully loud
operation
Air raid siren 130 Painfully loud
Thunderclap
Jet takeoff (200 ft) 120
Extremely
Auto horn (3 ft)
Loud
Rock concert

Physics - Sound
Fireworks 100 Very Loud

Heavy Lorry (50 ft) 90
City traffic
Hearing damage (8
Hrs)
Alarm clock (2 ft)
Hair dryer 80 Annoying
Road traffic 70
Business office Intrusive
Air conditioning unit 60
Conversational
50 Quiet
speech
Light auto traffic
(100 ft)
Quiet
Living room 50
Bedroom 40
Quiet office
Library 30 Very quiet
Soft whisper (15 ft) 20
Broadcasting studio
10 Just Audible
0 Hearing begins
Phons
The sound level measured in decibels does not take into accound the effect of sound
frequency or pitch which in practice has a important effect on the perceived sound level.
A method of measuring the relativ sound level at a fixed frequency (1000 HZ) result in a
more representative value. The use of phons as a measurement unit relates to the
relative sound level in dB at 1000HZ. e.g 70 phons = 70 dB at 1000 Hz.
Sones
The use of the phon as a unit of loudness is an improvement over just quoting the level in
decibels, but it is still not a measurement which is directly proportional to loudness as
heard by the human ear. Using the rule of thumb for loudness, the sone scale was
created to provide such a linear scale of loudness.
The table below provides equivalent phon and sone values
Phons 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 130

Sones 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256

Physics - Sound
Standard for Sound Level Measurement
ISO 226:2003. Acoustics -- Normal equal-loudness-level contours .....

This International Standard specifies combinations of sound pressure levels and
frequencies of pure continuous tones which are perceived as equally loud by human
listeners. The specifications are based on the following conditions: the sound field in the
absence of the listener consists of a free progressive plane wave; the source of sound is
directly in front of the listener; the sound signals are pure tones; the sound pressure level
is measured at the position where the centre of the listener's head would be, but in the
absence of the listener; listening is binaural; the listeners are otologically normal persons
in the age range from 18 years to 25 years inclusive.
Sites & Links For Physics

Waves - Sound
site with lots of
scientific
information in
simple laymans
language.
2. GCSE Physics -
Waves....Lots of
very pretty and
informative
tutorials
3. Sound Intensity .
com....A specialist
site with some
information
4. Pressure
Amplitude
quantitative
measure of
Sound....Lecture
notes a
elementary level
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Physics - Atomic

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Notes on Atomic Physics
Additional Notes on atoms, Molecules, crystals etc

A crude periodic table + table showing atomic propeties of elements
Atomic Physics
BOHR Atom
The hydrogen atom was initially viewed as an electron orbiting a proton. However based
on electomagnetic theory this model is not practical because the atom would have an
extremely short life. Bohr proposed a model of a hydrogen atom in which the electron has
a number of stable orbits with set angular momentum in multiples of h / (2.π ). i.e.
electrons can only occupy orbits with angular momentum of n. h / (2.π )....
h = plank constant and n = 1, 2, 3.... i.e the quantum number of the orbit.
If r1 is the smallest radius ( 5.3 x 10 -11 m ) and n = the quantum number of the orbit the
orbit radius =
rn=n2r1 n = 1, 2, 3...
Energy Levels
Note : 1 eV (Electronvolt = 1,6 x 10-19 Joules
The total energy of a hydrogen atom whose electron is in the nth orbit
En=E1/n2 n = 1, 2, 3... .... ( E 1 = -13.6 eV = -2.18 x 10-18 J.)
These permitted energies of an atom are called energy levels. The energy levels are all
negative and as a result the electron does not have enough energy to escape from the
atom. As n increases En approaches 0 , at this level the electron is no longer bound to
the proton and the atom ceases to exist. The work input to remove an electron from an
atom in its ground state is called the ionization energy; for hydrogen the ionization energy
is 13.6 eV.
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Physics - Atomic
Atomic Spectra
When a gas or vapor is excited by the passage of an electric current, light is given off is
certain specific wavelengths. Each element has characteristic emmission line spectrum.
The wavelengths in this spectrum fall into fixed series with member wavelengths related
by simple formula.
When white light is shone through a cool gas or vapor, light of specific wavelengths is
absorbed. The resulting absorption spectrum correspond to a number of the wavelengths
in the emmission spectrum of the element.
Line spectra result from the change in energy levels in the atom. An atom in an excited
state can only remain in this state for a very short time before dropping to a lower state.
The difference in energy appears as a photon of frequency f.
E initial - Efinal = h . f
Quantum Theory of The Atom

In the Bohr model of the atom one quantum number is needed, in the quantum theory
four quantum numbers are used. This theory works for atoms with numerous electrons
as well as for the hydrogen atom. The quantum numbers are identified below
Assign
Possible Letter
Name Symbol Quantity
Values (total
incl'd)
K,L,M,
Principal n 1,2,3,... Electron energy
N,O,P
0,1,2,....
Orbital l Magnitude of angular Momentum
n-1
-
s,p,d,f,
Magnetic m l 1...,0,..., Direction of angular momentum
g,h
+1
Spin ms -1/2,
Direction of electron spin
magnetic +1/2
The energy levels possible are mainly determined by n and only to a low extent by l and
m l. For the hydrogen atom the energy levels are the same as for the Bohr atom. Every
electron behaves as though it is a spinning charge sphere. The amount of spin is fixed
but there are two possible directions that the angular momentum vector can point in the
magnetic field : "up" (ms= + 1 / 2) and "down" (ms= - 1 / 2).

Physics - Atomic
Calculation of the maximum number of electrons in the M (n = 3) shell of an atom

if n = 3 then l = 0, 1, 2
ms = +1/2 &
s level l = 0 m i = 0 2 electrons
- 1/2
ms = +1/2 &
m i = -1
- 1/2
ms = +1/2 &
p level l = 1 m l = 0 6 electrons
- 1/2
ms = +1/2 &
ml=1
- 1/2
ms = +1/2 &
m i = -2
- 1/2
ms = +1/2 &
m l = -1
- 1/2
ms = +1/2 & 10
d level l = 2 m l = 0
- 1/2 electrons
ms = +1/2 &
m l = +1
- 1/2
ms = +1/2 &
m l = +2
- 1/2
The maximum number of electrons in the M (n= 2)shell are 18
Sites & Links For Atomic

Physics
site with lots of
scientific
information in
simple laymans
language. ;...
2. NIST Atomic
Spectoscopy ....
Detailed notes on
atomic physics
3. Atomic Physics
Brief Notes....Joint
Center for
Astrophysics.
Notes on atomic

Physics - Atomic
physic requires
previous
knowledge
4. Atomic Physics ....
University of
Winnipeg Lecture
Notes -
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Physics - Nuclear

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Nuclear Physics
Atom Nucleus
The classical atom comprises Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons. The atom has a
number of protons and neutrons bonded using nuclear forces in the central nucleus. The
atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of its atoms. The
atomic number defines its chemical properties.
An element always has the same number of protons but can have a different number of
neutrons. The atomic weight of an element is the sum of the weight of the protons and
the neutrons. The different atomic weights of an element (resulting from having different
numbers of neutrons ) are called the isotopes of the element.
The masses of atoms and molecules are measured with atomic mass units (u)
One atomic unit = 1 u = 1.660 x 10 -27 kg .... This is exactly the same as 1/12 the mass of
a stable carbon atom.
The mass of a proton mp = 1.673 x 10 -27 kg = 1.007277 u

The mass of a neutron mn = 1.675 x 10 -27 kg = 1.008665 u
Binding Energy
The mass of an atom is always less than the sum of the masses of the neutrons, protons
and electrons. It has a mess defect.. The energy equivalent of the missing mass called
the binding energy the higher the binding energy the more stable the atom. The binding
energy is effectively the energy released when an atom is formed from its elemental
particles. The mass defect of a nucleus with Z atoms and N neutrons is calculated from
its atomic mass m as follows
∆m = Z . mH + N . mn - m
mH = the mass of the Hydrogen atom = 1.07825 u
To calculate the energy in Mega-electronvolt ∆m is multiplied by 931 MeV/u.

.
Nuclear Reactions
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Physics - Nuclear
Nuclear reactions include nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Nuclei of intermediate size
have the highest associated binding energy. These are therefore more stable than
materials having lighter and heavier nucleus. To create an atoms of a stable atom with a
high binding energy levels from lighter atoms (Fusion) or heavier atoms (Fission) results
in the release of energy.
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission occurs by making the nucleus unstable by causing the nucleus of a heavy
atom to absorb an additional neutron. Following the absorbtion of the neutron the excited
nucleus splits into two almost equal parts. The fission products include a range of
elements of mass number 72 to 160. . The fission reaction also results in the release of
two or three neutrons and a significant quantity of energy.
The engineering of nuclear fission reactors is concerned with achieving the conditions to
cause the creation of suitable neutrons and the conditions to enable them to be absorbed.
There is then the requirements to control the resulting released neutrons to enable them
to be safely used to create further fissions in a sustainable manner.
Nuclear Fusion
In the fusion process the fusion of two nuclei to form to form a single heavier nuclei
results in a more stable system with the release of energy. At typical fusion reaction is
D + D -> He3 + n + 3.25 MeV
● D = Deuterium a hydrogen isotope with an additional neutron

● He3 = A helium isotope with only one neutron
To achieve fusion the high atomic repulsion forces must be overcome before the
components can be brought sufficiently close to allow the reactions to take place. Very
high temperatures have to be achieve ( as in a Hydrogen Bomb). The fusion process
has been confirmed theoretically but it has not yet been possible to achieve the
conditions such that there is a net gain in the energy obtained by the process.
Nuclear Decay
When nuclei are unstable they undergo radioactive decay in more stable nuclei. Five
types of decay are identified below with the resultant external effect.
Gamma Electron Positron
Type of Decay Alpha Decay Beta Decay
Decay Capture Capture

Physics - Nuclear
Emmission of Emmsion of Capture of Emmission of

Emmission of
gamma ray electron by electron by Positron by a
alpha particle
Decay Event reduces proton proton proton
reduces size
energy of changes it to changes it to changes it to
of nucleus.
nucleus a neutron a neutron a neutron
Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic
Daughter Reduction in
Number Number Number Number
Product energy level
change change change change
Nucleus has
too many Nucleus has Nucleus has
Reason for Nucleus has Nucleus is
neutrons too many too many
instability excess energy too large
relative to protons protons
protons
A positron is a positive electron and an alpha particle is the nucleus of a helium atom.
Radiation
Alpha Radiation
The Alpha particle is an electrically charged ( + ) particle emitted from the nucleus of
some radioactive chemicals. It contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons, and is the largest of
the atomic particles emitted by radioactive chemicals. Alpha Radiation is the least
penetrating of all ionizing radiation and can be shielded by a few inches of air, pentrating
power can be stopped by a piece of paper or the outer layer of skin. Alpha radiation can
cause ionization.
Beta radiation
Electrically charged ( - ) particles emitted from some radioactive chemicals. It has the
mass of an electron. The Beta radiaton can be shielded by several inches of plastic, thin
plywood and sheet metal. Can penetrate up to 1/4 in. into the tissue Beta particles can
cause ionization.
Gamma ray short wave-length electromagnetic radiation

Gamma rays are released by some nuclear transformations ref above table. It is similar
to X-ray and will penetrate through the human body. Both gamma and X-rays cause
ionisation. The effect of gamma rays can be reduced to permissible levels by shielding
with lead, steel, or thick concrete. Gamma radiation is strong enough to penetrate into
the human body. Gamma N X-rays cause ionization.
Neutron
High energy neutrons can penetrate thick lead shields. Neutrons can collide with atoms
causing theme to eject electrons. High density materials containing high levels of
hydrogen atoms are necessary to stop neutron particles. This radiation can penetrate
through the human body

Physics - Nuclear
Measurement of Radiation /Dose
Note: The International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements propose the
use of the rad in favor of the gray (Gy), a unit 100 times larger. Similarly, the rem is to be
replaced by the sievert (Sv), again so that 100 rem = 1 Sv.
Rad (rad) - Common Unit::

The rad represents a certain dose of energy absorbed by 1 gram of tissue. It is a unit of
concentration. So if we could uniformly expose the entire body to radiation, the number
of rads received would be the same whether we were speaking of a single cell, an organ
or the entire body.
Rem (rem)- Common Unit::

Some forms of radiation are more efficient than others transferring their energy to the cell.
To have a level playing field, it is convenient to multiply the dose in rads by a quality
factor (Q) for each type of radiation. The resulting unit is the rem ("roentgen-equivalent
man"). Thus, rem = rad x Q. X rays and gamma rays have a Q about 1, so the absorbed
dose in rads is the same number in rems. Neutrons have a Q of about 5 and alpha
particles have a Q of about 20. An absorbed dose of, say, 1 rad of these is equivalent to
5 rem and 20 rem respectively.
Becquerel (Bq)-SI unit:

The unit of radioactivity. One Bq is 1 disintegration per second (dps). One curie is 37 x
10 9 Bq. Since the Bq represents such a small amount, you are likely to see a prefix
used with Bq e.g. 37 GBq = 1 curie.
Curie:(Ci)- Common unit

A measure of the activity of the radioactive material. (One Curie is equivalent of 3.7 x 10
10 disintegrations per second).
Roentgen (R)- Common Unit:

A special unit used for measuring exposure to radiation. (2.58 x 10-4 coulomb per
kilogram of air)
Gray (Gy)- Si Unit:

A quantity of energy imparted by ionizing radiation to a unit mass of matter. A gray
(abbreviated as Gy) is the amount of energy deposited in tissues; technically, 1 joule of
energy per kilogram of tissue
Sievert (Sv)-SI Unit:

A unit of radiation dose that is used for radiation protection purposes. When an individual
is exposed to mixed sources of radiation, the total biologically effective dose is calculated
by multiplying the physical dose (expressed in units called gray) of each kind of radiation

Physics - Nuclear
by a corresponding factor (called a quality factor or Q factor) specified for the type of
radiation and its energy, after which these amounts are added together. The factor for
gamma rays is 1; therefore, 1 Sv = 1 Gy. The factor for the neutrons in atomic-bomb
radiation is 10; therefore, 1 Sv = 0.1 Gy.
Coulomb/kilogram (C/kg):
Measure of exposure replacing the reontgen. 1 coulomb/kilogram (C/kg) = 3,880
roentgens
Half Life
A nucleus subject to radiactive decay always has a definite probability of decay during
any time interval. The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time required for half of any
initial quantity to decay.
Typical Half lives
● Pure Radium...... 1620 Years

● Carbon 14...... 5730 Years
● Cobalt 60...... 5 Years
● Uranium 238...... 4.5 billion Years
Dose Uptake Assessment

Dose Uptake Assesment
1 pCi 1 nCi 1 µCi 1 mCi 1Ci
37
37 mBq 37 Bq 37 MBq 37GBq
kBq
1
1 Bq 1kBq 1 GBq 1TBq
MBq
27
27 pCi 27 nCi 27mCi 27 Ci
µCi
p = 10 - µ= m = 10
n= 10 -9 -6 -3
k = 10 3
12 10
M = 10 6 G ) = 10 9
Dose Quantities = Dose Units

Absorbed Dose(D) = Gray (Gy)
Equivalent Dose
= Sievert (Sv)
(Ht)

Physics - Nuclear
Effective Dose(E) = Sievert (Sv)
Radiation wR
Electrons/Photons All energies 1
Neutrons < 10keV, > 20MeV ,
5
Protons > 2MeV
Neutrons 10 - 100 keV, > 2-
10
20MeV
Neutrons 100 keV, to 2 MeV
20
alpha Particles
Tissue wT
Skin, Bone ,surface 0.01
Bladder, Breast, Liver,
0.05
Oeseophagus, thyroid,remainder
Red bone marrow, colon,lung,
0.12
stomach
Gonads 0.2
Sites & Links For Nuclear

Physics
site with lots of
scientific
information in
simple laymans
language. ;...
2. ABC's of Nuclear
Science ....
Detailed notes on
nuclear physics
3. WWW Chart of
Nuclides ....A
detailed chart of
all of every know
nuclide. What
more could you
want

Physics - Nuclear
4. GCSE Physics -
Radioactivity ....
Lots of very pretty
and informative
tutorials
5. Basics of
Radioactivity ....
University of
Michigan student
lessons- very
informative
6. Ratical ....No
Immediate
Danger..
Prognosis for a
Radioactive Earth
by Dr Rosalie
Bertell
7. Ionizing
Radiation ....
Farmingdale State
University ..Useful
Notes
8. Guidance for
Radiation
Accident
Management....
OAk Ridge
Associated
Universities ..
Useful Notes on
Radiation units etc
Home
Physics Home

Disclaimer:
The
information
on this
page has
not been
checked by
an
independent
person.
Use this
information
at your own
risk.
ROYMECH
Home
Return to Dynamics Page
Mass Moment of Inertia of Various Solids
Mass Moment of Inertia of a Solid Rod
Mass Moment of Inertia of a Solid Cylinder
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Form/Dynamics_inertia.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:50:33 AM

Mass Moment of Inertia of a Rectangular Prism
Mass Moment of Inertia of a Hollow Cylinder

Mass Moment of Inertia of a Solid Sphere
Mass Moment of Inertia of a Solid Cone

Home
Return to Dynamics Page

Periodic Table
ROYMECH
Home
Ret. to Basic Science of Materials
Periodic Table & Table of Atomic Properties of Elements
Periodic Table
The atoms have been arranged in a table called the Periodic Table.
In this table the atoms have been arranged in vertical columns based on the similar chemical properties due
to their electron configuration
Group 0 (col 18): Inert gases.. (filled electron shell, stable electron configuration )
Group VIIA(col 17): Halogens.. (one electron short of stable structure )
Group VIA (col 16): Two electrons short of stable structure
Groups 1A and IIA (cols 1 & 2): Alkali and Alkaline earth metals ( One or two electron in excess of stable
structure )
Groups IIIB to IIB (cols 3 to 12): Transition metals (partially filled d electron states, one or two electrons in
next shell )
Groups IIIA ,IVA, VA (cols 13,14,15) : Intermediate characteristics by virtue of valence electron stucture
Most metal elements are electropositive (capable of donating a few valence electrons )
Non- Metals
IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Val
Val Val Val Val Val Val
7 (- Inert
1 2 3 4 5(-3) 6(-2)
1)
1 2
H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57-71 * 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir; Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Periodic_table.html (1 of 5)10/24/2006 11:50:50 AM

Periodic Table
89-
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
103**
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
Ac**
* Lanthanine 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
* Series La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
** Actinium 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
** series Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Table of Atomic Properties of Elements
Note: The relative atomic mass A.Mass is the number of is the mass compared with carbon -12. This is not
a simple unit value based on the number of neutrons and protons because all naturally occurring elements
are composed of isotopes e.g. chlorine consists of 75% Cl-35 and 25% Cl-37 . Therefore the AW of Cl =
0.75*35+ 0.25*37 = 35.5. There are also extremely small variations due to mass to energy conversion
related to binding energy of the atomic nucleus. The values in brackets are estimates
Abrev Element A. Mass K L M N O P Q

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5g 6s 6p 6d 7s
H Hydrogen 1,008 1
He Helium 4,003 2
Li Lithium 6,939 2 1
Be Beryllium 9,012 2 2
B Boron 10,811 2 2 1
C Carbon 12,011 2 2 2
N Nitrogen 14,007 2 2 3
O Oxygen 15,999 2 2 4
F Fluorine 18,998 2 2 5
Ne Neon 20,183 2 2 6
Na Sodium 22,990 2 2 6 1
Mg Manganese 24,312 2 2 6 2
Al Aluminium 26,982 2 2 6 2 1
Si Silicon 28,086 2 2 6 2 2
P Phosphorus 30,974 2 2 6 2 3
S Suphur 32,064 2 2 6 2 4
Cl Chlorine 35,453 2 2 6 2 5
Ar Argon 39,948 2 2 6 2 6
K Potassium 39,102 2 2 6 2 6 1
Ca Calcium 40,080 2 2 6 2 6 2
Sc Scandium 44,956 2 2 6 2 6 1 2

Periodic Table
Ti Titanium 47,900 2 2 6 2 6 2 2
V Vanadium 50,942 2 2 6 2 6 3 2
Cr Chromium 51,996 2 2 6 2 6 5 1
Mn Magnesium 54,938 2 2 6 2 6 5 2
Fe Iron 55,847 2 2 6 2 6 6 2
Co Cobalt 58,933 2 2 6 2 6 7 2
Ni Nickel 58,710 2 2 6 2 6 8 2
Cu Copper 63,540 2 2 6 2 6 10 1
Zn Zinc 65,370 2 2 6 2 6 10 2
Ga Gallium 69,720 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 1
Ge Germanium 72,590 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 2
As Arsenic 74,922 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 3
Se Selenium 78,960 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 4
Br Bromine 79,909 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 5
Kr Krypton 83,800 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6
Rb Rubidium 85,470 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 1
Sr Strontium 87,620 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 2
Y Yttrium 88,905 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 1 2
Zr Zirconium 91,220 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 2 2
Nb Niobium 92,906 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 4 1
Mo Molybdenum 95,940 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 5 1
Tc Technetium 98 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 5 2
Ru Ruthenium 101,070 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 7 1
Rh Rhodium 102,904 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 8 1
Pd Palladium 106, 400 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10
Ag Silver 107,870 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 1
Cd Cadmium 112,400 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2
In Indium 114,820 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 1
Sn Tin 118,690 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 2
Sb Antimony 121,750 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 3
Te Tellurium 127,600 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 4
I Iodine 126,904 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 5
Xe Xenon 131,300 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6
Cs Caesium 132,905 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 1
Ba Barium 137,340 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 2
La Lanthanium 138,910 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 1 2
Ce Cerium 140,120 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 1 2 6 1 2
Pr Praseodymium 140,907 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 3 2 6 2
Nd Neodymium 144,240 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 4 2 6 2
Pm Promethium (145) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 5 2 6 2

Periodic Table
Sm Samarium 150,350 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 6 2 6 2
Eu Europium 151,960 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 7 2 6 2
Gd Gadolinium 157,250 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 7 2 6 1 2
Tb Terbium 158,924 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 8 2 6 1 2
Dy Dysprosium 162,500 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 10 2 6 2
Ho Holmium 164,930; 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 11 2 6 2
Er Erbium 167,260; 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 12 2 6 2
Tm Thulium 168,934 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 13 2 6 2
Yb Ytterbium 173,040; 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 2
Lu Lutetium 174,970 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 1 2
Hf Hafnium 178,490 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 2 2
Ta Tantalum 180,948 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 3 2
W Tungsten 183,850 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 4 2
Re Rhenium 186,20 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 5 2
Os Osmium 190,20 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 6 2
Ir Iridium 192,20 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 7 2
Pt Platinum 195,09 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 9 1
Au Gold 196,967 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 1
Hg Mercury 200,59 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2
Tl Thallium 204,37 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 1
Pb Lead 207,19 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 2
Bi Bismuth 208,98 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 3
Po Polonium (209) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 4
At Astatine (210) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 5
Rn Radon (222) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6
Fr Francium (223) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 1
Ra Radium (226) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 2
Ac Actinium (227) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 1 2
Th Thorium 232,038 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 2 2
Pa Proctactinium (231) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 2 6 1 2
U Uranium 238,03 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 3 2 6 1 2
Np Neptunium (237) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 4 2 6 1 2
Pu Plutonium (244) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 6 2 6 2
Am Americium (243) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 7 2 6 2
Cm Curium (247) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 7 2 6 1 2
Bk Berkelium (247) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 9 2 6 2
Cf Californium (251) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 10 2 6 2
Es Einstienium (252) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 11 2 6 2
Fm Fermium (257) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 12 2 6 2
Md Mendelevium (258) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 13 2 6 2

Periodic Table
No Nobelium (259) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 2
Lr Lawrencium (260) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 1 2
Rf Rutherfordium (261) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 2 2
Db Dubnium (262) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 3 2
Sg Seaborgium (263) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 4 2
Bh Bhorium (262) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 5 2
Hs Hassium (265) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 6 2
Mt Meitnerium (266) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 7 2
Uun Ununnilium (269) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 9 1
Uuu Ununinium (272) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 1
Uub Ununbium (277) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2
Uut no Name 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 3
Uuq Ununquadium (285) 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14; 2 6 10 4
Start
2. Periodic Table Los Alamos National Laboratory's Chemistry Division Provides this data source
Home
Ret. to Basic Science of Materials

Plastics Costs
ROYMECH
Home
Matter Index
Material Costs
Plastics Costs
Introduction
This page is includes information on the costs of different plastics used in mechanical engineering. The
costs are obtained by reference to links found on the internet (links 1,2 below). I have converted the
costs to english units although the costs are based on american costs in dollars and imperial units. The
costs are really only useful in as relative indicators. Real costs depend on country of supply and market
conditions.
The resin prices do not seem to relate directly to the cost of standard products e.g Tube, rod etc
Table showing relative costs of various plastic raw materials / resins
The table below can only really be used to give broad relative initial material costs.&
Cost. £/kg
Material
min max
ABS 1,006 1,38

ABS (transparent) 1,57 2,07
Acetal (homopol) 1,63 1,89
Acetal (20% Glass Fibre) 2,01 2,77
Acrylic 1,42 -
Acrylic (Impact) 2,36 -
Nylon 66 1,76 2,11
PTFE 5,66 11,31
PFA 22,4 31,7
PVDF 8,55 11,31
PEEK (30% Glass fibre) 41,49 -
Polythene (LDPE) 1,18 1,28
Polythene (HDPE) 1,18 1,28
Polypropylene 1,06 1,29
Poystyrene 0,92 1,13
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Costs_Plastics.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:51:07 AM

Plastics Costs
Poystyrene (Struct.Foam) 1,32 1,36

EPS 1,07 1,13
Polysulfone (30% Glass
7,0 7,07
fibre)
Poyurethane (ester type) 2,33 3,21
PVC 0,77 0,91
Silicones 7,30 8,05
Real Costs
In order to try to arrive a reasonably practical costs for plastic components I have obtained the cost of a
representative plastic stock (a rod 50mm dia x 0.3m long). This stock has an approximate volume of
0,0006m3. This size has been selected because the stockist which are conveniently accessible on the
internet, generally provide costs in dollars /foot length with diameters in inches and the above size
approximates to 2" dia x 1 foot long. I have calculated the volume and weight and used these results
together with the raw material prices above to obtain the theoretical basic material costs. These have
been tabled below against the prices obtain from the internet (link 3 below) for rod prices.
Raw
Solid
Plastic Rod Density Mat/
Bar
50mm dia x 0,3m L Resin
kg/m3 £ £
ABS 1070 0,9 23
ABS (transparent) 1070 1,3 -
Acetal (homopol) 1420 1,58 13,14
Acetal (20% Glass
1560 2,54 -
Fibre)
Acrylic (clear) 1140 0,95 9,14
Acrylic (Impact) 1140 1,59 -
PTFE 2270 15,13 21,71
PFA (PerFluoroAlkoxy) 2150 40,1 217,14
PVDF 1770 11,80 -
PEEK (30% Glass
-
fibre)
Polythene (LDPE) 920 0,69 14,86
Polythene (HDPE) 960 0,72 5,14
Polypropylene 920 0,70 10,28
Polystyrene 1080 0,72 29,71
Poystyrene (Struct.
1100 0,88 -
Foam)
Polysulfone (30%
1240 5,16 -
Glass fibre)

Plastics Costs
Poyurethane (ester
1050 1,98 28,57
type)
PVC 1390 0,74 19,43
Nylon 6 1400 1,74 34,29
Relevant Links
1. Plastics Techology ... Typical Plastics Costs Dec 2005

2. IDES ... Typical Plastics Costs Nov 2005
3. Manufacturing Advisory Service 2.0 ...A Process/Material Selection Tool includes material costs information
4. k-mac-plastics ...Supplier with costs of plastics sections
5. polymerplastics ...Supplier with costs of plastics sections
Home
Matter Index
Material Costs

Woods Costs
ROYMECH
Home
Matter Index
Material Costs
Wood Costs
Introduction
This page is includes information on the costs of different woods used in mechanical engineering. The
costs are obtained by reference to links found on the internet. I have converted the costs to english
units. The costs are really only useful in as relative indicators. Real costs depend on country of supply
and market conditions.
Table showing relative costs of various wood forms
The costs are for 4 x 4 (100mm x 100mm) x 0.3m long (0.0030 m3 ) and are based on USA costs from a
single agent (Late 2005). UK costs are probably different so the table is only useful for crude relative
values.
Wood Cost Comparisions
£ per £ per
Type 0,3m Type 0,3m
(ft) (ft)
Alder 2 Imbuia 1,42
Andiroba 3,4 Jatoba 2,69
Kingwood,
Apple Wood 2,6 13,7
Brazilian
Ash 1,89 Lacewood 3,05
Beech 1,79 Mahogany 3,71
Birch, Red Maple, Hard 2,6
Birch, White 3.85 Narra
Blackwood, Afr Oak, Red 1,86
Blackwood,
Oak, White 2,1
Tasanian
Bloodwood 2,2 Paduak 3,54
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Costs_Woods.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:51:13 AM

Woods Costs
Bocote 8,24 Pau Amerello

Boire 3,9 Poplar 1,37
Bubinga 4,11 Purpleheart 2,71
Butternut 3,69 Rosewood 22
Canarywood 3,86 Spanish Cedar 2,78
Che Chen Teak 8,37
Tulipwood,
Cherry 3,14 13,7
Brazilian
Cocobolo 8,4 Walnut 2,94
Ebony 22,2 Wenge 5,6
Goncalo Alves 2,96 Yellowheart
Hickory 1,82 Zebrawood 5,54
Holly Ziricote
Plywood/MDF etc prices
Prices are from a typical UK suppliers catalogue late 2005. Prices for comparative purposes only. The
prices are for reasonably large quantities.
For detailed prices please consult supplier..
Panel Cost/
Thickness volume Cost.m3
Material; Size Panel
mm mxm £ m3 £/m3
1,525m x
Plywood Birch 21 53.71 0.0837225 641.5241
3,050m
1,525m x
Plywood Hardwood 18 43.2 0.0976763 442.2774
3,050m
2,440 x
Plywood Marine 18 29.4 0.0535824 548.6876
1220
Plywwod Fire Retardant 3.050
18 31.51 0.066978 470.453
Class 1 x1220
2,440 x
Blockboard Commercial 18 11.84 0.0535824 220.9681
1220
Veneered MDF 2,440 x
19 34.92 0.0535824 651.7065
Mahogany 1220
2,440 x
Veneered MDF Oak 19 29.17 0.0535824 544.3952
1220

Woods Costs
Relevant Links
1. Wood Prices ... Page is a better page than mine Prices are in dollar /foot of 4 x 4(10mm x 100mm)
2. William T. Eden ... Wood Supplier with prices information
Home
Matter Index
Material Costs

Cast Iron
ROYMECH
Home
Matter Index
Iron-steel Page
Cast Irons
Introduction
Cast Irons are a family of ferrous metals with a wide range of properties produced by being cast into
shape as opposed by being formed. Cast Irons contain 2% to 4% Carbon and 1% to 3% Silicon. Other
elements are used to control specific properties. Cast irons have a wide range of mechanical properties
which make them suitable for use in engineering components. The wide spread use of cast iron is as a
result of its low cost and versatile properties.
A iron-carbon alloy containing over 2% C cooled very slowly will result in a graphite (pure carbon) and
iron crystallising out to form cast iron. In the practice at normal cooling rates the metastable cementite
Fe 3C is formed.
High carbon content metals can, under controlled conditions, solidify as stable iron-graphite systems or
metastable iron-carbide systems. Rapid cooling discourages the nucleation graphite and encourages the
formation of metastable iron carbide. Longer holding times at higher temperatures and slower cooling
and the addition of certain alloying elements encourage the formation of stable iron-graphite phase.
Cast iron contains significant amounts of silicon in addition to the high carbon content. Cast irons are
therefore really iron-carbon-silicon alloys. The presence of silicon in iron carbon alloys promotes the
formation of graphite.
The true (equilibrium /stable ) phase diagram for iron-carbon is similar to the metastable one on the
carbon steel page ( Phase diagram ) however the right hand ordinate is effectively at 100% C. The phase
diagrams for iron-carbon-silicon is similar but the eutectic/eutectoid points are moved to the left.
Cast Iron Production
Cast Iron production is relatively unsophisticated. It mostly involves remelting charges consisting of pig
iron, steel scrap, foundry scrap, and ferro-alloys to give the appropriate composition. The cupola, which
resembles a small blast furnace, is the most common melting unit. Cold pig iron and scrap are charged
from the top ontoa bed of hot coke through which air is blown. Alternatively, a metallic charge is melted
in a coreless induction furnace or in a small electric-arc furnace. The resulting types of cast iron are
described below;
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Cast_iron.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:51:23 AM

Cast Iron
Grey Cast Iron

Standard..Standard..BS EN 1561:1997 : Founding. Grey cast irons
... UTS 170-370 MPa, Elongation- 0,5-0,8%
Has ferrite and graphite (or pearlite and graphite) structure. The graphite can exist as flakes or
spheres....
Grey cast iron is the most widely used of all cast irons and engineers often simply refer to grey cast iron
as cast iron. Grey cast iron contains 2,5%-4% carbon and > 2% silicon. The silicon encourages
formation of graphite from the unstable cementite. The graphite is in the form of irregular flakes which
show up when the metal is fractured as the identifiable grey matrix. Because of the presence of graphite
cast iron is brittle unless it is specially treated.
Grey cast iron is highly dependent on the rate of cooling of the casting and of the section thickness. Thin
sections can have reasonable tensile strength which is not maintained as the section thickness is
increased. The properties of the grey cast iron is very dependent on the proportions of graphite in the
matrix. If all of the carbon has separated from the molten metal (full graphitisation) then the grey cast
iron resulting will have graphite flakes in a ferritic matrix. If however 0,5% to 0,8%of the carbon remains
in the form of Fe 3C the the resulting grey cast iron matrix will be pearlitic and the cast iron will be
stronger and harder.
Sulfur is present in cast iron and generally is is kept low . Manganese is often present and combines
with the sulfur as a precipitate. Both elements on their own restrict the formation of graphite.
The mechanical properties of grey cast iron result from the effects of chemical composition and the
cooling history. In general as the combined equivalent of carbon and silicon is reduced the strength of
the cast iron is increased. When tensile strengths above 350MPa are required, for thicker sections,
alloying additions of chromium, nickel or molybdenum are required.
Wear Resistance
Grey cast iron has outstanding resistance to sliding friction wear and has been used very successfully,
throughout the twentieth century,for sliding surfaces including cylinder bores, piston rings and slideways
on machine tools. Because of the effect of the graphite flakes grey cast iron has and excellent
resistance to galling and seizing and has a low coefficient of friction.
Machinability
Grey cast iron is one of the easiest iron alloys to machine. The ferrite-graphite cast iron is the easiest the
fine pearlite matrix cast iron is more difficult.
Damping Capacity
Grey cast irons have an excellent capacity for absorbing vibration energy and thus damping
vibrations. This property is most evidenced with a high percentage of graphite flakes.
White Cast Iron
Standard..BS EN 1562:1997: Founding. Malleable cast irons ...

UTS 600-800 MPa, Elongation 2-3%...

Cast Iron
Has a structure of pearlite in a cementite matrix making it hard, brittle and difficult if not impossible to
machine. It has limited applications in industry, it is used for wear resisting components such as
extrusion dies and cement mixer liners. Fracture surfaces have light-coloured appearance.
Malleable Cast Iron..
Standard..BS EN 1562:1997: Founding. Malleable cast irons
Heat treated forms of white CI to improve ductility while maintaining the benefits of of high tensile
strength ;
The greatest use of white cast iron is for the manufacture of malleable cast iron. This is produced by
heating white cast iron at a temperature of 870oC for an extended time period and then cooling at a slow
controlled rate. The cementite loses carbon which forms into free nodules. The final product is a ferrite
matrix with include free nodules of carbon. Malleable cast iron has superior mechanical properties
compared to grey cast iron apart from wear.
Increased strength and wear resistance with reduced ductility are obtained by converting the structure to
carbon nodules in a pearlitic matrix (or tempered martensitic). This involves heating the malleable cast
iron to a temperature of 970oC for over 12 hours and then air cooling it. The faster cooling in air
produces less ferrite and a finer pearlic structure. A martensitic matrix structure results if the cast iron is
heated to a slightly lower temperature (about 940oC) and then quenching it in oil.
Malleable iron castings are produced in section thicknesses ranging from about 1,5 to 100 mm and in
weights from less than 0,03 to 180 kg or more
The three principle types of malleable cast iron available are ;
1. Whiteheart..UTS 250-400 MPa, Elongation 4-10%...

This is heat treated white iron compound producing an outer ferrite layer and a ferrite/pearlite core Easy to cast in thin sections, which
have a tough core....
2. Blackheart...UTS 290-340 MPa, Elongation 6-12%...
Soaked at high temperature to cause the cementite to break down, then slowly cooled to give ferrite and graphite
3. Pearlite... UTS=450-550 MPa, Elongation 6-12%...
Similar to blackheart but faster cooling to produce a pearlite structure with higher strength
Malleable iron is preferred over ductile iron for thin-section castings and for components as listed below:
● Components that are to be pierced, coined, or cold formed

● Components parts requiring maximum machinability
● Components that must retain good impact resistance at low temperatures
● Components requiring wear resistance (martensitic malleable iron )
Nodular Ferritic (Ductile Iron)
Standard..BS EN 1563:1997 : Founding. Spheroidal graphite cast iron

... UTS 350-480 MPa, Elongation-6-16%...
Nodular Cast Iron is obtained by adding magnesium just before casting. This encourages the graphite to
form spheres or nodules.
Ductile iron consists of graphite spheroids in a matrix of ferrite, pearlite or both. The graphite spheroids

Cast Iron
provide some much improved mechanical advantages compared to the graphite flakes in grey cast iron.
Ductile cast iron is similar to grey cast iron in having a low melting point, good fluidity, castability,
excellent machinability and wear resistance. However compared to grey cast iron it has improved
strength, ductility toughness and hot workability.
Ductile iron as found wide acceptance and competes favourably with steel such that its use in
engineering has increased in recent times as while grey cast iron and malleable cast iron has fallen in
popularity as other materials such as plastics have found favour.
Ductile iron has a clear advantage over malleable iron for applications where low solidification shrinkage
is needed or where the section is too thick to permit uniform solidification as white iron (Solidification as
white iron throughout a section is essential to the production of malleable iron).
1. Malleable Cast Iron ... Key-To-Steel- An excellent reference site for Ferrous materials.- registration required for full access
2. Cast Iron Classification ... Key-To-Steel -- registration required for full access
3. ADI Treatments Ltd ...Experts in Austempered Ductile Iron manufacturing, castings and uses. Substantial reference information provided
4. Casti Handbook European Standards ...Includes standards -data for European designated Ferrous Metals
5. Cat Irons ...A informative paper on Cast Irons
6. Cast Iron ...Wikipedia article - Very concise and clear
7. Steels and Iron ...MetalworkMedia.com.. A neat comprehensive article covering the whole range of Ferrous metal production
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Iron Phase Diagram
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Plain Iron Carbon Steels
Introduction
This page includes notes on iron and what happens when iron /carbon mixtures are cooled from liquid to
solid. The notes are based on the Iron Phase Diagram (equilibrium diagram ). A "Phase" is a form of
material having characteristic structure and properties. It is a form of the material which has identifiable
composition, structure and boundaries separating it from other phases in the material volume. The
diagram below shows shows the phases present when when Fe-C alloys (C up to 7%) are cooled from
liquid to solid.
The left side of the diagram represents pure iron and the right hand of the diagram represents an alloy
with 6,67% C. which result on cooling in the formation of Cementite. This is a intermetallic compound
(iron carbide-Fe3 C) which although not 100% stable is but is to all practical purposes a stable
phase. The phase diagram shown is therefore a metastable phase.
Note: Different reference sources indicate the Eutectoid point at 0,8% C and 0,77% C.
Iron Forms
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Iron Phase Diagram
Iron can exist in three forms:

α... BCC crystal with crystal dimension a = 2,86 Angstrom exists at temperatures up to 910oC
γ... FCC crystal with crystal dimension a = 3,65 Angstrom exists at temperature range 910oC to 1403oC
δ... BCC crystal with crystal dimension a = 2,93 Angstrom exists at temperature range 1403oC to 1535oC
Solid Phases
The phased diagram includes four solid phases
α Ferrite
..The solid solution of carbon in iron. At 0% C this is pure iron. BCC crystal structure.
The maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 0,02% at 723oC. At 0 oC temperature the solubility falls to
0,008%. The carbon atoms are located in the crystal interstices.
Austenite
The solid solution of carbon in γ iron is called austenite . This has a FCC crystal structure with a high
solubility for carbon compared with α ferrite. The solubility reaches a maximum of 2,08% at 1148oC . The
solubility decreases to 0,8% at 723 oC The carbon atoms are dissolved interstitially. The difference in
solubility between the austenite and α Ferrite is the basis for the hardening of steels
Cementite
This is an intermetallic compound which contains 6,67% C and 93,3% Fe. Cementite is a hard brittle
compound with and orthorhombic crystal structure each unit cell has 12 Fe atoms and 4 C atoms
δ Ferrite..
This is a solid solution of carbon in iron and has a BCC crystal structure. The maximum solubility or C in
Fe is 0,09% at 1495oC. This has no real practical significance in engineering.
Lever Rule
The lever rule can be applied to any phase region an provides an indication of the proportions of the
constituent parts at any point on the phase diagram
Applying the lever rule to the eutectoid point (0,80% C at 723oC )

Wt% Ferrite = 100 (6,67 -0,8)/ 6,67- 0,02) = 88%
Wt% Cementite = 100 (0,8- 0,02) /6,67- 0,02) = 12%

Iron Phase Diagram
Steels
If the carbon content of the cooled solid is less than Eutectoid (about 0,8% C) the solid is identified as a
hypoeutectoid steel: most steels are this form. If the carbon content is more then 0,8% then the solid is a
hypereutectoid steel. Hypereutectoid steels with carbon content over 1,2% C are very brittle. Few steels
are made with carbon contents over 1,2%.
Generally in order to increase the strength of steel other alloying elements are added which increase the
strength while retaining toughness and ductility
A eutectoid solid raised to a temperature just above 723oC and held at this temperature for some time will
become a homogeneous austenite phase. If this solid is then slowly cooled the entire structure will
change to a lamellar structure of alternate plates of ferrite and cementite. This structure is called pearlite
because of its mother-of-pearl appearance. As calculated above pearlite consists of 88% (mass) ferrite
and 12% (mass) cementite
Transformation of a hypereutectoid steel (> 0,8% C) will result in pearlite in a matrix of

cementite. Transformation of a hypoeutectoid steel (< 0,8% C ) will result in pearlite in a matrix of α
Ferrite.
Transformation on high cooling rates

Below is an Isothermal Transformation (IT) diagram, also called a TTT (Time, Temperature,
Transformation) curve for a eutectoid steel test piece which has been rapidly cooled in a bath at a set
temperature, held for a time and then water quenched.

Iron Phase Diagram
It can be seen that if the transformation is allowed to take place at a higher temperature then, as above
coarse pearlite is formed.
If the test piece is cooled to a lower temperature in a bath a finer pearlitic structure results.
If the test piece is rapidly cooled to a temperature below a value Ms (which varies with the carbon content
then a new metastable phase is produced called Martensite. Martensite is a supersaturated solid solution
of carbon in ferrite.
If the test piece is cooled rapidly at a temperature between 220oC and 525oC a phase structure between
pearlite and martensite is formed. This is called Bainite
Bainite
Bainite is a constituent which forms from austenite in a tempertures range below 530 oC and above Ms .
Bainite forms together with pearlite in steel which are cooled somewhat too fast to form a complete
pearlite structure. Bainite is like pearlite a mixture of ferrite and iron carbide but in a different form. The
bainite structure varies from a featherlike pattern to pattern of lens shaped particles depending on the
temperature range of formation. (Featherlike constituent in upper temperature range and lens like in the
lower temperature range). Bainite is harder, stronger and tougher than ferrite-pearlite structures at lower
temperatures.
Martensite
Martensite is the hardest structure formed from austenite. It is a distorted BCC (tetrogonal) it is a body
centred tetrogonal structure. The distortion is caused by trapped carbon atoms which have not been able
to nucleate into cementite
Some features of martensite are listed below
● The crystal structure is a stressed structure which is resistance to dislocation movement it is therefore strong and relatively brittle.
● There are various types of martensite depending on the carbon content:
for C <0,2% the martensite is in the form of well defined thin strips (laths),
for C <= 0,6% plates of martensite are formed ,
for C < = 1,2% the martensite is in the form of arrays of well defined plates

Iron Phase Diagram
● The martensite phase initiates at a temperature Ms and is complete at a temperature Mf.

Ms varies from 500oC for C <= 0,1% to 200oC for C <= 1,2%
1. Steels and Iron ...MetalworkMedia.com.. A neat comprehensive article covering the whole range of Ferrous metal production
2. Casti Handbook European Standards ...Includes standards -data for European designated Ferrous Metals
3. Fundamentals Of Metal Alloys,.Equilibrium Diagrams ...A very informative powerpoint presentation
4. Steel for many purposes ...School Science back to basics for clear understanding of the principles
5. The Metallurgy Of Carbon Steel ...GoWelding ..A very clear concise set of note on Carbon Steel
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Alloy and Stainless Steels
ROYMECH
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Alloy Steels
Introduction
Carbon steels usually contain less than 1,2% carbon and small quantities of manganese, copper, silicon,
sulfur, and phosphorus Alloy steels are carbon steel with other metals added specifically to improve the
properties of the steel significantly. Stainless steel are considered a separate group.
Plain carbon steel is produced with a wide range of mechanical properties with comparatively low cost. To
extent the range of properties of steel alloys have been developed. The benefits resulting include
● The maximum UTS is increased

● Thick sections steels are available with high hardness throughout the section
● More controllable quenching with minimum risk of shape distortion or cracking
● Improved impact resistance at high temperature range
● Improved corrosion resistance
● Improved high temperature performance
The principle elements that are used in producing alloy steel include nickel, chromium, molydenenum,
manganese, silicon and vanadium. Cobalt, copper and lead are also used as alloying elements.
Effect of alloying elements
Elements may encourage formation of graphite from the carbide. Only a small proportion of these
elements can be added to the steel before graphite forms destroying the properties of the steel, unless
elements are added to counteract the effect. Elements which encourage the formation of graphite include
silicon, cobalt, aluminium and nickel
Alloying elements may go into solid solution in the iron, enhancing the strength. Elements which go into
solid solution include silicon, molybdenum, chromium, nickel and magnesium.
Hard carbides (cementite) associated with iron and iarbon may be formed with alloying elements.
Elements which tend to form carbides include chromium, tungsten, titanium, columbium, vanadium,
molybdenum and manganese.
Elements which stabilise austenite include manganese, nickel, cobalt and copper. These increase the
range over which austenite is stable e.g. by lowering the eutectoid temperature, and this retard the
separation or carbides. If these alloys are present is certain high levels the austenite phase is dramatically
reduced and the ferrite ( α) phase exists down to ambient temperatures e.g.18% chromium .
Elements which tend to stabilise ferrite include chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium and
silicon. They reduce the amount of carbon soluble in the austenite and thus increase the volume of free
carbide in the steel at a given carbon content. The effectively reduce the austenite ( γ ) phase by raising
the eutectoid temperature and lowering the peritectic temperature
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Intermediate compounds with iron may be formed e.g. FeCr
Alloying elements may adjust the characteristics such as eutectoid content, quenching rate which produces
bainite or martensite
Relative effect alloying elements
The combined effect of alloying elements results from many complex interactions resulting from the
processing history, the number and quantities of constituents, the heat treament, the section shape etc
etc.. Some basic rules can be identified.
Nickel has reduced carbide forming tendency than iron and dissolves in α ferrite.
Silicon combines with oxygen to form nonmettalic inclusions or dissolves in the ferrite.
Most of the manganese in alloy steels dissolves in the α ferrite . Any manganese that form carbides result
in (Fe,Mn)3C.
Chromium spreads between the ferrite and carbide phases the spread depending on the amount of carbon
and other carbide generating elements present.
Tungsten and molybdenum form carbides if sufficient carbon is present which has not already formed
carbides with other stronger carbide forming elements.
Vanadium , titanium, and colombian are strong carbide forming elements and are present in steel as
carbides.
Aluminium combines with oxygen and nitrogen to form Al2O and AlN
Notes on alloying elements
Aluminium
Range 0-2%..This increases resistance to oxidation and scaling, aids nitriding and restricts grain growth.
Chromium
Range 0,3% to 4% ..Improves wear, oxidation and scaling resistance and hardenability but increases grain
growth and reduces ductility
Range 12% to 30 % ...For production of stainless steels with nickel .
Cobalt
Enhances air hardenability and reduces scaling. In tool steels allows use at high temperatures without
softening.
Range (8% to 10%) to produce hard tough cutting steels (HSS)
Copper
Range 0,2% to 0,5%... Improves corrosion resistance and yield strength of low alloy steels.
Lead
Range 0 to 0,25% improves machinability in non-alloy low carbon steels. Reduces strength and ductility.

Manganese
Range 0,3% to 1,5% alway present in steels to reduces the negative effects of impurities carried out
forward from the production process e.g sulphur embrittlement.
Promotes the formation of stable carbides in quenched-hardened steels. Alloys containing manganese
are pearlitic.
Up to 1% acts as hardening agent and from 1% to 2% improves strength and toughness.
Alloys containing more than 5% are non-magnetic.
Alloys containing large proportions of up to 12,5% manganese have the property that they spontaneously
form hard skins when subject to abrasion. (self-hardening)
Molybdenum
Range 0,3% to 5%. Stabilises carbides an promotes grain refinement and increases high temperature
strength, creep resistance and hardenability. Useful in cutting tool materials. In nickel-chromium steels
reduces temper embrittlement.
Nickel
Range 0,2% to 5% Improves strength, toughness, and hardenability without seriously affecting the ductility.
Encourages grain refinement Can graphitise carbide resulting in softening.
Nickel and chromium together have opposing properties and are used together to advantage in nickel-
chrome steels. The resulting steels have their advantages combined and their undesirable features cancel
each other
At 5% nickel provides high fatigue resistance. When alloyed at higher proportions significant corrosion
resistance results and at 27% a non magnetic stainless steel results.
Phosphorus
Range 0-0,05% Residual element from production process (Casting). Results in weakness in the steel.
Kept below 0,05%. Can improve machinability and in larger quantities improves fluidity in cast steels.
Silicon
Range 0,2% to 3%. Used mainly in production of cast iron causing graphitisation and is not used in large
proportions in high carbon steels. Up to 0,3% improves fluidity of casting steels without the weakening
effect of phosphorus Up to 1% improves the heat resistance of steels. At 3% improves strength and
hardenability. Acts as a de-oxidiser.
Also used to improve magnetic properties of soft magnetic materials used in laminations for transformers
and motor stators and rotors.
Sulphur
Range up to 0,5% Residual impurity from production process. Weakens steel and additional process are
used to remove sulphur. Neutralised by the presence of manganese. Sometimes added to low carbon
steels to improve machinability with the accepted penalty of reduced strength. Reduces ductility and
weldability.
Titanium
Strong carbide forming element. In range 0,2% to 0,75% it is used in maraging steels to make them age
hardening with resulting high strength. Stabilizes austenic stainless steel.
Tungsten
Forms hard stable carbides and promotes grain refining with great hardness at high temperatures. The
main alloying element in high speed tool steels. Constituent in permanent magnet steels.

Vanadium
Carbide forming element and deoxidiser used together with nickel and or chromium to increase strength
Improves hardenability and grain refinement and combines with carbon forming wear resistant structure. Is
used as a deoxidiser in casting steels to reducing blowholes and increasing hardness and
strength. Vanadium is used with in high speed steel based on pearlitic chromium. "Improves fatigue
properties of hardened steels
Stainless Steels
Stainless steels are steels with a high degree of corrosion resistance and chemical resistance to most a
wide range of aggressive chemicals. The corrosion resistance is mainly due to their high chromium
content. Stainless steels normally have more than 12% chromium. Chromium makes the surface passive
by forming a surface oxide film which protects the underlying metal from corrosion. In order to produce
this film the stainless steel surface must be in contact with oxidising agents. Stainless steels are classified
as Austenitic, Martensitic or Ferritic.
Nickel added to stainless steel improves corrosion resistance in neutral or weak oxidising environments
and also improves ductility and formability by enabling the (FCC) crystal stucture to be retained at normal
temperatures.
Molybdenum added to stainless steel improves corrosion resistance in the presence of chloride ions.
Aluminium improves high temperature scaling resistance.
Austenitic Stainless Steels

These are usually alloy containing three main elements Iron Chromium and Nickel (6% to 22%). These
steels cannot be hardened by heat treatment. They retain an austenitic structure at room temperature and
are ductile and have good corrosion resistance compared to ferritic stainless steel. They are at risk of
intergranular corrosion unless heat treated to modify their chemical composition.
Ferritic Stainless Steel

This steel normally contains 11% to 30% chromium with a carbon content below 0,12%. Other alloying
elements are added to improve its corrosion resistance or other characteristics such as machinability.
Because of the low carbon content ferritic stainless steels are not normally considered heat treatable.
However there is some hardness improvement resulting from quenching from high temperatures. The
carbon and nitrogen content of these steels must be maintained at low levels for weldability , ductility and
corrosion resistance.
Martensitic Stainless Steels

These steels contain 12% to 17% chromium with 0,1 to 1% Carbon. They can be hardened by heat
treatment in the same way as plain carbon steels. Very high hardness values can be obtained for carbon
levels approximately 1% using correct heat treatment. Small amounts of other alloying elements may be
included to improve corrosion, resistance, strength and toughness.
Maraging Steels

Maraging steels are a class of high-strength steel with a low carbon content and the use of substitutional
(as opposed to interstitial) elements to produce hardening from formation of nickel martensites. The name
maraging has resulted from the combination of mar(tensite) + age (hardening)
Maraging steels contain 18% nickel, along with a amounts of molybdenum, cobalt, and titanium and
aluminium, and almost no carbon. These alloys can be strengthened significantly by a precipitation
reaction at a relatively low temperature. They can be formed and machined in the solution-annealed
condition but not without difficulty. Weldability is excellent. Fracture toughness of the maraging steels is
considerably higher than that of the conventional high-strength steels.
Maraging steels are hardened by a metallurgical reaction that does not involve carbon. Maraging steels
are strengthened by intermetallic compounds such as Ni 3Ti and Ni 3Mo which precipitate at about 500°C.
The carbon content provides no real benefit and is kept low as possible in order to minimise the formation
of titanium carbide which can adversely affect mechanical properties. Toughness is superior to all low
alloy carbon steels of similar strength, particularly the low temperature toughness. These steels are easy
to machine and heat treat, so some cost savings result in component production to compensate for the
high cost of the steel.
A high strength maraging steel (extrusion section MIL-S-46850 grade 300) can have a 0,2% proof stress of
1930MPa and Ultimate Tensile strength of 2068MPa with an elongation of 4%
High Strength Low Alloy Steels (HSLA)

High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels are a group of low carbon steels that utilise small amounts of alloying
elements to attain yield strengths in excess of 550 MPa in the as-rolled or normalised conditions. These
steels have better mechanical properties than as rolled carbon steels, largely by virtue of grain refining and
precipitation hardening. Because the higher strength of HSLA steels can be obtained at lower carbon
levels, the weldability of many HSLA steels is at least comparable to that of mild steel. Due to their
superior mechanical properties, they allow more efficient designs with improved performance, reductions in
manufacturing costs and component weight reduction to be produced. Applications include oil and gas
pipelines, automotive sub-frames, offshore structures and shipbuilding.
These steels are generally manufactured as commercial proprietary steels by speciality steel manufactures
to their own codes and internal procedures for specific applications. The properties of this range of metals
is often achieve with a special heat treatment regime by anealing in the intercritical range with controlled
quenching to attain the desired properties.
Those steels provide strength-to-weight ratios over conventional low-carbon steels for only a modest price
premium. HSLA steels are available in all standard wrought forms -- sheet, strip, plate, structural shapes,
bar-size shapes, and special shapes.
Typically, HSLA steels are low-carbon steels(0,06% to 0,12%) with 0,4% to 2.5% manganese,
strengthened by small additions of elements, such as columbium, copper, vanadium or titanium and
sometimes by special rolling and cooling techniques. Improved-formability HSLA steels contain additions
such as zirconium, calcium, or rare-earth elements for sulfide-inclusion shape control. Elements such as
copper, silicon,nickel, chromium, and phosphorus can improve atmospheric corrosion resistance of these
alloys with e an associated cost penalty.

Reference Standards BS EN ISO 4957:2000...Tool steels

BS EN ISO 683-17:1999...Heat-treated steels, alloy steels and free-cutting steels. Ball and roller bearing
steels
BS EN ISO 15156-2:2003..Petroleum and natural gas industries. Materials for use in H2S-containing
environments in oil and gas production. Cracking-resistant carbon and low alloy steels, and the use of cast
irons
BS EN 10028-2:2003...Specification for flat products made of steels for pressure purposes. Non-alloy and
alloy steels with specified elevated temperature properties
BS EN 10028-4:2003...Specification for flat products made of steels for pressure purposes. Nickel alloy
steels with specified low temperature properties
BS EN 10250-3:2000...Open steel die forgings for general engineering purposes. Alloy special steels
1. Steel Alloys... Materials Engineer- A short but comprehensive description of steel alloys
2. Nickel Alloys... AZOM.com article- useful notes on nickel alloys
3. Cast alloys... Steel supplier - Some general notes on cast steel alloys
4. Steel for many purposes...School Science back to basics for clear understanding of the principles
5. MIL-HDBK-5H: Metallic Materials and Elements for Aerospace Vehicle Structures ... Very informative on alloys
6. Alloy and Stainless Steels...Plymouth Tech. Paper - Very informative
7. Alloy steels... Key to steel article on steel alloys
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Thermoplastics
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Plastics Rubber Page
Thermoplastics
ABS (AcronitrileButedeneStyrene
Tough, stiff, abrasive resistant and can be metal plated. Good stain resistance but are attacked by
chlorinated solvents, esters, keytones and concentrated acids and alkalis. Some greases can cause
stress cracking. The properties of ABS depend on the proportions of the three constituents. . ABS can be
injection moulded, extruded, rotationally moulded and thermoformed. Typical applications include boat
hulls, telephones, piping/fittings, and domestic durables.
(Plasticised) PVC (PolyVinylChloride

Flexibility and properties depend on the nature and content of plasticisers. Used for cable/wire insulation,
soles of footwear, and coating linen liners of industrial gloves.
(UnPlasticised) UPVC (PolyVinylChloride

Hard/tough/ strong and stiff with good weathering properties. It is weather resistant and self extinguishing,
can be transparent and the surface is scuff and abrasion resistant. UPVC. UPVC can be extruded,
injection moulded, blow moulded, rotationally moulded and thermoformed. It is mostly used for making
pipe/pipe fittings, bottles, and curtain rails.
Polyethylene
Tough at low temperatures with excellent chemical and electrical insulation properties. Detergents can
cause stress cracking. Can be extruded, injection moulded, blow moulded, rotationally moulded and
thermoformed. LDPE- Low Density Polyethylene(918-935 kg/m3 is very tough and flexible with excellent
chemical resistance. Used for pipes and low loss electrical wire coverings. HDPE- High Density
Polyethylene (935- 965 kg/m3 is much stronger and stiffer. It is used for tanks, pipes dustbins etc.
Polypropylene
Excellent fatigue resistances, chemical and electrical properties. Good temperature resistance and useful
strength and stiffness. It is attacked by strong oxidising agents. Can be extruded, injection moulded, blow
moulded, rotationally moulded and thermoformed.
AMORPHOUS THERMOPLASTICS
Acrylics
Completely transparent and optically clear. Stable to outdoor weathering and do not discolour or degrade
under UV light. Acrylics are stiff, strong and do not shatter. Some solvents can cause stress cracking.
Acrylics can be extruded, injection moulded, and thermoformed. The are used for viewing panels, light
housings, lenses and illuminated signs.
Polycarbonates
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Thermoplastics.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:51:39 AM

Thermoplastics
Tough, transparent, stiff and strong. Good electrical insulation properties. Polycarbonates have moderate
outdoor weather resistance. Dissolved by chlorinated paraffins, cresol,dioxane. Attacked by
hydrocarbons. Polycarbonates can be injection moulded, extruded, blow moulded, and vacuum formed.
Typical applications include street lamp covers, safety helmets.
Polysulphones
Strong, stiff with excellent creep and dimensional properties over a wide range of temperatures. Can be
transparent. They do not easily burn and do not present a smoke hazard. They are attacked by ketones
chlorinated solvents and hydrocarbons. They can be extruded, injection moulded and thermoformed.
Polysulphanes are used for passenger service units in aircraft and electrical components requiring high
service temperatures.
CRYSTALLINE THERMOPLASTICS
Nylon...Polyamines
Nylon materials are stiff, strong,tough and abrsion resistant. Absorption of moisture increases toughness,
decreases stiffness and affects dimensional stability. Concentrated mineral acid attacks nylon. Nylon can
be injection moulded, rotationally moulded and extruded. Applications for nylons include insulators, and
engineering components such as gears, bushes, and bearings. Glass filled nylon is used to make power
tool housings etc.
Polyacetals..
Stiff, strong, resist high temperatures and are extremely resilient. These materials are abrasion resistant
and have low coefficient of friction. Polyacetals are attacked by strong acids. Applications include pipe
fittings, light-duty beam springs, meat hooks, gears, bearings etc.
Thermoplastic Polyester.
This material has similar physical properties to nylon 66 but have much lower moisture absorption. Is
attacked by ethylene dichloride and is susceptible to hydrolysis in prolonged contact with hot water.
Processed by injection moulding.
PTFE..Polytetrafluoroethylene.
PTFE resists all common aggressive environments, has exceptional low coefficient of friction, first class
electrical properties and can be used at temperatures up to 250 deg C. It can be processed only be a
special sintering techniques. Complicated shapes are generally machined from sintered blanks. PTFE is
used for bearings, bearing surfaces treatments, high frequency cable insulation, coating for cooking
utensils etc etc.

Thermoplastics
Links Providing information on Thermoplastics
1. Plastics Org
2. ABG Rubber And Plastics
3. Materials Sites=Polymers-Composites
4. DesignFax Online -Physical And Mechanical Properties of Plastics
5. Online Database
6. Efunda-> materiala> Polymers ** Recommended
7. Macrogallaria A site devoted to Polymers
8. Phasa.co.uk A design guide for a specific hot air process including using plastics processing notes
9. Dupont Vespel Information on the Vespel range of polyimides
Home

Thermosets
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Thermosets
Phenolics
Phenolics are strong, brittle, good electrical insulators and can temprtures up to 150 deg. C. Phenolics are destroyed by strong alkalis and oxidising
agents. Phenolics are generally dark in color. Fibrous fillers are often used to improve impact strength and lower specific costs. Mica fillers are used
to improve electrical properties. Phenolics are used for electrical plugs, switches, knobs and general electrical fittings. Fabric laminates are used for
engineering applications such as gears.
Amina Plastic -UF..Urea Formaldehyde

Mouldings are low cost and have good hardness, abrasion and chemical resistance. They do not taint foodstuffs, have heat resistance to about 70
deg C and are available in a wide range of colours. Wood flour is normally used as a filler for darker material and cellulose is used for lighter
compounds. Used for domestic plastics e.g toilet seats. UF foam is used for cavity wall insulation applications.
Aminoplastic -MF..Melamine Formaldehyde

Harder than UF and absorb less moisture. MF compounds have good heat and stain resistance. Generally used for domestic table ware. Glass
reinforced laminates have a heat resistance up to 200 deg. C.
Polyesters.
Unsaturated polyesters have a resistance to UV, water, acids, alkalis and many organic solvents. They have fairly good electrical properties. They
are usually reinforced with fibres mostly in the form of woven cloth, chopped strand mat, or short fibres. Large mechanical structures can be made
for Reinforced Polyester material with stiffness of up o 10 times that of thermoplastics. Applications for reinforced polyester materials include roof
sheeting, car bodies, tanks, boat hulls etc.
Epoxides
Epoxides are more expensive than unsaturated polyesters. They are tough and have extremely good resistance to alkalis. They adhere well to
many materials and shrink little during curing. Epoxides are used to encapsulate electronic components. Glass-reinforced epoxides are used in
chemical plants.
Links Providing information on Thermosetting Resins
1. Acculam Thermoset ...Table of Properties

2. Efunda-> materiala> Polymers ** Recommended
3. Macrogallaria... A site devoted to Polymers
4. Thermosets.. Cornell U ..Materials by design A site devoted to Polymers
Home
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Rubbers
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Rubbers and Elastomers
Natural Rubber NR.. (Hevea, rubber, natural cis-polyisoprene)

A general purpose rubber with the optimum balance of physical properties essential for high performance engineering applications. Long fatigue life,
first choice for spring applications. Has high strength without the need for reinforcing fillers. Can be compounded to give a wide range of hardness.
Good low temperature flexibility Poor resistance to oils and solvents. Requires protection against oxidisation, ozone and heat. It can be extended by
oil with little loss of mechanical properties.
Isoprene Rubber(IR) .. (synthetic cis-polyisoprene)

Very similar properties to natural rubber but more difficult to process.
Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR)

The most important general purpose synthetic rubber. It must be compounded with reinforcing fillers for high strength and then has physical and
chemical properties similar to natural rubber, except that generally abrasion resistance is better and fatigue resistance is pooer. It is not suitable for
springs but has used widely for vehicle tyres where it is generally oil extended.
Butadiene Rubber (BR)

Low hysteresis, good temperature flexibility and high abrasion resistance under severe weather conditions. Poor processing properties and poor
tear properties. Used in blends with SBR and natural rubber. Main use in in manufacture of tyres.
EPM Rubber (EPM) ..(ethylene propylene copolymer)+ EPDM Rubber (EPDM) ..(ethylene propylene terpolymer)
Similar to SBR but improved resistance to atmostpheric ageing, oxidisation, and ozone. Not compatable with elastomers listed above.
Butyl Rubber (BUTYl) ..(isombutylene-isoprene copolymer)

Good ozone, weathering, heat and chemical resistance. It has a very high impermeability to gases. Low resilience at ambient temperatures and is
suitable for damping applications. Incompatible with elastomers listed above. Can be compounded with chlorine to give improved ozone, weathering
resistance and high temperature stability. Used for inner tubes.
Chloroprene Rubber (CR)...Neoprene..

Several types of polychloroprene. Mechanical properties generally inferior to natural rubber but superior chemical properties. Over time
crystallisation results in hardening at temperatures about -10 deg. C. Very good resistance to ozone.
Nitrile Rubber (Acrylonitrile Butediene copolymer).

Nitrile rubbers are copolymers of butadiene and acrylonitrile. The oil resistance increases as the acrylonitrile content but at the expense of
resilience. Used for O rings and oil seals.
Polysulphide Rubber (TR) Thiokol (condensates of sodium polysulphides with organic dihalides.)
Excellent high resistance to oils, fuels , solvents, oxygen and also low gas permeability. Poor physica,heat, and wear properties.
Polyurethane Rubber (AU - Polyester type...EU- Polyether type)

Good abrasion, tensile and tear strength, good resistance to aliphatic solvents and mineral oils, oxygen and ozone. Moderate resistance to dry heat.
Poor resistance to moist heat.
Silicone rubber
Moderate physical properties but are retained at high or low temperatures. Good electrical properties.
Chlorosulphonyl Polytethylene ..(Hypolon)

Excellent resistance to oxygen, ozone, and most chemicals. Low gas permeability. Used for protective coatings.
Fluoro Rubbers (Fluorel, Kel-F, Viton)
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Rubbers
Excellent resistance to strong oxidising acids, aromatic fuels and solvents at high temperatures, and to oxidation weathering and ozone.
Acrylic Rubber (AR) (Alkyl acrylate coplolymer).

Good resistance at normal and elevated temperatures to oil and oxygen. Excellent ozone and and weathering resistance. Poor moist heat
resistance.
Epichlorohydrin (CO)..
High resistance to ageing oxidatio, ozone and hot oil. Good resistance to hydrocarbon solvents combined with moderate low temperature flexibility,
poor abrasion resistance and electrical properties.
Polypropylene oxide rubber(PO).. (a copolymer with about 5% allyl glycol ether)

Similar to SBR in requiring reinforcing fillers for adequate strength. Good resistance to ozone, flexing and heat ageing. Good low temperature
flexibility; moderate oil resistance. properties.
Links Providing information on Elastomers
1. Rapra ...Rubber and Plastics Research Association

2. Britannia Rubber Chart...Useful chart
3. Outline Properties of Elastomers...Rubber Selection - a Guide to Outline Properties
4. Du-pont Elastomers... Plastics Some specific information on products
5. Efunda-> material> Polymers .. Recommended source of information
6. ABG Rubber and Plastics...Rubber Specifications
Home
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Casting
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Primary Processes
Casting Notes
Introduction
Castings are made by pouring molten metal into a recessed-mould or die. When the metal cools it takes the shape of the mould or die. Ferrous
alloys, Copper alloys, Aluminium alloys, Tin alloys, Magnesium alloys etc can all be cast.
Sand Casting
The green sand process is one in which moist bonded sand is packed round a wood or metal pattern to make a mould. The pattern is then
removed and the mould is used to make a cavity . Molten metal is then poured into the cavity. When the metal solidifies and cools the mould is
broken and the casting is removed.
Almost any metal can be cast using this process to any size and the production process is relatively cheap.
This process does not produce accurate parts and machining is almost always required following sand casting.
The shape of items is the some extend affected by the process.
● Sharp corners should be avoided.

● The cast section should be maintained uniform.
● Long thin sections should be avoided.
● The design should allow for metal contraction during to cooling
The dry sand process is similar to the green sand process except that core boxes are used in place of patterns. The sand is bonded with a setting
resin, and the the core is then oven baked to remove the moisture.
This process is generally used for smaller castings.
The Carbon dioxide sand process is one in which the sand moulds are bonded with sodium silicate solutions and set by injecting carbon dioxide
gas through the sand. This method produces strong accurate moulds and the consequent castings are relatively accurate. It is possible to eliminate
machining by using this process.
Using the core sand mould process the moulds are assembled from oven baked cores set with binders .
Shell Mould Casting

This process involve coating the sand mould with a thermosetting plastic. The mould is then supported at the outside by sand or shot and the
molten metal is poured. When the metal has solidified the mould is broken away from the finished casting. Shell mouldings have smooth surfaces,
uniform grain structure, high accuracy, rapid production rates and minimal finishing requirements. This process is relatively expensive and limited to
few metals.
Full Mould Casting

In this process the pattern is in made from foamed plastic e.g. polystyrene. When the molten metal is poured into the mould the plastic vaporises
away. This type of casting does not require a draft and produces no flash on the finished casting. There are no difficulties with bosses undercuts
and inserts.
Permanent Mould Castings

This process is based on reusable moulds generally made of metal eg. gray cast iron for nonferrous castings and graphite for cast iron
A well made mould can do 20,000 castings. The mould will require regular redressing after at least 2,000 castings.
The castings produced by this method have a good surface finish, a good grain structure, low porosity and high dimensional accuracy.
The initial mould is expensive but the unit costs of the castings are generally low for high production quantities. This process is limited to fairly
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Casting
simple shapes.
Die Castings
This process is used in the quantity production of aluminium, zinc, lead, and magnesium alloys. The method can be used for tin and copper alloys.
Die castings are made by forcing molten metal under pressure into accurately machined steel dies. The dies are generally water cooled. The dies
are normally held in hydraulic presses which open when the metal castings cool down. The molten metal is forced into the dies at pressures of
10MPa to 175MPa.
The surface finish of diecast components is and they have excellent dimensional accuracy. The process is limited in the size of the castings which
can be made. The initial cost of the dies are high but the unit cost of the components are generally very low
Ceramic Mould Castings

For this process the moulds are made of ceramic powder, binder, and gelling agent. The mould can also be made of ceramic facing reinforced with
a sand backing.
The method is limited to casting intricate parts requiring fine detail, close tolerances, and smooth finishes. The minimum wall thickness
recommended is 0.7mm to 1.5mm with no limit on the maximum wall thickness.
Investment Castings (Lost Wax Process)

Parts which are intricate in shape with a high dimensional accuracy and excellent surface finish can be produced using the investment casting
process. This process can be used for a wide range of metal alloys and can be used to produce finished components with not machining required.
A pattern is made by injecting wax into a split mould. The mould is usually metallic but can be rubber, plastic, or plaster of paris As the pattern is
usually small a number are frequently assembled on a wax feeder using a heated spatula allowing several parts to be cast from a single mould.
The resulting pattern is dipped into a refractory slurry a number of times if a shell mould is required. Optionally if a solid mould is required the patter
is placed, feeder down into a open ended can into which a slurry of refractory material or cement is poured..
To complete the mould the wax pattern is removed by melting it out in a furnace.
The casting can be produced by pouring the molten metal in the mould or it can in injected in under pressure for a higher grade denser casting.
Centrifugal Casting
This is method of casting a shape by pouring the molten into a rotating flask containing the mould. The moulds are made of sand, metal, or graphite
(depending on the metal cast) and are rotated about their axial centres.
Relatively large diameter and bulky items are made by this process. Typical products include pipe, gun barrels, hollow shafts, machinery drive rolls.
Where the diameter to length ratio is large the rotational axis can be vertical.
Continuous Casting
This method of casting is used to produce ingots on a continuous basis, the molten metal being continuously poured into one end of a vertical open-
ended mould of the appropriate cross section. As the metal passes down the mould it cools and solidifies. The walls of the mould are water
cooled and the metal as it emerges from the mould is sprayed with cooling water.
Ingots are produced by cutting of the cast metal with a flying saw which moves down at the same speed as the solidified metal. A piston supports
the metal and controls the speed that it moves down.
Continuous cast ingots have superior mechanical properties compared to conventional sand cast products. This is due to its fine grained, dense
structure. The surface finish is also improved and there are no sand inclusions.
Summary of casting processes

Labour Surface Minimum
Type of Equipment Accuracy -
cost finish Section
Process Cost mm
per unit µ m CLA mm

Casting
Sand
Medium low 500 -1000 ± 2.5 5.0
(green)
Shell low medium 100 -300 ± 0.25 2.5
Centrifugal low medium 100 -500 ± 0.7 8.0
± 0.06 -
Investment high medium 25 -125 0.6
25mm sect
Diecasting ± 0.4 +.05
low medium 100 -250 2.5
Gravity per 25mm
± 0.05 +
Diecasting
low high 40 -100 0.05 per 1.2
Low Press
25mm
± 0.05 +
Diecasting
very low very high 40 -100 0.05 per 0.5
Pressure
25mm
± 0.12 per
Continuous low high 100 -200 8.0
25mm
Links Providing information on Casting
1. Manufacturing Engineer On a Disk A comprehensive document covering Manufacturing with detailed sections on primary processes
2. Metals about -castings Various useful links related to castings
3. Casting Processes Cast Metal Federation - Review of all casting processes
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Forging Processes
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Primary Processes
Forging Processes
Forging dates back to ancient times and was associated with the village blacksmith. Virtually all ductile metals may be forged by first preheating
the work piece to a forging temperature. The work piece can be a billet, a wrought bar, a cast or sintered ingot etc. The forging process can then
be completed by hammering the work piece to the desired shape.
Forging has a marked beneficial effect on the metals being shaped. Their toughness and strength are improved because the process results in a
beneficial orientation of the metal grain structure. The repeated hot working causes the metal to become more dense and the grain "flow lines" to
follow the contour of the final component.
Open Die Forging
Open die (smith forgings) are made by using hammers or presses in conjunction with blacksmith tools or flat type dies. There is little lateral
confinement of the work piece. The desired shape is obtained by manipulating the workpiece between blows.
This process employs low cost tooling, is relatively simple, but has less control in determining grain flow, mechanical properties and dimensions
than other forging methods. This process can only be carried out by skilled operators.
Closed Die Forging
This process is based on hammering the work pieces into into the desired shape by means of closing dies. The hammering or pressing is
performed, respectively, by a mechanical or hydraulic press. Small and medium sized forgings are generally made in presses ranging in capacity
from 500 to 10000 Te.
Closed die forgings have good dimensional accuracy, with improved mechanical properties compared to open die forgings. The process has good
reproducibility and rapid production rates are possible. The initial cost of tooling is very high.
Upset Forging
This process uses barstock which is heated at the end which is being forged. The bar is gripped in the fixed half of a die so that the length of
material being forged projects. The forging blow is delivered by a moving die. Simpled shapes are produced in a single stage but more complicated
shapes require multiple stages.
Rolling
Rolling is the most important metal working process and can be performed on either hot or cold metal. Material is passed between cast of forged
steel rolls which compress it and move it forward. Rolling is a economical method of deformation if metal is required in long lengths of uniform
cross section. Normal rolling achieves thickness reduction of about 2:1.
Slabs and blooms.

Ingots are first rolled into either rectangular slabs or square blooms which are produced as intermediate stages. In this rolling process the ingots
are passed through the plain rolls repeatedly in one direction and then in the reverse direction at each stage the rolls are brought closer together. If
square blooms are required the material is rotated through 90o between rolling operations.
Plates Strips and Sections.

The rolling process can be used to produce plates, strips and rolled sections including channels, Universal Columns angles sections etc. The
plates and strips are generally form using plain rolls. The rolls can bow which results in the plate being thicker at the middle. The rolls can be
backed up in four high roll arrangements. with additional rolls to reduce this tendency..
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Forging Processes
Planetary rolling mills

Small diameter rollers are more effective than large ones in conveying rolling forces to deforming metal. Planetary mills take advantage of this
principle. This process can achieve thickness reductions of up to 25:1
Links Providing information on forging
1. RRS Forgings..Forging company

2. Process Encyclopaedia..U.of Cambridge website- Useful information
3. Metals about forging..Lots of Links
4. Casting or Forgings SFSA: Article - Looking at the two options
5. What are the types of forgings Forging Industry Association - Useful basic notes
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Extruding Processes
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Primary Processes
Metal Extruding Processes
Introduction
The process of extrusion is simply forcing a billet of metal through a shaped die to produce a continuous
length of constant section similar to the die profile. Lead was the first metal to be extruded as pipe in the
early 19th century. (J.Bramahs patent in 1897) The extrusion of copper really initiated the extrusion
process as a high production process
There are two basic extrusion processes , Direct extrusion and indirect extrusion. Direct extrusion is by
far the most widely used process. Indirect extrusion more efficient and produced higher quality products.
Materials and Sections
Aluminium and copper are most often extruded as complicated sections and pipes. Virtually all metals
and allows can be extruded. Extrusions can be solid or hollow. Extrusions can be tapered or stepped
by manupulating the die during the extrusion process.
Equipment/ Process
Extrusion presses are generally hydraulically operated and the process is generally completed in a
horizontal elevation. An extrusion press can have a capacity of over 200 MN for extruding stiffer metals
such as titanium or steel. Hot metal extrusion involves preheating the billet prior to extrusion to reduce
the work required to extrude the section.
Links Providing information on Metal Extrusion
1. Process Encylopedia .. Notes of Metal Extrusion
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Wire & Tube Drawing
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Primary Processes
Wire & Tube Drawing Process
Introduction
The process of wire drawing involves the production of wire of close diameter and tolerance by drawing
descaled hot-rolled rod through a die. The finished wire is coiled onto a motor driven block. The dies are
manufactured from hard material e.g tungsten carbide. Diamonds dies are used for small diameter wire.
Soap is used for lubrication. If large diameter reductions are required the rod is progressively drawn
through several stages of dies and blocks.
A wide range of metals can be worked by this process including copper, aluminium and steel etc.
Links Providing information on Metal Extrusion
1. Wire Drawing .. Notes of Wire Drawing

2. Profiles Inc. ..General Cold Drawing Processes
3. Profiles Inc. ..Ultrasonics applied to wire drawing
4. Wire Die ..Supplier of Wire dies and useful information
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Metal Sintering Processes Powder metal forming
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Metal Sintering Process ...Powder Metal Forming
Introduction
The fabrication of metal shapes from small particles of metal by sintering is an old technology of over
1000 years. The sintering of metal and ceramics on a large scale is however a much more recent
development. Sintering is mainly used for cermets i.e components made for a combination of metal and
ceramics
Sintered normally involves three processes :
1. Production of the powder

2. Shaping of the component from the powder
3. Stengthening of the component by heat treatment
Advantages of Sintering
Sintering has a number of advantages.
1. The parts produced have and excellent surface finish, and good dimensional accuracy.
2. The porosity inherent in sintered components is useful for specialised application such as filters and bearings
3. Refractory materials which are impossible to shape using other methods can be fabricated by sintering with metals of lower melting points
4. A wide range of parts with special electrical and magnetic properties can be produce
The sintering process results in brittle components which often require further heat treatment before use.
The tooling costs are relatively high and so large batch quantities are required for economic production
runs compared to other processes.
Production of Powders
The powder production methods are by either chemical or mechanical processes.
The chemical route includes for reduction, precipitation, chemical reaction, and electolysis. The
mechanical route includes atomization and disintegration.
The reduction method of produces powders from oxides of metals with high melting points. The most
common reducing media are hydrogen and carbon. The reduced particles sinter together into a spongy
mass which is crushed into a powder. Large quanties of iron powders are produced using the carbon
route
A typical precipitation method includes preparation of a carbonyl vapour by passing carbon monoxide at
a high temperature over the heated metal and producing powder by precipitation of the resulting vapour.
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This is an expensive process.
Electrolysis of a salt of a metal results in metal being deposited as a sludge on the bottom of the tank or
as a spongy mass on the electrode.
Powders can be produced by disintegration of molten metal by a jet of gas or water at high pressure
(Atomization).
The main methods of producing powder are the atomization process and the reduction process
Shaping Methods
Three main methods are using for production of the sintered shapes from the powders
1. Pressureless Forming
2. Cold Pressing
3. Hot Pressing
Pressureless Forming
When highly porous components are required, they can be produced by loose sintering. The powder is
poured or vibrated into a mould, which is heated to the sintering temperature. The sintered parts shrink
on cooling and shapes are only processed which can be removed from the mould on completion of the
process.
Other methods of pressureless forming include slip and slurry casting.
Cold Pressing
The powder is formed into the required shape by mechanical or hydraulic pressure. The pressures are
fairly low from about 80 N. mm-2 for soft copper based alloys to 80N.mm-2 for steels. The pressures used
are sufficient to produce cold welding of the powder granules. The process imparts sufficient strength to
hold the powder together allowing the parts to be handled for the sintering process.
Other methods of cold pressing include isostatic pressing and explosive forming.
Hot Pressing
This process involve heating the powder to a temperature above the recrystallisation temperature of the
metal during the pressing process. The resulting components have a high density and accurate
dimensions. The process is best completed in a reducing atmosphere or a vacuum to eliminate the risk
of oxidisation of the metal. If the temperature needed is below 1000 o C then metal dies can be used
otherwise graphite or ceramic materials should be used. The hot pressing process is normally carried
out a pressures below 30 N mm-2.
Sintering Systems
Prior to sintering the components they are heated to a temperature sufficient to evaporate any volatile
components.

Sintering is generally based on heating the green component to a temperature above the melting point of
at least one of the powder constituents. The process has to be completed in a reducing atmosphere or
in a vacuum furnace. The sintering results in an improvement in strength, electrical conductivity, and
ductility. The process also results in dimensional changes.
Links Providing information on Metal Sintering
1. Review on Metal Powders .. Malvern.co.uk - Useful Information on Meal powders

2. Process Encyclopaedia..U.of Cambridge website- Useful information
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Pressing Deep Drawing Process
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Metal Pressing & Drawing Processes
Introduction
The pressing / drawing operations are based on shaping sheet metal by plastic deformation. The
deformation is achieved by forcing the sheet metal into a formed female die using a male shaped punch.
For the pressing operations the process involves relatively shallow dies with little plastic flow of the sheet.
For deep drawing the die is relatively deep and significant plastic flow result. The simplest pressing
process is bending.
Most ductile materials can be formed using these processes including aluminium and copper, steel
Equipment
Pressing operations and deep drawing operations are generally completed using mechanical presses
using flywheels to provide kinetic energy. Hydraulic presses are also used.
Links Providing information on Drawing /Pressing/Forming
1. Sheet Metal Forming: A Review .. A very technical Paper..heavy work

2. Deep Drawing .. Mattter org,uk Notes and applets - very informative site
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Automation
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Machining
Automation /Numerically Controlled Machine Tools
Introduction
Automatic machines are generally used to minimise the need for manual effort. The benefits are
reduced operating costs, reduced operator errors, increased reliability, minimum work reduction due to
human fatigue, illness and labour disputes..
Automatic Machines generally possess the following characteristics.
1. They operate with minimum human involvement

2. They include feedback to indicate process /machining deviations from the required task
3. They make the required corrections with minimum human involvement
The following terms apply to modern automatic machines...
● Feedback ..The measure of the actual result of the operation compared to the desired result providing a feedback generated error
● Output.. The actual work produced.. This could be the product machined, the movement of the vehicle or item conveyed
● Input..The data, instructions, command specifying the operations to produce the required output
● Sensors..The additional instrumentation required to allow the feedback to be generated
● Actuators /Drives..The additional drive systems required to provide the necessary machine movements
● Control Center..The system used to process the input data and feedback systems and provide the necessary controls to the drive
systems. The control center also includes for human interfacing
Automatic Material Handling

The transportation of materials around the floor of a workshop can be automated using AGV's
(Automatically guided Vehicles) these are generally battery powered vehicles which are controlled using
wires emmbedded into the floor or by taking using laser beams or using inertial systems.
Material handling into and out of the machine tool can be accomplished using proprietory robotic arms or
gantry systems for heavier items. The control systems for the handling equipment must be integrated
with the machine tool control system
NC Controlled Machine Tools

Numerical Control (N/C) is the term given to the programming control system for automatically operated
machine tools and other manufacturing units.. Most modern machine tools can include N/C
systems. DNC is the term used for Direct numerical control when a central computer system controls a
number of machine tool work stations.. CNC is the term for computer numerical control which is local
control of a machine tool be a built in computer.
N/C programmes are coded instructions written in a standard language which is interpreted by the
Machine Control Unit (MCU) which converts the instructions into electric signals which control the AC,
DC or servo drives or the hydraulic or pneumatic valves feeding the fluid actuators on the machine tools.
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Automation
Typical Applications for Computer Numerical Control.
● Machine tools Including

❍ Milling Machines /Machining Centres
❍ Centre Lathes and Turning Centres
❍ Drilling Machines
❍ Precision Grinding Machines
❍ EDM- Spark Erosion Machines
❍ Die Sinking Machines
● Sheet Metal Machines Including

❍ Turret Punching Machines
❍ Riveting Machines
❍ Forming Machines
● Fabrication Machines Including

❍ Flame Cutting Machines
❍ Welding Machines
❍ Tube Bending Machines
● Automatic Inspection Machine for tracing contours
Co-ordinate System
NC systems as used by, milling machines and lathes ,are generally based on the cartesian co-ordinate
system. The Z axis being the machine tool spindle. The programming movement of a CNC machine can
be descibed in four ways
1. Point-to-point..The tool is moved from point to point on the workpiece. The movements between the points are controlled by the machine
to take the shortest possible route. This system would be used for drilling and Punching
2. Linear Path system..The system is still moved from point to point- the programmer can however set the rate of traverse between the
points. This system may be used for milling a straight slot.
3. Parallel Path system..The system is still moved from point to point- The path between the points is always parallel to an axis..This option is
used for simple turning and milling operations
4. Continuous Path control..This allow complex contours to be machined with tool movements in 3 axes simultaniously. This allows complex
shapes only limited by the Machine tool and cutting tool geometries
Control Feedback
The CNC controls fall into two general types Open Loop Control and Closed Loop Control. The open
loop control option includes for stepping motor drives with no feedback other than the internal system on
the drive which provides for accurate descrete step movements. The closed loop system is based on
feedback generally with high powered servo drives. The second option provides more reliable accuracy
for long production cycles....
CNC programming Notes

Character..This is a number letter or symbol which is recognised by the controller
Word..a group of characters which defines a complete item of information.. There are two types of words
as follows.
Dimensional words..These are words directly interpreted a dimensions. They begin with X, Y, Z
(referring to dimensions parallel to the relevant axes) and I, J, K (referring to arcs of circles).
Management words..These are words not related to dimensions. Examples of management words are
provided below;
1. N4 ..Sequence number N followed by up to 4 digits identifying the sequence step

2. G2 ..Preparation function G followed by up to 2 digits (G0- G99)
3. F4 ..Feedrate command : The character F followed by up to 4 digits
4. S4 ..Spindle speed command:the character S followed by up to 4 digits

Automation
5. T2 ..Tool identifier : The character T followed by up to 2 digits

6. M2 ..Miscellaneous command : M followed by up to 2 digits (G0- G99)
Format: Different Controls systems use different formats, the relevant manual normally explains the
format. A block of data consists of a complete line of instruction words for the controller.
Word (or Letter) Address Format:

The most currently most widely used format is the word (address) format. Each word commences with a
letter called an address. Each word is identified within the block by its letter and not by its position.
Thus in each block only instructions which change have to be included.
CNC coding
Block Numbers (N) Each block is preceded with the block number e.g. N5, N10, N15 etc the numbers are
in steps of 5 to allow insertions of late code..
Preparatory functions (G)

Note: the G numbers below are for illustrative purposes only. There are actually a number of different G
number tables e.g Fanuc 0MB, 0TC,3M, 5M, 5T, 6M,6T,10M, 10T, Haas Lathe, Haas Mill, Mazak M32,
Okuma OSP500 lathe et.etc
Many of these can be obtained from the CNC reference links below:
G00 Rapid Positioning-Point to Point

Positioning at controlled feedrate normal
G01
dimensions
G02 Circular Interpolation-Normal Dimensions
Circular Interpolation CCW -Normal
G03
Dimensions
G04 Dwell for programmed interval
G05 Hold: Cancelled by operator
G06 Reserved for future use
G07 Reserved for future use
G08 Programmed Slide accelaration
G09 Programmed Slide accelaration
G10 Linear Interpolation -Short dimensions
G11 Linear Interpolation -Long dimensions
G12 3D Interpolation
G13-
Axis Selection
16
G17 XY Plane Selection
G18 ZX Plane Selection
G19 YZ Plane Selection
G20 Circular Interpolation CW:Long dimensions
G21 Circular Interpolation CW:Short dimensions
G22 Coupled Motion: Positive
G23 Coupled Motion: Negative
G25-
Available for individual use
29
G30 Circular Interpolation CCW:Long dimensions

Automation
G31 Circular Interpolation CCW:Short dimensions

G32 Reserved for future Standardisation
G33 Thread Cutting: constant lead
G34 Thread Cutting: increasing lead
G35-
Thread Cutting: reducing lead
39
G40 Cutter compensation:Cancel
G41 Cutter compensation:left
G42 Cutter compensation:right
G43 Cutter compensation:positive
G44 Cutter compensation:negative
G45 Cutter compensation:+/+
G46 Cutter compensation:+/-
G47 Cutter compensation:- / -
G48 Cutter compensation:- / +
G49 Cutter compensation:0 /+
G50 Cutter compensation:0 / -
G51 Cutter compensation:+ / 0
G52 Cutter compensation:- / 0
G53 Linear Shift: Cancel
G54 Linear Shift: X
G55 Linear Shift: Y
G56 Linear Shift: Z
G57 Linear Shift: XY
G58 Linear Shift: XZ
G59 Linear Shift: YZ
G60 Positioning : exact 1
G61 Positioning : exact 2
G62 Positioning:fast
G63 Tapping
G64 Change of rate
G65 Reserved for future
G70 Turning-Canned Finishing Cycle
G71 Turning-Canned Roughing Cycle
G72 Turning-Canned Facing Cycle
G74 Turning-Canned Peck Drilling Cycle
G75 Turning-Canned Grooving Cycle
G76 Turning-Canned Threading Cycle
G80 Cancel Canned Cycle.-Milling
G81 Canned Drilling Cycle.-Milling

Automation
G82 Canned C'bore Cycle.-Milling

G83 Canned Deep Hole Drilling Cycle.-Milling
G84-
Fixed cycles
89
G90 Absolute Positioning.-Milling-
G91 Incremental Positioning.-Milling-
Repositioning or re-setting the origin point.-
G92
Milling-
G90-
Reserved for future
99
G98 Turning-Linear Feedrate Per Time
Milling-Cancel G92 position set.(Part
G98
Reference Zero)
G99 Turning-Feedrate Per Revolution
Dimensional Words
A CNC control will instruct the machine to move the desired tool to a position parallel to the identified axis
to the position indicated by the dimension words e.g X10.0 Y-20.0. If there is no sign it shall be assumed
to be positive. To drill a hole 50mm deep at a set position the line of code would read (say) N20 G01
X30.0, Y60.0, Z -50.0.
Feed Rate
There are a number of methods of indicating the feed rate.. i.e.
F45 may indicate 45mm/min..
F0.3 may indicate 0.3mm/rev..
F10 may indicate a feed rate number for a rate predetermined by the machine tool maker..
Tool Number
The different tools used for machining a part will be allocated a different number. The tool number will
identify the tool offset parameters and the tool loading position amongst other information.
Miscellaneous functions
A number of miscellaneous functions are available for various housekeeping operations..
M00 Program Stop
M01 Optional Stop
M02 End Program
M03 Spindle CW
M04 Spindle CCW
M05 Spindle off
M06 Tool Change
M07 Mist coolant on
M08 Flood Coolant on
M09 Coolant off
M30 End of Tape

Automation
Data Input
One method of inputting the information into CNC machines is via Manual Date Input MDI. This can be
from a keyboard or via a learning mode..
The technology for stored data input has evolved from punched tape to magnetic tape to floppy disc.
Program information can be input via a PC using the G & M codes as indicated above or direct for CAD
CAM software..
Links Providing information on Automation in machine tools
1. AGV- Products Guidance..Different Systems for Guiding AGV's

2. Gudel - Gantry based handling systems..Module gantry handling systems - Downloadable design information
3. Training Materials For CNC..Various products can be obtain for training /application of CNC
4. CAD\CAM\CNC GLOSSARY..A comprehensive list of the relevant terms
Home
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Machining

Drilling
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Drilling
Drilling Process
The drilling machine (drill press) is a single purpose machine for the production of holes. Drilling is
generally the best method of producing holes. The drill is a cylinderical bar with helical flutes and
radial cutting edges at one end. The drilling operation simply consist of rotating the drill and feeding
it into the workpiece being drilled.
The process is simple and reasonably accurate and the drill is easily controlled both in cutting speed and feed rate. The drill is probably one
of the original machining processes and is the most widely used.
Drilling machine -important features/dimensions
Notes on Selection of Drilling Machines
Normal pillar drilling machines (Drill Press) are specified basically by the size of hole the machine
can drill in Mild Steel i.e a 16mm machine can drill holes upto and including 16mm dia in mild
steel. The speed range of a drilling machine is related to the size e.g. machines for small holes
down to 1mm can have speed ranges up to 8000rpm. Larger drilling machines more suited for
drilling holes. up to 25mm will have a more limited range. A machine which is used to drill larger
holes ( >15mm) is not generally suitable for drilling small diameter holes (< 1 mm). Smaller
machines are provided with permanent chucks whilst larger machines gnerally include morse tapers
for fixing the drills.
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Drilling
Most pillar drills are manually fed using a rotating lever driving the vertical motion of the
spindle. Larger machines can have power drives feeds.
A belt driven spindle is often a convenient low cost option but there is a tendency in modern times to
use geared /inverter drives.
When drilling holes in a material a number of factors should be considered including
● Material being drilled

● Hole size
● Hole quality.
● Speed /Feed required
● Depth of hole
● Through or Blind Hole
● Need for coolant
● Capacity of drilling machine
● Method of work holding. Hand held, vice, clamped
● Orientation of drill (horizontal , vertical drilling, angle
● Swarf control
Drilling Machines/ Machining Centres
The machines below are the classical designs. The modern trend is towards machining centres
which are CNC controlled machines with tool changing facilities and ability to perform multiple
machining operations including drilling.
Notes on Selection of Drilling Machines
Bench Drill
The most common form of drilling machine is the bench drill. As the name implies this machine is
normally bolted down to a bench. The workpiece can be clamped onto the worktable or onto the
base. Tee slots are normally provided for this function. The worktable can be moved up and down
the vertical column. The worktable can be clamped at the selected height. The drill is normally
located in a three jaw chuck which is rotated by the drive system. The figure below shows a belt
drive. Modern bench drills are driven by more sophisticated arrangements. The chuck is moved up
and down by a feed handle which drives rotating spindle via a rack and pinion mechanism.

Drilling
Pillar Drill
The pillar drill has the same features as the bench drill. This drill is however free standing and is of a far heavier construction able to take
larger drills. The larger drills normally have taper shanks which are located within a taper bore in the spindle end. These tapers are
standardised as morse tapers.

Drilling
Radial Arm Drill
The radial drill is a free standing and the workpiece is clamped in position on the base. The drill head is positioned using motorised drives.

Drilling
Drills
There are two common types of twist drills, high-speed steel drills, and carbide-tipped drills. The most common type used for normal
workshop practice is the high-speed steel twist drill because of its low cost. Carbide-tipped metal drills are used in production work where
the drill must remain sharp for extended periods, such as in a numerically controlled drilling machine. Other types of drills available include
solid carbide drills, TiN coated drills, diamond drills etc. etc.
Twist drills shanks are either straight shank or tapered shank (Morse taper). Straight shank twist drills are usually 12mm or smaller and are
gripped in the drill chucks. Tapered shank drills are usually for the larger drills that need more strength which is provided by the taper
socket chucks.
Common twist drill sizes range from 0.3mm to 90mm in diameter. Larger holes are cut by special drills that are not considered as twist
drills.
Types of Drills Bits

Drilling
Typical Drilling Processes
Drilling Feeds and Speeds
The notes below ralate to HSS drills. For drills manufactured with more exotic material
combinations much higher feed and speed rates are viable

Drilling
Drilling feeds range from 0,03m to 0,5mm rev the feed rate being higher as the drill size increases
from say 1mm to 60mm.
Table of drilling speeds

Drilling
Material speed
m/min
Aluminium /
35-65
alloys
Brass /Bronze 35-75
Copper 30-60
Malleable iron 20-40
Grey Cast iron 24-30
Nickel/Monel
12-20
alloys
Nimonic alloys 6-9
Mild Steel 20-30
Alloy Steel 12-18
Medium
14-20
Carbon Steel
High Tensile
5-14
Steel
Stainless
6-15
Steel
Aus.
Stainless 6-10
Steel
Mart.
Stainless 12-20
Steel
Zinc Based
45-75
alloy
Tapping /Clearance drill sizes
The tapping sizes are based on BS 1157:1975 and the clearance sizes are based on BS 4186:1967
Clearance Drill Size

Dia Tapping
Close Med Free
(Pitch) Drill size
(H12) (H13) (H14)
mm mm mm mm mm
1,6(0,35 1,2 1,7 1,8 2,0
2,0 (0,40) 1,6 2,2 2,4 2,6
2,5 (0,45) 2,05 2,7 2,9 3,1

Drilling
3,0 (0,50) 2,50 3,2 3,4 3,6

3,5 (0,60) 2,90 3,75 3,95 4,2
4,0 (0,70) 3,30 4,3 4,5 4,8
5,0 (0,80) 4,20 5,3 5,5 5,8
6,0 (1,0) 5.00 6,4 6,6 7,0
8,0 (1,25) 6.80 8,4 9,0 10,0
10,0
8,50 10,5 11,0 12,0
(1,50)
12,0
10,20 13,0 14,0 15,0
(1,75)
14,0 (2,0) 12,00 15,0 16,0 17,0
16,0 (2,0) 14,00 17,0 18,0 19,0
20,0
17,50 21,0 22,0 24,0
(2,50)
24,0 (3,0) 21,00 25,0 26,0 28,0
30,0 (3,5) 26,50 31,0 33,0 35,0
36,0 (4,0) 32,00 37,0 39,0 42,0
42,0
37,50 43,0 45,0 48,0
(4,50
48,0 (5,0) 43,00 50,0 52,0 56,0
56,0 (5,5) 50,5 58,0 62,0 66,0
64,0 (6,0) 58,0 66,0 70,0 74,0
72,0 (6,0) 66,0 74,0 78,0 82,0
Links Providing information on Drilling
1. DIY data..Notes on various types of lower duty drilling machines

2. Drilling ..Relevant Information
3. Choosing a drill bit ..Lowes DIY and general information
4. Drill-service.co.uk .. A supplier of drills and associated equipment
5. Meddings .. Notes on choosing a Machine
6. Dormer .. A Main supplier of drills and similar products - Lots of useful information
Home
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Machining

Turning
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Turning/ Lathes etc
Introduction
The lathe is available in many forms as listed below. All lathes are based upon the centre lathe as shown in the figure below; The basic operations
that can be carried out on lathes include:-Turning, Facing, Boring, Drilling, Reaming, Counterboring, Countersinking, Threading, Knurling and
Parting.
Types of Lathes
1. Centre lathes
❍ Engine lathes
❍ Bench lathes
❍ Toolroom lathes
❍ Speed lathes
❍ Duplicating lathes
❍ Production lathes
❍ Vertical lathes
2. Capstan/Turret lathes
3. Automatic lathes
Center Lathes
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Turning
All of the important features of the lathe are shown on the above figure.
The headstock spindle which is hollow to allow bar stock to be fed through is generally provided with a
special male thread to allow chucks etc. to be easily fitted and removed. Some of the different work
holding units which can be fitted onto the headstock spindle are shown below.
Work Holding Devices

Turning
Cutting Tool Terms
● Face ..top surface of cutting tool

● Cutting Edge ..The part of the cutting tool which actually cuts the metal comprises the side cutting edge and the end cutting edge
● Flank ..The side of the cutting tool below the side cutting edge
● Nose ..Point to the tool
● Nose Radius ..The radius of the nose - 0,4mm for heavy cuts ,0,4-1,5mm for finishing cuts
● Nose Angle ..Plan angle between the side cutting edge and the end cutting edge
● Side Cutting Edge angle ..Angle between the side cutting edge and the line of the shank side
● End cutting edge angle ..Angle between the end cutting edge and a line drawn 90o to the shank side
● Side Relief/clearance Angle ..The angle between the tool flank and the original side of the tool
● End Relief/clearance Angle ..The angle between the end of tool and a line drawn 90o to the Centre line of the Lathe
● Side Rake ..Angle between the tool face and the horizontal Plane parallel to the axis of the lathe
● Back Rake Rake ..Angle between the tool face and the horizontal Plane 90o to the axis of the lathe
Cutting Speeds
The cutting speed is the speed at which the work surface passes the cutting tool. This is mainly
dependent on the material being turned and the cutting tool material. The table below indicates some
approximate cutting speed for turning on a lathe.
For information on cutting materials refer Cutting Materials. For information on cutting fluids refer Cutting

Turning
Fluids
Rough Finishing
Cutting Tool
Material Cut Cut
Material
m/min m/min
H.S.S 35 90
Free Cutting
Cast Alloy 75 145
Steel
Carbide 125 205
H.S.S 31 80
Low Carbon
Cast Alloy 65 130
Steel
Carbide 106 190
H.S.S 30 69
Medium
Cast Alloy 58 107
Carbon Steel;
Carbide; 92 152
H.S.S 24 61
High Carbon
Cast Alloy 53 91
Steel
Carbide 76 137
H.S.S 24 41
Cast Iron Grey Cast alloy 43 76
Carbide 69 125
H.S.S 53 110
Brass / Bronze
Cast Alloy 105 170
Free Cutting
Carbide 175 275
H.S.S 40 90
Aluminium Cast Alloy 55 115
Carbide 75 185
H.S.S 30 75
Plastics Cast Alloy 45 115
Carbide 60 150
Links Providing information on Turning
1. Lathes..An archive of pictures and information on machine tools including milling machines
2. Budget Machinery..Specifications of Modern Turning machines
3. Turning Machines..Manufacturing Centre - Various Machine Specifications
4. Turning ..Michigan U. Lecture notes
Home
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Turning

Milling Machines
Disclaimer: the information on this page has not been checked by an independent
ROYMECH
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Machining
Milling Machines
Introduction
A milling machine is a machine tool that cuts metal with a multiple-tooth cutting tool called a milling
cutter. the workpiece is fastened to the milling machine table and is fed against the revolving milling
cutter. the milling cutters can have cutting teeth on the periphery or sides or both. the cutting teeth can
be straight or spiral.
Milling machines can be classified under three main headings:..
1. General Purpose machines - these are mainly the column and knee type (horizontal & vertical machines)
2. High Production types with fixed beds- (horizontal types)
3. Special Purpose machines such as duplicating, profiling, rise and fall , rotary table ,planetary and double end types
Milling attachments can also be fitted to other machine tools including lathes planing machines and drill
bench presses can be used with milling cutters.
Additional Notes
Cutting Tool Materials... Cutting Tool Materials..
Cutting Fluids... Cutting Fluids..
Milling Cutters
There are a wide range of milling cutters as illustrated in BS 122-1. these include
● Plain cutters ( most types have straight or helical teeth)

● End mills (taper or parallel shank, slotting or shell)
● Cylindrical side and face slotting,screw slotting
● Single,double and equal angle cutters:
● T-slot, convex, single and double corner rounding cutters
● Metal slitting saws:
● Hollow Mills
Typical Milling cutters
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Milling Machines
Tee Slot Milling Cutter
Shell End Mill
High Helix Cylinderical Cutter

Milling Machines
Slotting Cutter
Relevant Standards
BS 122-1:1953..Milling cutters. Milling cutters
BS 122-4:1980..Milling cutters. Screwed shank end mills and slot drills
BS 122-5:1986..Milling cutters. Specification for mounting dimensions and accessories
BS 122-6:1995, ISO 240:1994..Milling cutters. Specification for dimensions for interchangeability of cutter
arbors and cutter mandrels
Column and Knee Machine -Vertical Milling Machine
Vertical milling machines have their cutting tool spindles vertical and are characterised by by their heavy
overarms which are integral with their columns. this provide rigid support for the spindle housing which is
set at a fixed distance from from the column. the milling head can be adjusted vertically

Milling Machines
Column and Knee Machine - Horizontal Milling Machine
This is the basic milling machine configuration. the workpiece can be fed in all three axes and is suitable
for short production runs but it is not as rigid as a fixed bed machine and should not be used for heavy
duty work..Because of the large number of controls it is relatively slow to operate.

Milling Machines
Fixed Bed Milling Machines
Fixed bed or production type machines are designed for rapid metal removal requiring the minimum of
operator involvement. On this type of machine the table is fixed permitting machine table movement in
one horizontal direction only. the workpiece has to be fixed in one location on the table and all vertical
movements for feeds and lateral positioning are by moving the spindle in the spindle carrier mounted on
the headstock. A plain machine has just one spindle and a duplex machine has two spindles. this type
of machine can have one column or two columns providing more rigidity.

Milling Machines
Cutting speed HSS cutting tools , Roughing
The table below provides some very approximate cutting speed for different materials using HSS cutters
on roughing cuts. For finishing cuts the speeds would increase 20% to 50%. For cermet (cemented
carbide)tipped teeth significantly higher cutting speeds are possible see table below.
Surface Speeds
Rough Feeds
Material Cut Feed per tooth (mm) for HSS and Different Milling Cutter Forms
m/min Plain Plain
Cutter Type -> Face Side End Form Slitting
Low Carbon Heavy light
24-30
Steel Material v
Med. Carbon Steel Low
Steel 23-30 0,25 0,15 0,3 0,15 0,15 0,1 0,08
Carbon
Annealed Steel-Low
High Carbon 0,2 0,13 0,25 0,13 0,13 0,08 0,08
Carbon
Steel 18-25
Steel-Med
Annealed 0,2 0,13 0,23 0,13 0,1 0,08 0,05
Carbon
Tool Steel
18-25 Steel -High
Annealed 0,1 0,08 0,15 0,08 0,05 0,05 0,05
Carbon

Milling Machines
Stainless Stainless steel

0,2 0,13 0,25 0,13 0,1 0,08 0,05
Steel 18-25 Free cutting
Annealed Stainless steel 0,1 0,08 0,15 0,1 0,05 0,05 0,05
Grey Cast Cast Iron-grey 0,3 0,2 0,36 0,2 0,2 0,1 0,1
18-25
Iron
Cast Iron-
Malleable 0,25 0,15 0,3 0,15 0,15 0,1 0,08
25-30 medium
Iron
Brass 60-90 Cast Iron -
0,25 0,15 0,3 0,15 0,15 0,1 0,08
Malleable
Bronze 30-60
Aluminium/ Brass /Bronze 0,25 0,2 0,33 0,2 0,15 0,1 0,08
120-300
Alloys Aluminium/
0,41 0,2 0,51 0,3 0,25 0,18 0,1
alloys
Cermet Surface Speed /Feed Rates
The table below provides some indicative values for the surface speeds and feeds (mm/tooth) that can
be achieved using cermet type e.g cemented carbide tipped milling cutters.
Surface Speed Feed /tooth

Material
(mm/m) (mm)
Aluminum
low silicon ( < 450-550 0,12-0,18
8% )
Aluminum,
Aluminum-
bronze 250-350 0,13-0,2
high silicon ( >
8% )
Bronze 300-330 0,13-0,2
Cast Iron,
120-220 0,08-0,15
Malleable
Cast Iron Gray 180-360 0,1-0,4
Cast Iron
180-260 0,1-0,2
Nodular (ductile)
Copper 370 0,18
Inconel 30 0,08
Stainless steel-
500-800 0,05-0,15
Ferr/Mart
Stainless steel-
150-250 0,08-0,15
cast
Stainless steel-
120 0,08
304
Stainless steel-
90 0,08-0,1
316L

Milling Machines
Steel, unalloyed 250-430 0,003-0,006

Steel, low alloy 180-360 0,08-0,15
Steel, low alloy
120-220 0,05-0,15
hardened
Steel, high alloy
120-220 0,076-0,15
annealed
Steel, high alloy
76 0,05
hardened
Steel, cast
180-360 0,1-0,2
low alloy
Steel, cast
120-220 0,08-0,15
high alloy
Titanium 30-64 0,05-0,08
Tungsten 120 0,05-0,1
Links Providing information on Milling
1. Milling Machine Lecture Notes..MIT Eng.Dep. Very useful general information

2. Budget Machinery..Specifications of Machine Tools
3. Milling ..Machine Tool Manufacturing Education- Very useful notes
4. OTM tools -Milling ..Millng technical information notes - Cermet feeds and speeds
5. Milling Cutters ..Manufacturing Talk milling cutter reference page
6. Coromant Sandvik ..Supplier and useful reference source
7. Calculating Feeds and Speeds ..Modern Machine Shop Online Article
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Machining

Grinding
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Machining
Grinding /Abrasive Machining
Abrasive Machining
Abrasive machining uses hard non-metallic particles to machine the work surface. Relevant
processes include grinding, honing, superfinishing / abrasive belt machining and honing. The
first three processes uses abrasive particles (grit), rigidly held in a wheel, stone, or belt.
Lapping is based on the abrasive particles being retained in a fluid.
Grinding
The grinding process is used to produce a high surface finish with a close tolerance and for
machining hard materials. The process is a variation of polishing using abrasive materials
held together by an adhesive generally in the form of a solid wheel. The wheel is rotated at
high speeds and the circumferential surface of the rotating wheel is brought into contact with
the material being machined.
Reasons for grinding:
1. Removal of surplus material

2. Production of high quality surface finishes
3. Machining very hard materials
The two main abrasives used for grinding wheels are

● Aluminium Oxide (for use on materials with a high tensile strength.
● Silicon Carbide (for use on materials with a low tensile strength
The grinding wheel variables including: abrasive material, bonding material, abrasive particle size etc are selected depending on:
required surface finish, metal removal rate, material, wheel speed etc.
Different Grinding Processes
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Grinding
Surface Grinder
The surface grinder is used in the toolroom for the production of accurate flat surfaces. This machine has a similar layout to the
horizontal milling machine but only removes small thicknesses of material on the grinding passes.

Grinding
The Cylindrical Grinding Machine
This machine is use to generate cylindrical surfaces and is similar to a centre lathe in appearance. The main difference is that the
tool is replace by a rotating grinding wheel.
The Vertical Grinding Machine
Information to be added...
The Centreless Grinding machine
This type of grinding machine is for pure cylindrical prism shapes which do not required mounting. The workpieces are fed through
two parallel rotating wheels: a conventional grinding wheel and a rubberised regulating wheel. The regulating wheel is inclined at a
slight angle to facilitate axial movement (like a screw thread).

Grinding
Links Providing information on Grinding
1. Grinding - Facts, History and Information ..A short general review and reference source
2. Budget Machinery..Specifications of Machine Tools
3. Grinding..Machine Shop Online Links to articles
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Machining

Shaping
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Shaping Machine Tools
The shaping process was used in the early days of machine tools. Shaping machines are not widely used now. Shaping produces flat surfaces by
moving a single point cutting tool in a recprocating motion. The forward stroke is the cutting stroke the backward movement is completed at a faster
velocity and includes the sideways feed motion.
The shaping machine is a versitile machine able to produce flat surfaces , grooves, T-Slots, dovetails, and may be used to produce curves surfaces.
The size of components that may be machine is normally limited by the length of the stroke of the shaping machine which can vary up to a
maximum of about 1500mm. (750mm is normally the maximum stroke. The shaping machine is not generally used as a production tool because of
its slow cutting speed and the unproductive return stroke.
SHAPING MACHINE
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Shaping
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Planers
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Machining
Planing Machine Tools
Planing is used for the production of flat surfaces. The workpiece is clamped onto the worktable and the worktable is reciprocated while the tool is
held stationary. The tool is only moved to provide a feed when the workpiece is moving on the return stroke.
The worktable moves on hardened ways and is designed for large size work.
As the tool post and the bedplate are designed to be very rigid the planer can take very heavy cuts and can machine very accurately. (0,5mm to
0,075mm).
The largest length of workpiece is limited by the table stroke and the largest section is limited by the size of the toolhead. The width of worktable
can be up to 2,5m and the length of strokecan be up to 7m.
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Planers
Planer Millers
The planer millers have all the features of planing machines but include a milling cutting head in place to the single point cutting tools
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Saws
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Machining
Saws
There are a number of types of saw
Machine designed to use a serrated-tooth blade to cut metal or other material. Comes in a wide variety of styles, but takes one of four basic forms:
1. Hacksaw (a simple, rugged machine that uses a reciprocating motion to part metal or other material);
2. Cold or circular saw (powers a circular blade that cuts structural materials);
3. Bandsaw (runs an endless band; the two basic types are cutoff and contour Band machines, which cut intricate contours and shapes);
4. Abrasive cutoff saw (similar in appearance to the cold saw, but uses an abrasive disc that rotates at high speeds rather than a blade with
serrated teeth).
Power Hacksaw
Power hacksaws have a rigid bow frame supporting a horizonal straight saw blade. They operate in a
reciprocating motion. On the cutting stroke the blade teeth are forced into the metal, being cut, using
gravity or by hydraulic pressure. On the return stroke the blade is unloaded/ lifted to reduce wear on the
blade.
Power saws generally have a chip tray to retain the metal waste and to catch the lubricating fluid. Saws
can be dry cutting or lubricated. Lubricated saws can cut at a higher speed.
The cutting speeds are expressed in cutting strokes per minute, The cutting speeds can range from 50 to
150 cutting strokes per minute.
The hacksaws are sized for standard blade lengths from 300mm to 800mm. The relevant standard
blade thicknesses range from 0,8mm to 2,5mm and the bladewidth range from 16mm to 65mm.
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Saws
Cold /Circular Saw
Cold saw are low speed circular saws specially made for cutting metal. They range in size from hand
operated models with 200mm blades to large machines with blade diameters of over 900mm.
This type of saw is often used for cutting structural sections such as universal columns and beams.
Horizontal heavy duty machines can cut bars of up to 250mm thick.
The blade width relates to the kerf they make. The blade width varies as the diameter and the width
varies from 2mm to 8mm. The larger blades (over 400mm) have inserted teeth made from high-speed
steel. Teeth pitches vary from fine (8mm) to coarse (16mm). The fine blades are used for cutting thin
walled pipes and tubes..
Note: The kerf is the width of the slot in the metal produced by the blade

Saws
Bandsaw
Vertical bandsaws may be used for making straight cuts, angular cuts or curved line cuts. These saws
are often referred as contouring machines. The saw table can be rotated at an angle (up to 45o for
making angular cuts.
The band saw speed can be varied over a range and is varied for optimum cutting against the following
variables
● The kind of material being cut

● The hardness of the material
● The thickness of the material
● Cutting wet (lubricated) or dry
Slower speed are used for harder, thicker when not lubricated...

Saws
Abrasive Cut-Off Saw
Abrasive cut-off saws use abrasive discs for stock cut-off. They are either manual or power fed. They
can have fixed in-out motion or can operate with a reciprocating head. Repiprocating saws are best for
thick tough metals.
Machine sizes vary for hand operated bench saws with 200mm dia disc blades to large machines with
500mm dia disc blades.
This type of saw is most useful for cutting very tough hard material that cannot easily be cut with other
types of saw blades..

Saws
Links Providing information on Saws
1. Behringer Saws ..A Metal Sawing Machine manufacturer
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Machining

Cutting Tool Materials
ROYMECH
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Machining
High Carbon Steel

This material is one of the earliest cutting materials used in machining. It is however now virtually
superseded by other materials used in engineering because it starts to temper at about 220oC . This
softening process continues as the temperature rises. As a result cutting using this material for tools is
limited to speeds up to 0.15 m/s for machining mild steel with lots of coolant.
High Speed Steel (HSS)

This range of metals contain about 7% carbon, 4% chromium plus additions of tungsten, vanadium,
molybdenum and cobalt. These metals maintain their hardness at temperature up to about 600o, but
soften rapidly at higher temperatures. These materials are suitable for cutting mild steel at speeds up
maximum rates of 0.8 m/s to 1.8 m/s.
Cast Alloys
These cutting tools are made of various nonferous metals in a cobalt base. They can withstand cutting
temperatures of up to 760oC and are capable of cutting speeds about 60% higher than HSS.
Cemented carbides (cermet) (sintered carbide)

This material usually consists of tungsten carbide or a mixture of tungsten carbide, titanium, or tantalum
carbide in powder form, sintered in a matrix of cobalt or nickel. because this material is expensive and
has low rupture strength it is normally made in the form of tips which are brazed or clamped on a steel
shank. The clamped tips are generally used as throw away inserts.
Coated Carbides
The cutting system is based on providing a thin layer of high wear-resistant titanium carbide fused to a
conventional tough grade carbide insert, thus achieving a tool combining the wear resistance of one
material with the wear resistance of another. These systems provide a longer wear resistance and a
higher cutting speed compared to conventional carbides.
Ceramics
Ceramics are made by powder metallurgy from aluminium oxide with additions of titanium oxide and
magnesium oxide to improve cutting properties. These have a very high hot resistance and wear
resistance and can cut at very high speed. However they are brittle and have little resistance to to
shock. Their use is therefore limited to tips used for continuous high speed cutting on vibration-free
machines.
Diamonds
Diamonds have limited application due to the high cost and the small size of the of the stones. They are
used on very hard materials to produce a fine finish and on soft materials. especially those inclined to
clog other cutting materials. They are generally used at very high cutting speed with low feed and light
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cuts. Due to the brittleness of the diamonds the machine has to be designed to be vibration free. The
tools last for 10 (up to 400) times longer than carbide based tools.
Links Providing information on Cutting Tools
1. Cutting Tool Engineering.. A website devoted to cutting tools

2. Coromant.sandvik...A major supplier of Ceramic Cutting Tool inserts - Very informative
3. Cutting Tools & a high speed chase...Short Interesting article
4. Modern Machine Shop Online...Collection of Relevant articles
5. OTM tools Cermet Insert Information...Tool supplier with useful info. on cermet tools
Home
Manufacturing Index
Machining
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Cutting Fluids
ROYMECH
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Machining
Cutting Fluids
Introduction
For many machining operations including sawing, drilling, turning, milling and grinding cutting fluids can
be used to allow higher cutting speeds to be used, to prolong the cutting tool life, and, to some extent
reduce the tool- work surface friction during machining.. The fluid is used as a coolant and also
lubricates the cutting surfaces.
The advantages of using cutting fluids are listed below
● Cools the work surface and tool

● Lubricates the interface between the work surface and tool
● Flushes away some dust,chippings, and swarf
● Reduces tendency for chip adhesion/pressure welding to tool tip
● May improve resulting surface finish
● May increase tool life (see below)
● Allows higher cutting speeds
There are some disadvantages in using cutting fluids as listed below
● For certain Machine tools- A costly engineering system is required for applying the fluid
● The fluid used has to be prepared and after use, filtered for re-use of disposed
● some fluid have a health risk if not used correctly causing problems such as dermititus
● Some cutting materials are affected by thermal shock e.g. cemented carbides. Use of cutting fluids should be avoided for these materials
The vast majority of cutting fluids used are liquids in the form of extended mineral oils and/or synthetic
fluids, which emulsify in water. These fluids can be applied as a pumped flow or via an oil mist using
compressed air. A number of specialised machining operations use injected gases (compressed air or
inert gases). Solid or paste cutting substances are also used which include greases, pastes, waxes,
soaps, graphite based substances etc e.g tallow for tapping
Important.. When machining magnesium there is a fire hazard risk if water based cutting fluids are
used. Hot water reacting with magnesium results in the production of hydrogen gas. Magnesium should
be machined dry or with a low acid anhydrous oil /mineral based oil.
Cutting fluids review
Lard Oil is an oil from lard (tallow) is an excellent cutting oil but it is relatively expensive and so it it mostly
used in combination with mineral oils.
Mineral oils are used for non-ferrous alloy and free-cutting steels for low duty machining
operations. They are generally extracted from petroleum oil. This group includes paraffin.
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Cutting Fluids
Emulsifiable oil (soluble oil) is produced by adding oil to water forming a milky white solution. The
concentration used depends on the severity of the machining operation. The more severe the operation
the more oil is added in the solution. The manufactures recommendation should be used in preparing
the fluid
Synthetics (chemical fluids) are solutions of organic and inorganic chemicals dissolved in water. Plain
fluid solutions have reasonable rust inhibition, good cooling and low lubricity and are used for grinding
operations. Other types include additives for surface wetting properties and improved lubrication and EP
(extreme pressure) properties. These are used for a wide range of machining operations
Cutting fluids for machining common metals
● E = Emulsifiable oil, souluble oil diluted in ratio of 1:5 to 1:50 with water
● M = Mineral oil-Synthetic or natural based oils
● ML = Mineral oil- Lard(Tallow) combination
● P = Paraffin (Kerosene) - Use and store with extreme care
● S = Synthetics (Chemical cutting fluid)
Material Sawing Drilling Reaming Threading Turning Milling Grinding

Carbon Steel
E,M,ML E,S,ML ML,S,E S,ML,E E,S,ML E,S,ML E
Mallable Iron
Wrought Iron
Stainless
E,M,ML E,S,ML ML,S S,ML,E E,S,ML E,S,ML E
Steels
Tool Steels
Grey Cast Iron Dry, E Dry, E Dry, E Dry, E, ML Dry, E Dry, E, Dry, E,M
Aluminium E,M,ML, E,M,
Dry,E,M E,M,ML ML,M,E ML,M,E,P E
Alloys P ML
Copper Alloys Dry,M, E,M,
E,M,ML ML,M,E ML,M,E E,M,ML E,M
Brass, Bronze ML,E ML
Magnesium
Dry,M Dry,M Dry,M Dry,M Dry,M Dry,M Dry,M
Alloys
Links Providing information on Cutting Tools
1. Cutting Fluids Page.. A comprehensive review of cutting fluid science

2. Cutting Fluid ...Alu-Info Cutting fluid selection for aluminium
3. Soluble Cutting Fluids - Supplier Data by CastrolAzom.com - Useful information article
4. Cutting fluid Management...A document download - Pollution prevention guide- includes much infomative information
Home
Manufacturing Index
Machining

Cutting Fluids

Corrosion Resistance Stainless Steels
ROYMECH
Home
Corrosion Index
Corrosion Resistance of St.Stls (304,321,347,316 ), Nickel, Monel, Iconel, Hastalloy C
The table below indicates the approximate corrosion resistance of selected corrosion resistant metals to a range of common chemicals. This is
collated information from various sources but is of limited quality. For good quality information please consult reputable reference texts and/or the
links provided below the table
Key to Letters designating corrosion resistance
● A...Excellent Good Resistance less than 0,01mm per month (0,1 mm per year)
● B...Good Resistance < 0,01mm to 0,1mm per month (0,1mm to 1mm per year)
● C...Fair Resistance 0,1mm to 0,25mm per month ( 1mm to 3mm per year)
● D...Some Resistance 0,25mm to 0,9mm per month (3mm -11 mm per year)
● E...No Resistance > 0,9 mm per month (11 mm per year)
304,
Temp 321,347 316,316L Hastalloy
Chemical /condition oC Nickel Monel Iconel
Stain. Stain. Stl. C
Stl.
Acetic Acid (20%) 21 A A A A A A
Acetic Acid (50%) 21 A A B A A A
Acetic Acid (50%) Boiling C B B A B A
Acetic Acid (80%) 21 A A B A A A
Acetic Acid (80%) Boiling D B B A B A
Acetic Acid (100%) 21 A A A A A A
Acetic Acid (100%) Boiling C B C B B A
Acetic Acid (100% -
204 E C - - - A
150 lb pressure)
Acetic Anhydride Boiling A A A A A A
Acetic Anhydride 21 A A A A A A
Acetic Vapours
Hot E C C B B
(100%)
Acetic Vapours
Hot C B - - -
(30%)
Acetone Boiling A A A A A A
Acetone 21 A A A A A
Alcohol Ethyl 21 A A A A A A
Alcohol Ethyl Boiling A A A A A A
Alcohol Methyl 21 A A A A A A
Alcohol Methyl 66 C B A A A A
Aluminium Acetate -
A A - - -
saturated
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Aluminium Chloride 21 D C B B C A
Alum (Chrome) 5% 21 A A C C A
Aluminium Fluoride 21 D C A A B B
Aluminium
Hydroxide - A A A A A B
saturated
Aluminium Molten E E E E E
Aluminium
Potassium Sulphate 21 A A A A A C
(2% alum)
Aluminium
Potassium Sulphate 21 A A A A A C
(10%)
Aluminium
Potassium Sulphate Boiling B A B A B C
(10%)
Aluminium
Potassium Sulphate Boiling C B C B B C
(saturated)
Aluminium Sulphate
21 A A A A A B
(10%)
Aluminium Sulphate
Boiling B A B A B B
(10%)
Aluminium Sulphate
21 A A A A A B
(saturated)
Aluminium Sulphate
Boiling B A B A B B
(saturated)
Ammonia - all
21 A A - - A A
concentrations
Ammonia - gas Hot D - - - - A
Ammonia Liquor 21 A A C C A A
Ammonia Liquor Boiling A A C C A A
Ammonium
21 A A A A A
Bicarbonate
Ammonium
Hot A A A A A
Bicarbonate
Ammonium
Carbonate (1% & 21 A A A A A B
5%)
Ammonium Chloride
21 A A A A A D
(1%)
Ammonium Chloride
Boiling A A A A B D
(10% solution)
Ammonium Chloride
Boiling B A A A B D
(28% solution)

Ammonium Chloride
Boiling B A A A B D
(50% solution)
Ammonium Nitrate
21 A A C C A B
(All con. agitated)
Ammonium Nitrate
21 A A C C A B
(All con. aerated)
Ammonium Nitrate
Boiling A A E E B B
(saturated)
Ammonium Oxalate
21 A A A A A A
(5%)
Ammonium
21 A A E E A B
Persulphate (5%)
Ammonium
21 A A A A A B
Phosphate (5%)
Ammonium
Sulphate (1% & 5% 21 A A A A A B
agitated)
Ammonium
Sulphate (1% & 5% 21 A A A A A B
aerated)
Ammonium
Boiling B A B A B B
Sulphate (10%)
Ammonium
Boiling B A B A B B
Sulphate (saturated)
Ammonium Sulphite Cold A A C B B
Ammonium Sulphite Boiling A A E C C
Aniline (3%) 21 A A A A A B
Aniline (conc. Crude) 21 A A A A A B
Aniline Hydrochloride 21 E D B B C D
Antimony Trichloride 21 E D A A A
Barium Carbonate 21 A A A A A B
Barium Chloride (5%) 21 A A A A A B
Barium Chloride
21 A A A A A
(saturated)
Barium Chloride
Hot B A A A B
(aqueous solution)
Barium Nitrate
Hot A A C C B
(aqueous solution)
Barium Sulphate
Barytes (blanc * * 21 A A A A A A
*ixe)
Benzene 21 A A A A A B
Benzoic Acid 21 A A A A A B
Hot/
Boracic Acid (5%) A A A A A
Cold

Borax (5%) Hot A A A A A B

Bromide (dry) 21 - - A A A
Bromine Water 21 E D D D D A
Butyric Acid (5%) 21 A A A A A A
Butyric Acid (5%) 66 A A A A A A
Butyric Acid
(aqueous solution - Boiling A A - - A A
sp. g. 0.964)
Calcium Carbonate 21 A A A A A B
Calcium Chlorate
21 A A A A A
(dilute solution)
Calcium Chlorate
Hot A A A A B
(dilute solution)
Calcium Chloride
21 B A A A A A
(dilute solution)
Calcium Chloride
(concentrated 21 B A A A A A
solutions)
Calcium Hydroxide
Boiling A A A A A A
(10%)
Calcium Hydroxide
Boiling A A A A A A
(20%)
Calcium Hydroxide
Boiling C B A A A A
(50%)
Calcium
21 B A C C B B
Hyperchlorite (2%)
Calcium Sulphate
21 A A A A A B
(saturated)
Carbolic Acid
Boiling A A A A A A
(Phenol)
Carbonated water A A A A A
Carbon Bisulphide 21 A A A A A
Carbon monoxide
871 A A - - - B
gas
Carbon monoxide
760 A A - - - B
gas
Carbon tetrachloride
21 A A A A A A
(pure)
Carbon tetrachloride
(aqueous solution - 21 C - A A A
5-10%)
Chloracetic Acid 21 D C A A A A
Chlorbenzol Conc.
21 A A A A A
(pure)
Chloric Acid 21 E D D D D A

Chlorinated Water
21 C B C C B A
(saturated)
Chlorine gas (dry) 21 C B C C C A
Chlorine gas (moist) 21 D C C C C A
Chlorine gas 100 E D A A A
Chloroform 21 A A A A A A
Chromic Acid (5%) 21 A A A A A B
Chromic Acid (10%
Boiling C B C B C A
CP)
Chromic Acid (50%
Boiling D C - - - B
Com. Cont. SO3
Chromium Plating
21 A A C C A
Bath
Citric Acid (5% still) 21 A A A A A A
Citric Acid (5% still) 66 A A A A A A
Citric Acid (15%) 21 A A A A A A
Citric Acid (15%) Boiling B A B A A A
Citric Acid
Boiling C B B A B A
(concentrated)
Copper Acetate
21 A A C C A
(saturated sol.)
Copper Carbonate
(sat. solution in 50% A A C C A
NH_OH)
Copper Chloride
21 B A B B A
(1% agitated)
Copper Chloride
21 B A B B A
(1% aerated)
Copper Chloride
21 C B C C C
(5% agitated)
Copper Chloride
21 E D D D C
(5% aerated)
Copper Cyanide
Boiling A A B B B A
(saturated solution)
Copper Nitrate (1%
21 A A C C A B
and 5%)
Copper Nitrate (50%
Hot A A E E C B
aqueous solution)
Copper Sulphate
21 A A B B A A
(5%)
Copper Sulphate
Boiling A A C C C A
Creosote (Coal Tar) Hot A A A A A A
Creosote Oil Hot A A A A A
Cyanogen Gas 21 A A A A A

Dinitrochlorbenzol
(melted and 21 A A - - -
solidified)
Ether 21 A A A A A B
Ethyl Chloride 21 A A A A A B
Ethylene Chloride 21 A A A A A
Ferric Chloride (1%
21 B A B C C B
solution - still)
Ferric Chloride (1%
Boiling D C E E E B
solution - still)
Ferric Chloride (5%
21 D C D D C B
solution - still)
Ferric Chloride (5% -
21 C C D D C B
agitated)
Ferric Chloride (5% -
21 C C D D C B
aerated)
Ferric Hydroxide
(Hydrated Iron 21 A A A A A
Oxide)
Ferric Nitrate (1%
21 A A D D A B
and 5%)
Ferric Sulphate (1%
21 A A C C A A
and 5%)
Ferrous Sulphate
21 A A A A A B
(dilute sol.)
Fluorine 21 E E A A A B
Formalin (40% sol.
A A A A A
Formaldehyde)
Formic Acid (5% still) 21 B A A A A A
Formic Acid (5% still) 66 B A A A A A
Fuel Oil Hot A A B B A A
Fuel Oil (containing
C B B B B A
sulphuric acid)
Gallic Acid (5%
21 A A A A A B
solution)
Gallic Acid (5%
66 A A A A A B
solution)
Glue (dry) 21 A A A A A
Glue (solution - acid) 21 B A A A A
Glue (solution - acid) 60 B A A A A
Glycerine 21 A A A A A A
Hydrochloric Acid
21 E E B B C A/B
(all concentrations)
Hydrocyanic Acid A A A A A A
Hydrofluosilicic Acid 21 E D A A B B

Hydrogen Peroxide 21 A A A A A A
Hydrogen Peroxide Boiling B A - - - A
Hydrogen Sulphide
A A A A A A
(dry)
Hydrogen Sulphide
B A A A A A
(wet_
Hyposulphite Soda
A A B A A
(Hypo)
Iodine E D D D D A
Iodoform A A - - - D
Lactic Acid (5%) 21 A A A A A B
Lactic Acid (5%) 66 B A A A A B
Lactic Acid (10%) Boiling D B C C B B
Lactic Acid (10%) 66 C B B B B B
Lead Molten B B D D B
Linseed Oil 21 A A A A A
Magnesium Chloride
21 A A A A A A
(1% and 5% - still)
Magnesium Chloride
Hot C B A A A A
(1% and 5% - still)
Hot/
Magnesium Sulphate A A A A A B
Cold
Hot/
Malic Acid B A A A A B
Cold
Mayonnaise 21 A A A A A A
Mercuric Chloride
E D D D D C
(dilute solutions
Mercury A A A A A A
Methanol (Methyl
21 A A A A A A
Alcohol)
Mixed Acids (53%
Cold A A D D A
H2SO4)
Mixed Acids (45%
Cold A A D D A
HN03)
Molasses A A A A A A
Muriatic Acid 21 E E B B C
Mustard 21 A A A B B A
Naphtha 21 A A A A A B
Naphtha (crude) 21 A A A A A B
Nickel Chloride
21 A A B B B B
(solution)
Hot/
Nickel Sulphate A A A A A B
Cold
Niter Cake Fused B A - - -

Nitric Acid (5%

21 A A E E B A
solution)
Nitric Acid (20%
21 A A E E A A
solution)
Nitric Acid (50%
21 A A E E A A
solution)
Nitric Acid (50%
Boiling A A E E C A
solution)
Nitric Acid (65%
Boiling B B E E D A
solution)
Nitric Acid
21 A A E E A B
(concentrated)
Nitric Acid
Boiling D D E E D B
(concentrated)
Nitrous Acid (5%
21 A A D D A D
solution)
Hot/
Oils (crude) A A A A A
Cold
Oils (vegetable, Hot/
A A A A A
mineral) Cold
Oleic Acid 21 A A A A A A
Hot/
Oxalic Acid (5%) A A A A A B
Cold
Oxalic Acid (10%) 21 A A A A A B
Oxalic Acid (10%) Boiling B C B A B B
Hot/
Paraffin A A A A A B
Cold
Petroleum Ether A A A A A
Phenol A A A A A A
Phosphoric Acid
21 A A A A A A
(1%)
Phosphoric Acid
21 A A A A A A
(5%)
Phosphoric Acid
21 C A B A A A
(10% - still)
Phosphoric Acid
21 C B B B B A
(10% - agitated)
Phosphoric Acid
21 C B C C B A
(10% - aerated)
Picric Acid 21 A A - - - B
Potassium
21 A A A A A
Bichromate
Potassium Bromide 21 B A A A A B
Potassium
21 A A A A A B
Carbonate (1%)

Potassium
Hot A A A A A B
Carbonate (1%)
Potassium Chlorate A A A A A B
Potassium Chloride
21 A A A A A A
(1% and 5%)
Potassium Chloride
Boiling A A A A A A
(1% and 5%)
Potassium
21 A A - - - B
Ferricyanide (5%)
Potassium
21 A A - - - B
Ferrocyanide (5%)
Potassium
21 A A A A A B
Hydroxide (5%)
Potassium
Boiling A A A A A B
Hydroxide (27%)
Potassium
Boiling B A A A A B
Hydroxide (50%)
Potassium Nitrate
21 A A A A A B
(1% and 5%)
Potassium Nitrate
Hot A A A A A B
(1% and 5%)
Potassium Oxalate A A A A A A
Potassium
21 A A A A A A
Permanganate (5%)
Potassium Sulphate
21 A A A A A B
(1% and 5%)
Potassium Sulphate
Hot A A A A A B
(1% and 5%)
Potassium Sulphide
A A A A A
(salt)
Pyrogallic Acid A A A A A
Quinine Bisulphate
B A A A A
(dry)
Quinine Sulphate
A A A A A
(dry)
Rosin Molten A A A A A
Sea Water A A A A A A
Sewage A A A A A
Silver Bromide B A - - - A
Silver Chloride E E - - -
Silver Nitrate A A E E A A
Soap 21 A A A A A A
Sodium Acetate
A A A A A A
(moist)

Sodium Bicarbonate
21 A A A A A B
Sodim Bicarbonate
66 A A A A A B
(5% - still)
Sodium Carbonate
21 A A A A A A
(5%)
Sodium Carbonate
66 A A A A A A
(5%)
Sodium Chloride
21 A A A A A A
(5% - still)
Sodium Chloride
66 A A A A A A
(5% - still)
Sodium Chloride
21 A A A A A A
(20% aerated)
Sodium Chloride
21 A A A A A A
(saturated)
Sodium Chloride
Boiling B A A A A A
(saturated)
Sodium Fluoride
B A A A A A
(5% solution)
Sodium Hydroxide A A A A A
Sodium Hypochlorite
B A C C C A
(5% - still)
Sodium Hyposulphite 21 A A A A A
Sodium Nitrate Fused C B A B A B
Sodium Sulphate
21 A A A A A B
(5% -still)
Sodium Sulphate (all
21 A A A A A B
concentrations)
Sodium Sulphide
B A A A A B
(saturated)
Sodium Sulphite
21 A A A A A B
(5%)
Sodium Sulphite
66 A A A A A B
(10%)
Stannic Chloride
Boiling E E B B C
(Sp. G. 1.21)
Stannic Chloride
21 D C A B B
(solution)
Stannous Chloride
C A A B B
(saturated)
Stearic Acid A A A A A
Sulphur Chloride E D A A A
Sulphur Dioxide Gas
21 B A D C C
(moist)

Sulphur Dioxide Gas

302 A A - - -
(moist)
Sulphur (dry) Molten A A A A A
Sulphur (wet) B A B B A
Sulphuric Acid (5%) 21 C B A A A B
Sulphuric Acid (5%) Boiling E C D A C B
Sulphuric Acid (10%) 21 C B B A B B
Sulphuric Acid (10%) Boiling E D C A C B
Sulphuric Acid (50%) 21 D C B A B B
Sulphuric Acid (50%) Boiling E D E E E B
Sulphuric Acid
21 A A B B B A
(concentrated)
Sulphuric Acid
Boiling D D E E E A
(concentrated)
Sulphuric Acid
149 E E E E E A
(concentrated)
Sulphuric Acid
21 C B C B B B
(fuming)
Sulphurous Acid
21 C B E E E B
(saturated)
Sulphurous Acid
(saturated 60 lb 121 C B E E E B
pressure)
Sulphurous Acid
(saturated 70 - 125 154 C B E E E B
lb pressure)
Sulphurous Acid
191 C B E E E B
(150 lb pressure)
Sulphurous Acid
21 D D E E E B
(sulphurous spray)
Tannic Acid 21 A A A A A B
Tannic Acid 66 B A A A A B
Tartaric Acid 21 A A A A A B
Tartaric Acid 66 B A A A A B
Tin Molten C C E E E C
Trichloracetic Acid 21 E E B B B B
Varnish 21 A A A A A A
Varnish Hot A A A A A A
Vinegar Fumes B A B A A A
Vinegar (still) 21 A A A A A A
Vinegar (agitated) A A A A A A
Vinegar (aerated) 21 A A B A A A
Zinc Molten E E E E E

Zinc Chloride (5% -

21 A A A A A B
still)
Zinc Chloride (5% -
Boiling B B B B B B
still)
Zinc Sulphate (5%) 21 A A A A A A
Zinc Sulphate
21 A A A A A A
(saturated)
Zinc Sulphate (25%) Boiling A A A A A A
304,
Temp 321,347 316,316L Hastalloy
Chemical /condition oC Nickel Monel Iconel
Stain. Stain. Stl. C
Stl.
Links to Corrosion Resistance Tables
Home
Corrosion Index

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Corrosion Index
Corrosion properties of Mild Steel, Brass, Cast Iron, Copper, Titanium, Aluminium, Bronze.
The table below indicates the approximate corrosion resistance of selected metals to a range of common chemicals. This is collated information
from various sources but is of limited quality. For good quality information please consult reputable reference texts and/or the links provided below
the table
Key to Letters designating corrosion resistance
● A...Excellent Minimum attack

● B...Acceptable minor corrosion
● C...Medium corrosion attack - Should not use
● D...Severe attack -
Temp Mild Cast

Chemical oC Brass Copper Titanium Aluminium Bronze
Steel Iron
Acetaldehyde A C - A A A
Acetic Acid (20%) 21 D D D B A B C
Acetic Acid 21 D D D B A B C
Acetic Anhydride 21 D D D B A A C
Acetone 21 - A A A A A A
Alcohol Ethyl 21 - A B A A B A
Alcohol Methyl 21 - A A B B A A
Aluminium Chloride 21 D D D B B D D
Aluminium Fluoride 21 - - D D A B -
Aluminium Hydroxide - - B A D B - C
Aluminium Potassium
21 - A D A A C -
Sulphate (10%)
Aluminium Potassium
21 - - D B A C -
Sulphate (100%)
Aluminium Sulphate 21 - B D A A B B
Ammonia (Anhydrous) 21 - - A D C A D
Ammonium
21 - D B D A B D
Carbonate
Ammonium Chloride 21 D D D D B B D
Ammonium Nitrate 21 C D B D A B D
Ammonium Oxalate 21 - - D C - - D
Ammonium
21 - D D D A D D
Persulphate (5%)
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Ammonium
21 D - D D A B D
Phosphate (5%)
Ammonium Sulphate 21 C D D D A A D
Ammonium Sulphite Cold - - D D - D A
Aniline 21 C D C D C C C
Aniline Hydrochloride 21 D D D B A D D
Antimony Trichloride - D D - - B D A
AuquaAqua Regia
(80% HCl, 20% D D D D A D D
HNO3)
Barium Carbonate 21 - B A A A D B
Barium Chloride 21 C B C B A D B
Barium Cyanide 21 C C C D - C C
Barium Nitrate Hot C D A B A B D
Barium Sulphate 21 C B B B B B C
Benzene 21 - - A B A B A
Benzoic Acid - D - D - A B B
Borax (Sodium
- - - A B B B B
Borate)
Boric Acid - D A D B
Bromine 21 D - - - D D D
Butyric Acid 21 - - D C A B D
Calcium Carbonate 21 - - - - B D A
Calcium Chlorate 21 - - - A - - -
Calcium Chloride 21 C - C B A D A
Calcium Hydroxide - C - A - A C D
Calcium
- D - D - A D D
Hyperchlorite (2%)
Calcium Sulphate - C - A - A C A
Carbolic Acid (Phenol) - - D D D A A B
Carbonated water - - D D B - A A
Carbon Bisulphide 21 D - - - - B B
Carbon monoxide gas - - - A A - A A
Carbon tetrachloride 21 C - D A A D A
Chloroacetic Acid 21 D D D D A D C
Chlorinated Water
21 D D - - A D B
(saturated)
Chlorine gas (dry) 21 - D D A D C B
Chlorine gas (moist) 21 D D - D - D D
Chloroform 21 - B B A A B B
Chromic Acid (5%) - D D D D A C B
Chromic Acid (10% ) - D D D D B D D
Chromic Acid (50%) - D D D D B D D

Citric Acid 21 D D D D A C D
Copper Chloride 21 - - - - D - D
Copper Cyanide
- - D A - B D D
Copper Nitrate 21 D D D D B D D
Copper Sulphate (>
- D D D - A D D
5%)
Copper Sulphate
- D D D B A D B
(<5%)
Cyanic Acid 21 - - D - - - -
Diesel Fuel - A A A B A A
Ether 21 - B C A A B A
Ethyl Chloride 21 - A C B A B A
Ethylene Chloride 21 - - - B B B A
Ferric Chloride 21 D D D D A D D
Ferric Nitrate 21 D D - D A D C
Ferric Sulphate 21 D D D D A D C
Ferrous Sulphate 21 D D D B A B B
Fluorine 21 - A D C D A C
Formic Acid 21 D D D C C A C
Freon 113 - A B
Freon 12 B A A B B B
Freon 22 A D B B D
Fuel Oil Hot - B A A A C A
Gallic Acid 21 - - D D B D B
Glue (PVA) 21 - - A B A A A
Glycerine 21 D B A A A A A
Hydrochloric Acid (all
21 D D D D D D D
concentrations)
Hydrocyanic Acid - - D D D B A A
Hydrofluoric Acid D D D B
Hydrofluosilicic Acid 21 D - D - D D B
Hydrogen Gas A A A A
Hydrogen Peroxide 21 D D C D A A B
Hydrogen Sulphide
- - D D D A B B
(dry)
Hydrogen Sulphide
- - - D - B B A
(wet)
Iodine - C - D D A A A
Iodoform - - - - B B - -
Lactic Acid - D D D B A B B
Magnesium Chloride 21 C D D A A D B
Hot/
Magnesium Sulphate C A A A A B A
Cold

Hot/
Malic Acid D B - D A B B
Cold
Mayonnaise 21 - - D B - A -
Mercuric Chloride
- D D D D A D D
(dilute solutions)
Mercury - - D A D A D A
Methanol (Methyl
21 - A A B B A A
Alcohol)
Molasses - - B B A A A A
Naphtha 21 - A B A B A A
Nickel Chloride
21 D D D - A D B
(solution)
Hot/
Nickel Sulphate - D D - B D B
Cold
Nitric Acid (All
21 D D D D A A A
concentrations)
Nitrous Acid 21 - D - C - D B
Oleic Acid 21 C D - A B A B
Oxalic Acid (5%) Cold - D C B A A B
Hot/
Paraffin - A - B A A A
Cold
Petroleum - - - - B A D A
Phenol - C - D B B A B
Phosphoric Acid 21 D - D D C C B
Picric Acid 21 D - A D A C B
Potassium Bromide 21 - - D B A C B
Potassium Carbonate. 21 - - C B A D B
Potassium Chlorate - - - C B A B B
Potassium Chloride 21 C D A B A D B
Potassium
21 - - C B A B B
Ferricyanide
Potassium Hydroxide 21 C D B B D D D
Potassium Nitrate 21 C B A A A B B
Potassium Oxalate - - - A B A B A
Potassium
21 - - A A A B A
Permanganate
Potassium Sulphate 21 C D A B A C A
Potassium Sulphide
- - - B D A D D
(salt)
Pyrogallic Acid - - - D B A B A
Rosin Molten - - D B - B B
Sea Water - C D D B A B A
Silver Bromide - - - D - - D D
Silver Nitrate - - - C - A D B

Soap 21 - B A A A C B
Sodium Acetate
- - B B A A B B
(moist)
Sodium Bicarbonate
21 C D C B A D A
Sodium Carbonate 21 - B B A A D A
Sodium Chloride 21 C D D B A C B
Sodium Fluoride - - - C D A B A
Sodium Hydroxide
- C B D A A D B
(20%)
Sodium Hydroxide
- C D D B B D C
(50%)
Sodium Hydroxide
- C D D D D D C
(80%)
Sodium Hypochlorite
- D D D - C D C
( < 20% )
Sodium Hypochlorite
- D D D - C D C
(100%)
Sodium Hyposulphite 21 - - D - - D -
Sodium Nitrate Fused C - B D A B B
Sodium Sulphate 21 C B B B A A B
Sodium Sulphide - D D C D A D B
Sodium Sulphite 21 D D A D A C B
Stannic Chloride (Sp.
- D - D - A D A
G. 1.21)
Stannous Chloride
- D - - - A D A
(saturated)
Stearic Acid - C D C D A B B
Sulphur Chloride - D D D - D D B
Sulphur Dioxide Gas
- C - A A A B B
(dry)
Sulphuric Acid (<10%) 21 D - D - D D B
Sulphuric Acid (50%) 21 D - D - D D B
Sulphuric Acid
21 D - D D D D B
(concentrated)
Tannic Acid 21 D B C A A C B
Tartaric Acid 21 D D C A A B B
Trichloracetic Acid 21 - - D D D D -
Varnish 21 - A C B - A -
Vinegar (still) 21 - D D B A D A
Water-Distilled A D B A A A
Water Fresh A D B A B A
Water,Salt D D B A B A
Zinc Chloride 21 D D D C A D B

Zinc Sulphate 21 D B D B A D B
Temp Mild Cast
Chemical oC Brass Copper Titanium Aluminium Bronze
Steel Iron
Links to Corrosion Resistance Tables
Home
Corrosion Index

Classical Friction
ROYMECH
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Tribology_Index
Surface Friction
Introduction
All contacting surfaces are directly affected by surface friction. Surface friction allows control of all forms
of motion. The notes below provide some background into the theory on the factors affecting the
coefficient of surface friction. In practice the coefficient of friction is generally derived from test rigs. The
actual coefficient of friction results as much from the surface conditions as from the materials involved
Classical Friction
The notes below relate to a classical basis for surface friction attributed to Coulomb
At the microscopic level the surface of any solid, no matter how polished, is like the landscape of
Switzerland. Two mating surfaces are in contact only on the tips of the asperities..
When two metal surfaces are brought together the area of contact area is actually extremely small so the
contact pressure is very high. Even at surface loads some plastic deformation occurs at the contact
points, while the general surface metal is hardly affected. As the normal load is increased the contact
points deform and fracture, thus increasing the real area of contact. The resulting real area of contact is
much less than the apparent area which remains unchanged.
Assuming that the plastic yield stress is constant ( Sy ), the real area of contact for each point taking a
proportion of the load A i = Fi / S y, so the total real contact area is:
The total contact
A t = F 1 / S y + F 2 / S y.....F i / S y = F t /S y
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Classical Friction
The real area of contact is dependent on the load and is independent of the area of the surfaces..
To cause relative motion requires the shearing of the contact areas. The shear force required F s = A t.
S s where S s= the shear strength of the material
Therefore the coefficient of friction µ = Fs / Ft =( A t. S s ) / ( A t. S y )
µ=Ss/Sy
Considering different failure regimes for a surface to fail in shear the associated direct stress is as follows
● Von Mises (Failure theories )... S s = S y / √ 3 That is µ = 0,58

● Tresca (Failure theories ).... S s = S y / 2 .. That is µ = 0,5
● Actual experience for steel (Shear Stress vs Tensile Stress ) Shear strength = 0.75 Tensile Strength ..That is µ = 0,75
A variation on this theory is that the area of contact is Ft / H (hardness) which is about 3 time the plastic
yield value σ y. This reduces the values for the coefficient of friction by a factor of 3. The resulting value
for coefficient of friction based on this variation of the theory is about 0,2 for all metals..
The above notes relate to a very simplified theory on surface friction. In reality most metal surfaces are
covered by am oxide layer and a thin film, water vapour and other absorbed impurities. The localised
point contact metal surfaces weld together to form joints. The shear strength of these microscopic joints
is heavily dependent on the shear strength of the surface films. It is the surface layers that determines
the coefficient of friction and not, in general, the parent metal.
Other effects also have and effect on the surface friction values including
● Surface adhesion between pure metal surfaces which probable contributes little to surface friction under normal conditions because of the
effect of surface films and contaminants. In vacuum conditions surface adhesion probably has a significant effect on the friction.
● Ploughing- This is the ploughing of one surface by the asperities on the other surface
● Elastic deformation of the surfaces as relative movement takes place
● Junction growth resulting in an increase in the contact area as relative motion takes place
If the surface films can be eliminated then the coefficient of friction can be increased by an order of
magnitude. This has be done experimentally by heating test metals in a vacuum
Links to Friction Information
1. Fund'ls of Friction and Wear of Automobile Brake Materials. ...Paper Download ..Very informative document
2. Friction ...(Steve Roberts) A presentation deriving the mechanics of friction
3. Friction in Metal Forming ...Chapter 4-aces, Tribology, DimensionalCharacteristics, Inspection and Product Quality Assurance
4. Classical Friction ...A very simple and clear description of what determines the coefficient of friction.
Home

Classical Friction
Tribology_Index

Plain Bearing Friction

ROYMECH
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Tribology_Index
Coefficent of Friction
More Details on plain bearing friction is available on the links below
Plain bearings can

be linear, journal
and thrust. They
can be
hydrostatically, or
hydrodynamically
lubricated or
operated
dry. These different
modes of operation
can all result in very
different friction
factors. The
coefficient of friction
for plain bearings
relates to the type
of bearing,the
speed of rotation,
the load, the
amount and
viscosity of the
lubrication, the
friction of the seals,
etc etc. The friction
factors provided are
approximate and
are only suitable for
assessment of
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Tribology/Plain_Bearing Friction.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:53:26 AM

relative values
It is very important
to note that
determination of
reasonably
accurate friction
factors for
lubricated plain
bearings is very
complicated.
Serious design
should include
reference to
bearing suppliers
and/or reputable
reference
documents
Journal Bearings
The bearing friction torque

Mr = P . f . (D/2)
● P = Radial
● f = coefficient of
friction of rolling
bearing
● D = Diameter of
the bore of the
bearing (Shaft
diameter)
Linear Bearings
The bearing friction Force

Fa = P . f
● P = Perpendicular
Force on bearing
surface
friction of rolling
bearing
Rotating Thrust
Bearing


Mr = P . f .( Do + Di )/ 4
● P = Axial Force on
bearing surface
friction of bearing
● Do Outside
Diameter of Thrust
Bearing
● Di Inside Diameter
of Thrust Bearing
Approximate values
for f are listed
below;
● Hydrodynamic
Thick Film (Mineral
Grease) velocity 1
m/s ..f = 0,0002 to
0,0075
● Hydrodynamic
Thick Film (Mineral
Grease)velocity
2,5 m/s ..f = 0,0027
to 0,015
● Hydrodynamic
Thick Film (Mineral
Oil) velocity 1 m/s ..
f = 0,0012 to
0,0040
● Hydrodynamic
Thick Film (Mineral
Oil)velocity 2,5 m/
s ..f = 0,0020 to
0,007
● Mixed Film
(Boundary +
Hydrodynamic ).. f
= 0,02 to 0,08
● Thin Film ...f =
0,08 to 0,14
● Dry (Bearing =
PTFE /Lead based
- surface = steel ) ...
f = 0,02 to 0,3-
Very dependent on
the operating
conditions
● Dry (Bearing =
PTFE /Plastic
based- surface =
steel ) ...f = 0,1 to
0,3
● Dry (Bearing =

Metal - Surface =
Steel) ...f = 0,2 to
0,4
More accurate
values for bearing
friction are found in
the suppliers
technical literature..
(see links below)
Links to Plain
Bearing
Information
1. Copper Org..
Useful bearing
notes
2. Copper
Development
Association
UK..Useful
reference Data
on Copper
Based bearings
3. Garlock
Bearings..
Product
Information and
Useful
Downloads
(Glacier
Bearings)
Home
Tribology_Index
Coefficent of Friction

ROYMECH
Home
Tribology_Index
More Details on rolling bearing friction are available on the links below
Rolling bearings
are called anti-
friction bearing.
They have high
loading capacity
and exhibit very
low rolling friction
torques. The
friction torques are
similar or lower
than ideally
designed plain
bearing operating
under conditions
of thick film
lubrication. Rolling
bearing have low
starting torques
The coefficient of
friction in rolling
bearings relates to
the type of
bearing, the speed
of rotation, the
load, the amount
and viscosity of
the lubrication, the
friction of the
seals, etc etc.

Mr = F . f . (d/2)
alternatively ..
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Tribology/Bearing Friction.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 11:53:31 AM


Mr = F . fm . (Dm/2)
(friction values
below marked with
***)
● F = Radial (or
axial load)
friction of rolling
bearing
● fm = coefficient of
friction of rolling
bearing based on
mean diameter
● d = Diameter of
the bore of the
bearing (Shaft
diameter)
● D = Outside
diameter of the
bearing
● Dm = (d+D)/2
These values
relate to running
bearings without
seals and with
optimimum
lubrication..
The start-up
friction values will
be higher -up to
twice the values
quoted below..
● Single row ball

bearing (radial
Load) ..f = 0,0015
● Angular contact
ball bearing
(single row) ..f =
0,0020
● Angular contact
ball bearing
(double row) ..f =
0,0024
● Self aligning ball
bearing (radial
load) ..f = 0,0010
● Cylindrical roller
bearings with
cage ..f = 0,0011
● Cylindrical roller
bearings full
complement ..f =
0,0020

● Thrust ball
bearing (axial
load) ..f = 0,0013
● Spherical roller
bearing (radial
Load) ..f = 0,0018
● Taper roller
bearings ..f =
0,0018
● Needle roller
bearings-with
cage ..fm = 0,003
● Needle roller ball
bearings-full
Complement ..fm
= 0,005
● Combined
needle roller
bearings ..fm =
0,004
● Axial Needle
roller ball
bearings ..fm =
0,0035
● Axial Cylindrical
roller bearings ..
fm = 0,0035
The seal friction

should also be
included if seals
are fitted. A
reasonable
average value for
a first estimate
would be 0.001.
More accurate
values for bearing
rolling friction are
found in the
suppliers technical
literature..(see
links below)
Links to Rolling Bearing Information
1. INA bearings..Rolling Bearing

2. SKF..Ball Bearings
3. Timken/ Torrington/ Fafnir..Bearings

Home
Tribology_Index

Friction Materials

ROYMECH
Home
Brakes
Clutch /Brake Material Properties
Desirable Properties for friction materials/linings for clutches and brakes
● The two materials in contact must have a high coefficient of friction.

● The materials in contact must resist wear effects, such as scoring, galling, and ablation.
● The friction value should be constant over a range of temperatures and pressures
● The materials should be resistant to the environment (moisture, dust, pressure)
● The materials should possess good thermal properties, high heat capacity, good thermal conductivity, withstands high
temperatures
● Able to withstand high contact pressures
● Good shear strength to transferred friction forces to structure
● Should be safe to use and acceptable for the environment
Note: Brake materials from asbestos are not safe and are no longer acceptable for use in brakes and clutches
Important properties of materials used for brakes and clutches

Note: These properties are very general in nature and should not be used for detail design. Suppliers information should be used for
important work. Asbestos should not be used for new or replacement equipment.
Coefficient of Temp.
Material Pressure (Max)
Friction (max)
Combination
Wet Dry Deg.C MPa
Cast Iron/Cast 0,15-
0,05 300 0,8
Iron 0,20
0,15-
Cast Iron/Steel 0,06 300 0,8-1,3
0,20
Hard Steel/Hard 0,15-
0,05 300 0,7
Steel 0,20
Wood/Cast Iron- 0,2-
0,16 150 0,6
steel 0,35
Leather/Cast Iron- 0,12-
0,3-0,5 100 0,25
steel 0,15
Cork/Cast Iron- 0,15-
0,3-0,5 100 0,1
Steel 0,25
Felt/Cast Iron-
0,18 0,22 140 0,06
Steel
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Brake_Clutch_mat.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 11:53:37 AM

Friction Materials
Woven Asbestos/
0,1-0,2 0,3-0,6 250 0,7
Cast Iron- Steel
Moulded
0,08-
Asbestos/Cast 0,2-0,5 250 1,0
0,12
Iron- Steel
Impregnated
Asbestos/Cast 0,12 0,32 350 1.0
Iron- Steel
Carbon-graphite/ 0,05-
0,25 500 2.1
Cast Iron- Steel 0,1
Kelvar/Cast Iron- 0,05-
0,35 325 3,0
Steel 0,1

4. Development of Asbestos Free Brake Pad ..A paper download. Referring to a glass fibre composites options
5. Tribco ..Supplier of Kelvar composites
6. Trimat ..Specialist manufacturers of Industrial and Marine Brake and Clutch Linings:-Site includes downloadable data sheets
Home
Brakes
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Brake_Clutch_mat.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 11:53:37 AM

Plain Bearings
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use
this information at your own risk.
ROYMECH
Home
Drive_Index
Bearings
Plain Bearings
Introduction..
Metallic surfaces sliding together under load have a tendency to adhere causing tearing or scoring of
surfaces, heat generation results and finally seizure. This factor is of primary importance in all bearing
design. To counter this problem the designer aim is to use materials with suitable lubricants to minimise
this effect..A bearing material should , if possible provide the following characteristics..
● Have a good resistance to wear, fatigue and corrosion

● Have sufficient strength to support the load
● Have a fairly high melting point- to reduce the tendency for creep in use
● Have suitable thermal properties to enable heat to be conducted away
● As metal to metal contact will be unavoidable in service the material should be selected to minimise seizure, fretting, scoring and welding
● The bearing should be tolerant to dirt and foreign matter- e.g. soft surface
● Should be tolerant to misalignment
● Should be compatible to lubricant used- e.g should not corrode if water is used
Metals and Alloys..
1) Whitemetals or Babbit Metals..

These are typically tin based (88% Sn, 4% Cu, 8% Sb, or lead based 80% Pb, 14% Sb, 6% Sn.
The materials have properties that include hardness combined with ductility, a structure that holds
lubricant , little tendency to cause wear to journals, they embed dirt easily and are easily cast. The two
types are generally interchangeable but the tin based ones are usually more expensive , have better wear
resistance, stand higher loads and are not as brittle and are more corrosion resisting than the lead based
bearings.
2) Copper based alloys..

Copper based alloys are considerably harder and strong, have better high temperature characteristics,
have greater resistance but poorer anti- scoring properties than the white metals. There are four main
classes of these alloys..
● Copper lead alloys...

These have less resistance to seizure than the white metal but more than twice the fatigue
resistance even at high loads and temperatures. Hardened journals or lead-tin or lead indium
plating of the bearing surface can help to reduce the wear..
● Leaded bronze alloys...
These combine good compatibility characteristics with excellent coating and easy machining
properties and have good structural properties and high load capacity. The are inexpensive and
are useful as a single material without the need for a separate overlay or steel backing.
● Tin bronze ...
These usually contain small percentages of tin and lead to aid machining and small amounts of
zinc and nickel are often added to improve strength. They are restricted to low speed applications
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Plain Bearings
but will carry heavy loads.

● Aluminium bronze bearings...
Bearings great strength can be produced using iron, silicon, and nickel as alloying elements. The
have excellent shock, wear and corrosion resistance. Their strength is retained at elevated
temperatures so they can be used in equipment operating above 260 deg C. This alloy however
has poor compatibility, poor embedding properties and poor conformability and so is best suited to
heavy duty low speed applications with good lubrication.
3) Aluminium Based materials

These materials were developed as an improvement on the white metal and copper based alloys and to
provide bearings that carry high loads. Special features are their good resistance to corrosion, high
thermal conductivity and high fatigue strength, high thermal conductivity and high fatigue strength but
they have the disadvantages of only moderate embedding properties, poor compatibility and high
coefficients of thermal expansion. If used as solid unbacked bearings this type of alloy were usually too
weak to maintain an interference fit and too hard to run satisfactorily against an unhardened shaft.
As a bearing material unalloyed aluminium has a tendency to seize to a steel mating surface. It was
found that a 20% of tin added to the aluminium improved seizure resistance and that cold working and
annealing helped to prevent brittleness. The difference in coefficients between aluminium and steel
necessitates work hardening the bearing before use to prevent loosening in service.
4) Cast Iron
Cast iron is an inexpensive bearing material for operation under relatively light loads. Grey cast iron is
widely used for machine tool beds due to its damping characteristics. The presence of graphite in the iron
improve running properties..
The bearing surface is often machined directly into the cast iron structure.
Generous lubrication and large clearances are necessary to avoid scoring. A speed of 0.8 m / s and a
pressure of no greater than 3.5 MPa are the maximum duty for cast iron bearings . Because of poor
comformability it is essential that the bearings have good alignment and freedom from contamination..
5) Steel
As with cast iron, steel bearings required lots of lubrication and generous clearances. Nickel steel
bearings are best operated with intermittent loads rather than continuously and using low journal speeds
and temperatures less than 40o C
6) Cadmium Alloys
These alloys have greater high temperature lives than the white metal materials but are more subject to
corrosion. This can be overcome by plating with indium. Cadmium has a low affinity for steel and so does
not seize easily. Cadmium materials are not widely used because of their high costs..
6) Silver
Silver bearings are highly resistant to fatigue but their anti-friction qualities are inferiour to the whitemetal
bearings . A disadvantage is that they become readily welded to the shaft even if the oil film breaks
down for only and instant. They also do not possess the embedding properties of other softer bearing
metals. Silver bearings are often overlaid with lead and indium or lead and tin, to provide better
resistance to seizure. The corrosion resistance, temperature strength ratio and thermal conductivity are
all good. Hard shafts are necessary with silver bearings and bearing loads of above 28.0 MPa may be
carried at speed of 10 m/s.

Plain Bearings
7) Porous Bearings
Porous bearings of sintered metals, usually plain or leaded bronze or iron are moulded to shape under
pressure and this process results in a sponge like structure with from 10-35% of the metal volume as
voids. This allows for impregnating with oil or graphite.
In operation the oil feeds through the interconnecting pores to the bearing surface. The overall loss of oil
is low although from time to time the bearing has to be re-impregnated. Methods of available for
continuously feed oil to porous bearing using force feeding or using very simple wick feeds.
Porous bearings are very useful in locations with limited access and /or where regular lubrication or
engineered lubrication systems are difficult to implement.
Porous bearings i.e. Oilite are widely used throughout industry..
Non- Metal Bearings

1) Carbon-Graphite
These materials are self-lubricating , stable at temperatures up to 400 oC and resistant to attack by
chemicals and solvents. Bearings are moulded or machined from solid. This material is used for
applications where lubrication with grease of oil is not practical. In some cases metal alloys may be
added to the composition to carbon-graphite alloy to improve the compressive strength.
2) Wood
Wood especially lignum vitae has been used for large low pressure, low speed bearings. the hardwoods
absorb oil and grease and so little attention is needed for maintenance. They do not score or seize their
shaft but due to uneven expansion and contraction large clearances are required.. Lignum vitae has an
inherent oiliness which makes it practically self-lubricating. Due to poor availability and uneven quality , it
is being largely replaced by laminated plastics..
2) Rubber
Natural rubber, and some synthetic types such as butatiene , acrynitrile, can be be used as bearings
materials where resilience is needed with water as a lubricant. The bearings usually consist of a fluted
lining to a metal shell so that the shaft is carried on a series of rubber strips running the length of the
bearing. A flow of water is provided to cool the bearing and to flush through any dirt collecting in the
channels between the rubber bearing strips. This type of bearing is used in marine applications and may
be loaded up to specific pressures of 0,4Mpa.
3) Cermets
Certain hard carbides such as pressed and sintered titanium carbide or tungsten carbides in a cobalt
matrix can be used for high temperature applications for sliding components in nuclear reactors and for
other difficult duties. The cermet is very rigid, highly resistant to corrosion and capable of taking a fine
finish. Cermets have poor conformability , poor impact resistance, are difficult to machine and are
expensive..
The outstanding property of cermets is their resistance to wear..
4) Jewels
Jewel baring are usually made of saphire or hard borosilicate glass and are used in low torque
instruments and control devices where low coefficient of friction , non magetic properties and long life are
required..

Plain Bearings
4) Plastics
The wide use of plastic bearings results from their freedom from corrosion, quiet operation, availability in
shapes and their good compatibility. Plastic bearings need little lubrication and water can often be used
for lubrication. Plastics are often resistant to most chemicals including acids.
● Phenolics...
Phenolics or polyester resins reinforced with either cotton fabric, asbestos, glass fibre are widely
used and are very strong - up to 300Mpa in yield strength in compression. They can be water
lubricated and are useful where good electrical insulation is needed. The thermal conductivity is
low so the heat generated by friction cannot easily be transmitted away through the bearing. As a
result heavier loaded bearings must have a feed of cooling or lubricating fluid to remove the heat..
● Nylon...
Bearings made of nylon are very satisfactory for light loads at high speeds. Nylon has low friction
characteristics and can be used with no lubrication. It is quiet in operation, wears at a low rate
when lubricated, is easily moulded and is inexpensive..
● P.T.F.E...
PTFE has and exceptionally low coefficient of friction , is self lubricating and is resistant the most
chemicals and operates at temperatures of up to 250 deg.C. However it has poor mechanical
properties, has low thermal conductivity and has high coefficient of thermal expansion. In its pure
form it is only useful at low speeds and loads. The mechanical properties of PTFE can be
improved by filling with glass fibre.
PTFE is often made into a composite in porous metals such as bronze or steel which results in a
low friction material with good mechanical properties. A widely used bearing design is based on
porous bronze filled with a ptfe /lead mixture supported by a steel backing strip. PTFE filled with
glass fibre and graphite or other inert materials are very popular in mechanical and civil
engineering..
Min. Load Max.

Lubrication Shaft carrying Op. Corrosion Fatigue
Material Capacity Temp Compatability Comformability Resistance Strength
Needed Hardness
Brinell No Mpa oC
Tin Based 150 or
Yes 5,5 - 10 150 Excellent Excellent Excellent Poor
Babbit less
Lead Based 150 or
Yes 5,5 - 8,3 150 Excellent Excellent Fair Poor
Babbit less
Cadmium 230 or
Yes 10-14 250 Excellent Good Poor Fair
Base less
Copper
Yes 200-250 10-20 175 Fair Fair Poor Fair
Lead
Copper
Lead Yes 300 10-17 150 Excellent Good Poor Fair
Overplated
Lead Bronze Yes 300 20-28 230 Fair Fair Fair Good
Tin Bronze Yes 300-400 28+ 250+ Poor Poor Good Excellent

Plain Bearings
Aluminium
Alloy (6% Yes 200-300 28+ 120 Fair Fair Excellent Excellent
Sn)
Aluminium
Alloy (20% Yes 200 28+ 0 Good Fair Excellent Excellent
Sn)
Silver
Yes 300-400 28+ 250 Good Fair Excellent Excellent
(Overplated)
Glacier DX Yes - 140 280 Fair Fair Excellent Excellent
Glacier Du No - 140 100 Fair Fair Excellent Excellent
Notes:
Temperatures are in practice subject to lubrication limitations.
Any bearing not lubricate with thick film lubricatin will be subject to significant wear related to loading and
type of motion...
Glacier DX consists of three bonded layers: a steel backing strip and a sintered porous bronze matrix,
impregnated and overlaid with a pigmented acetal copolymer bearing material.
Glacier DU consists of three bonded layers: a steel backing strip and a porous bronze matrix,
impregnated and overlaid with the PTFE/lead bearing material.
Links to Bearing Design
1. MDMetric..Oilite bearings data sheets

2. Glacier...Glacier Plain/Dry/ Bearings ...
3. Beemer Precision ...Oilite /Plain Bearing Information
4. Bristol University..Tutorial On Bearings
5. RBC bearings..Spherical Plain Bearings
6. Plain Bearing option for pumps..Wauk Bearings . Very interesting download
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Bearings

Band Brakes
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Brakes
Band Brakes
This is a very simple type of brake using the principle that a band is wrapped part round a rotating drum. Tension can be applied to the
band using a lever. The restraining torque results from the difference in tension between the two ends of the belt.
The two band brake options are shown below
Nomenclature
F = Applied Force (N)

P = Brake Power kW
M = Torque (Nm)
F i = Actuating Force (N)
μ = Coefficient of Friction.
θt = Total band lap angle (rad)
w = Band width
a = Pivot- Actuating force radius (m)
b = Distance from tensioning belt to fulcrum point
n = Rotational Speed (RPM)
T1 = Maximum band tension(N)
T1 = Minimum band tension(N)
Tc = Band tension associated with centrifugal force (N)
pmax = maximum pressure for friction surface(N/m2)
Band Brake
The principles of operation of the band brake is the same as for belt drives.. refer to information on
page Flat Belt Drives
The formula below relating the band tensions (T1, T2 ) the lap angle θ t and the coefficient of friction
μ is derived on the page on Belt drives).
The tension due to the belt rotational inertia for Tc = 0 because the band is not moving for the brake
application. The relevant formula is therefore
T1 /T2 = e μθ t
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Band Brakes
For the Normal Band Brake arrangement shown the relationship between the actuating force and
the slack side belt tension is
Fi = T2 . b /a
Brake Torque Capacity

The torque capacity of the band brake =
M = (T1 - T2 ) r
Maximum Belt Tension

Band Brakes
The maximum tension in a belt is provided by the formula below
T1_max = pmax.w.r
Differential Band Brake

The differential band brake as shown below can be configured to be self energising and can be
arranged to operate in either direction..
The actuating force equation obtained by summing moments about the pivot points is shown below

Band Brakes
Fi = ( b 2 T 2 - b 1 T 1 ) / a
If b 2 T 2 = b 1 T 1 the zero actuating force is required and the brake is self locking. It is also
apparent that the brake is effectively free wheeling in the opposite direction. The differential brake
can therefore be arranged to enable rotation in one direction only.

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Brakes

Drum Brakes
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Brakes
Drum Brakes
Introduction
The drum brake widely is used on road vehicles and consists of a drum attached to the rotating wheel. The
drum has an internal machined cylindrical surface. Inside the drum and protected from the environment are
two shoes lined with friction material which can be pivotted to make a forced contact with the internal
cylindrical surface.
Nomenclature

P = Brake Power kW
T = Torque (Nm)
Ff = Friction Force (N)
Fn = Normal force between drum and friction pad (N)
b = Band width (m)
c = Distance drum pivot to centre of drum(m)
MFf = Friction moment about shoe pivot (Nm)
MFn = Normal Force moment about shoe pivot (Nm)
p = pressure for friction surface (N/m2)
p max = Maximum pressure for friction surface(N/m2)
θ = Brake shoe contact angle
r = Radius of brake wheel)(m)
Theory
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Drum Brakes
The pressure distribution evaluation for the brake shoe assumes that the shoe arm is rigid and the pressure
is directly related to the distance from the pivot point. The pressure is proportional to c sin θ or p = k sin θ
where k is some constant.
For a specific brake material the maximum pressure = p max. Therefore..
k = p max /sin θ max... and... p = sin θ(p max /sin θ max)
The value of minimum θ is usually set to above 10 0 and the maximum pressure when the value of sin θ is
90 0. above this angle the pressure reduces. Therefore if the maximum value of θ is less than 90 0 then sin
θ max = sin θ. if the maximum angle is greater than 900 then sin θ max = sin 90 0
Torque Capacity for Brake Shoe

The torque capacity of a brake shoe is obtained by integrating the product of the frictional force and the
drum radius
Actuating force required for Brake Shoe

The actuating force is calculated by taking moments about the brake shoe pivot point. MFn is the moment
due to the normal force between the shoe and the drum. MFf is the moment due to the friction force.

Drum Brakes
The motion of the drum as shown result in an ACW friction moment and the normal reaction force of the
drum also results in an ACW moment as the two moments are the same self locking cannot occur. If the
rotation is reversed and the friction moment is CW then the resulting actuating force will be reduced and self-
locking is possible.
Opposite handed brake show

The opposite handed brake shoe as shown below results in the friction moment being of opposite to the
normal force moment and the brake system is to some extent self energising with a possibility of self locking
To obtain the maximum torque for each brake shoe...

Drum Brakes

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Brakes

Brakes
ROYMECH
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Brakes
Disk Brakes
Introduction
The Disk brake is based on a rotating ring (disk) which is mounted on the rotating shaft and a ring or pad of friction material which is forced
against the rotating disk to retard its rotary motion. The force applied to the friction element may by manual, electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic or
inertial via a mechanical linkage. Disk brakes are very useful for heavy duty applications because they can be arranged to dissipate heat
rapidly and are equally effective in both rotation directions.
Disk Brake Friction Materials
A selection of disk brake materials with their important properties are provided on page Brake/Clutch
materials
Nomenclature
P = Brake Power kW
M = Torque (Nm)
F = Actuating Force (N)
θ1,θ2 = Brake pad angles (rad)
r = Radius of brake ring thickness dr (m)
r i, r o = Inner, Outer radius of brake. (m)
p = Pressure for friction surface(N/m2)
Theory
There are two operating conditions applicable to disk brakes
● Uniform wear.. Applicable for practical brakes after period of operation

● Uniform pressure.. Applicable for new brakes.
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Brakes
Uniform wear
The wear (W)at any location on a brake is assumed to be proportional to the pressure intensity (p)
and the associated relative velocity (v)of the local ring of contact.
The torque capacity of a brake is the integral of the friction force (μ F) x Radius (r)
Uniform pressure
When considering the capacity of a disk brake subject uniform pressure, every point on the brake
face is subject to the the maximum design pressure for the friction material. This condition applies
mainly to new brakes

Brakes
The torque capacity of a brake is the integral of the friction force (μ F) x Radius (r)
Disk Brake Pads, Caliper, Floating Caliper Disk Brakes

These system include an actuated caliper which is mounted on a fixed frame. The braking effect
results from brake pads which are attached to the inner faces of the caliper being closed together the
contact the rotating disk.
This theory of this type of brakes is the same as for the full disk system above except that the braking
is not over the full circumference of the disk but is only over a sector from θ1 to θ2.
Uniform wear ..For clarity I repeat notes from above...

The wear at any location on a brake is assumed to be proportional to the pressure intensity (p)and
the associated relative velocity (v)of the local contact.

Brakes
Uniform Pressure

Brakes

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Brakes

Brakes
ROYMECH
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Brakes
Block Brakes
Introduction
This type of braking system has been generally used before the 1930's for transport systems and
machinery. It is a very simple concept and requires minimum engineering. The brake has the
disadvantage that the braking surfaces are open to the environment and are easily contaminated. These
brakes are often seen on steam traction engines, steam rollers, etc.
This brake works with friction force applied to the external surface of a rotating cylinder using a block with
a surface made of a suitable friction material. The braking effect operates if the rotation is in either
direction. Depending on the design the the braking torque is higher in one direction. Two block brake
designs are considered.
● The short block when the pressure is considered to be uniform because the contact angle is relatively small.
● The long block when the contact angle is above say 60o and the pressure is not uniform
Nomenclature

P = Brake Power kW
T = Torque (Nm)
b = Band width
c = distance from tensioning belt to fulcrum point
p max = Maximum pressure for friction surface
θ = Brake shoe contact angle
r = Radius of brake wheel
Short Block
The maximum normal force applied by the block =
F n = p max.r θ w
The torque capacity of the brake =
Tmax = Fn μ r
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Brakes
Taking moments about the lever pivot point, the maximum operating force =
F i = Fn(b - μc) / a
The system as drawn is to some extent self energising because the friction force reduces the actuating
force necessary. If the pivot point is located below the brake contact point the brake would not be self
sustaining
Long Block
The long block pressure distribution calculation assumes that the lever arm is rigid and the pressure is
directly related to the distance from the pivot point. The pressure is proportional to c sin θ or p = k sin θ
where k is some constant. For a specific brake material the maximum pressure = pmax.
k = p max /sin θ max... and... p = sin θ(p max /sin θ max)
The value of minimum θ is usually set to above 100 and the maximum pressure when the value of sin θ is
900. above this angle the pressure reduces. Therefore if the maximum value of θ is less than 900 the sin
θ max = sin θ. if the maximum angle is greater than 900 then sin θ max = sin 900

Brakes
To calculate the maximum braking actuating force it is necessary to take moments about the brake arm
pivot point
The motion of the drum as shown result in an ACW friction moment and the normal reaction force of the
drum also results in an ACW moment as the two moments are the same self locking cannot occur. If the
rotation is reversed and the friction moment is CW then the resulting actuating force will be reduced and
self-locking is possible.
To obtain the maximum torque for the brake ...

Brakes
Links to external brake block Design
1. Brakes .U of Western Australia - Very informative text..

2. Road Vehicle Brakes and Braking Notes ..Some useful notes
3. History of Car Brakes ..Some useful information
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Brakes

Axial Clutch
ROYMECH
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Clutches
Disk Clutches, Axial or Plate Clutch
Introduction
The Disk Clutch is used to transmit torque from and input to and output shaft via circular plates
(disks). One of each pair of plates is coated with a friction lining material. The force applied to the
friction element may by manual, electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic or inertial via a mechanical
linkage. As the input and output shafts are fixed the clutch should include a method of allowing the
driving plates to move axially against the driven plates which are fixed to the driven shaft (or vice
versa).
Disk Brake Friction Materials
A selection of disk clutch plate materials with their important properties are provided on page Brake/
Clutch materials
Nomenclature
P = Clutch transmitted Power kW
M = Torque (Nm)
F = Actuating Force (N)
r = Radius of clutch ring thickness dr (m)
r i, r o = Inner, Outer radius of clutch plate. (m)
Theory
There are two operating conditions applicable to clutch plates
● Uniform wear.. Applicable for practical clutch assemblies after period of operation
● Uniform pressure.. Applicable for new clutch plates.
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Axial Clutch
Uniform wear
The wear (W)at any location on a cluthch is assumed to be proportional to the pressure intensity (p)
and the associated relative velocity (v)of the local ring of contact.
The torque capacity of a clutch plate is the integral of the friction force (μ F) x Radius (r)
Uniform pressure
When considering the capacity of a disk clutch plate subject uniform pressure, every point on the
clutch plate face is subject to the the maximum design pressure for the friction material. This
condition applies mainly to new clutch plates

Axial Clutch
The torque capacity of a clutch plate is the integral of the friction force (μ F) x Radius (r)
Multiple Plate
The above theory relates to single plate clutches. For multiple plates in contact the torque values
should be multiplied by the number of contacting plates
Links to clutch Design

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Clutches

Cone clutch
ROYMECH
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Clutches
Cone Clutches
Introduction
The cone clutch is and axially actuated clutch which is able to transmit a relatively high torque for its
size compared to a single disk plate clutch of the same dimensions. This results from the wedging
action and and increase friction area. Cone clutches are not used widely now and are generally
used for low peripheral speed applications.
The cone angle α is always above 8o and is normally between 12o and 15o. if the angle is less than
this value than the clutch is liable to jam in engagement.
Nomenclature
Fa = Axial Applied Force (N)

Fn = Axial Normal Force (N)
P = Clutch Power kW
M = Clutch Torque (Nm)
& r = Radius of clutche ring thickness dr (m)
r i, r o = Inner, Outer radius of clutch. (m)
Theory
There are two operating conditions applicable to clutch plates
● Uniform wear.. Applicable for practical clutch assemblies after period of operation
● Uniform pressure.. Applicable for new clutch plate friction linings.
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Cone clutch
Cone Clutch
Uniform Wear
From the above formulae for Force and torque it is clear that
T = F.μ .(ro + ri ) /( 2.sin α)
Uniform pressure
From the above formulae for Force and torque it is clear that

Cone clutch
Links to Clutch Information

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Clutches

Flat Belts
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Drive Belts
Flat Belt
Introduction
In many factories in the past flat belts have been widely used to drive the machines in the
factories. They are convenient to install and operate and are reliable. In modern times machines
are driven individually generally using electric or hydraulic drives...
Flat belt drives are now mostly used for low power high speed applications in specialised industries
including the textile, paper making, and in office machinery. Flat belts are also using for conveyor
applications.
Practical Notes
1. Pulleys need to be crowned to prevent belt from wandering off. Belts tend to move to tightest position
2. Tension required to enable belt to operate. Tensions normally set by adjusting centre distance between pulleys to ensure some
stretch of belts (say 2%).
3. Best drives result from belts with high flexibility, low mass, and with surfaces engineered to provide a high coefficient of friction
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Flat Belts
Flat belt designs

In the past belts were generally made from leather. Now belts are also manufactured from a wide
range of elastomer including urethane, neoprene, hypalon, EPDM, and silicone. Stretch, semi-
stretch, and no-stretch belts are available. Belts are often reinforced with textiles and fibres and
and metal reinforced belts are available. Belts can be provided with durable surface coatings and
coatings providing anti-static properties
Service Factors
When designing belt drives it is normal to apply a service factor to the drive operating load to
compensate for allow for different driver type, driven load types and operating periods. Typical
ervice factor values are included on the linked page Service Factors
Basic Theory
Fc = Centrifugal Force (N)
R = Pulley reaction Force (N)
P = Max power transferred kW
T = Belt tension
Tc = Belt tension due to centrifugal force
b = Belt width (m)
ω = Angular velocity of pulley (rad/s)
θ = Angle of belt lap
v = Linear velocity of belt (m/s)

Flat Belts
Note: If two pulleys of different diameters are used then in driving to the limit the belt will slip on the
smaller pulley first
Power transferred by a flat belt

The power transferred =
P = (T1 - T2 ).v / 1000

Flat Belts
= (T1 - Tc) - (T2 - T c ).v / 1000
= (T1 - T2 ) (1 - e-μθ ).v /1000
Belt Friction Factors

Material Coefficient
Lubrication
Combination of Friction (μ)
Leather on
Lubricated 0,47
Wood
Leather on Good
0,12
Cast Iron Lubrication
Leather on
Low Lubrication 0,38
Cast Iron
Steel Band on
Dry 0,18
Cast Iron
1. Power Transmission by Belt: Part I Very Useful and practical notes

2. Components for Drivelines- Flat Belts..Short informative article
3. Flat belts - Are they still around? ..Practical article
5. Siegling ..Flat Belt Manufacturer- Site includes useful information
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Drive Belts

Vee belts / V belts
ROYMECH
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Drive Belts
Vee belts ( V Belts)
Important Note:..The notes below are intended to be concise informative guidance notes. Manufacturers literature and the relevant standards
provide the necessary detailed information required for detail design.
I have included links to sites providing good quality information on this topic.
Introduction
Vee belt drives replaced flat belt drives for many applications because higher power drives could be
transmitted with more compact drive arrangements. With a flat belt drive only one belt is used. With a
vee belt drive a number of belts are used. Flat belts and vee belts may, and do,slip as the loading
increases. For belt drives which drive without slip timing belts should be used. Vee belts on higher
power duties generally have to be matched to ensure the drive power is shared.
For a flat belt drive the tangential friction force at the point of slipping is μR.... (μ= coefficient of static
friction - R = radial force between the belt and the pulley ). For a vee belt drive the equivalent friction
force at the point of slipping = μR /sin β.... (β is the vee half angle ) see below. Therefore a vee drive
has a maximum friction = (1/ sin β) x the flat belt friction. e.g a for a vee belt drive with an internal
angle of (2 .β) = 20o the maximum friction force for a vee belt = 1/sin (10)= 5.75 x the maximum flat
belt friction.
A a vee belt drive system, when correctly specified, can be expected to deliver 25000 hours of service
(around 3 years continuous, or 5 years normal use) before belt replacement is required.
Vee Belt Drives achieve drive efficiencies of about 95%.
Practical Notes
1. Setting the belt tension is readily achieved by jacking the pulleys apart and measuring the transverse distance the belt can move.
2. Higher shaft torsional loads are handled by using multiple belt pulleys.
3. A jockey pulley can be installed to increase the angle of contact and allow transfer of more power. It can be mounted on either the
tight or loose belt side and adjusted inwards to provide more angle of contact.
Vee Belt Design

Vee belts are generally manufactured from a core of high tensile cord in a synthetic rubber matrix
enclosed in a fabric reinforce rubber lining. The vee belt sections and the pulley groove dimensions
are in accordance with British /European standards.
Relevant British Standard:

BS 3790:1995 ..Specification for endless wedge belt drives and endless V-belt drives
This standard refers to four belt sizes designated SPZ,SPA,SPB,and SPC. The vee belt cross
section are shown below.
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Vee belts / V belts
Nom
Pitch Nom Mass/
Top Min. Dia
Section Width height m**
width
mm mm mm mm kg/m
SPZ 8,5 9,5 8,0 67 0,073
SPA 11,5 13,0 10,0 100 0,129
0,18-
SPB 14 16,0 14,0 160
0.203
0,33-
SPC 19 22,0 18,0 224
0,412
**The mass / m vary from different reference sources.
The pulley dimensions are based on the above standard are shown below:...
Belt lp b h e f
a g
Section mm mm mm mm mm
34 (dp
<80) 10,0
SPZ 8,5 2,5 9,0 12,0 8,0
38 (dp 10,2
> 80)
34 (dp
<118) 13,1
SPA 11,0 3,3 11,0 15,0 10,0
38 (dp 13,5
> 118)

Vee belts / V belts
34 (dp
<190) 16,6
SPB 14,0 4,2 14,0 19,0 12,5
38 (dp 16,9
> 190)
34 (dp
<315) 22,5
SPC 19,0 5,7 19,0 25,5 17,0
38 (dp 22,9
> 315)
Vee belt power capacity

The power transmission rating of a vee belt drive is based on the belts used, the number of belts, the
angle of wrap of the belt on the smallest pulley,and the rotational speed of the pulleys. The rating
require is selected as the product of the design load and an appropriate service factor.
A formula for the number of belts (N) required for a duty power (Pd ) at a service factor (K), using belts
with a basic power per belt Pb, and an angle of contact factor (F) and a belt length factor (E) for is
provided below.
N = Pd. K / Pb.F.E
Angle of contact factor

The angle of contact ( α) of the vee belt over the smallest pulley when the pitch dia of the largest and
smallest pulleys are (Dp & dp) and the center distance = C is provided below:
α = [180 - (Dp - dp).60 /C]
The angle of contact factor F varies from 1 for an angle of contact of 180o down to 0,82 for and angle
of contact of 120o.
Length factor
The pitch length of belt may be calculated (approximately)from the equation below
L= 2.C + π (D p + dp)/2 + (D p - dp)2 /4.C
or more accurately using
L= 2.C.cos A + π (D p + dp)/2 + (D p - dp).A

where A is in radians and sin A =(D p - dp)/2.C
The length factor reflects the effect of a belt pitch length other than a reference value.
For SPZ this reference length is 1592mm. The length factor various from 0,83 for a length 630mm up
to 1.17 for a length of 3550mm

Vee belts / V belts
For SPA this reference length is 2278mm. The length factor various from 0,82 for a length 800mm up
For SPB this reference length is 3204mm. The length factor various from 0,85 for a length 1260mm up
For SPC this reference length is 5070mm. The length factor various from 0,86 for a length 2000mm up
Typical power ratings

The power ratings below are based on the smaller pulley with 180o of belt wrap !!. The ratings are
based on a light duty application for a transmission working for less than 10 hours per day i.e a
service factor K= 1. At the other extreme of a extra heavy duty drive e.g.direct on line AC motor with
frequent stops and starts, working for 24 hours /day a service factor K = 1,8 would be necessary. The
basic power ratings shown below are used to establish the drive power capacity of a belt drive system
using a formula.
Pulley Power(kW) at motor speed

Belt
Dia 2880 1440 960
Section
mm (RPM) (RPM) (RPM)
67 1,75 1,05 0,77
SPZ
140 6,97 4,02 2,84
100 4,12 2,61 1,92
SPA
200 15,1 9,4 6,72
160 12,1 7,85 5,73
SPB
400 25,7 29,8 22,0
224 18,5 16,6 12,7
SPC
560 - 62,7 53,3
Service Factors
When designing belt drives it is normal to apply a service factor to the drive operating load to
compensate for allow for different driver type, driven load types and operating periods. Typical ervice
factor values are included on the linked page Service Factors
Basic Theory

Vee belts / V belts
Fc = Centrifugal Force (N)

R = Pulley reaction Force (N)
P = Max power transferred kW
T = Belt tension
Tc = Belt tension due to centrifugal force
μ = Coefficient of friction.
f = Effective coefficient of friction = μ/sin β
b = Belt width (m)
ω = Angular velocity of pulley (rad/s)
θ = Angle of belt lap
2.β = Internal Angle of Vee
v = Linear velocity of belt (m/s)

Vee belts / V belts
Notes:
If two pulleys of different diameters are used then in driving to the limit the belt will slip on the smaller
pulley first
For vee belt drives an effective coefficient of friction f = μ/sin β is used and an approximate practical
value for this is 0,512
Power transferred by a vee belt

The power transferred =
P = (T1 - T2 ).v / 1000
= (T1 - Tc) - (T2 - T c ).v / 1000
= (T1 - T2 ) (1 - e- θμ/sin β ).v /1000

= (T1 - T2 ) (1 - e- θf ).v /1000

Vee belts / V belts

2. DANotes Vee Belt Drives.. ..A definitive theoretical and practical review with various useful tables
3. Helixtech.. ..A software package for belt /chain drives - costly
4. Wyko.. ..Vee belt supplier (Fenner) -limited information available online
5. Mitcalc.com ..Excel based software providing coded belt calculations( very reasonably priced)
Home
Drive Belts

Timing Belts
ROYMECH
Home
Drive Belts
Timing Belts
Important Note:..The notes below are intended to be concise informative guidance notes. Manufacturers literature and the relevant standards provide the necessary detailed information
required for detail design.
I have included links to sites providing good quality information on this topic.
Introduction
Synchronous / Timing belts are basically endless flat belts which pass over pulleys- the belts having grooves which mate with teeth
on the pulleys. These belt drives, unlike flat and vee belt drives are positive. Any slip of the belt relative to the pulleys is extremely
minor is degree and is due to belt stretch, or erosion of the grooves. These belts are used for power transfer and for synchronised
drives to ensure that the driven pulley is always rotating at a fixed speed ratio to the driving pulley.
The first synchronous belts had a the trapezoidal tooth profile, and is identified as timing belts. The belt tooth profile is a trapezoidal
shape with sides being straight lines The profile of the pulley teeth which mates with the belt is involute. These belts are based on
imperial (inch) pitch sizes and can provide power transmission up to 150 kW.
The development of the classical timing belt with has a rounded tooth (curvilinear tooth profile) and is identified as as the high torque
drive, or HTD. Advantages of this belt design include..
Proportionally deeper tooth; hence tooth jumping or loss of relative position is less likely
● Lighter construction, with consequent reduced centrifugal loss.
● Smaller unit pressure on the tooth since area of contact is larger.
● Greater shear strength due to larger tooth cross section.
● Lower cost as a narrower belts will handle larger load.
● Installation tension is reduced resulting in lower bearing loads.
HTD sprockets have metric pitches (3 5 8 14 & 20) and can transmit up to 1000 kW.
The most advanced synchronous belts, has a modified rounded tooth profile with a higher tooth angle and shallower tooth. These
belts e.g Gates Powergrip GT have available pitch sizes of 2mm, 3mm & 5mm and can powers up to transmit up to 600 kW . The
belts have the advantages that they provide a smoother drive at higher accuracy,
A correctly designed and installed synchronous belt drive should operate successfully for between 8000 and 12000 hrs and have an
operating efficiency of about 98%.
Synchronous belts have a number of advantages such that they are often used for applications not requiring shaft synchronization.
Their section and flexibility enable timing belts to operate very well on miniature drives and in applications involving high speeds or
small pulleys. They are extremely efficient when correctly installed. They can also be specified to continuous high loads. For
these reasons, synchronous belts have proved to be cost effective in non-synchronous applications as drives for power saws,
motorcycles, and domestic appliances.
The disadvantages of synchronous belt drives are that they are generally more costly compared to other belt drive options and the
require accurate alignment of the pulleys for efficient reliable operation
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Timing_belts.html (1 of 7)10/24/2006 11:56:25 AM

Timing Belts
Construction
Belts
Synchronous belts are made with elastomer e.g natural rubber,neoprene, polyurethane, polychioroprene, core with reinforcement to
provide increased tensile strength. These belts were originally reinforced with steel to provide the necessary strength. In modern
drives the most common reinforcement is glass fiber, but aramid is used if maximum capacity is required. Synchronous belts are
often provided with nylon facings to provide the necessary wear resistance and can include conductive coatings.
Pulleys
Synchronous drive pulleys are often made of ductile or cast iron. Aluminum is a often selected for drives that require low weight.
These applications can include high speed drives with low inertia. Steel(and Stainless Steel )is preferred iron when the drive will
exceed the safe operating limits for cast iron (2000 mpm) or ductile iron (2500 to 3,000 mpm).
Plastic pulleys e.g. nylon are low-cost options when power requirements are low as in office machines or home appliances such as
vacuum cleaners. Plastic gears may also be acceptable when it is acceptable that the belt service life is short, as in some power
tools, or lawn and garden equipment.
Pulleys are mounted to shafts using pins, keyways or by using proprietory shaft locking bushes such taperlock bushes. Pulleys can
have one or two flanges to ensure the belts are retained in place. For drives with horizontal pulley axes it is normal to have two
flanges to retain the belt (two flanges on one pulley or one flange on each pulley on opposite sides). On pulleys with vertical shaft
axes the lower face of each pulley should include a flange and one pulley should include two flanges.
Relevant Standards
The British Standard for timing belt drives was
BS 4548:1987 :Specification for synchronous belt drives for industrial applications . This standard is still in use but is declared as
obsolescent the current standard in europe for timing belt drives is
ISO 5294:1989: Synchronous belt drives -- Pulleys
ISO 5296-1:1989:1989: Synchronous belt drives -- Belts -- Part 1: Pitch codes MXL, XL, L, H, XH and XXH -- Metric and inch
dimensions
This is not equivalent and belts and pulleys to the British Standard are not interchangeable with the ISO standard.
Basic Timing Belt Parameters

Classical Timing belts
Belt Pitch Widths Available
Meaning
Section mm mm
MXL Extra Light 2,032 3,05 4,826 6,35
XL Extra Light 5,08 6,35 9,652

Timing Belts
L Light 9,525 12,7 19,05 25,4

H Heavy 12,7 19,05 25,4 38,1 50.8 76,2
XH Extra heavy 22.225 50.8 76,2 50.8 76,2 101,6 127101,6
Double extra
XXH 31,75 50.8 76,2 101,6 127
heavy
HTD- Curvilinear
Designation
Section mm mm
3M 3mm High Torque Drive 3 6 9 15
5M 5mm High Torque Drive 5 9 15 25
8M 8mm High Torque Drive 8 20 30 50 85
14M 14mm High Torque Drive 14 40 55 85 115 170
20M 20mm High Torque Drive 20 115 170 230 290 340
GT - Curvilinear
Name
Section mm mm
2MR (Gates) 2mm High Torque Belt 2 369
3MR (Gates) 3mm High Torque Belt 3 6 9 15
5MM (Gates) 5mm High Torque Belt 5 9 15 25
Note : The various notes below relate to the classical timing belt drives. For the more advanced drive belt design refer to
manufactures literature... I will include notes on these belt drives at a later date...
Designing a Synchronous Belt System

Belt design procedures can be based on torque calculations or they can be based on power calculations.
Power method
1) The driven speed and the maximum driven torque required (including inertia load, shock loads, friction, etc) are used to calculate the required driven power
2) From information on the driver, driven equipment and operating period a service factor is obtained - see below
3) A design power is obtained based on the product of the Driven Power required and the service factor .
4) A belt section is initially selected using a graph as typically shown below
5) A drive geometry is derived selecting suitable pulleys, and belt Centre Distance - Some Pulley sizes are provided below
6) A Basic Power for the belt is calculated and a mesh factor is calculated - see below
7) A suitable belt width is selected -Using a table as provided below- Some iteration may be required
Torque Method
The classical MXL belt and the Curvilinear more advanced belt options are designed based on torque levels. The outline method for
the MXL drive is provided below. The method used for the HTD and other modern belt options will be provided at some future
date...
The MXL belts operate generally at relatively low belt speeds so the torque levels are similar for the normal range of pulley rotational
speed. Torque ratings can be calculated of each of the MXL belt widths as follows: I have converted an imperial formula to a metric
formula and minor differences with the original formulae results..

Timing Belts
Torque ratings of belts Tr (Nm) at P2 PCDs (mm)
Belt width =3.048 mm... Tr = P2(5,03 - 9,5147.10-6.P22).10-3

Belt width =4.826mm... Tr = P2(8,36 - 1,586.10-5.P22).10-3
Belt width =6.35 mm...Tr = P2(11,7 - 2,213.10-5.P22).10-3
To design an MXL belt system using the torque method.
1) The driven speed and the maximum driven torque required (including inertia load, shock loads, friction, etc) are calculated
2) From information on the driver, driven equipment and operating period a service factor is obtained - see below
3) A design torque is obtained based on the product of the torque required and the service factor .
4) A belt section is initially selected (assuming MXL) using a graph as typically shown below
5) A drive geometry is derived selecting suitable pulleys, and belt Centre Distance - Some Pulley sizes are provided below
6) The design torque is divided by the teeth mesh factor (see below) to arrive at an adjusted torque
7) The table below is used to select the belt width which has a torque value equal to or larger than the corrected torque
Torque Rating for MXL Belt (Nm)

No Teeth -> 10MXL 12MXL 14MXL 16MXL 18MXL 20MXL 22MXL 24MXL 28MXL 30MXL
PCD(mm) -> 6.477 7.7724 9.0678 10.3378 11.6332 12.9286 14.224 15.5194 18.1102 19.4056
width =3.05mm 0.033 0.040 0.045 0.052 0.059 0.064 0.071 0.078 0.092 0.097
width = 4.83mm 0.054 0.066 0.076 0.087 0.097 0.108 0.119 0.130 0.151 0.163
width = 6.35mm 0.076 0.090 0.106 0.121 0.136 0.151 0.166 0.182 0.211 0.227
Service Factors
When designing belt drives it is normal to apply a service factor to the drive operating load to compensate for allow for different
driver type, driven load types and operating periods. Typical service factor values are included on the linked page Service Factors
Designating Classical Synchronous belts

Synchronous Belt sizes are identified by a standard number. The first digits specify the belt length to one-tenth inch followed by the
belt section (pitch) designation. The digits following the belt section designation represent the nominal belt width times 100. For
example, an L section belt 30.000 inches pitch length and 0.75 inches in width would be specified as a 300L075 Synchronous
Belt. A similar method is used for designating metric belt designations
Initial selection of Timing Belt

When the design power has been determined (Power x Service Factor) a synchronous belt can be selected generally using a graph
similar to the one below..This is provided for guidance only and is copied from published graphs generally available.

Timing Belts
Horsepower Rating of Timing Belt

This method is based on the method shown in Machinery's handbook. It is preferable to use the calculation tool provided by the belt
manufacturers to size the belts for detail design. Or even better let the suppliers do the design for you...
The Power ratings of belts for the basic belt widths (in brackets) are as identified below..
r = Rpm of faster shaft /1000

● P2 = Pitch diameter of smallest Pulley (mm)
● Z = P2.r /25.4
For Belt (width) = XL (9.652)...... Pr = 0.746.Z.(0,0916 - 7,07.10-5.Z2 )

For Belt (width) = L (25,4)...... Pr = 0.746.Z.(0,436 - 3,01.10-4.Z2 )
For Belt (width) = H (76,2)...... Pr =0.746.Z.(3,73- 1,41.10-3.Z2 )
For Belt (width) = XH (101,6)...... Pr = 0.746.Z.(7,21 - 4,68.10-3.Z2 )
For Belt (width) = XXH (127)...... Pr =0.746.Z.(11,14 - 7,81.10-3.Z2 )
Determining the timing belt length

Timing Belts
1) The Pitch dia of a pulley P = No Teeth on Pulley . Pitch /π

2) The Drop distance d = [ P1 - P2 ] /2
3) The belt contact angle α = arcsin(d /C) ..C= Centre distance
4) The belt fall length = fl = d / tan α
5) The contact length Small Pulley= CL2= P2. π. [90 - α]/180 degrees
6) The contact length Large Pulley = CL1=P1.π. [90 + α]/180 degrees
7) The Belt Length L = (2.fl) + 2.CL1 + 2.CL1
8) Total number of teeth on belt = L / Pitch
9) Number of teeth in mesh (small pulley) = CL2 /Pitch. Rounded down to nearest whole number.
Mesh Factor
The horsepower ratings obtained above are based on the smallest pulleys having six or more teeth in mesh. For drives with small
angles of lap on the smallest pulleys the mesh factor is required.
No Teeth
Mesh Factor
in mesh
6 or more 1
5 0,8
4 0,6
3 0,4
2 0,2
Determination of the Belt Width required

1) First establish the design power to be transferred(kW) = Service Factor x Power.
2) Select a suitable belt and calculate the basic power using the belt size, smaller pulley speed, and smaller pulley size.
3) If the basic belt power is less than the design power- change one or more of belt size , pulley size or speed.
3) Divide the Basic power/ Design power to obtain a belt width factor.
4) Use the table below and select a width with a width factor higher than the calculated width factor required
Table of Belt Width Factors

-
Belt Belt Width
Section 3,05 4,826 6,35 9,652 12,7 19,05 25,4 38,1 50.8 76,2 101,6 127
MXL 0,43 0,73 1,00 - - - - - - - - -
XL - - 0,62 1,00 - - - - - - - -
L - - - - 0,45 0,72 1,00 - - - - -
H - - - - - 0,21 0,29 0,45 0,63 1,00 - -
XH - - - - - - - - 0,45 0,72 1,00 -
XXH - - - - - - - - 0,35 0,56 0,78 1,00
Typical Pulley Sizes
Below are listed a collection of pulley Dimensions (PCD and OD) for pulleys in the classical timing belt range. In practice there are
a vast number of pulleys available from suppliers on the belt sections shown and on other higher specification sections. Additional
data is available using the links below and preferable by contacting the suppliers.
MXL XL L H XH XXH
Teeth PCD OD Teeth PCD OD Teeth PCD OD Teeth PCD OD Teeth PCD OD Teeth PCD OD
10 6,47 5,96 10 16,17 15,67 10 30,32 29,56 10 40,43 39,08 18 127,34 124,54 18 181,91 178,87

Timing Belts
11 7,11 6,61 11 17,79 17,29 11 33,35 32,59 11 44,47 43,12 20 141,49 138,68 20 202,13 199,09
12 7,76 7,25 12 19,40 18,90 12 36,38 35,62 12 48,51 47,16 22 155,64 152,83 23 232,45 219,30
14 9,06 8,55 13 21,02 20,52 13 39,41 38,65 13 52,55 51,20 24 169,79 167,01 25 252,66 239,50
16 10,35 9,84 14 22,64 22,14 14 42,45 41,68 14 56,60 55,25 26 183,94 181,15 26 262,76 259,72
18 11,64 11,13 15 24,26 23,76 16 48,51 44,72 15 60,64 59,29 28 198,08 195,30 30 303,19 300,15
20 12,94 11,78 16 25,87 25,37 17 51,54 47,75 16 64,68 63,33 30 212,23 209,45 34 343,62 340,56
21 13,58 13,07 17 27,49 26,99 18 54,57 50,78 17 68,72 67,37 32 226,38 223,60 40 404,25 401,19
22 14,23 13,72 18 29,11 28,61 19 57,61 56,84 18 72,77 71,42 40 282,98 280,19 48 485,10 482,07
24 15,52 15,02 20 32,34 31,84 20 60,64 59,88 19 76,81 75,46 48 339,57 336,78 60 606,38 603,32
28 18,11 17,60 21 33,96 33,46 21 63,67 62,91 20 80,85 79,50 60 424,47 421,67 72 727,66 648,41
30 19,40 18,90 22 35,57 35,07 22 66,70 65,94 21 84,99 83,54 72 509,36 506,58 90 909,57 906,53
32 20,70 20,19 24 38,81 38,31 24 72,77 72,00 23 92,98 91,63 84 594,25 591,46
36 23,29 22,78 25 40,43 39,93 25 75,80 75,04 25 101,06 99,71 90 636,70 0,00
40 25,87 25,37 26 42,04 41,54 26 78,83 78,07 26 105,11 103,76 96 679,15 676,35
42 27,17 26,67 28 45,28 44,78 28 84,89 84,13 28 113,19 111,84 120 848,93 846,15
44 28,46 27,94 30 48,51 48,01 30 90,96 90,19 30 121,28 119,93
48 31,05 30,53 32 51,74 51,24 32 97,02 96,26 32 129,36 128,01
60 38,81 38,30 36 58,21 57,71 36 109,15 108,39 33 133,40 132,05
72 46,57 46,05 40 64,68 64,18 40 121,28 120,51 34 137,45 136,10
42 67,91 67,41 42 127,34 126,58 35 141,49 140,14
44 71,15 70,65 44 133,40 132,64 36 145,53 144,18
48 77,62 77,12 48 145,53 144,77 38 153,62 152,27
50 80,85 80,35 50 151,60 150,83 40 161,70 160,35
54 87,32 86,82 54 163,72 162,96 42 169,79 168,44
60 97,02 90,52 60 181,91 181,15 44 177,87 176,52
72 116,43 115,93 72 218,30 220,57 48 194,04 192,69

2. DANotes Vee Belt Drives.. ..A definitive theoretical and practical review with various useful tables
3. Helixtech.. ..A software package for belt /chain drives - costly
4. Wyko.. ..Vee belt supplier (Fenner) -limited information available online
5. Mitcalc.com ..Excel based software providing coded belt calculations( very reasonably priced. I recommend this product
6. Timing belt selection and Troubleshooting ..Very useful notes
7. Stock Drive Produces/Sterling Instruments ..Supplier -Technical library includes comprehensive design downloads for timing belts
8. Gates-Europe ..Leading timing belt drive supplier- Catalogue download available
9. HPC Gears ..Timing Belt Supplier - Some Formulae -Power ratings for HTD belts included
10. Fennerprecision ..Timing Belt Supplier - Some Calculators
Home
Drive Belts

Roller /TRansmission Chains
ROYMECH
Home
Drive Index
Chain Drive Index
Roller Chains
Important Note
Roller / Transmission chain drives are designed using chain manufacturers/suppliers information. The manufacturers/suppliers can complete the design
process or provide sufficient technical information to allow the design process to be completed. The notes below are provided to enable a rough first stab at a
design to be completed when it is inconvenient to get the manufactures advice or literature. Final designs should be completed using authorised
manufacturers/suppliers information..
Software is also available allowing convenient initial designs to be complete.. A very useful design package is obtained from Mitcalc.com (ref links below) this
covers everything that is provided below :.. better and more comprehensively
Introduction.... Relevant Standards.... Chain Description.... Chain Wheels /Sprockets.... Idler Sprockets.... Chain system design.... Lubrication....
Nomenclature.... Design Process.... Torque Calc.... Chain Velocity Calc... Chain Tension Calc... Chain Bearing stress Calc... Design Power Calc....
Chain Power Capacity.... Pitch Diameter Calc.... Chain Centre Calc.... Chain Length Calc.... Chain Properties.... Chain Power graph.... Useful Links....
Introduction
The roller chain is used to transmit motion between rotating shafts via sprockets mounted on the shafts. Roller
chains are generally manufactured from high specification steels and are therefore capable of transmitting high
torques within compact space envelopes. Compared to belt drives the chain drives can transmit higher powers
and can be used for drives with larger shaft centre distance separations. In European /ISO standards the
chains are normally rated on a standard 15000 hours life. Service factors on the drive and driven wheels are
used to adjust the rating for non-standard conditions.
Typical Chain Arrangement
Chain Details
Relevant Standards
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Roller_chain.html (1 of 14)10/24/2006 11:57:05 AM

BS ISO 10823:1996 ..Guidance on the selection of roller chain drives.

BS 228:1994 ISO 606:1994..Specification for short-pitch transmission precision roller chains and chain wheels
Chain Description
Roller /Transmission chains are identified using three measurements
● The pitch - centre distance between rollers (p)

● The width between the inner plates (w)
● The roller outside diameters (d r)
Chains manufactured to British/ISO standards can be supplied as single strand (SIMPLEX), double strands
(DUPLEX), or triple strands (TRIPLEX)..
Duplex Chain
The range of pitch sizes can vary between 4mm, (0.158 inch) to 114.3mm, (4.500 inch). The European/ISO
chain standards have large pin diameter compared to the US standards, especially for the larger pitch sizes.
This results in better wear resistance due to the greater bearing area.
The ISO standard has a simple form of part numbering, for example: 1/2 inch pitch duplex chain would be 06B-3.
The first two digits are the pitch size in 1/16?s of an inch, therefore 06 = 6/16 or 3/8 inch. The letter ?B? indicates
European Standard. The suffix 3 indicates the number of strands in the chain, in this case a triplex chain.
Chain Wheels /Sprockets

Chain wheels can be produced with a minimum of about 9 teeth but in practise the minimum number of teeth is
normally restricted to about 19 teeth. For special applications requiring smoother drives a the smallest sprocket
should not have less than 23 teeth.
The maximum number of teeth on the larger wheel should not exceed 150 and generally the number of teeth is
restricted to 114 providing a normal maximum ratio of about 6:1

The angle of contact of the chain and the smallest wheel should exceed 120o. This provides practical limitation
on the size of the larger wheel or results increased center distance separation. Larger wheel diameters tend to
result in reduced chain life.
It is good practice on low ratio chain drives to ensure that the number of teeth on both wheel when added do not
exceed 50. A 1:1 drive should therefore have a maximum of 25 teeth on each wheel.
The large sprockets on high ratio drives are generally made of cast iron because the teeth have reduced chain
engagements over time with consequent reduced fatigue and wear. For more arduous service conditions the
larger sprockets may be made from cast steel or steel plate. The smaller sprockets when highly loade are
generally made from steel type which allow the body to be heat treated for toughness while the teeth are
hardened to resist wear e.g. case hardened. Heat treatment is generally required when :
● The speed is above 0,7 time max speed when fully loaded
● The speed is above 0,5 time max speed when fully loaded, under medium impulsive load
● When the load is highly impulsive
Typical maximum speed are listed in the chain properties table below
For lower duties sprockets are generally machined from steel bar stock.
Idler sprockets
When the drive and driven sprockets centres are fixed it may be desireable to include idlers sprockets to take up
the slack in the chain. Idler sprockets should preferably be located against the slack side of the chain within the
chain envelope - diverting the chain outwards. Idler sprockets are subject to continuous impact from the chain
and are subject to wear if only small sprockets are used and if the chain speed is high.
Chain System Design

A large number of roller chains are designed to provide a power transmission between two sprockets with

minimum/no regular lubrication and under conditions of high levels of contamination. My bicycle chain drive has
worked successfully for over 25 years ( including one replacement of the wheel sprocket and one replacement of
the chain). The bicycle is used at least three journeys per week for an average journey time of about 20 minutes.
Motor cycle chain drives work in similar operating conditions...
Industrial chain drives are generally designed to operate in enclosed cases with installed lubrication systems.
Chains rarely fail because they do not have sufficient tensile strength. They most often fail in wear or fatigue. In
practice sprocket teeth wear allowing the chains to jump the teeth. Manufacturers specify the chains based on
the following parameters
● 15000 hours life

● Single strand
● ISO proportions
● Service factor (Application factor) =1
● Recommended lubrication
● Maximum elongation 3%
● Horizontal Shafts
● Two 19 tooth sprockets
● Sprocket centres = 40 pitches
Chain systems are designed with correction coefficients to compensate from the difference from these design
conditions
It is important when designing chain drives to ensure good alignment of the sprocket shafts. It is also important
to minimise chain slackness and if the centres can not be adjusted then it may be necessary to use idler
sprockets.
Chain Lubrication
Chain drive lubrication provides similar benefits to bearing journal lubrication. The benefits include reduced
friction, cooling, impact resistance at higher chain speeds. The chain supplier generally provides
recommendations for the lubrication requirements for each chain drive. If suitable lubrication is not provided the
then capacity of the chain drive is reduced.
There are four basic types of chain lubrication..
● Manual /Drip lubrication..In manual lubrication oil is generously applied to the chain drive about every 8 operating hours. In drip lubrication oil is
continuously dripped on the chain centre line.
● Bath/Disc lubrication..In bath lubrication the lower strand of the chain runs through a sump containing oil. The oil level should be above the lowest
pitch line of the chain when it is operating normally. Excessive immersion can result in turbulence of the oil bath. Disc lubrication is based on a disc
attached to one sprocket which is immersed in an oil bath. As the disc rotates it picks up oil and deposit it onto the chain. A trough is often used to
direct the oil oil to the optimum point on the chain. A peripheral disc speed of between 3 and 40 m/s
● Oil stream lubrication...This is normally a continuous stream of filtered oil circulated by a pump. The oil should be spread evenly across the width of
the slack side chain
● Oil Mist lubrication...This is used for high speed chain drive and is based on the chain case being filled with a oil mist.
There is continuous development in chain drives and self-lubricated chains are available which do not require
continuous lubrication and have similar performance to lubricated chain drives.
Plastic chains are also available which do not require lubrication. Plastic chain drives obviously have much
reduced operating characteristics compared to steel chains.
Non-lubricated chains are essential for applications requiring controlled environments e.g.Paper, packaging,
electronics, white and brown goods manufacture.

Nomenclature
Ss = Static Factor of Safety

B a = Chain Bearing Area (mm2)
P 1 = Driver power Transferred (kW)
B s = Chain Bearing stress (MPa)
C = Centre Distance (m) P 2 = Driven power Transferred (kW)= ηP1
D1 = Drive sprocket Pitch Diameter (m)
D2 = Driven sprocket Pitch Diameter (m) m = Mass of chain / m (kg/m)
d r = Chain Roller Outside diameter (m) n 1= Driver sprocket rotational speed (rpm = m-1)
f a = application factor
n 2= Driven sprocket rotational speed (rpm = m-1)
Ft = Torque developed tensile force in chain (N)
Fc = Centrifugal tensile force in chain (N) p = Pitch of chain (m)
f t = tooth factor v = Chain velocity (m/s>
Kx (x = 1 to 8) = Correction Factors w = Chain width between inner plates
L = Length of chain in pitches η = Efficiency (normally about 98%)
T 1= torque on driver pulley (Nm) z 1= Driver sprocket - Number of teeth
T 2= torque on driven pulley (Nm)
z 2= Driven sprocket - Number of teeth
Sd = Dynamic Factor of Safety
Roller Chain Design Process
1. Specify the Drive speed , Driven speed and the power to be transferred
2. Identify the operating characteristics of the drive and driven shafts (smooth, rough, shock
3. Select the approximate shaft centre distance
4. Calculate the speed ratio using table of standard sprockets (minimum No of teeth normally 19
5. Calculate the appropriate design factors
6. Calculate the design power
7. Select a chain which has a higher power capacity than the design power.
This will involve some iteration
8. Confirm that there is sufficient safety on the tensile strength of the chain and the wear/fatigue strength of the bushing.
9. C omplete the detail design of the sprocket shaft systems, guards, lubrication system etc
Torque on driver /driven pulley
If the input power = P1(kW) then the torque (Nm)=
T1 = P1 .9,549 / n
T2 = P1 .η 9,549 / n

Chain Velocity
The chain velocity (v)is calculated as follows
v = D1.π.n1 /60 (m/s) = D2.π.n2 /60...(m/s)
Design Power For Chain
The design power is calculated as follows
Pd = P.K1.K2.K3.K4.K5.K6.K7.
K1. = Coefficient for teeth different to 19

K2. = Coefficient for Transmission Ratio
K3. = Application (Service) Factor
K4. = Centre Distance Coefficient
K5. = Lubrication Coefficient
K6. = Temperature Coefficient
K7. = Service Life Coefficient
Tooth Factor (K1)

Normally the drive is a reduction drive and the driver sprocket is the smallest. This is normally
selected as a 19 tooth wheel unless a high speed smoother drive is required then a 23 (or
higher) tooth wheel is selected.
If a driver sprocket with z1 teeth is select than a tooth factor ft is used.
Tooth factor ft = 19 / z1
Ratio Factor (K2)

This allows for the difference in ratio from the 3:1 ratio normally used in determining the design
power for chain drives...
Ratio 1:1 1:2 1:3 1,4 1,6

K2 1,25 1,11 1,0 0,94 0,89

Table of Application Factor ..K3
Driver Characteristics
Some shock
Smooth Running,
Loading..IC Heavy shock
Electric Motors,
engines , Electric Loading IC
IC engines with
motors with engines with less
hydraulic
frequent stops/ than six cylinders
couplings
starts
Driven machine
characteristics
Smooth running .
Office Machines, 1 1,1 1,2
Generators
Light duty ..Fans,
pumps,
compressors,
printing
1,2 1,3 1,4
machines,
uniformly loaded
conveyors,
machine Tools
Moderate shock..
concrete mixing ,
non-uniformly
1,4 1,5 1,7
loaded
conveyors,
mixers.
Heavy shock
loading.. Planars,
1,6 1,7 1,9
presses, drilling
rigs.
Centre Distance Factor (K4)

This allows for chain designs with sprocket centre distances other than optimum= C/p = 40.
K
4
C/p 20 40 60 80 =<160
1,2 1 0,9 0,85 0,7
Lubrication Factor (K5)

This factor involves some judgement and the notes below are provided for guidance.
● If the chain is correctly lubrication and includes the recommended maintenance.

For self lubricated chain used correctly.
For very low duty chains with reasonable lubrication:
A factor of 1 applies.
● If the chain is low - medium duty, provided with the recommended filtered lubrication but with average maintenance.

A service factor of say 1,25 applies

● If the chain is medium to high duty, provided with lubrication with average maintenance.
A service factor approx 2 - 3 applies.
● For a medium-high duty chain with no lubrication.
A service factor approx 5 will apply.
Temperature Factor (K6)

For all normal duties at normal ambient temperatures (0-80o C) the temperature factor will be
1. For cases when a higher ambient temperature is normal a temperature factor will be
needed as table below....
Deg.C 0-80 80-150 150-250
K6 1,0 1,1 1,2
Service Life (K7)
The power capacity of a chain is based on a 8 hour per day operating cycle and K7 = 1 . For
more arduous operating a different value of K7 is appropriate.
Operating time /
day 0-8 8-16 16-24
hours
K7 1,0 1,1 1,2
Chain Power Capacities

The design power as evaluated by the above process should be less than the lower of the chain capacity
associated with the link or the bush as calculated below...Note: Manufacturers and suppliers generally simplify
this process by providing tables or charts to make this process more convenient. A typical graph is shown below
Chain Power graph....
Link- Power capacity
Bushing - Power capacity
These capacities are modified by the strand factor Sf. If there are two strands then the power capacity is
increased by a S f = 1,7. If there are three strands then the power is increased by a strand factor S f =2,5.

Pi = chain pitch in inches..
Chain Ka Kb Chain Ka Kb Chain Ka Kb Chain Ka Kb Chain Ka Kb

05B 0.0046 17 10B 0.0042 17 20B 0.0046 17 32B 0.0046 17 56B 0.0038 7
06B 0.0046 17 12B 0.0044 17 24B 0.0046 17 40B 0.0032 17 64B 0.0039 5
08B 0.0048 17 16B 0.0046 17 28B 0.0046 17 48B 0.0035 12 72B 0.004 2
Tensile Load on Chain
The dynamic load on a chain includes for the tensile load for transmitting the power and the centrifugal load
resulting from the chain rotating on the sprocket.
For normal speed applications only the direct load due to the tensile load is relevant.
Ft = P 1*1000 / v..(N)
Note this is derived in principle in the webpage for flat belt drives.. Flat belts
The tension resulting for the centrifugal force =
Fc = Mm.v2..(N)
The resultant total tensile force taken by the chain =
Fr = Ft + Fc
The value Fr is divided into the breaking strength of the chain Fb to obtain the static Factor of Safety of the Chain
Ss = Fr /F b
This value of Ss is divided by the Application factor K3 to arrive at the dynamic Factor of Safety
Sd = Fr / (Fb * K3)
The graphs below show (very approximately) the range of recommended static and dynamic safety factors.

Chain Bearing Stress
The bearing stress is the resultant tensile stress / the bearing area Ba. Values for the bearing area are provided
in the chain properties table below...
B s= Tr / B a
The calculated bearing stress should be less than the acceptable bearing pressure
The acceptable bearing pressure = Specific Pressure .K9.K8.
K9 = 1 For ISO chains

K8 = The friction coefficient / K3 K3 = Service_application factor (K3) -see below
The specific pressure and the friction coefficents are obtained from the charts below:

Pitch Diameter
The pitch diameter of a chain sprocket can be obtained from the formula
D = P / sin (π / z)
Table below identifies the pitch diam for sprockets with chain pitch of 25,4mm . for other chain pitches the
diameter will be proportional e.g for 12,7mm chain pitch the diameters will be half the tabled values.
Table of pitch diameters for 25,4mm pitch chain sprockets
No Pitch No Pitch No Pitch No Pitch No Pitch No Pitch

Teeth Dia Teeth Dia Teeth Dia Teeth Dia Teeth Dia Teeth Dia
mm mm mm mm mm mm
10 82.20 30 243.00 50 404.52 70 566.15 90 727.80 110 889.48
11 90.16 31 251.07 51 412.60 71 574.23 91 735.89 111 897.56
12 98.14 32 259.14 52 420.68 72 582.31 92 743.97 112 905.65
13 106.14 33 267.21 53 428.76 73 590.39 93 752.05 113 913.73
14 114.15 34 275.28 54 436.84 74 598.48 94 760.14 114 921.81
15 122.17 35 283.36 55 444.92 75 606.56 95 768.22 115 929.90
16 130.20 36 291.43 56 453.00 76 614.64 96 776.31 116 937.98
17 138.23 37 299.51 57 461.08 77 622.72 97 784.39 117 946.07
18 146.27 38 307.58 58 469.16 78 630.81 98 792.47 118 954.15
19 154.32 39 315.66 59 477.24 79 638.89 99 800.56 119 962.24
20 162.37 40 323.74 60 485.33 80 646.97 100 808.64 120 970.32
21 170.42 41 331.81 61 493.41 81 655.05 101 816.72 121 978.40
22 178.48 42 339.89 62 501.49 82 663.14 102 824.81 122 986.49
23 186.54 43 347.97 63 509.57 83 671.22 103 832.89 123 994.57
24 194.60 44 356.05 64 517.65 84 679.30 104 840.98 124 1002.66
25 202.66 45 364.12 65 525.73 85 687.39 105 849.06 125 1010.74
26 210.72 46 372.20 66 533.82 86 695.47 106 857.14 126 1018.82
27 218.79 47 380.28 67 541.90 87 703.55 107 865.23 127 1026.91
28 226.86 48 388.36 68 549.98 88 711.64 108 873.31 128 1034.99
29 234.93 49 396.44 69 558.06 89 719.72 109 881.39 129 1043.08
Chain Centre Distance
There are practical limitations for the minimum distance between the chain sprocket centres to prevent
interference of the sprocket teeth. To provide a reasonable chain operating life is necessary to ensure good
spacing and a minimum wrap of 120o. The drive layout will determine the actual centre distance. A
recommended value is about 40 time the chain pitch.
When the chain centre distance can be adjusted to suit the chain length then the length (L) of the chain in

(pitches) can be used to determine the centre distance between sprockets (C) using the following formula
Chain Length
The length of the driving chain is normally required in numbers of double pitches because a complete link
includes the inner and the outer link which covers two pitches.
The Chain length (L) in pitches (p) is given (to sufficient practical accuracy ) by the formula
Chain Properties
Values are from BS 228 , ISO 606
The normal maximum velocity relates to sprockets with 17-25 teeth.

Chain Chain Chain
Normal Breaking Mass/ Breaking Mass/ Breaking Mass/
Brg Chain Brg Chain Brg
max Chain Force m Force m Force m
Pitch Area Identity Area Identity Area
vel. Identity (F b ) (m) (B (F b) (m) (F b) (m)
a) (Ba) (Ba)
(RPM) (N) kg/m mm2 (N) kg/m mm2 (N) kg/m mm2
8,00 5000 05B - 1 5000 0.2 11 05B - 2 7800 0.4 22 05B - 3 11100 0.5 33
9.525 4200 06B - 1 9000 0.4 28 06B - 2 16900 0.8 56 06B - 3 24900 1.2 84
12.7 3750 08B - 1 18000 0.7 50 08B - 2 32000 1.3 101 08B - 3 47500 2 151
15.875 2750 10B - 1 22400 0.9 67 10B - 2 44500 1.8 134 10B - 3 66700 2.8 202
19.05 2000 12B - 1 29000 1.2 89 12B - 2 57800 2.5 179 12B - 3 86700 3.8 268
25.4 1500 16B - 1 60000 2.6 210 16B - 2 110000 5.2 421 16B - 3 165000 7.7 631
31.75 1200 20B - 1 95000 3.8 296 20B - 2 170000 7.5 591 20B - 3 250000 11.2 887
38.1 900 24B - 1 160000 7 554 24B - 2 280000 13.9 1109 24B - 3 425000 20.7 1663
44.45 700 28B - 1 200000 9.1 739 28B - 2 360000 18 1479 28B - 3 530000 27 2218
50.8 550 32B - 1 250000 9.7 810 32B - 2 450000 19 1621 32B - 3 670000 28.3 2431
63.5 450 40B - 1 380000 16.8 1275 40B - 2 630000 33.5 2550 40B - 3 950000 43.3 3825

76.2 300 48B - 1 560000 25.9 2061 48B - 2 1000000 48.6 4123 48B - 3 1500000 72.5 6184
88.9 - 56B - 1 850000 35 2791 56B - 2 1600000 70 5582 56B - 3 2350000 105 8373
101.6 - 64B - 1 1120000 60 3625 64B - 2 2000000 120 7250 64B - 3 3100000 180 10875
114.3 - 72B - 1 1400000 80 4618 72B - 2 2500000 160 9234 72B - 3 4000000 240 13850
Typical graph of Chain Power Capacities

Note: I have hand sketched this based on a typical manufactures chart.. Please use it with care and ,better still,
get a the information from a chain supplier..
Chain suppliers each produce graphs similar to the one below to enable convenient selection of a suitable chain
for a specific duty. This is compared to the design power which is the required power corrected by appropriate
factors. The main factors to be considered are the tooth factor and the service factor...

Links to Roller Chain
1. ustsubaki ...Contains "Chain Reference Guide"..Reviews all types of Chain in some detail
2. Renold..Chain supplier with online information
3. The complete guide to chain ..Detailed document on chain types and the selection process ( by Tsubakimoto Chain )
4. Mitcalc.com ..Excel Based software..Enables convenient design of roller chain systems
5. Self lubricating chains ..Interesting article
Home
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Chain Drive Index

Gear Tables
ROYMECH
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Gears Gearboxes
Material Properties Tables for Spur, Helical and Bevel Gears
Important Note: The table below provides very general information for use with approximate gear endurance equations.. Detailed
gear designs should be based on more accurate information available using the relevant standards..
Suffix 1 relate to the driving gear (generally the pinion)
Suffix 2 relate to the driven gear (generally the gear)
C
p
= Imperial elastic coefficient
Z
E
= ISO elastic coefficient
Allowable K
Poissons Ratio
Material Young's Modulus ( E ) Surface for α = 20 Cp Ze
(ν)
Endurance deg
Pinion Gear Pinion Pinion Pinion Gear Pinion Gear Stress ( S e)
psi psi MPa MPa psi MPa psi MPa √psi √MPa
3.00E 3.00E 2.07E 2.07E
Steel.BHN Av=150 0.3 0.3 50000 345 41 0.281 2291 190
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 3.00E 2.07E 2.07E
Steel.BHN Av=175 0.3 0.3 60000 414 59 0.404 2291 190
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 3.00E 2.07E 2.07E
Steel.BHN Av=200 0.3 0.3 70000 483 80 0.550 2291 190
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 3.00E 2.07E 2.07E
Steel.BHN Av=225 0.3 0.3 80000 552 104 0.719 2291 190
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 3.00E 2.07E 2.07E
Steel.BHN Av=250 0.3 0.3 90000 621 132 0.910 2291 190
+07 +07 +05 +05
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Gear Tables
3.00E 3.00E 2.07E 2.07E

Steel.BHN Av=275 0.3 0.3 100000 689 163 1.123 2291 190
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 3.00E 2.07E 2.07E
Steel.BHN Av=300 0.3 0.3 110000 758 197 1.359 2291 190
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 3.00E 2.07E 2.07E
Steel.BHN Av=325 0.3 0.3 120000 827 235 1.617 2291 190
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 3.00E 2.07E 2.07E
Steel.BHN Av=350 0.3 0.3 130000 896 275 1.898 2291 190
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 3.00E 2.07E 2.07E
Steel.BHN Av=375 0.3 0.3 140000 965 319 2.201 2291 190
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 3.00E 2.07E 2.07E
Steel.BHN Av=400 0.3 0.3 150000 1034 366 2.527 2291 190
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 2.20E 2.07E 1.52E
Stl BHN=150 Cast Iron 0.3 0.211 50000 345 48 0.332 2077 172
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 2.20E 2.07E 1.52E
Stl BHN=250 Cast Iron 0.3 0.211 70000 483 94 0.650 2077 172
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 2.20E 2.07E 1.52E
Stl BHN=350 Cast Iron 0.3 0.211 90000 621 156 1.075 2077 172
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 1.45E 2.07E 1.00E
Stl BHN=150 Phos Bros 0.3 0.38 59000 407 62 0.600 1888 157
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 1.45E 2.07E 1.00E
Stl BHN=250 Phos Bros 0.3 0.38 65000 448 100 0.728 1888 157
+07 +07 +05 +05
3.00E 1.45E 2.07E 1.00E
Stl BHN=350 Phos Bros 0.3 0.38 85000 586 184 1.245 1888 157
+07 +07 +05 +05
2.20E 2.20E 1.52E 1.52E
Cast Iron Cast Iron 0.211 0.211 90000 621 264 1.240 1914 159
+07 +07 +05 +05
2.20E 1.45E 1.52E 1.00E
Cast Iron Phos Bros 0.211 0.38 83000 572 234 1.328 1763 146
+07 +07 +05 +05
Gear Materials Properties
Ultimate Yield Tooth Tooth Allowable Allowable

Young's Poison's
Material................ Specification.............. Tensile Tensile Hardness Hardness Endurance Bending
Modulus Ratio
Strength Strength - Core - Side Stress Stress
Rm Rp(0.2) VPN VPN Se Sb E
MPa MPa HV HV MPa MPa GPa
BS EN 1561:1997
1 Grey Cast Iron 200 100 200 200 340 95 91 0.25
EN-GJL-200
BS EN 1561:1997
2 Grey Cast Iron 250 125 220 220 350 105 105 0.25
EN-GJL-250
BS EN 1561:1997
3 Grey Cast Iron 300 150 240 240 360 120 113 0.25
EN-GJL-300
BS EN 1563:1997
4 Ductile Cast Iron 600 370 190 190 430 315 169 0.2
EN-GJS 600-2
BS EN 1563:1997
EN-GJS 700-2
BS EN 1563:1997
ENGJS 800-2
Carbon Cast Steel BS 3100:1991
7 500 260 150 150 420 300 206 0.3
Normalised A3, A5 **
8 590 300 180 180 480 336 206 0.3
Normalised A3, A5 **

Gear Tables
Alloy Cast Steel

9 36Mn5 (1,1167) 700 340 210 210 540 372 206 0.3
Normalised
Alloy Cast Steel
10 36Mn5 (1,1167) 750 400 220 220 560 384 206 0.3
Heat Treated
BS EN 10213-
Alloy Cast Steel
11 2:1996 650 380 200 200 520 360 206 0.3
Normalised
G17CrMo511
Alloy Cast Steel BS EN 10213-2:1996
12 800 550 245 245 610 414 206 0.3
Heat Treated G17CrMo511
Structural Steel BS EN 10025-1:2004
13 490 295 150 150 370 330 206 0.3
Untreated E295
14 510 335 155 155 380 336 206 0.3
Untreated S335J2G3
15 588 335 175 175 420 360 206 0.3
Untreated E335
16 686 360 205 205 480 396 206 0.3
Untreated E360
Carbon Structural Steel BS EN 10083-2
17 540 325 155 155 430 356 206 0.3
normalised C45
Carbon Structural Steel BS EN 10083-2:1991
18 640 390 200 200 520 410 206 0.3
heat treated C45
19 660 380 200 200 520 410 206 0.3
normalised C60/ER
20 740 440 235 235 590 452 206 0.3
heat treated C60E/R
Alloy Structural Steel BS EN 10083-1:1991
21 883 637 285 285 690 512 206 0.3
Heat Treated 37Cr4
Alloy Structural Steel
22 980 850 300 300 720 530 206 0.3
Heat Treated 42CrV6 (1,7561)
23 932 785 290 290 700 518 206 0.3
Heat Treated 31NiCr14 (1,5755)
24 590 300 180 600 1140 316 206 0.3
tooth face hardened A3,A5,AW2
Carbon Cast Steel
25 36Mn5 (1,1167) 700 340 210 600 1140 352 206 0.3
tooth face hardened
26 640 390 200 600 1140 390 206 0.3
tooth face hardened C50
27 785 539 250 600 1140 450 206 0.3
tooth face hardened 37Cr4
28 42CrV6 (1,7561) 980 850 315 600 1160 528 206 0.3
tooth face hardened
29 965 750 300 600 1160 705 206 0.3
tooth face hardened 34CrNiMo6
30 42MnV7 (1,5223) 800 620 250 550 930 580 206 0.3
Nitrided
31 30CrV9 800 600 250 800 1180 705 206 0.3
Nitrided
32 30CrMoV9 (1,7707) 800 600 250 800 1180 705 206 0.3
Nitrided
33 965 750 300 750 1180 730 206 0.3
Nitrided 34CrNiMo6
34 1570 1350 485 615 1288 740 206 0.3
Nitro Case hardened 37Cr4

Gear Tables

35 440 275 135 650 1210 500 206 0.3
case hardened C10
Carbon Structural Steel
36 >C15E (1,1149 ) 495 295 150 650 1210 500 206 0.3
case hardened
37 16MnCr5 (1,7131) 785 588 250 650 1270 700 206 0.3
case hardened
38 35CrMo4 880 685 285 650 1270 700 206 0.3
case hardened
39 15NiCr6 880 635 285 650 1270 700 206 0.3
case hardened
40 14NiCr14(1.5732) 932 735 300 650 1270 700 206 0.3
case hardened
Carbon Steel BS EN 10083-1:1991
41 740 440 235 235 800 650 206 0.3
Nitro caburised C60E/R
Carbon Steel BS EN 10083-2
42 640 390 200 600 1140 605 206 0.3
tooth face hardened C50
Alloy Steel BS EN 10083-1
43 900 700 250 600 1140 605 206 0.3
tooth face hardened 37Cr4
44 Bronze Sand Cast 276 207 39 100 0.38
45 Bronze Heat Treated 621 448 163 100 0.38
Links to Relevant Information
1. Involute Teeth Contact Stress Analysis ...Useful lecture Notes

2. Involute Teeth Contact Stress Analysis ...Useful lecture Notes
3. QTC Gear bending Strength Calculations ...Gear bending strength calculation with associated links
4. QTC Gear surface strength calculations .. Calculations and tables for gear surface strength calculations
Home
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Springs General
ROYMECH
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Spring Index
General Notes on Springs
More details on Spring design are to be found in the links below the table.
INTRODUCTION
Springs are mechanical components designed to store mechanical energy, working on the principle of flexible deformation of material.
Springs belong to the most loaded machine components. Applications for springs include:
● Storing energy as in clock and watch springs

● Energy absorbers for drives and reciprocating devices
● Applying set forces as used in relief valves
● Maintaining the position of a linked mechanical item such as a brake panel or door
● Shock absorbers in anti-vibration protection
● Indicating /controlling a load in a scale or instrument.
● Lifting devices-Used to reduce effort in manual hoists
Spring Rate
An important initial factor in spring design is the Spring Rate
When considering linear motion the spring rate is the load divided by the elastic deflection.
k=P/δ
P = Force (N)
δ = deflection (mm or m)
When considering angular (rotary) motion the spring rate is the Torque divided by the elastic
angular deflection.
ka = T / θ
T = Torque (Nm)
θ = Angular displacement (Radians)
Spring Class
Metal springs are generally fall into one of three classes of duty;
1. High Duty..Springs subject to rapidly reciprocating loads e.g. engine valve springs
2. General Duty..Springs that work infrequently for limited periods
3. Static Load Springs..Springs that are used to apply a fixed load throughout their life
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Springs/Springs_general.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 11:57:25 AM

Springs General
Spring Energy Storage

Based on the deformation pattern, springs can be divided into the following three types:
1. springs with linear characteristics

2. springs with degressive characteristics
3. springs with progressive characteristics
The W area under the spring characteristic curve represents the deformation work (energy) of a
spring performed by the spring during its loading. Deformation energy of springs subjected to
compression, tension or bending is specified by the formula:
For springs subjected to torsion the deformation energy is:
Spring State
At any point in a springs operating life it can be in one of a number of states
● Free- The spring is unloaded

● Preloaded - The spring is loaded as and initial operating state
● Loaded - The spring is loaded to under some operating condition
● Fully Loaded - The spring is subject to the maximum design operational loading
● Limiting Loaded - The spring is exposed to the limit load as defined by the strength or design condition
A limiting load as defined by strength may be considered as at the limit of elasticity or at yield.

Springs General
A limiting load as defined by design limitations is exampled by a compression spring with all coils in
contact.

2.
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Spring Materials
ROYMECH
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Spring Materials
INTRODUCTION
Solid springs made from elastomers are not covered on this page. This page covers materials
used for making metal springs which mainly include helical compression, tensile, and torsion
springs. Leaf springs and disc spring materials properties may be identified in the more general
notes. The notes also concentrate more on the carbons steel and alloys steel grades rather than
the non-ferrous grades. Future updates will include more comprehensive information
A wide range of materials are available for the manufacture of metal springs including
● Carbon steels
● Alloy steels
● Corrosion resisting steels
● Corrosion resisting steels
● Phosphor bronze
● Spring brass
● Beryllium copper
● Nickel alloy steels
● Titanium alloy steels
Springs are manufactured by hot or cold working processes. The process depends on the section
of the material, the spring index (C= D/d) and the properties required.
Prehardened wire should not be used if D/d < 4 or if d >6mm>
Reference Standard Notes
BS EN 10270-1:2001 ..Steel wire for mechanical springs. Patented cold drawn unalloyed spring
steel wire
BS EN 10270-2:2001 ..Steel wire for mechanical springs. Oil hardened and tempered spring steel
wire
BS EN 10270-3:2001 ..Steel wire for mechanical springs. Stainless spring steel wire
BS EN 10270-1:2001 ..Steel wire for mechanical springs. Patented cold drawn unalloyed spring
steel wire
Wire designated within this standard is allocated one of a number of grades.
● SL Grade is low tensile strength on static duties

● SM Grade is medium tensile strength on static duties
● SH Grade is high tensile strength on static duties
● DM Grade is medium tensile strength on dynamic duties
● DH Grade is high tensile strength on dynamic duties
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Spring Materials
A typical wire designation would be "Spring wire BS EN 10270-1-SH -3,60 ph.

Spring wire grade SH with a nominal diameter of 3,6mm phosphated.
The grade would have a tensile strength (according to the standard) Rm = 1700-1970MPa
BS EN 10270-2:2001 ..Steel wire for mechanical springs. Oil hardened and tempered spring steel
wire
Wire designated within this standard is allocated one of nine grades.
● Low Tensile grades - FDC (Static)... TDC(Medium Fatigue)...VDC (High Fatigue)

● Medium tensile tensile grades- FDCrV (Static)... TDCrV(Medium Fatigue)...VDCrV (High Fatigue)
● High tensile tensile grades- FDSiCr (Static)... TDSiCr(Medium Fatigue)...VDSiCr (High Fatigue)
The FD,FDCrV, and FDSiCr (Static) Grades have a size range of 0,5 to 17,00mm
The TDC,FDCrV, and TDSiCr (Medium Fatigue) Grades have a size range of 0,5 to 10,00mm
The VDC,VDCrV, and VDSiCr (High Fatigue) Grades have a size range of 0,5 to 10,00mm
A typical wire designation would be "Spring wire BS EN 10270-2-VDC -3,60 ".

Spring wire grade VDC with a nominal diameter of 3,6mm .
The grade would have a tensile strength (according to the standard) Rm = 1550-1650MPa
BS EN 10270-3:2001 ..Steel wire for mechanical springs. Stainless spring steel wire
This standard includes information on three steel grades 1,4310 ( with a normal tensile strength
(NS) and a high tensile strength (HS)) , 1,4401, and 1,4568.
A typical designation according to this standard would be "Spring Wire BS EN 10270-2 - 1.4310 -
NS -3,60 Ni coated
Steel designation number 1,4310 with nominal strength level. Nominal dia 3,6mm . Nickel coated
This steel has a nominal tensile Rm = 1500 MPa
Spring Material
Music Wire
This is the most widely used of all spring materials for small springs because it is the toughest. It
has the highest strength tensile and can withstand higher stresses under repeated loading
conditions than any other spring material. It can be obtained in diameters from 0,12 to 3mm. It has
a usable temperature range from 0 to 120oC
Oil-tempered Wire. Music wire will contract under heat, and can be plated.
This is a general purpose spring material used for spings where the cost of music wire is prohibitive
and for sizes outside the range of music wire. This material is not suitable for shock or impact
loading. This material is available in diameters from 3 to 12mm. The temperature range for this
material is 0 to 180 oC..Will not generally change dimensions under heat. Can be plated. Also
available in square and rectangular sections.
Hard-drawn wire
This is the cheapest general purpose spring steel and is should only be used where life, accuracy

Spring Materials
and deflection are not too important. This material is available in sizes 0,8mm to 12mm. It has an
operating range 0 to 120oC
Chrome Vanadium wire

This is the most popular alloy spring steel for improved stress, fatigue, long endurance life
conditions as compared to high carbon steel materials. This material is also suitable for impact and
shock loading conditions. Is available in annealed and tempered sizes from 0,8mm to 12mm. It
can be used for temperatures up to 220 oC. Will not generally change dimensions under heat. Can
be plated.
Chrome-silicon wire
This an excellent spring material for highly-stressed springs requiring long life and/or shock loading
resistance. It is available in diameters 0,8mm to 12mmm and can be used from temperatures up to
250oC. Will not generally change dimensions under heat. Can be plated.
Martensitic Stainless steel wire

This is a corrosion, resisting steel which is unsuitable for sub-zero conditions.
Austentic Stainless steel wire

A good corrosion, acid, heat resisting steel with good strength and moderate temperatures. Has
low stress relaxation.
Spring Brass
This is a low cost material which is convenient to form. It is a high conductivity material. This
material has poor mechanical properties. This metal is frequently used in electrical components
because of its good electrical properties and resistance to corrosion.
Phosphor Bronze
Popular alloy .Withstands repeated flexures. This metal is frequently used in electrical components
because of its good electrical properties and resistance to corrosion. Suitable to use in sub-zero
temperatures. They are much more costly than the more common stocks and cannot be plated.
Generally will not change dimensions under heat.
Beryllium Copper
High elastic and fatigue strength. Hardenable. They are much more costly than the more common
stocks and cannot be plated. Generally will not change dimensions under heat.
Nickel base alloys

These alloys are corrosion resistant. They can withstand a wide temperature fluctuation. The
materials are suitable to use in precise instruments because of their non-magnetic characteristic.
They also poses a high electrical resistance and should not be used as an electrical conductors.
Titanium
Used mainly in aerospace industry because of its extremely light weight and high strength. This
material is very expensive, It is dangerous to work as titanium wire will shatter explosively under
stress if its surface is scored. Size range 0,8 to 12mm. Generally will not change dimensions
under heat. Cannot be plated.
Spring Material Strength Values

Spring Materials
Important Note
It is important to note that it is best to obtain springs from specialists suppliers who can provide the
correct material for the specific application. If springs are being design for specific applications then
strength values should be obtained from the relevant standards as identified above. Care should be
taken to include for fatigue and adverse operating conditions. The notes on this page are for rough
spring designs.
The material structure , the manufacturing process, and the heat treatment all have an influence on
the strength of the spring material. The strength of spring materials vary significantly with the wire
size such that the strength of a selected spring material cannot be determined without knowing the
wire size. The standards identified all list the material strengths against the wire sizes.
The tensile strength versus the wire diameter is almost a straight line when plotted on log-log
paper . The equation for this line is..
Sut = A / dm
The table below provides some typical values for the above variables..
Diameter
Material Exponent m A (MPa)
Range(mm)
Music Wire 0,1 to 6,5 0,145 2211
Oil-Tempered 0,5 to 12 0,187 1855
Hard Drawn 0,7 to 12 0,190 1783
Chrome_Vanadium 0,8 to 12 0,168 2005
Chrome_Silicon 1,6 to 10 0,108 1975
302-Stainless 0,3 to 2,5, 0,146 1867
302-Stainless 2,5 to 5 0,263 2065
302-Stainless 5 to 10 0,478 2911
Phos-Bros 0,1 to 0,6 0 1000
Phos-Bros 0,6 to 2,0 0,028 913
Phos-Bros 2,0 to 7,5 0,064 932
In calculating the spring parameters the torsional yield strength (S ys ) is used. The relationship
between the torsional yield strength and the ultimate strength Sut can be approximated with a range
as follows.
0,35 Sut =< S ys =< 0,52 Sut

Spring Materials
Music wire and hard drawn steel wire have an approximate relationship S ys = 0,45 Sut
Valve spring, CR_Va, CR-Si, Hardened and Tempered Carbon steel wires have an approximate
relationship S ys >= 0,50 Sut
Many Non-ferrous materials have an approximate relationship S ys >= 0,35 Sut
Modulus Of Rigitity values
Typical Values for The modulus of Rigidity for different Spring materials are listed below
Modulus of Rigitity
Material
=G
- (x 10 3 N/mm 2 )
Carbon Steel 78,6
316 Stainless 68,9
Brass 34,5
Phos Bros 41,4
Monel 65,5
Iconel 72,4
Berylium copper 50,0
How to make springs...A very informative website on springs and how to design and make them
1. Midwest springs ...Site contains table of spring materials with properties - Imperial units though
2. Bauer Springs ...some notes on materials to be used for disc springs
3. Copper Developments Association ...Informatation on Copper based alloys for spring design
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Helical Spring Design
INTRODUCTION
A helical spring is a spiral wound wire with a constant coil diameter and uniform pitch. The most common
form of helical spring is the compression spring but tension springs are also widely used. . Helical springs
are generally made from round wire which, it is comparatively rare for springs to be made from square or
rectangular sections. The strength of the steel used is one of the most important criteria to consider in
designing springs. Most helical springs are mass produced by specialists organisations. It is not
recommended that springs are made specifically for applications if off-the-shelf springs can be obtained to to
the job.
Nomenclature
C = Spring Index D/d

d = wire diameter (m)
D = Spring diameter (m)
Di = Spring inside diameter (m)
Dil = Spring inside diameter (loaded ) (m)
F = Axial Force (N)
G = Modulus of Rigidity (N/m2)
K d = Traverse Shear Factor = (C + 0,5)/C
K W = Wahl Factor = [(4C-1)/(4C+5)}]+ (0,615/C)
L = length (m)
L 0 = Free Length (m)
L s = Solid Length (m)
n t = Total number of coils
n = Number of active coils
p = pitch (m)
y = distance from neutral axis to outer fibre of wire (m)
τ = shear stress (N/m2)
τ max = Max shear stress (N/m2)
Note: metres (m) have been shown as the units of length in all of the variables above for consistency. In
most practical calculations milli-metres will be more convenient.
are
The spring index (C) for helical springs in a measure of coil curvature ..
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Springs
For most helical springs C is between 3 and 12
Generally springs are designed to have a deflection proportional to the applied load (or torque -for torsion springs). The "Spring Rate" is the Load per
unit deflection.... Rate (N/mm) = F(N) / d e(deflection=mm)
Tension Springs
Compression Springs
Spring Stress Values
For General purpose springs a maximum stress value of 40% of the steel tensile stress may be used.
However the stress levels are related to the duty and material condition (ref to relevant Code/standard)
Compression Springs- Formulae

a) Stress
A typical compression spring is shown below
Consider a compression spring under an axial force F. If a section through a single wire is taken it can be

Springs
seen that, to maintain equilibrium of forces, the wire is transmits a pure shear load F and also to a torque of
Fr.
The stress in the wire due to the applied load =
This equation is simplified by using a traverse shear distribution factor K d = (C+0,5)/C.... The above equation
now becomes.
The curvature of the helical spring actually results in higher shear stresses on the inner surfaces of the spring
than indicated by the formula above. A curvature correction factor has been determined ( attributed to A.M.
Wahl). This (Wahl) factor D w is shown as follows.
This factor includes the traverse shear distribution factor K d.. The formula for maximum shear stress now
becomes.

Springs
b) Deflection
The spring axial deflection is obtained as follows. The force deflection relationship is most conventiently
obtained using Castigliano's theorem. Which is stated as
When forces act on elastic systems subject to small displacements, the displacement corresponding to any force collinear with the force is
equal to the partial derivative to the total strain energy with respect to that force.
For the helical spring the strain energy includes that due to shear and that due to torsion.
Referring to notes on strain energy Strain Energy
Replacing T= FD/2, l = πDn, A = πd2 /4 The formula becomes.
Using Castiglianos theorem to find the total strain energy....
Substituting the spring index C for D/d The formula becomes....
In practice the term (1 + 0,5/C2) which approximates to 1 can be ignored
c) Spring Rate
The spring rate = Axial Force /Axial deflection
In practice the term (C2 /(C2 + 0,5)) which approximates to 1 can be ignored
Compression Spring End Designs

Springs
The figure below shows various end designs with different handing. Each end design can be associated with
any end design. The plain ends are not desireable for springs which are highly load or for precise duties.
The table below shows some equations affected by the end designs...
Note: The results from these equations is not necessarily integers and the equations are not accurate. The
springmaking process involves a degree of variation...
Plain and Closed and

Term Plain Closed
Ground Ground
End Coils (n e ) 0 1 2 2
Total Coils (n t ) n n+1 n+2 n+2
Free Length (L
pn+d p(n+1) pn +3d pn +2d
0)
Solid Length (L
d(n t +1) dn t d(n t +1 dn t
s)
Pitch(p ) (L 0-d)/n L 0/(n +1) (L 0-3d)/n (L 0-2d)/n
Helical Extension Springs
The formula provided for the compression springs generally also apply to extension springs.
An important design consideration for helical extensions springs is the shape of the or end which transfer the
load the the spring body. These must be designed to transfer the load with minimum local stress
concentration values caused by sharp bends. The figures below show some end designs.. The third design
C) design has relatively low stress concentration factors.
Extension Spring Initial Tension
An Extension spring can have an initial tension which must be exceeded before any deflection can take place.

Springs
When the load exceeds the initial tension the spring behaves according the the formulae above.
The initial tension load can be calculated from the formula.... W i = π S i d 3/ ( 8 D)
Maximum value of Initial Stress (S i) for a spring related to the Spring Index (D/d)
D/d Initial Tension Stress

- (N/mm 2 )
3 172.25
4 155.03
5 137.80
6 124.02
7 111.62
8 99.91
9 89.57
10 79.92
11 73.03
12 66.14
13 60.63
14 54.43
15 48.23
Helical Springs (Rectangular Wire)
Spring Rate and Stress
Rate (N/mm) = K 2 G b t 3/ (N D 3) Stress (N/mm 2) = K 1 W D /( b t 2 )
● b = largest section dimension(mm)

● t = Smallest Section dimension(mm)
● K 1 = Shape Factor (see table)
● K 2 = Shape Factor (see table)
● C = Spring Index = D/(radial dimension = b or t)
b/t 1.0 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
K1 2.41 2.16 2.09 2.04 1.94 1.87 1.77 1.67 1.63 1.60
K2 0.18 0.25 0.272 0.292 0.317 0.335 0.385 0.381 0.391 0.399

Springs

2. Acxess Springs ...Information on Design, Materials etc (Imperial)
3. Harris Springs ...Information on Design, Materials etc (Imperial) and a catalog
4. Earthlink- How to Make Springs ...Good simple comprehensive information
5. Lee Springs ...Spring Supplier + useful technical Information
6. Springmasters ...Spring Supplier + comprehensive range of springs with sizes and ratings
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Springs
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Disc Spring Design
More details on Spring design are to be found in the links below the table. The notes on this page are being improved over Sept/Oct 06
INTRODUCTION
A disc spring is a conical shell spring is loaded along its axis. Disc springs can used as single or multiple units. When stacked in multiple units they can be stacked in series to
give a low staiffness value or in parallel to give a higher stiffness value. By varying the size and the stacking arrangements an extremely wide variation in operating parameters
can be achieved.
Parallel Stacked springs (n springs)..For a given force the spring deflection will be (1/n) x the deflection of a single spring. The
stress experienced by each spring will be 1/n the stress experienced by the single spring. (friction must be considered when
loading is constantly changing )
Series Stacked Springs (n springs)..For a given force the spring deflection will be n x the deflection of a single spring. Each
spring will experience the same stress as that for a single spring
Series & parallel Stacked springs (n series + n parallel )...For a stack of springs n in parallel and n in series. The deflection for a
given force will be the same as for one spring. The springs will only experience 1/n of the stress of one spring.
Disc Spring are generally standardized according to DIN 2092 Calculations or DIN 2093 (dimensions /quality).
Din 2093 differentiate spring in three groups:
● Group 1: Disc Spring thickness t < 1.25 mm Cold Formed

● Group 2: Disc Spring thickness 1.25 <= t < 6 mm Cold Formed with inner/outer rings machined and inner edges rounded
● Group 3: Disc Spring thickness 6 <= t < 16 mm Hot Formed, All surfaces machined and inner/outer edges rounded, bearing flats
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Springs
Nomenclature
● F = Axial Force (N)

● h = Unloaded cone height (mm)
● H = Unloaded Total height (mm)
● D = Outside Diameter (mm)
● d = Inside Diameter (mm)
● t = Thickness (mm)
● u = Poissens Ratio (mm)
● E = Youngs Modulus N/mm2
● K1 = Shape Factor (see formula below)
● K4 = Thickness Compensation Factor (See notes below)
● δ Ratio OD/ID= D/d
Factors
The factors are calculated as follows.
For disc springs without contact surfaces (see note below) K4 = 1
D/
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.5 3.6 3.8 4
d
K1 0.5248 0.5735 0.6131 0.6455 0.6722 0.6943 0.7281 0.7518 0.7684 0.78 0.788 0.7979 0.7987 0.7995 0.7994
K2 1.0982 1.1239 1.1488 1.1731 1.1967 1.2198 1.2643 1.307 1.3482 1.3879 1.4263 1.5178 1.5354 1.5699 1.6037
K3 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776 1.1776
Spring Force
The force at a given disc spring deflection is obtained by the formula below. This is for springs with no contact surfaces

Springs
For springs with contact surfaces the formula below is more accurate. The h' in this formula is adjusted to allow for the reduced
thickness .( h' = H - t')
Spring Stresses
The stresses in a disc spring at four critical locations 1,2,3,4 see sketch for positions are shown below _-ve values are
compressive stresses and +ve values are tensile stresses)
Important Note:
When considering springs with contact surfaces. Use the factor K4 as calculated below and use t' instead of t and use h = H -
t'
Springs With Contact Surfaces

Some of the springs in group 2 and all of the springs in group 3 are manufactured with contact surfaces to enable better load bearing. These flats provide improved contact
between springs and they also reduce the outside diameter.

Springs
A consequence of the altered geometry is that higher forces are generated. To compensate for this undesirable effect the
thickness of the spring is reduced from t to t'. The normal ratio of t/t' is about 94% to 96%. With this reduction the spring force
at 75% deflection is about the same as a disk spring with no contact surfaces.
A factor K4 is provided to allow for the different operating characteristics for disc springs with contact surfaces. If the disc
spring has no contact surfaces the K4 = 1
1. Schnorr ...A Disc spring supplier - website includes very useful high quality information
2. Circlips.com ...Site contains very useful spreadsheet based calculator
3. Valleyspring ...An excellent download paper on disc springs
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Leaf Spring Design
More details on Spring design are to be found in the links below the table.
INTRODUCTION
Leaf Springs are widely used in the automobile and railway industries for suspension applications. The simplest variation is the single
beam spring. The more normal application is the laminated (multiple) leaf spring which provides a more efficient stress distribution..
Single Leaf Springs have the following characteristics.
● They are suitable for low and medium load forces

● They have reasonably linear working characteristics
● They have relatively low spring constant
● They are long items with relatively low cross section
● They are relatively low cost items
Laminated leaf springs have the following characteristics
● They are suitable for higher loading forces

● They have theoretically linear working characteristics (friction between the leaves causes hysteretic pattern of the working curve)
● Compared to single leaf springs they have relatively high spring constants (stiffness)
● Laminated spings have high space requirements compared to single leaf springs
● They require regular maintenance (lubrication and cleanness)
Nomenclature

F = applied Force (N)
t = thickness of leaf (m)
b = width (m)
L = length (m)
t = thickness of leaf (m)
δ = deflection (m)
σ = Bending stess <σ(N/mm2
k = spring rate (stiffness) F/δ (N/m
Single leaf springs

There are two primary variations the cantilever spring and the simply supported beam..
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Springs
Cantilever spring
Simply supported spring
Multiple leaf springs

Considering a cantilever type leaf spring, the stress distribution is related to the distance from the
load point.
σ = 6Fx / bt2
If (x/b) is constant along beam, of constant thickness t, then the stress level will be constant and the
most efficient spring will result. If x/b is constant then a triangular shaped spring results. The
multileaf spring is design to provide a constant stress level along the spring length as it is designed
to be equivalent to a triangular spring as shown below.

Springs
For this spring the maximum stress( which ideally is constant along the spring) is and the stiffness
are as follows..
These equations apply to the quarter elliptic spring as shown below
The relevant equations for the semi-elliptic spring as shown below are

Springs
1. Diracdelta.co.uk ...Leaf Spring Formulae and calculator

2.
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TorsionSprings
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Torsion Spring Design
INTRODUCTION
Springs used to apply torque or store rotational energy are generally called torsion or double torsion springs. Torque by definition is a force
that produces rotation. A torsion spring exerts a force (torque) in a circular arc, and the arms rotate about the central axis. The stress is in
bending, not in torsion. It is customary to specify torque with deflection or with the arms at a definite position.
Torsion bar
The torsion bar is the simplest form or torsion beam. It comprises a solid or hollow bar which is stressed in torsion within it elastic limit.
Nomenclature
R = lever radius (m)

D= bar outside diameter (m)
d= bar inside diameter (m)
L = bar length (m)
ka = Stiffness (Nm) G = Modulus of Rigidity (N/mm2)(m)
τ = Allowable shear stress

Solid Bar
Deflection θ = 32PR2 L /( π GD 4 )
Stiffness k a= πG D4 /(32R 2 L)
Maximum Load Pmax = π D3 τ /(16 R)
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TorsionSprings
Hollow Bar
Deflection θ = 32PR2 L /( π GD 4 )
Stiffness k a= πG (D 4 -d 4) /(32R 2 L)
Maximum Load Pmax = π(D 4 -d 4) τ /(D 16 R)
Torsion Spring
A typical torsion helical spring is shown below. There are a wide variety of coil end configurations
to suit different applications and a torsion spring is usually positioned on a shaft. The coils are
usually close wound as are tension springs but they generally do not have any initial tension unlike
tension springs.
The primary stress induced in torsion spring is a bending stress in the wire . This is not the case for
the tension and compression helical springs for which the primary stress is a torsional (shear)
stress. During forming residual stresses are built up in the winding process. These residual
stresses are in the same direction but of opposite sign to the working stresses resulting when the
spring is loaded causing the coils to tighten. Torsion springs are stronger as a result and they are
often designed to work at, or above the yield strength.
Nomenclature
C = Spring Index D/d

Di = Spring inside diameter (m)
Dil = Spring inside diameter (loaded ) (m)
F = applied Force (N)
G = Modulus of Rigidity (N/m2)(m)
ka = Angular spring rate (stiffness) M /θ (Nm /radian)
L = length (m)
M = Moment (Torque) = RF (Nm)
n = Number of active coils
y = distance from neutral axis to outer fibre of wire (m)

TorsionSprings
τ = Allowable shear stress (N/m2 )

σ = Bending stress σ(N/m2 )
Note: metres (m) have been shown as the units of length in all of the variables above for
consistency. In most practical calculations milli-metres will be more convenient.
Torsion Spring Formulae
The spring stress concentration factors Ki =
The maximum bending stress is at the inner fibre of the coil and equals
The angular spring rate ka =
Torsion springs are often used over shafts. It is important that the spring inside diameter, when fully
loaded is no t equal to, or less than the shaft diameter. If this happens the spring will fail. The
inside diameter of the loaded tension spring is
1. Engineers Edge- ...Torsion Spring Calculator

2. Torsion Springs ...Notes on how to make torsion springs
3. Mitcalc ...Reasonably priced excel based software ( 30 day trial offer)
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TorsionSprings

Springs Fatigue Design
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Spring Fatigue Notes
INTRODUCTION
Note:
Components which are subject to continuously cyclic loading often fail at prematurely as a result of fatigue. The worst fatigue loading
regime are loads which continuously reverse from negative (compressive) loading to positive (tensile) loading in a cyclic manner. Reference
fatigue loading notes Fatigue Index
As springs are often used under continuously fluctuating loading conditions it is necessary to consider fatigue loading and stress
concentration factors. Helical springs are never used under conditions of load reversals. They are either normally in tension or normally in
compression. In addition springs are often prestressed as part of the forming process or/and preloaded, thus preventing the stress from
being zero. These factors mitigate, to some extent, the fatigue loading conditions.
All spring subject to continuous fluctuating load are candidates for fatigue failure. Typical springs are
● Valve springs in automobile /aeroplane engines

● Vehicle suspension springs.
● Springs in press tools
Nomenclature
Fm = Mean axial force on spring (N)

Fa = Amplitude of axial force waveform spring (N)
ns = Factor of Safety
Sse = Torsional endurance limit MPa
Ssl = Torsional strength at 102 cycles MPa
Ssy= Torsional yield strength MPa
Ssf= Torsional fatigue strength MPa
τ m = Mean shear stress on spring ( MPa)

τ a = Amplitude of shear stress waveform ( MPa)
Fatigue Notes
The normal shear stress condition experienced be a spring subject to continuous fluctuating loading is as shown below
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The force amplitude and mean value are calculated as
The resulting alternating and mean stresses are
For springs the safety factor for torsional endurance life is
Experimental results have proved that for spring steel the torsional endurance limit is not directly
related to size, tensile strength, or material for wires under 10mm diameter. The resulting value
from experiments has been determined as
S'se = 310 MPa for unpeened springs and 465 MPa for peened springs
S'sa = 241 MPa for unpeened springs and 398 MPa for peened springs
S'sm = 379 MPa for unpeened springs and 534 MPa for peened springs
These values include all modifying factors except for the reliability factor. ref Fatigue modifying
factors That is Se = CrS'e
For springs subject to low cyclic /static loading the safety factor for torsional yielding is
It is generally safe to use a torsional yield strength of 40% of the ultimate tensile strength i.e Ssyof
0,4Sut ref notes Spring Materials

If the spring applications between 103 and 106 cycles of variation a modified torsional shear
strength ( Sfs )can be used to determine the safety margin.
Ssf is the modified shear fatigue strength. This can be determined approximately if the endurance
limit( S'se ) and the fatigue strength at 103 cycles ( S'sl ) are available ref High cycle fatigue strength
Goodmans failure criterion..

The fatigue design of springs generally involves one of a number of failure criterions, as shown
below.
Goodmans failure criterion.. The intersect equation for the Goodmans criterion is
The relevant factor of safety is calculated as follows


2.
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Spring Stability
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Spring Stability Notes
INTRODUCTION
It is necessary to check that relatively long compression springs are not are risk of buckling. If
buckling is a problem it is necessary to incorporate some method of guiding the spring by placing it
in a hole or on a suitable rod.
A longitudinal spring which is subject to rapid cycling may be at risk of surging. This is when the
pulses of compression surge along the spring and back. This could continue and magnify if the
natural material frequency of the spring is near the frequency of repeated loading.
Nomenclature
C'1 elastic constant = E /(2(E-G))
C'2 elastic constant = 2 π2 (E-G) /(2G+E))
E = Elastic Modulus (Pa)
fn= lowest natural frequency (cycles/second)
na = Number of active coils
G = Shear Modulus (Pa)
L0 = Free Length of spring (m) ycrit = critical deflection for onset of buckling (m)
α - constant depending on spring end conditions -see table
γeff = slenderness ratio = α L0 /D
δ = spring material density (kg/m2)
Buckling
Just as a column will buckle when the load becomes too large a long compression spring may
buckle when the deflection exceeds a certain value. The critical deflection is given by the following
equation.
Table showing α for different end conditions
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Spring Stability
End Conditions α
Spring between two flat parallel
0,5
surfaces
Spring on one flat surfaces with other
0,707
end hinged
Both ends hinged (pivoted) 1
One end clamped and the other free 2
Surging
The equation for the lowest natural frequency of a compression spring is
Forcing frequencies near the above lowest natural frequency and at whole multiples (2, 3, 4...) of
this frequency.
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Power Screws
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Power screw Page
Power Screw Equations
Notation
θ = Thread angle ...(radians)

η = Screw Efficiency
dm = Mean screw dia...(m)
dmc = Mean collar dia...(m)
μc = coefficient of friction of the screw /thrust collar surfaces

μs = coefficient of friction of the screw surfaces
F = Force to rotate thread (Torque /Mean Radius)-(N)
l = lead of thread = n.p...(m)
n = number of threads.
p = pitch between adjacent threads... (m)
α = Helix /lead angle (radians) = tan-1 l/(π.dm ).
rci = Collar inside radius (m)
rco = Collar outside radius (m)
rm = Mean radius of thread (m)
W = Vertical force generated by screw-(N)
rmc = Thrust collar mean radius = ( rci + rco ) / 2 ...(m)
TR = Torque to raise load ...(Nm)
TL = Torque to lower load ...(Nm)
To = Overhaul torque resulting from load ...(Nm)
Torque/ Efficiency equations for Power Screws
Torque equations for Power Screws
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Power Screws
Consider a Force F applied at a mean radius rm which causes the load to be raised. The nut is turning the
screw is prevented from turning.
The sketch above identifies the reactive forces acting at point O on the screw thread surface.
The reactive force Fn acting normal to the surface has the following components .
● OD = Ff which is the friction force opposing movement up the thread surface

● OA = Is equal and opposite to the force being lifted. (W)
● OB = Is the vector sum of OD and OA and forms an angle θn with vector Fn
Summing the forces in the vertical direction results in.
Fn cos θncos α = W + Ff sin α
The coefficient of friction for the screw surface materials is μs : Ff = μs.Fn and therefore.

Power Screws
Fn = W / ( cosθncos α - μs.sin α )..........Equation A
Summing the moment of the forces around the centerline of the screw to obtain TR , the torque to raise
the load W up the incline of the screw.
T R = F.r m = r m.(F f cos α + F n cos θnsin α ) = r m.(μs.F n. cos α + F n cos θnsin α )
There is an additional friction torque resulting from the friction force on the thrust collar see top sketch
above. This friction force = μc. W. ( μc = coefficient of friction between the screw thrust surface and the
collar surface.). This friction torque is assumed to be acting at the thrust collar mean radius rmc
The total torque required to raise the load W is therefore equal to
T R = r m.(μ s.F n cos α + F n cos θnsin α ) + rmc.μc. W
Substituting for Fn.. see equation A above and replacing rm by dm/2 ..( and rmc by dmc /2 )
dividing the first term numerator and denominator by cos α results in..
.........Equation B
Tr = the torque in Nm to lift the load W (N)//
BC = AE = OA tanθ = (OB cosα)tanθ ..therefore

tan θn = BC/OB = cos α. tan θ ..therefore
θn = tan-1 [ cos α. tan θ]
For many applications the helix angle is small compared to the thread angle and therefore cos α is
approximately equal to 1. e.g. For M20 2.5 pitch the value of cos α = 0.999
Therefore it is reasonable to let tan θn = tan θ and therefore θn = θ. ..

[However for multi start screws or screws with a relatively course lead (pitch) it is necessary to use θn ]

Power Screws
For normal screws and fine pitch power screws the above equation for TR can be written as :
The torque to lower the load is written as follows
These equations can be expressed in terms of the lead by substituting the relationship tan α = l / (θ.dm )
For applications where the thrust is taken on ball or roller thrust bearing the value of μc is sufficiently low
that it can be taken as approximately 0 and therefore the second term can be ignored. The approximate
equations reduce to..
Overhauling
Overhauling occurs when the screw helix angle is such that the load W would cause to screw to rotate
when the rotating force F = zero i.e. the Force is not only require to raise the load - it is also required to
statically support the load .
The overhauling torque To as calculate below will cause the screw to overhaul when To is less than zero.

Power Screws
If the thrust collar torque is assumed to be near zero then the helix angle which allows overhauling (To =
< zero) can be solved.
tan α = < μs / cos θn
Screw Efficiency
The efficiency of a screw thread can be defined as follows
η = Torque to raise load / Torque to raise load (zero friction)
Using equation B above the value of TR resulting when μs = 0 =
Dividing this by equation B to provides an equation for the efficiency of the power screw thread.
If the collar friction is very low compared to the screw friction the equation reduces to
Values of μs and μc are found on the friction coefficients page of this website Power screw friction
factors
1. Power Screw ...UTM Powerpoint Presentation (Ball screws)

2. Power screw calculation ... Useful ABC calculator
3. Useful screw jack calculations ...A page of general formulae from Powerjacks
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Power Screws

Power Screws
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Power screw Page
Power Screw Strength Equations
Strength considerations for Power Screws
Introduction
The following notes are provided for general guidance. In practice power screws are provided by
specialist suppliers who provide technical literature which includes all the necessary data for selecting
power screws from their range. The notes below are general in nature and cannot provide detailed
information about precise strength levels because there are limitations on the understanding of the stress
levels in screws. Calculations assume that loading is distributed along the whole length of the engaged
screw.. In practice this is not the case and the loading is actually mainly taken by the first two threads.
These may yield a little to distribute to load along the thread.
The stress levels are also effected by thread finish, clearance, shape,lubrication etc etc. The following
factors need to be considered in calculating the strength of a power screw
● Bearing Strength
● Bending Strength
● Shear Strength
● Direct tensile/compressive strength
● Direct tensile/compressive strength
● Column strength
Notation
σ B = Bearing stress ..N/m2

σ b = Bending stress ..N/m2
σ c = Compressive stress ..N/m2
σ t = Tensile stress ..N/m2
σ co = compressive stress on concave side of column ..N/m2
τ = Shear stress ..N/m2
A = stress area ..m2
θ = Thread angle ...(radians)
dm = Mean screw dia...(m)
dmc = Mean collar dia...(m)
d r = dia at the screw ...(m)
d o = Outside dia of the screw root ..(m)
E = Modulus of Elasticity ...(N /m2)

Power Screws
e = Load eccentricity for column calculation ..(m)

h = Thread depth ..(m)
k = least radius of gyration = Sqrt(I/A)..(m)
L = factor for buckling loads for end support conditions
P = Column load ..(N)
l = lead of thread = n.p...(m)
n = number of threads in engagement.
p = pitch between adjacent threads... (m)
α = Helix /lead angle (radians) = tan-1 l/(π.dm ).
rm = Mean radius of thread (m)
W = Vertical force generated by screw-(N)
TR = Torque to raise load ...(Nm)
TL = Torque to lower load ...(Nm)
To = Overhaul torque resulting from load ...(Nm)
y = distance from centroid of screw to extreme fibre ..(m)
Bearing Stress
The bearing stress results from the crushing force between the screw surface and the adjacent nut
surface developed by lifting and supporting the load W.
σ B = W / ( π . dm. h.n )
Table of Safe Bearing Pressures
Bearing
Screw Mat Nut Mat Notes
Pressure
Steel Bronze 17-24 N/mm2 Low Speed
Steel Bronze 11-17 N/mm2 3 m/min
Steel Cast Iron 13-17 N/mm2 2,5m /min
Steel Bronze 5-10 N/mm2 6-12 m/min
Steel Cast Iron 7-7 N/mm2 6-12 m/min
Steel Bronze 1- 2 N/mm2 15 m/min
Bending Stress
The maximum bending stress occurs at the root of the thread. It is calculated by assuming the thread is
a simple cantilever beam built in at the root. The load is assumed to act at mid point on the thread.
The maximumum stress is provided by the bending moment relationship M/I = σ /(y) =e/R. that is σ = M.y/

Power Screws
The section under bending has a length = π.dm.n

The width of the section at the thread root = b.
The Moment of Inertia at the root I = π.dm.n.b3 /12
The distance from the centroid the the most remote fibre ..y = b/2.
The Bending Moment M = W.h/2
The maximum bending stress is therefore..
Shear Stress
Both the nut and screw threads are subject to traverse shear stress resulting from the bending
forces. For a rectangular section the maximums shear stress occurs at the neutral axis and equals
Screw...τ = 3.W /2.A = 3.W /(2.π.d r.n.b )
Nut...τ = 3.W /2.A = 3.W /(2.π.d o.n.b )
Tensile /Compressive stresses
A loaded power screw is subject to a direct tensile or compressive load.. This is simply calculated as the
load / tensile stress area.
The tensile stress area is generally provided in screw tables and is generally larger than that calculated
by the root dia. Using a stress area based on the root diameter may be used for conservative design
studies. (A = πdo2/4)
The preferred stress area is actually based on the (pitch dia + root dia)/2
τ t or c = W /A...
A = (dr + dr) /2
Combined stresses
Based on maximum shear stress theory...

Power Screws
The shear stress τ caused by torque on the screw =
The value of the combined stress is therefore
This equation always applies when the screw is in tension. When a screw is in compression and the
length is greater than 8 time the root diameter then the buckling stress has to be considered..
Buckling stress..ref Simple Struts
When the screw is longer than 8 times the root diameter it must be considered a column. Long columns
with are dealt with using the Euler equation. Columns with slenderness ratios of less than 100 are
considered as short columns. The slenderness ratio is the length (between supports) / Least radius of
gyration of the section.
For Machine tool design a variation on the Gordon-Rankine formula is used. This is called the Ritter
equation ..
For a column the maximum stress at the concave side of the column σ co should not exceed the design
compressive strength of the screw material..
K = factor to allow the column end supports
● One end fixed and one end free K= 0,25

● Both ends pin-connected K= 1
● One end pin-connected and one end fixed K= 2
● Both ends fixed K= 4
The above equation applies only the screws with purely axial loads. When the load is eccentric from the
screw centre line by distance e. Then the following variation of the Ritter equation applies.

Power Screws
1. Power Screw ...UTM Powerpoint Presentation (Ball screws)

2. Power screw calculation ... Useful ABC calculator
3. FAQ screw Jacks ...General information on power screws from Powerjacks
4. DAN Notes -Screw Threads ...Extremely useful Notes
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Ratchets
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Mechanism general notes
Ratchet Mechanisms
More details on Ratchet Mechanisms are to be found in the links below the table
Ratchets
There are many forms of ratchets often requiring some ingenuity in their derivation. Ratchets
are used widely in lifting equipment to lock the motion and prevent reverse rotation when the
input force is remove. Ratchets can also be used to drive a motion in one direction and allow
free-wheeling in the reverse direction. The best example of this application is the bicycle
chain drive
Pawl Ratchet
Sprag Clutch
The pawl ratchet as shown above is a very simple toothed wheel with a pawl allowing free
rotation in only one direction. The Sprag clutch is a modern variation working using a number
of sprags between concentric rings. When the outer ring rotates in one direction relative to the
innner rings the sprags all pivot a little away from the outer wall allowing free movement. If
the outer ring reverses the sprags all pivot the other way and their geometry is such that they
lock up the rings together..
Pawl Ratchet Applications
The pawl ratchet is simple, versatile, inexpensive and reasonably accurate. It is used in all
sizes, shapes and power capacities. The action of a ratchet can be either harsh or smooth
depending on the configuration of teeth & pawls, accuracy of design and manufacture and the
method used to drive the pawls. When a solenoid or spring is used as in the mechanism below
the drive pawl strikes the ratchet wheel with an impact and the wheel will jump ahead if the
load is sufficiently light. This is one of the principal drawbacks of the plain ratchet. A brake
or detent, or careful attention to load will ensure accurate indexing. The unit shown below
includes a second set of teeth which engage a projection on the pawl arm to prevent
overtravel.
Most ratchets incorporate a device to prevent the drive pawl from pulling the ratchet wheel
backwards when the pawl backs up to take another bite. In the figure a holding pawl is used
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Ratchets
for this purpose . In some cases the load is sufficient to hold the wheel..
Spring Blade Ratchet

The ratchet shown below uses flat springs as drive and holding pawls. with proper heat-
treatment this type of drive will give long life under light loading. Indexing rates can be as
high as several a second and the wheel can be indexed with accuracies of about one-tenth of
a degree. Spring-blade ratchets are typically used to wind springs and drive printed-circuit
commutators or timing cams..
Cam Driven Ratchet

In this type of ratchet as shown below the cam can be design so that the drive pawl has very
little kinetic energy when it strikes the wheel: this reduces impact & overtravel. The unit
shown below illustrates another variation of cam input. The ratchet wheel is indexed in a
clockwise direction for either clockwise or counterclockwise rotation of the input
shaft. Although the ratchets shown are normally used in small counters, the same
configuration can be used to drive loads of kW size. Permissible indexing rates depend on
the design strength of the various parts...

Ratchets
Friction Ratchet
In addition to the more common types of ratchets i.e pawl and toothed-wheel mechanisms
other types of indexing drives can be classed as ratchets. The main feature is that an
oscillating member works a one way clutch to index a wheel. One typical system is shown
below. A reciprocating linkage drives the output shaft by means of a one-way spring clutch.
Many other types of clutches can be used in a similar arrangement.
Magnetic Ratchet
The figure below shows a fully magnetic ratchet. When the solenoid is energised the soft-arm
pole piece fastens to a soft iron tooth on the wheel and indexes the wheel. Wehn the solenoid
is turned off, a compression spring raises the pole to meet the next tooth , whilst a permanent
magnet holds the wheel. this method is useful for driving a wheel inside a hermetically sealed
housing..

Ratchets
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Escapements
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Escapement Mechanisms
More details on Escapement Mechanism design are to be found in the links below the table
Escapements
There are many forms of escapements often requiring some ingenuity in their derivation.
Escapements are gemerally used in clocks with mechanical motions. When used with
clocks the escapement controls the spring driven clock mechanism such that it moves in
regulated steps controlled by a pendulum or an oscillating arm.
Inverse Escapements
Inverse escapement are really cam systems with the follower driving the cam. They are
called inverse escapements because although they resemble true escapements, they drive
the load rather than merely releasing it.
The mechanism can be very simple and inexpensive. In the typical example shown below, as
the solenoid is cycled the ratchet-like wheel is indexed by the verge. With proper design, the
wheel is always under control of the verge, so that overtravel is impossible. Indexing
accuracy is generally good since the driver is moving towards the centre of the wheel and
stops. when it bottoms in a tooth. Even with considerable tooth wear , the wheel still stops
close to the original design position. For comparison, even a little tooth wear in a ratchett
reduces positioning accuracy.
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Escapements
For the mechanism to operate correctly,one drive tooth must be at least partially retracted from
the ratchet wheel before the other drive tooth strikes the wheel. This lost motion is
undesireable since it means that the driver will acquire some kinetic energy before it starts to
move the wheel. In an inexpensive inverse escapement, and low cost is one of the principle
attractions of the device, indexing is accomplished by a series of blows or impacts rather than
by a series of smooth impulses. Nevertheless, this is a useful mechanism for light and
moderate power levels. Inverse escapements are used in many electomechanical counters,
and may be operated at speeds of 3000 cpm. Variations of the inverse escapement are
illustrated below .
In the figure below the solenoid has been replaced by a cam. Proper design of the cam can
reduce the impact of the driver on the wheels but the cost is higher.
In the figure below the cam driver has been carried a step further by dividing the cam driver
into two parts and using a double-level input cam. Each drive tooth can be controlled
independantly of the other so tha impact is practically eliminated.

Escapements
In the figure below one half of the drive arm has been replaced by a detent arm. This detent
must index the wheel as well as position it,since if it did not move the wheel the powered arm
would keep hitting the same wheel tooth and there would be no resulting motion
True Escapements
True escapements periodically release a force which drives a load. The force is always trying
to drive the load , but cannot do so until the escapement allows. The main flow of power in
ratchets and genevas, for example, is through the intermittent motion mechanism: on the other
hand an escapement, which is a control device is operated at low power levels even when it is
releasing energy from a high-powered source.
Usually horological escapements are not considered for intermittent motion in applications
other than watches and clocks, but the need not be limited to these applications. They are the
most accurate of all indexing mechanism, furthermore they do not necessarily have to be tiny ,
low powered devices. Escapements that control steeple clocks have controlled forces of
hundred of kN's. Even the watch escapements should not be considered as delicate delays.
Fuse bombs timers have been built to withstand 30,000 to 40,000 g's
High precision horological escapement are not easy to design or build for a slight change in
configuration can cause a large change in performance. Design of high precision horological
escapements requires a great deal of experience.
Runaway Escapement
In the type of escapement shown below torque is applied to the scape wheel causing it to
rotate. One tooth of the scape wheel encounters on arm of the pallet and the pallet is pushed
aside. Rotation of the pallet in turn , frees this tooth, simultaneously bringing the alternate
pallet arm into interference position with a second tooth. The pallet and scape wheel are
mounted on close centres so that one arm or the pallet will always interfere with the motion of
the scape wheel. As the wheel rotates its movement is arrested by repeated (periodic) impact
with the pallet. Thus the wheel can rotate only when and as the pallet is free to oscillate.
As input torque increases , the scape wheel imparts a stronger impulse to the pallet. The

Escapements
resulting increase in pallet speed allows the scape wheel to move more rapidly. Similarly, as
torque is reduced the wheel slows down. Resulting overall performance resembles that of a
viscous damper, except that output speed is roughly proportional to the square root of applied
torque in a true viscous damper speed is proportional to the torque. This viscous like action is
a useful feature of the runaway escapement. Also performance varies much less with
temperature and age than does with that of conventional liquid dampers. The inherent
ruggedness and relative lack of environmental sensitivity of runaway escapements makes
them suitable for many severe timing applications . For accurate timekeeping, of course,
input torque levels must be carefully controlled.
Tuned escapements
Most contemporary timers are tuned escapements instead of runaways. The runaway
escapement output speed varies with applied torque but in a tuned escapement speed is
determined by a mechanical oscillator - a pendulum or an oscillating spring-mass assembly .
Input torque has little effect on performance.
Although tuned escapements can look fairly simple the action is quite complex. The oscillating
escapement periodically releases energy from a power source to drive a load. As it does this
however , the escapement receives energy enough energy to overcome internal losses
caused by friction and impact. If the escapement does not get this small but essential input the
mechanical oscillator will be disturbed and timing errors are introduced.
There are two basic types of clock escapement- recoil and dead beat. A typical recoil
escapement is shown below. It is called a recoil escapement because the scape wheel backs
up slightly as it turns. a typical deadbeat escapement is also shown below. The scape wheel
does not reverse motion so this type in theory is considered more accurate than the recoil
type. In practice however the recoil escapement is often more suitable.
The best modern clocks use two oscillators. One allowed to run nearly free is the master
oscillator. The other which drives the output counter or clock dial escapement or electrical
switches is called the slave. Motion of the master is sensed electrically and energy losses are
sometimes supplied electrically although mechanical devices are more common. The slave is
periodically stopped or speeded up to keep it synchronised with the master. Accuracies of 0.92
sec per day have been obtained with some of these systems, they are more accurate than

Escapements
crystal oscillators over long periods of time.
Deadbeat escapement
Recoil Escapement
Watch escapments also can be divided into two classifications, friction rest and detached. The
figure below illustrates the friction rest type. It is considered a type of cylinder escapement,
because the escape member on the pallet is a tiny cylinder and is classed as a friction rest-
escapement because the scape wheel drages on the oscillating mass (balance arm) during
most of each cycle. A spiral hair spring not show keeps the balance arm oscillating . Teeth
of the scape wheel are carefully shaped to deliver a slight impact to the balance arm at every
cycle to sustain oscillation while disturbing the balance arm motion as little as possible...
The detached pin lever escapement is shown below is a more sophisticated arrangement. A
hairspring coupled to the balance wheel keeps it oscillating. The balance wheel periodically
pushes the pin lever ( connecting the scape and balance wheels ) from one side to the other.
This push occurs when the balance wheel is passing through the point of maximum kinetic

Escapements
energy. At this point the oscillator is best able to perform work without being distrubed. After
the balance wheel has moved the lever however the wheel is free to continue in motion. It
generally oscillates about 360 degrees. As a result, the balance wheel oscillator is detached
from all restraint during most of its cycle , so the timing accuracy is good.
Scape wheel teeth are shaped to impart no torque to the lever until the balance wheel moves
the lever. then a small amount of energy is transmitted from the scape wheel to balance wheel
to sustain oscillation.
This mechanism is not difficlt to make and is found in many inexpensive watches. Versions
with jeweled pallets in place of the pins are used in very accurate watches..
In many machine applications it is desirable to be able to vary the stepping rate. The
adjustable rate escapement shown in below resembles the inverse escapement in ****. In the
inverse device however the arm is the driver. In the unit shown an electric motor is driving a
scape wheel through a slipping clutch. The scape wheel remains at rest until the solenoid is
actuated. As one tooth on the pallet arm frees the scape wheel, the other pallet tooth moves to
engage the wheel. As a result, the amount of motion is controlled and is independent of the
length of the electrical pulse delivered to the solenoid. This mechanism is part of a heavy duty
counter. An alternate method of loading the escapement is shown in fig 30. A motor winds a
clock sspring from the centre . The outer end of the spring engages a drive pin on the scape
wheel which is driven by the spring whenever the solenoid actuates the escapement.

Escapements
The motor can be a normally stalled torque motor, continuously energised. Alternatively the
motor can be turned on only when sensing switches indicate that the clock spring has run
down (the switches sense the increase in spring dia as it unwinds.)
Spring arrangements such as this are useful if the load requires short bursts of pulses,
followed by a long delay or dwell. The motor need not be large enough to accelerate the load
at the maximum pulse but only large enough to supply energy to the spring at an average
pulse rate. This can be quite low if the dwell time is a significant portion of the total cycle.
The escapement shown below can produce very high speed intermittent rotary motion.. One
tape transport mechism has been designed to run at speeds of 1200 steps /min . Indications
were that 30,000 steps/min could be obtained with further refinement.
In another type of spring loaded escapement shown below input can be either continuous as
shown or intermittent. Output is intermittent and occurs once per revolution of the input cam.
In operation, the input winds a spring : continued rotation then releases the spring by
triggering an escapement. This is called a "load of fire" escapement and isolates the input
from sudden changes in load.
The figure below shows another common machine escapement , input to the escape cam is
continuous. The scape wheel is loaded by a stalled motor spring or slip clutch. the type of

Escapements
escapement is really just a holding ring-held plate combination & can be similar to the holding
elements used with mutilated gears .
Impact shock and high acceleration are characteristic of any escapement since the load is
released and stopped suddenly. Noise & wear can result. However the devices are
frequently used whenever high indexing speed and /or precision are required.
Linkage escapement
Linkages are often used with other machine components to produce intermittent motion. The
example below is a typical application using a four bar linkage.
A wide rang range of dynamic characteristics is available with four bar linkages. Input can be
varied easily, and accurately. Linkages are often used to index movie films or punched tape,.
they are less common in rotary drives. In most cases, linkages are used with other elements
to produce intermittent motion..
Electronic escapements
Electronic escapements are used mostly in clocks and watches. They are electrically driven
mechanical escapements and should not be confused with electronic timers.
many electronic escapements resemble the pin lever mechanism shown above except that
motion of the balance wheel is sensed (and maintained) electro-magnetically. In some
cheaper clocks, the balance wheel is the main source of mechanical energy and it drives the
scape wheel instead of just releasing it. Batteries replace the losses in the balance wheel.
Clutch Brake Systems

A clutch brake mechanism is often used to produce controllable intermittent motion; some
manufacturers supply motors with built in clutch brakes. If the clutch and brake are themselves
controlled by electrical signals as in the system shown below, the duration of drive and dwell
can be easily varied. Power capacity and indexing speed depend of course on motor size and
the capacity of the clutch and brake.

Escapements
Links to Escapement Mechanism Design
1. Mark Headricks Horology Page... An online book and a comprehensive set of moving pictures devoted to escapements
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Indexing Mechanisms
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Indexing Mechanisms
More details on Indexing Mechanism design are to be found in the links below the table
Indexing Mechanisms
Geneva Mechanisms
There are three basic types of Geneva motion as shown in the figures below.
External the most common type.
Internal
Spherical ..This is rarely used..
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Indexing Mechanisms
Because the driven wheel in a Geneva motion is always under full control of the driver there is
no problem with overrunning. Impact is till a problem unless the slots of the driven wheel are
accurately made and the driving pin enters these slots at the proper angle. For best results
the pin should be shaped so tht the pin picks up the driven member as slowly as possible.
Impact can also be reduced by leaving the top and bottom of the slot open. The fingers that
form the slot will then have some . However strength is of primary importance and the slot
must be bridged by a web .
External Geneva and Internal Geneva have been used for both light and heavy duties. They
are frequently used as inputs to high speed devices e.g high speed mechanical counters use a
Geneva between the first and second wheels. Mutilated pinions, which connect succeeding
stages, could not absorb the shocks transmitted from the first to the second wheel.
When input and output shafts must be perpendicular few intermittant mechanisms are as
suitable as the spherical Geneva , but this type is bulky and not practical for significant power
levels. Moulded or cast spherical Genevas are adequate for light duty applications.
Typical Geneva with special characteristics are those driven by 4 bar linkages for improved
acceleration characteristics, Genevas with variable dwells , Genevas used as planets in
planetary chains and those combined with cycloidal cranks.
Mutilated Gears
Gears can be used in several ways to produce intermittent motion. A typical unit is the
"mutilated gear" shown in the figure below. In this case some of the teeth have been removed
from the driver and a partial holding surface has been added to each gear to prevent slight
rotation of the drum gear during the dwell period.
Mutilated gears can be run without holding rings but it is not desirable no matter how slow the
motion, the teeth of the driver will sooner or later top the teeth of the output gear. Since the
teeth will meet near a centreline, even small input torque can produce large toggle forces that
can damage the teeth.
Mutilated gears of the type shown in the figure below are subject to large impact loads and
accelerations if the driving speed is high. The shape of the first teeth that will mesh is

Indexing Mechanisms
sometimes modified to reduce impact but only a slight advantage is gained. Attempts have
been made to slack mount the first teeth but only a slight advantage is gained. Geneva or
star wheels are usually preferred for high speeds and for high power applications.
A desirable feature with mutilated gears is their indexing accuracy and in addition to the
inherent accuracy of the gears, the output is always under control on the input. Mutilated
gears as shown below are used in almost all counters, they are inexpensive reasonably
precise and efficient. They stand up well under the type of loading found in instruments. The
mutilated pinions as shown below are virtually identical to the gear above except that the
locking ring on the output gear has been eliminated. Every other tooth on the input end of the
pinion has been cut away so that the remaining teeth can hold the pinion during dwell periods .
In counters the driver has only two teeth, but it can have any even number of teeth.
Cycloidal Gears
With cycloidal intermittent gearing the input and output remains in constant mesh. Cycloidal
gearing provides considerable latitude in selection of operating characteristics- decelarations,

Indexing Mechanisms
dwell periods, ratio of input to output motions etc. A basic cycloidal mechanism is shown in
the figure below. In this type the drive pin or roller must on the pitch circle of the planet gear
if the output crank is to stop, Otherwise, the output will either slow and not stop or actually
reverse the motion.
There are many other variations of this type of mechanism including hyper-cycloidal ,
epicycloidal & peri-cycloidal arrangements. These devices are very versatile and can be
used with Genevas for additional output variations.
The arrangement as shown below can be classed with the hyper-cycloidal gear arrangements
since the driver moves around the inside of a ring gear. In this case however the driver is
constrained from rotating by a fixed pin. The input shaft turns the eccentric, which is mounted
with a sliding fit within the internal gear and is concentric with it. The amount the ring gear is
indexed by the internal gear is determined by relative size diameter of the eccentric and
location of the pin. In this case the ring rotates 36 degrees for every 360 degees of input
motion, remaining at rest for the remaining 324 degrees of rotation. Accelarations are low
and the two gears are always in mesh. Since the inner gear is really only link of a four bar
mechanism, the sliding pin can be replaced by a link loosely pinned to the gear and to the
frame. This arrangement is reliable, inexpensive, quiet and compact. A company "Ikongear"
manufactures a gear reduction design similar , in principle, to this mechanism, (see link
below).

Indexing Mechanisms
Star Wheels
A different type of intermittent motion mechanism is the star wheel. In the arrangement
shown in the figure below pins are used as teeth on the driver, but involute teeth can be used
instead. This is another versatile mechanism. It provides considerable freedom in choosing
operating parameters. The output wheel for example can be made to rotate more than one
revolution. This is not possible with pure simple genevas. Star wheel devices can rotate at
different amounts at each index point. Accelerations and decelerations can be controlled
more readily than in a mulitalted gear pair." By careful shaping of the teeth. Internal pairs are
also possible.
Cams
Various type of cams can be used to produce intermittent indexing rotations. As an example
the scroll-shaped disc cam shown below indexes a wheel 180o when the solenoid pulls the
levers down and a further 180o when the solenoid is releases the levers.
A face cam as shown below is also often used for indexing. The reciprocating drive arm
moves a pin or roller back and forth in the zig -zag groove in the face of the wheel. This
simple arrangement is used in moderate speed counters. As with many inexpensive cam
drives efficiency is not high. Impact is light particularly if the drive arm is itself driven by a
properly shaped cam. In this form of drive there is little danger of over travel.

Indexing Mechanisms
A cylinderical cam as shown below can serve as the driver in another type of indexing drive. a
typical commercial unit can handle moderate to high loads at speeds of 1000 steps /minute
The cam system shown below is used often for Sequenced grabs. Every time the centre shaft
is lowered down the ring in which internal slots are machined is caused to rotate a fixed
angle. This is used for sequenced grabs in which each alternate ring position conforms to a
grab open position and the other positions conform to a grab locked closed position.
The mechananism shown below is a diagrammatic representation of a ball point retracting

mechanism. In practice this mechanism is a cylinderical mechanism arranged such that at

Indexing Mechanisms
each press of the end projection the pen is sequentially extended and retracted. The diagram
below show the cylinder flattened out to illustrate the action
One significant advantage of cam drives over most other intermittent motion drives is that the
cams can be shaped to control such dynamic factors as impact, acceleration and dwell
periods. However since small changes in cam contour can result in significant changes in
performance each design must be tailored to the particular application.
5. Ikongear..Unique internal gear design
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Rocking Mechanisms

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Rocking , Oscillating Mechanisms
Swinging / Rocking Mechanisms

This type of mechanism produces a swinging or rocking motion of a link. The
motion is generally less than 360o and is an oscillatory motion.
Toothed Rack System

This is simply a rotating arm (b) with a link fitted with a toothed rack (c) which
meshes with a gear (d) to produce a rocking motion of the gear.
Toothed Rack System
Crank and Rocker Mechanism

This is simply a four bar linkage (the frame provides the first link). The operating
characteristics are dependent on the length of the links and the design of the frame
setting the pivot points..Rotation of the arm (b) produces a rocking motion of arm (d).
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Cams_Springs/Rocking.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 12:00:00 PM

Rocking Mechanisms
Crank and Rocker Mechanism
Quick Return linkage

The arm (b) rotates and results in a rocking motion of arm (d)via the slider (c). The
action is a quick return action because the angle (b) rotates through in one direction ,
assumed to be the forward direction, is greater than the angle which result in the
return motion.
Quick Return Linkage
Cam and Follower Mechanism

A very simplified version on this system is shown below. Rotation of the cam (c)

Rocking Mechanisms
produces a rocking motion of the lever (d) via the sliding interface (b). The
arrangement below only identifies the principle involved. In practice some means
would have to be provided to ensure the lever is maintained in contact with the lever.
Cam and Follower Mechanism
Links to Rocking Mechanism Design
1. Index to mechanism -Java applets Various applets providing animations of different mechanisms
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More details on Mechanism design are to be found in the links below the table
Reciprocating straight line motion is most generally completed using pneumatic, hydraulic,
and electric linear actuators. Reciprocating motion is also achieved using rack and pinion,
and cams. Historically a number of machines have been operated very successfully using
specially developed mechanisms.
Scotch Yoke Mechanism

The mechanism below achieves reciprocating motion of the yoke (d) as the arm (b)is
rotated. This mechanism delivers harmonic motion.
Scotch Yoke
Offset Slider Crank

The offset slider crank produces a (working stroke time/return stroke time) ratio greater than
unity based on the rotation direction and degree of offset. With no offset and a relatively long
connecting link the ratio is unity. There is an advantage with having a faster return stroke in
that this motion does no useful work and takes up valuable time.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Cams_Springs/Reciprocating.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 12:00:14 PM

Offset Slider Crank
The Shaper Mechanism

Variations of this mechanism were universally used for providing the cutting motion of shaping
machines. Again this mechanism has the advantage of a quick return cycle. This mechanism
is a derivation of the offset slider mechanism..
Shaper Mechanism
Whitworth Quick Return Mechanism

This is another variation of the shaper mechanism providing slightly different motion
characteristics and a different geometry.

Whitworth Quick Return Mechanism
Links to Reciprocating Mechanism Design
1. Whitworth Mechanism An applet showing the quick return motion
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Din125 Washer
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Din 125 Washer Dimensions
d1 Screw d2 Screw
s d1 d2 s
Size Size
1,1 M1 3 0,3 23 M22 39 3

1,3 M1,2 3,5 0,3 25 M24 44 4
1,5 M1,4 4 0,3 28 M27 50 4
1,7 M1,6 4 0,3 31 M30 56 4
1,8 M1,7 4,5 0,3 34 M33 60 5
2,2 M2 5 0,3 37 M36 66 5
2,7 M2,5 6 0,5 40 M39 72 6
2,8 M2,6 7 0,5 43 M42 78 7
3,2 M3 7 0,5 46 M45 85 7
3,7 M3,5 8 0,5 50 M48 92 8
4,3 M4 9 0,8 54 M52 98 8
5,3 M5 10 1,0 58 M56 105 9
6,4 M6 12 1,6 62 M60 110 9
7,4 M7 14 1,6 66 M64 115 9
8,4 M8 16 1,6 70 M68 120 10
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Screws/Din125.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 12:01:04 PM

Din125 Washer
10,5 M10 20 2 74 M72 125 10

13 M12 24 2,5 78 M76 135 10
15 M14 28 2,5 82 M80 140 12
17 M16 30 3 87 M85 145 12
19 M18 34 3 93 M90 160 12
21 M20 37 3 104 M100 175 14
Useful Links
1. DIn 125 Plain Washers..Conex Metals (Supplier ) -Washer Dimensions -
Home
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Screws/Din125.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 12:01:04 PM

Joint Stiffness
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Joint Stiffness Notes
Introduction
To determine the performance of a bolted joint it is necessary to calculate the joint stiffness. That is the
deflection of the joint under a bolt loading condition When geometry of the bolted joint is an annulus with
an OD less than 2,5 x the bolt diameter the joint stiffness can be conveniently calculated using k = EA/
l . When the joint includes a non-metallic gasket or material with a low modulus of elasticity then this item
may have such a low stiffness value that the stiffness of the metal parts of the connection will have very
low impact on the overall stiffness.
It is very difficult to obtain theoretical values of joint stiffness because a number of factors affect the result
including.
● The effect of the angle of the screw thread

● Screw hole size
● Surface finish of contacting faces
● Flatness of contacting faces
● Use of Washer
● Selected size of contacting surface (d and D)
● Condition of surfaces between clamped plates
Any of these factors can have a significant effect on the resulting joint stiffness
The notes below identify methods which approximate the loading regime which has been found to occur
by various studies using different methods.
Overall stiffness evaluation for multi-component joints
A bolted joint can include a number of separate parts. The relationship between the individual stiffness
values of the parts and the total stiffness of the clamped joint is as shown below..
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Screws/Joint_Stiffness.html (1 of 6)10/24/2006 12:01:28 PM

Joint Stiffness
The sketch below shows a bolted surface. It has been shown using using ultrasonics and FEA that the
pressure in a bolted surface is greatest under the bolt head and reduces as the distance from the bolt
interface increases. A method of be approximating the force distribution is based on use of the cone
geometry as shown. Various cone half-apex angles are used but for systems using a washer-face
annulus and with hardened steel, cast iron or aluminium an angle of 25o to 35o considered reasonable.
These notes relate to half apex angle of 30o
Referring to the contraction of a small element dx of cone subject to a load P as shown.
The area is determined as follows
Substituting this into the equation for contraction of an element..

Joint Stiffness
To obtain the total deflection the equation above is integrated between 0 and t.
Using integration manipulation techniques this results in
The spring rate of the truncated cone is therefore ..
The bolt hole diameter is equivalent to d the diameter of the applied pressure (The washer diameter) is
equivalent to D and the plate thickness is t.
For a half apex angle of 30o which provides a reasonable value for many engineering metals, the
equation simplifies to..
Important Note: Widely different stiffness values result from different studies. It has also been proved that
different loading conditions and surface conditions also affect the resulting stiffness. The variation in half
apex angle α can be notice from the different studies completed. Differences result from various reason
including D/d ratios differences and surface finish difference
Surface
Originator Technique
Type α
Link 3
Ultrasonics Ground 41o
below
Link 3 Turned /
Ultrasonics 68o
below Ground

Joint Stiffness
Shigley
and Analysis Any 30o
Mischke
Ito Ultrasonics Ground 70o
Gould and
Analysis Smooth 38o
Mikic
Table A
.. Showing stiffness values for steel plate E = 207 kN/mm2 and a half apex angle α of 30 o calculated
using equation X above..
d= bolt dia and D = 1,5 d = approx as would result from a typical bolt or cap screw .
- Plate Thickness (mm)

6 12 20 40 50 60 80 100
d D k = Stiffness (MN/mm ) based on...E = 207 kN/mm2 and α = 30o
6 9 2.757 2.102 1.83 1.619 1.576 1.547 1.511 1.489
8 12 4.245 3.098 2.622 2.254 2.178 2.127 2.063 2.024
10 15 6.009 4.236 3.503 2.934 2.817 2.739 2.639 2.579
12 18 8.047 5.514 4.47 3.66 3.493 3.381 3.239 3.153
16 24 12.945 8.49 6.661 5.245 4.953 4.757 4.508 4.356
20 30 18.932 12.017 9.191 7.006 6.556 6.253 5.868 5.634
24 36 26.008 16.095 12.055 8.94 8.3 7.867 7.32 6.986
30 45 38.658 23.236 16.974 12.163 11.175 10.509 9.664 9.149
36 54 53.75 31.605 22.638 15.768 14.36 13.41 12.207 11.474
Table B
Showing stiffness values for steel plate E = 207 kN/mm2 and a half apex angle α of 60 o calculated using
Equation X above. This table is provided to identify the variation is stiffness using two different, but still
relevant, values of α
d= bolt dia and D = 1,5 d = approx as would result from a typical bolt or cap screw .
- Plate Thickness (mm)

6 12 20 40 50 60 80 100
d D k = Stiffness (MN/mm ) based on...E = 207 kN/mm2 and α = 60o
6 9 5.627 4.929 4.642 4.423 4.378 4.349 4.312 4.289

Joint Stiffness
8 12 8.108 6.886 6.382 5.995 5.917 5.864 5.798 5.759

10 15 10.88 8.996 8.216 7.616 7.494 7.412 7.31 7.248
12 18 13.939 11.255 10.142 9.284 9.11 8.993 8.845 8.757
16 24 20.909 16.216 14.27 12.764 12.456 12.25 11.99 11.833
20 30 29 21.76 18.758 16.431 15.955 15.635 15.231 14.988
24 36 38.203 27.878 23.602 20.284 19.604 19.146 18.569 18.219
30 45 54.079 38.121 31.526 26.407 25.355 24.647 23.753 23.211
36 54 72.426 49.629 40.231 32.938 31.437 30.426 29.148 28.373
Bolted joint comprising two equal plates
The force distribution on a typical bolted joint comprising two plates is shown below:
It is necessary to obtain a value for the stiffness for each part of the joint. In the case above for each of
the two plates.
If the plates are of the same material and similar thickness then the overall stiffness of the joint is..
FEA work has been completed (Wileman ,Choudury & Green)for similar 2 part bolted joint with typical
washers (Dw = 1,5d) and joint members of the same material and an approximate curve fit curve for the
resulting relationship has been derived..
Values for A and B are provided in the following table...

Joint Stiffness
Poisson Youngs
A B
Ratio Modulus
Material GPa
Steel 0,291 207 0,78715 0,62873
Aluminium 0,334 71 0,79670 0,63816
Copper 0,326 119 0,79568 0,63553
Gray Cast
0,211 100 0,77871 0,61616
Iron
General
0,78952 0,62914
Case
Example comparing stiffness value using two methods.
Consider two plates 20mm thick clamped with a 10m bolt using the table with a half apex angle α of 30 o
k for each plate from Table A above = 3 503 kN/mm .... 1/ k t = 1/k + 1/k .
Therefore k t = k/2 = 1 7513 kN/mm.
Using the formula above with A = 0,78715,B = 0,62873,d = 10, l=40 and E = 207 OOO
k t = E.d.A exp (Bd/l) = 1 906 kN/mm
1. Co.design -Design Procedures for Statically Loaded Bolted Joints ..Very Useful Notes. (Different methods to above)
2. DAN_notes Loads in an elastic bolted assembly..Very detailed notes on bolt loading-similar to notes above.
3. blackwell-synergy.com..Characterisation of Contact Pressure Distribution in Bolted Joints
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Physical Chemsistry - Ideal Gas Laws
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Physical Chemistry
Ideal Gas Laws
Boyles Law..... Charles Law..... Equation of State..... Avogradros Law..... Ideal Gas Law..... Daltons Law..... Grahams Law..... Kinetic Theory of
Gases.....
Gases
Boyle's Law
When the pressure on a gas is increased at constant temperature the volume decreases. At
constant temperature the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure.
PV = constant...At constant temperature
P = the pressure
V = volume of fixed mass of gas
Charles Law.. (Gay-Lussac's Law)
The volume of gas at constant pressure increases by the same relative amount for every degree
rise in temperature.
Vt = Vo + α v.V o.t = V o (1 + α v. t) ... = At constant pressure
α v= coefficient of expansion (theoretically same for all gases

Vo = Volume of gas at O o (C or F )
Vt = Volume of gas at t o (C or F )
t = Temperature (Degrees Centigrade /Celcius )
If the temperature is in degrees C then α = approximately 1/273
Vt = V o (1 + t /273) ... = At constant pressure
The absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin (K) = the temperature t + 273 Therefore the following
relationship holds..
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Chemistry/Chem_Gas_ideal.html (1 of 8)10/24/2006 12:01:44 PM

These are alternative forms of Gay-Lussac's Law
Equation of State
Gay-Lussac's law and Boyles law can combined to produce an expression which relates pressure,
temperature and volume. This relationship is called the equation of state... The derivation of the
equation of state is as follows;
A gas has a volume V1 at a pressure of P1 and a temperature T1 If the pressure is changed to P2

and the temperature is T2 and the volume resulting is V2. The relationship is derived as follows:..
a) The temperature is maintained at T1 while the pressure is changed from P1 to P2 The volume is
changed from V1 ' according to Boyle's law as follows...
P1V1 = P2V1 ' therefore V1 ' = P1V1 /P2
b) The pressure is now maintained constant and the temperature is changed from T1 to T2 . The
volume will then change from V1 ' to V2. applying Gay-Lussacs' equation.
The resulting general case of the equation of state for a given mass of gas is...
Avogadro's Law
Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of

molecules...
This law simple states that equal numbers of molecules of different gases occupy the same volume
at a given temperature and pressure... The constant in the above equation will be independent of
the gas providing equal numbers of molecules are involved. This constant is known as the gas
constant (R). This provides the basis for the general equation of state for any gas..
the volume V is the volume occupied by one mole i.e the molar volume at the temperature T and
pressure P.
Note: A mole is that amount of substance which contains as many elementary particles as there are
atoms in 12 gms of carbon 12. (a kmole has as many particles as 12kg of carbon 12 ). The molar
mass of (M) of a substance is the mass of 1 mole of the substance.
Ideal Gas Equation..
At a pressure of P and a temperature T the volume of n moles would be n times as great as for 1
mole; if this volume is v the the gas equation becomes...
Pv = nRT
Various units can be used I have chosen the following units
● P = Pressure = (Pa) N/m 2

● v = Volume = m 3
● R = Universal Gas Constant = 8,314 J /mole.K = 8 314 J /kmole.K
● n = Number of moles
Example: If we had 1.0 mole of gas at 1.0 atm of pressure at 0oC (273.15 K) (STP), what would be
the volume? .....1 Atm = 101 325 Pa. (N/m 2 )
( I use "," as decimal place, "." as multiply symbol, " " for thousands)
(1 . 8,314 . 273,15) / 101 325 = 0.02214 m 3 = 22.14 litres
The molar volume of any ideal gas is 22.14 liters at STP
If this was hydrogen H2 with M = molar mass = 2 grammes then the density = 2/22,14 = 0,09 gm/
litre ( kg/m 2)

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
This law establishes a connection between the total pressure exerted by the mixture of a number of
gases and the pressure exerted by each separate gas. Dalton's law states .
The partial pressure of each gas in a mixture is defined as the pressure the gas would exert if it alone occupied the whole volume of the
mixture at the same temperature.
If a vessel of volume contains two gases n1 moles of gas 1 and n2 moles of gas 2. If the vessel
were only filled with n1 moles of gas 1 the resulting pressure would be p1. In a similar manner if the
vessel were only filled with n2 moles of gas 2 the resulting pressure would be p2. All the above are
considered to be at the same temperature.
The pressure when the two gases are present = P. Thge law of partial pressures states
P = p1 + p2
This applies to any number of ideal gases...

Developing this relationship further and writing the ideal gas equation for each gas occupying the
vessel on its own.
p1 v = n1 RT
p2 v = n2 RT etc..
Hence (p1 + p2 ) v = (n1 + n2 )RT
Therefore Pv = (n1 +n2 )RT
If n = (n1 + n2 ) = total number of moles in a gas mixture it can be easily proved that
p1 = (n1 / n ).P
If the mole fraction of any gas in a mixture is identified as x a then p a = x a.P
Graham's Law of Diffusion
Diffusion is the tendency for any substance to spread uniformly to fill the space available to it. This
tendency is apparent primarily for gases but it is also exhibited by liquids and solids to much lesser
extents... If two vessels containing to different gases are connected then , whatever the orientation
of the vessels the gases will, after a short time peiod each be spread uniformly throughout the
jars. The effects of gravity have very little effect on this process.
It the gas molecules are small enough i.e hydrogen and helium. The gas may even spread out
through the containing vessel wall. Gases contained in porous earthernware vessel diffuse out into
the environment and surrounding gases diffuse in...

When gases diffuse through fine pores and holes the process is often termed "effusion".
Grahams law is another ideal gas law which is only approximate states:
The rate of diffusion (or effusion) of a gas is inversely proportional to to square of its density
If d1 and d2 are the densities of two gases and M1 and M2 are the associated molecular weights...
Kinetic Theory of Gases
This generally accepted theory provides a close agreement with experimental data of ideal gases
under conditions of high temperature and low pressures . This theory is based on the following
postulates.
1. A gas is composed of molecules which can be considered as identical, hard smooth spheres
2. The molecules are perfectly elastic with no loss of energy on impacts with other molecules
3. The diameter of the molecules is small compared to the distance moved between impacts,
4. The volume of the molecules is small compared to the volume of the gas
5. The molecules are in complete random motion , impacting with other molecules and the containing walls
6. The time of the impacts is small compared with the time of free motion
7. Attractive and repulsive forces between the molecules are negligible
8. The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the absolute temperature
9. The pressure generated by the gas results from the impact of the molecules upon the containing walls
Derivations from kinetic Theory
The following notes are in the mks system not the cgs system as is normally used for consideration
of molecules...
The derivations illustrated are all approximate but they provide reasonable correct results for ideal
gases following the rules relating to the kinetic theory..
Pressure
Consider a cube of sides 'l' aligned in the x, y and z. The cube is full of "n" molecules each with a
mass "m". The pressure results from the impact of the molecules on the walls of the cube.
Each molecule is moving with a velocity c which has components u,v,w in the x,y and z directions
respectively. c 2 = u 2 + v 2 +w 2
Considering the component of the motion of 1 molecule in the x direction. The molecule impacts
with the wall normal to its direction of motion and rebounds with a velocity -u. The change of
momentum is from mu to -mu = 2mu. The motion then continues and the molecule hits the opposite
wall after a period l/u. The rate of change of momentum of the molecule is therefore 2mu.u/l = 2mu
2 / l (kg.m/s 2 ). Likewise rate of change of momentum in the y direction = 2mv 2 /l (kg.m/s 2 and in

the z direction is 2mw 2 /l (kg.m/s 2...
Newtons law states that the rate of change of momentum is equal to the force acting. Therefore the
total force due to the impacts of a single molecule =
F = 2 mc 2 / l = 2m (u 2 + v 2 + w 2 ) / l
There are n molecules in the cube each molecule exerting a similar force. The total force resulting
from n molecules is therefore .
Ft = 2 m (c1 2 + c2 2 + c3 2 ...+ cn 2) / l
The mean square velocity c is the average of the squares of the velocities of n molecules is defined
as follows.
c = (c1 2 + c2 2 + c3 2 ...+ cn 2) / n
The total force of n molecules is therefore
Ft =2nmc 2 / l (Newtons)
Pressure is defined as the pressure per unit area and the area of the walls of the cube is 6 l
2. Therefore the resulting pressure =
P =2nmc 2 / (l 6 l 2) = nmc 2 / 3.v .....A
Boyle's Law
J.C. Maxwell (1860) arrived at the conclusion that the mean kinetic energy of the molecules of all
gases are the same at constant temperature.
At a constant temperature the kinetic energy mc2 /2 is constant for any gas. For a fixed mass the
number of molecules remains the same and therefore mc2 /2 will be constant.
equation A above can be rewritten as
Pv = nmc 2 / 3 .....Equation B
It is clear from the above notes that at constant temperature the right side of the equation is
constant
Pv = Constant
This is in accordance with Boyle's law...

Avogadro's Law
Also following form the equations above
P1v1 = n1m1c1 2 / 3..... and.... P2v2 = n2m2c2 2 / 3
Now if P1 = P2 and v1 = v2 Then
n1m1c1 2 / 3 = n2m2c2 2 / 3
If the gases are at the same temperature then the kinetic energies are the same
m1c12 /2 = m2c22 /2
and therefore
n1 = n2
That is two gases at the same pressure and temperature occupying the same volume contain the
same number of molecules.. The agrees with Avogadro's law,
Charles's Law
It is postulated above that the temperature T is proportional to the mean kinetic energy of a gas and
therefore from equation B above it follows that
Pv = nkT
where k is a proportionality constant that is is equal for all gases. From Maxwells proof that the
kinetic energy of all gases is equal at the same temperature it is concluded that k is a universal
constant for all gases. If the pressure is held constant then it is clear from the equation above
v/T = constant
This conclusion agrees the Charles Law (Gay-Lussac's law).... The absolute temperate scale is the
same as the temperature defined in reference to the mean kinetic energy of the molecules in an
ideal gas

Relevant Chemistry Sites..
1. Ideal gas laws - Hyperphysics ...Very good reference for ideal gas laws.
2. Virtual Laboratory for ideal gas law ... An applet allowing the ideal gas law to be tested.
3. Ideal Gas Laws...Set of Lecture notes
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Physical Chemistry

Thermodynamics First Law Non Flow examples
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Thermodynamic Laws
Non-Flow Processes
Introduction
The intrinsic internal energy U is the total internal energy minus the energies of motion,
gravitational, magnetic and surface forces energies . The first law can be written using U as
δQ = δU + δW
This is termed the restricted energy conservation equation for a system The notes below relate to
various non flow processes using the restricted energy conservation equation when the kinetic and
potential and surface energies are assumed zero.
The system boundaries are defined by the red dashed lines.
Heating at constant volume
δW= 0 therefore
δQ= δU
Adiabetic expansion in a cylinder
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Thermos/Thermos_First law_non_flow.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 12:01:49 PM

δQ= 0 therefore
δW= -δU
Free Expansion (Joules experiment)
Initially valve is closed and pA > pB >

Valve is opened and pressures equalise.( Q = W = 0) E is constant throughout process
When conditions settle U = E therefore final U = initial U
Throughout path of proces U is not constant.
Heating at constant pressure

δQ= δU + δW
If the expansion is fully resisted (reversible process) δW= pδV therefore
δQ= δH
Note:
δH = δU + pδV + Vδp. In the above system p is constant (δp = 0). Therefore δH = δU + pδV
Thermodynamic Law Links

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Thermodynamics Rankine cycle Superheated
ROYMECH
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Thermos Index
Thermodynamics-Turbine Vapour Cycle with Superheat on T-h Diagram
Steam cycle on Temp - Enthalpy Diagram
This cycle shows the stages of operation in a turbine plant with superheated steam. The enthalpy reduction in the turbine is represented by
F -> G . The reversible process for an ideal isentropic (reversible adiabetic) is represented by F->G'. This enthalpy loss would be (h g2 - h 2 )
in the reversible case this would be (h g2 - h 2s ).
The heat loss by heat transfer in the condenser is shown as G->C and results in a loss of enthalpy of (h2- hf2)or in the idealised reversible
process it is shown by G'-> C with a loss of enthalpy of (h2s- hf2).
The work done on the water in extracting it from the condenser and feeding it to the boiler during adiabetic compression C-> D is (h d - h f2 )
= length M
The energy added to the working agent by heat transfer across the heat transfer surfaces in the boiler is (hg1 - hd ) which is approx.( h g1 - h
f2 )
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Thermos/Thermos_Steam_Turbine_2.html (1 of 2)10/24/2006 12:01:57 PM

Thermodynamics Rankine cycle Superheated
The Rankine efficiency of the Rankine Cycle AFG'CDEA is
The efficiency of the Real Cycle is
Steam Turbine Links
1. Wikipedia- Steam Turbines..A series of very informative notes and diagrams

2. Steam Turbines..A one page article with very good graphics
3. Technology Characterization Steam Turbine ..A downloadable paper including lots of useful relevant information
4. Tpub-Steam Turbines ..Lots of useful Information and very nice sketches
Home
Thermos Index
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Thermos/Thermos_Steam_Turbine_2.html (2 of 2)10/24/2006 12:01:57 PM

Thermodynamics Steam Tables
at your own risk.
ROYMECH
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Thermos Index
Steam Tables Index
Thermodynamics-Steam Tables
Saturated Steam - pressure based
Steam Tables SI units
Important Note
These tables have been compiled, by hand, from calculators available on the internet they are only suitable for rough calculations and
there may be typos. For serious work please use more reliable data. I provide links below and recommend for serious work that you
use the information from these links> (The NIST link probably the best.) I have checked various values and they seem match (to the
NIST data) to within about 0,01%
● P = Pressure..Bara
● ts = Saturation Temperature ..oC
● v f = Sat. Specific Liquid Volume..m3/kg
● v g = Sat. Specific Vapor Specific Volume..m3
● u f = Sat. Liquid Internal Energy..kJ/kg
● u fg = Sat. Evaporation Internal Energy..kJ/kg
● u g = Sat. Vapor Internal Energy..kJ/kg
● h f = Sat. Liquid Enthalpy..kJ/kg
● h fg = Sat. Enthalpy..kJ/kg
● hg = Sat. Vapor Enthalpy..kJ/kg
● s f = Sat. Liquid Entropy..kJ/kg.K
● s fg = Sat. Evaporation Entropy..kJ/kg.K
● s g = Sat. Vapor Entropy..kJ/kg.K
P ts vf vg uf u fg ug hf h fg hg sf s fg sg
0,008 3,7614 0,001 159,64 15,8085 2364,2715 2380,08 15,8093 2491,9807 2507,79 0,057479 8,999211 9,05669
0,01 6,96957 0,00100014 129,178 29,2976 2355,1924 2384,49 29,2986 2484,3714 2513,67 0,105912 8,868958 8,97487
0,02 17,4947 0,00100136 66,9869 73,4263 2325,4737 2398,9 73,4283 2459,4517 2532,88 0,260561 8,462049 8,72261
0,03 24,079 0,00100277 45,6532 100,975 2306,905 2407,88 100,978 2443,862 2544,84 0,354287 8,222143 8,57643
0,04 28,9604 0,0010041 34,7911 121,384 2293,116 2414,5 121,388 2432,282 2553,67 0,422395 8,050965 8,47336
0,05 32,8743 0,00100533 28,1853 137,744 2282,056 2419,8 137,749 2422,981 2560,73 0,476198 7,917602 8,3938
0,06 36,159 0,00100645 23,7334 151,472 2272,758 2424,23 151,478 2415,152 2566,63 0,52082 7,80822 8,32904
0,07 38,9996 0,0010075 20,5245 163,344 2264,706 2428,05 163,351 2408,369 2571,72 0,559028 7,715432 8,27446
0,08 41,5088 0,00100848 18,0989 173,832 2257,578 2431,41 173,84 2402,37 2576,21 0,592491 7,634829 8,22732
0,09 43,7606 0,0010094 16,1992 183,244 2251,186 2434,43 183,253 2396,967 2580,22 0,622298 7,563542 8,18584
0,1 45,8063 0,00101027 14,6701 191,796 2245,364 2437,16 191,806 2392,054 2583,86 0,649196 7,499624 8,14882
0,11 47,6831 0,0010111 13,412 199,642 2240,018 2439,66 199,653 2387,537 2587,19 0,673723 7,441677 8,1154
0,12 49,4187 0,00101188 12,3583 206,898 2235,062 2441,96 206,911 2383,349 2590,26 0,69628 7,38866 8,08494
0,13 51,0343 0,00101263 11,4624 213,654 2230,446 2444,1 213,667 2379,453 2593,12 0,717171 7,339799 8,05697
0,14 52,5467 0,00101335 10,6912 219,979 2226,121 2446,1 219,993 2375,787 2595,78 0,736636 7,294484 8,03112
0,15 53,9693 0,00101404 10,0201 225,929 2222,051 2447,98 225,944 2372,336 2598,28 0,754865 7,252215 8,00708
0,16 55,313 0,00101471 9,43063 231,55 2218,2 2449,75 231,566 2369,074 2600,64 0,772011 7,212619 7,98463
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Thermos/Thermos_Steam_Tables_1.html (1 of 9)10/24/2006 12:02:21 PM

0,17 56,5868 0,00101535 8,90865 236,878 2214,552 2451,43 236,896 2365,984 2602,88 0,788203 7,175357 7,96356
0,18 57,7981 0,00101597 8,44309 241,946 2211,074 2453,02 241,965 2363,025 2604,99 0,803545 7,140185 7,94373
0,19 58,9534 0,00101658 8,0252 246,78 2207,75 2454,53 246,8 2360,21 2607,01 0,818126 7,106854 7,92498
0,2 60,058 0,00101716 7,64795 251,403 2204,577 2455,98 251,423 2357,517 2608,94 0,832021 7,075199 7,90722
0,22 62,1329 0,00101828 6,99358 260,087 2198,593 2458,68 260,11 2352,43 2612,54 0,858004 7,016266 7,87427
0,24 64,0532 0,00101934 6,44535 268,126 2193,054 2461,18 268,151 2347,719 2615,87 0,881912 6,962328 7,84424
0,26 65,8421 0,00102035 5,97917 275,617 2187,883 2463,5 275,643 2343,317 2618,96 0,904067 6,912593 7,81666
0,28 67,5179 0,00102131 5,57777 282,635 2183,025 2465,66 282,664 2339,176 2621,84 0,92472 6,86645 7,79117
0,3 69,0952 0,00102224 5,22841 289,242 2178,458 2467,7 289,273 2335,277 2624,55 0,94407 6,8234 7,76747
0,32 70,5859 0,00102312 4,9215 295,488 2174,122 2469,61 295,521 2331,579 2627,1 0,96228 6,78305 7,74533
0,34 71,9998 0,00102398 4,64968 301,413 2170,007 2471,42 301,448 2328,062 2629,51 0,979483 6,745077 7,72456
0,36 73,3451 0,0010248 4,4072 307,052 2166,088 2473,14 307,089 2324,711 2631,8 0,995789 6,709211 7,705
0,38 74,6289 0,0010256 4,18952 312,434 2162,336 2474,77 312,473 2321,497 2633,97 1,01129 6,67523 7,68652
0,4 75,8568 0,00102638 3,99298 317,583 2158,747 2476,33 317,624 2318,426 2636,05 1,02607 6,64293 7,669
0,42 77,0342 0,00102713 3,81462 322,521 2155,299 2477,82 322,564 2315,476 2638,04 1,0402 6,61215 7,65235
0,44 78,1652 0,00102786 3,65199 327,265 2151,985 2479,25 327,31 2312,63 2639,94 1,05372 6,58278 7,6365
0,46 79,2538 0,00102856 3,5031 331,833 2148,787 2480,62 331,88 2309,89 2641,77 1,0667 6,55466 7,62136
0,48 80,3034 0,00102925 3,36625 336,237 2145,703 2481,94 336,286 2307,234 2643,52 1,07918 6,5277 7,60688
0,5 81,3169 0,00102993 3,24003 340,49 2142,72 2483,21 340,542 2304,678 2645,22 1,0912 6,5018 7,593
0,52 82,2969 0,00103058 3,12322 344,604 2139,836 2484,44 344,658 2302,192 2646,85 1,10279 6,47689 7,57968
0,54 83,2458 0,00103123 3,01482 348,588 2137,032 2485,62 348,644 2299,776 2648,42 1,11398 6,45288 7,56686
0,56 84,1658 0,00103185 2,91392 352,451 2134,319 2486,77 352,509 2297,441 2649,95 1,12481 6,42972 7,55453
0,58 85,0586 0,00103247 2,81977 356,201 2131,679 2487,88 356,261 2295,159 2651,42 1,13529 6,40734 7,54263
0,6 85,926 0,00103307 2,73171 359,845 2129,105 2488,95 359,907 2292,953 2652,86 1,14545 6,38569 7,53114
0,62 86,7696 0,00103366 2,64916 363,389 2126,611 2490 363,453 2290,787 2654,24 1,15531 6,36473 7,52004
0,64 87,5907 0,00103423 2,57162 366,839 2124,171 2491,01 366,905 2288,685 2655,59 1,16488 6,34441 7,50929
0,66 88,3907 0,0010348 2,49863 370,201 2121,789 2491,99 370,27 2286,63 2656,9 1,17419 6,32469 7,49888
0,68 89,1707 0,00103536 2,4298 373,48 2119,47 2492,95 373,55 2284,63 2658,18 1,18325 6,30554 7,48879
0,7 89,9317 0,0010359 2,36479 376,68 2117,2 2493,88 376,752 2282,668 2659,42 1,19207 6,28693 7,479
0,72 90,6749 0,00103644 2,30328 379,804 2114,986 2494,79 379,879 2280,751 2660,63 1,20067 6,26881 7,46948
0,74 91,401 0,00103697 2,24499 382,858 2112,822 2495,68 382,935 2278,875 2661,81 1,20906 6,25117 7,46023
0,76 92,111 0,00103749 2,18967 385,845 2110,695 2496,54 385,923 2277,037 2662,96 1,21724 6,23399 7,45123
0,78 92,8056 0,001038 2,1371 388,767 2108,623 2497,39 388,848 2275,232 2664,08 1,22523 6,21724 7,44247
0,8 93,4855 0,0010385 2,08708 391,627 2106,583 2498,21 391,71 2273,47 2665,18 1,23304 6,2009 7,43394
0,82 94,1515 0,001039 2,03943 394,43 2104,59 2499,02 394,515 2271,735 2666,25 1,24068 6,18494 7,42562
0,84 94,804 0,00103948 1,99397 397,176 2102,634 2499,81 397,263 2270,037 2667,3 1,24815 6,16935 7,4175

0,86 95,4438 0,00103996 1,95056 399,869 2100,711 2500,58 399,959 2268,371 2668,33 1,25546 6,15411 7,40957
0,88 96,0713 0,00104044 1,90907 402,511 2098,819 2501,33 402,603 2266,727 2669,33 1,26263 6,1392 7,40183
0,9 96,6871 0,00104091 1,86936 405,104 2096,966 2502,07 405,198 2265,112 2670,31 1,26964 6,12463 7,39427
0,92 97,2917 0,00104137 1,83132 407,65 2095,15 2502,8 407,746 2263,534 2671,28 1,27652 6,11036 7,38688
0,94 97,8854 0,00104182 1,79485 410,151 2093,359 2503,51 410,249 2261,971 2672,22 1,28327 6,09638 7,37965
0,96 98,4688 0,00104227 1,75985 412,608 2091,592 2504,2 412,708 2260,442 2673,15 1,28988 6,08269 7,37257
0,98 99,0422 0,00104272 1,72624 415,024 2089,856 2504,88 415,126 2258,934 2674,06 1,29638 6,06926 7,36564
1 99,6059 0,00104315 1,69393 417,4 2088,15 2505,55 417,504 2257,446 2674,95 1,30276 6,05609 7,35885
1,1 102,292 0,00104527 1,54946 428,724 2080,006 2508,73 428,839 2250,331 2679,17 1,33303 5,99382 7,32685
1,2 104,784 0,00104727 1,42836 439,234 2072,416 2511,65 439,359 2243,691 2683,05 1,36093 5,93674 7,29767
1,3 107,109 0,00104917 1,32533 449,051 2065,299 2514,35 449,187 2237,453 2686,64 1,38683 5,88403 7,27086
1,4 109,292 0,00105099 1,23657 458,271 2058,589 2516,86 458,418 2231,562 2689,98 1,411 5,83506 7,24606
1,5 111,349 0,00105273 1,15929 466,969 2052,241 2519,21 467,127 2225,983 2693,11 1,43369 5,78929 7,22298
1,6 113,297 0,0010544 1,09136 475,209 2046,211 2521,42 475,377 2220,663 2696,04 1,45507 5,74634 7,20141
1,7 115,148 0,001056 1,03118 483,041 2040,459 2523,5 483,22 2215,58 2698,8 1,47528 5,70587 7,18115
1,8 116,911 0,00105756 0,977473 490,509 2034,951 2525,46 490,699 2210,711 2701,41 1,49447 5,66759 7,16206
1,9 118,596 0,00105906 0,929242 497,649 2029,671 2527,32 497,85 2206,03 2703,88 1,51274 5,63127 7,14401
2 120,21 0,00106052 0,885682 504,492 2024,598 2529,09 504,704 2201,526 2706,23 1,53017 5,59672 7,12689
2,1 121,759 0,00106193 0,846137 511,065 2019,715 2530,78 511,288 2197,182 2708,47 1,54685 5,56376 7,11061
2,2 123,25 0,0010633 0,810072 517,391 2014,999 2532,39 517,625 2192,985 2710,61 1,56284 5,53225 7,09509
2,3 124,686 0,00106464 0,777042 523,491 2010,439 2533,93 523,735 2188,915 2712,65 1,5782 5,50206 7,08026
2,4 126,072 0,00106594 0,746675 529,381 2006,029 2535,41 529,637 2184,973 2714,61 1,59298 5,47309 7,06607
2,5 127,411 0,00106722 0,718659 535,078 2001,742 2536,82 535,345 2181,145 2716,49 1,60723 5,44522 7,05245
2,6 128,708 0,00106846 0,692727 540,596 1997,594 2538,19 540,874 2177,426 2718,3 1,62098 5,41839 7,03937
2,7 129,965 0,00106968 0,668654 545,947 1993,553 2539,5 546,236 2173,794 2720,03 1,63428 5,39249 7,02677
2,8 131,185 0,00107086 0,646243 551,142 1989,618 2540,76 551,442 2170,268 2721,71 1,64715 5,36749 7,01464
2,9 132,37 0,00107203 0,625327 556,192 1985,788 2541,98 556,503 2166,817 2723,32 1,65962 5,34331 7,00293
3 133,522 0,00107317 0,60576 561,105 1982,045 2543,15 561,427 2163,453 2724,88 1,67172 5,3199 6,99162
3,1 134,644 0,00107429 0,587413 565,889 1978,401 2544,29 566,222 2160,168 2726,39 1,68347 5,2972 6,98067
3,2 135,737 0,00107539 0,570174 570,553 1974,837 2545,39 570,897 2156,953 2727,85 1,69489 5,27518 6,97007
3,3 136,802 0,00107647 0,553946 575,102 1971,358 2546,46 575,458 2153,802 2729,26 1,706 5,2538 6,9598
3,4 137,842 0,00107753 0,53864 579,544 1967,946 2547,49 579,911 2150,719 2730,63 1,71683 5,23299 6,94982
3,5 138,857 0,00107857 0,524179 583,884 1964,616 2548,5 584,261 2147,699 2731,96 1,72737 5,21277 6,94014
3,6 139,849 0,0010796 0,510495 588,127 1961,343 2549,47 588,515 2144,735 2733,25 1,73766 5,19306 6,93072
3,7 140,819 0,00108061 0,497526 592,277 1958,143 2550,42 592,677 2141,823 2734,5 1,7477 5,17386 6,92156
3,8 141,769 0,00108161 0,485217 596,341 1954,989 2551,33 596,752 2138,968 2735,72 1,7575 5,15515 6,91265
3,9 142,698 0,00108259 0,473517 600,321 1951,909 2552,23 600,743 2136,157 2736,9 1,76709 5,13687 6,90396

4 143,608 0,00108355 0,462383 604,221 1948,879 2553,1 604,655 2133,395 2738,05 1,77646 5,11903 6,89549
4,1 144,501 0,0010845 0,451773 608,046 1945,904 2553,95 608,49 2130,68 2739,17 1,78562 5,1016 6,88722
4,2 145,375 0,00108544 0,441652 611,798 1942,972 2554,77 612,254 2128,016 2740,27 1,7946 5,08455 6,87915
4,3 146,234 0,00108637 0,431985 615,48 1940,1 2555,58 615,948 2125,382 2741,33 1,80339 5,06788 6,87127
4,4 147,076 0,00108729 0,422743 619,097 1937,273 2556,37 619,575 2122,795 2742,37 1,812 5,05156 6,86356
4,5 147,903 0,00108819 0,413897 622,649 1934,481 2557,13 623,139 2120,251 2743,39 1,82045 5,03558 6,85603
4,6 148,716 0,00108908 0,405423 626,14 1931,74 2557,88 626,641 2117,729 2744,37 1,82874 5,01992 6,84866
4,7 149,515 0,00108996 0,397298 629,573 1929,037 2558,61 630,085 2115,255 2745,34 1,83687 5,00457 6,84144
4,8 150,3 0,00109084 0,389499 632,948 1926,382 2559,33 633,472 2112,808 2746,28 1,84485 4,98952 6,83437
4,9 151,072 0,0010917 0,382008 636,27 1923,75 2560,02 636,805 2110,405 2747,21 1,85268 4,97477 6,82745
5 151,831 0,00109255 0,374806 639,539 1921,171 2560,71 640,085 2108,025 2748,11 1,86038 4,96028 6,82066
5,1 152,579 0,00109339 0,367877 642,757 1918,613 2561,37 643,315 2105,675 2748,99 1,86795 4,94605 6,814
5,2 153,314 0,00109423 0,361205 645,927 1916,103 2562,03 646,496 2103,354 2749,85 1,87539 4,93208 6,80747
5,3 154,039 0,00109505 0,354776 649,05 1913,62 2562,67 649,63 2101,07 2750,7 1,88271 4,91836 6,80107
5,4 154,753 0,00109587 0,348577 652,127 1911,163 2563,29 652,719 2098,801 2751,52 1,88991 4,90486 6,79477
5,5 155,456 0,00109668 0,342596 655,161 1908,749 2563,91 655,764 2096,566 2752,33 1,89699 4,8916 6,78859
5,6 156,149 0,00109748 0,336821 658,151 1906,359 2564,51 658,766 2094,364 2753,13 1,90396 4,87856 6,78252
5,7 156,832 0,00109827 0,331242 661,101 1903,999 2565,1 661,727 2092,173 2753,9 1,91083 4,86573 6,77656
5,8 157,506 0,00109905 0,325849 664,011 1901,659 2565,67 664,649 2090,011 2754,66 1,91759 4,8531 6,77069
5,9 158,171 0,00109983 0,320632 666,883 1899,357 2566,24 667,532 2087,878 2755,41 1,92426 4,84066 6,76492
6 158,826 0,0011006 0,315583 669,717 1897,073 2566,79 670,377 2085,763 2756,14 1,93083 4,82842 6,75925
6,1 159,474 0,00110137 0,310693 672,515 1894,825 2567,34 673,187 2083,673 2756,86 1,9373 4,81637 6,75367
6,2 160,112 0,00110212 0,305956 675,277 1892,593 2567,87 675,961 2081,599 2757,56 1,94368 4,80449 6,74817
6,3 160,743 0,00110287 0,301365 678,006 1890,394 2568,4 678,701 2079,559 2758,26 1,94997 4,79279 6,74276
6,4 161,365 0,00110362 0,296911 680,701 1888,209 2568,91 681,408 2077,522 2758,93 1,95618 4,78125 6,73743
6,5 161,98 0,00110436 0,29259 683,364 1886,056 2569,42 684,082 2075,518 2759,6 1,96231 4,76988 6,73219
6,6 162,587 0,00110509 0,288396 685,996 1883,914 2569,91 686,725 2073,525 2760,25 1,96835 4,75867 6,72702
6,7 163,188 0,00110581 0,284322 688,597 1881,803 2570,4 689,338 2071,552 2760,89 1,97432 4,7476 6,72192
6,8 163,781 0,00110654 0,280364 691,169 1879,711 2570,88 691,921 2069,599 2761,52 1,98021 4,73669 6,7169
6,9 164,367 0,00110725 0,276516 693,712 1877,638 2571,35 694,476 2067,664 2762,14 1,98603 4,72592 6,71195
7 164,946 0,00110796 0,272775 696,226 1875,584 2571,81 697,002 2065,748 2762,75 1,99177 4,71529 6,70706
7,1 165,519 0,00110866 0,269135 698,713 1873,547 2572,26 699,501 2063,849 2763,35 1,99745 4,7048 6,70225
7,2 166,086 0,00110936 0,265593 701,174 1871,536 2572,71 701,973 2061,967 2763,94 2,00305 4,69445 6,6975
7,3 166,646 0,00111006 0,262145 703,608 1869,542 2573,15 704,419 2060,101 2764,52 2,00859 4,68422 6,69281
7,4 167,2 0,00111075 0,258786 706,017 1867,563 2573,58 706,839 2058,241 2765,08 2,01407 4,67411 6,68818
7,5 167,749 0,00111143 0,255514 708,402 1865,608 2574,01 709,235 2056,405 2765,64 2,01948 4,66413 6,68361
7,6 168,291 0,00111211 0,252326 710,762 1863,668 2574,43 711,607 2054,583 2766,19 2,02483 4,65427 6,6791

7,7 168,828 0,00111279 0,249217 713,098 1861,742 2574,84 713,955 2052,775 2766,73 2,03012 4,64453 6,67465
7,8 169,36 0,00111346 0,246185 715,412 1859,828 2575,24 716,28 2050,99 2767,27 2,03536 4,63489 6,67025
7,9 169,886 0,00111412 0,243227 717,703 1857,937 2575,64 718,583 2049,207 2767,79 2,04053 4,62538 6,66591
8 170,406 0,00111478 0,24034 719,972 1856,058 2576,03 720,864 2047,436 2768,3 2,04565 4,61596 6,66161
8,1 170,922 0,00111544 0,237522 722,219 1854,201 2576,42 723,123 2045,687 2768,81 2,05072 4,60665 6,65737
8,2 171,433 0,00111609 0,234771 724,446 1852,354 2576,8 725,361 2043,949 2769,31 2,05573 4,59745 6,65318
8,3 171,939 0,00111674 0,232083 726,652 1850,518 2577,17 727,579 2042,221 2769,8 2,06069 4,58835 6,64904
8,4 172,44 0,00111739 0,229457 728,837 1848,703 2577,54 729,776 2040,504 2770,28 2,0656 4,57934 6,64494
8,5 172,936 0,00111803 0,226891 731,004 1846,896 2577,9 731,954 2038,806 2770,76 2,07046 4,57043 6,64089
8,6 173,428 0,00111867 0,224383 733,15 1845,11 2578,26 734,112 2037,118 2771,23 2,07527 4,56161 6,63688
8,7 173,915 0,0011193 0,22193 735,278 1843,332 2578,61 736,252 2035,438 2771,69 2,08003 4,55289 6,63292
8,8 174,398 0,00111993 0,219531 737,388 1841,572 2578,96 738,373 2033,767 2772,14 2,08475 4,54425 6,629
8,9 174,876 0,00112056 0,217184 739,479 1839,821 2579,3 740,477 2032,113 2772,59 2,08942 4,53571 6,62513
9 175,35 0,00112118 0,214887 741,553 1838,087 2579,64 742,562 2030,468 2773,03 2,09405 4,52724 6,62129
9,1 175,821 0,0011218 0,212639 743,609 1836,361 2579,97 744,63 2028,84 2773,47 2,09863 4,51887 6,6175
9,2 176,287 0,00112242 0,210438 745,648 1834,642 2580,29 746,681 2027,219 2773,9 2,10317 4,51057 6,61374
9,3 176,749 0,00112303 0,208283 747,671 1832,949 2580,62 748,716 2025,604 2774,32 2,10767 4,50236 6,61003
9,4 177,207 0,00112364 0,206172 749,677 1831,253 2580,93 750,734 2023,996 2774,73 2,11213 4,49422 6,60635
9,5 177,661 0,00112425 0,204103 751,667 1829,583 2581,25 752,736 2022,404 2775,14 2,11655 4,48615 6,6027
9,6 178,112 0,00112485 0,202077 753,642 1827,908 2581,55 754,722 2020,828 2775,55 2,12093 4,47817 6,5991
9,7 178,559 0,00112545 0,200091 755,601 1826,259 2581,86 756,693 2019,257 2775,95 2,12527 4,47026 6,59553
9,8 179,002 0,00112605 0,198143 757,545 1824,615 2582,16 758,648 2017,692 2776,34 2,12957 4,46242 6,59199
9,9 179,442 0,00112664 0,196234 759,474 1822,976 2582,45 760,589 2016,141 2776,73 2,13384 4,45465 6,58849
10 179,878 0,00112723 0,194362 761,388 1821,362 2582,75 762,515 2014,595 2777,11 2,13806 4,44696 6,58502
11 184,062 0,00113299 0,177448 779,781 1805,679 2585,46 781,028 1999,622 2780,65 2,17849 4,37351 6,552
12 187,957 0,0011385 0,163262 796,962 1790,868 2587,83 798,329 1985,411 2783,74 2,21593 4,30575 6,52168
13 191,605 0,0011438 0,151186 813,108 1776,812 2589,92 814,595 1971,865 2786,46 2,25082 4,2428 6,49362
14 195,039 0,00114892 0,140778 828,359 1763,401 2591,76 829,967 1958,883 2788,85 2,28352 4,18395 6,46747
15 198,287 0,00115387 0,131711 842,826 1750,564 2593,39 844,557 1946,403 2790,96 2,31433 4,12865 6,44298
16 201,37 0,00115868 0,12374 856,602 1738,228 2594,83 858,456 1934,364 2792,82 2,34348 4,07645 6,41993
17 204,307 0,00116336 0,116675 869,762 1726,348 2596,11 871,74 1922,72 2794,46 2,37114 4,027 6,39814
18 207,112 0,00116792 0,110368 882,372 1714,868 2597,24 884,474 1911,436 2795,91 2,39749 3,97998 6,37747
19 209,798 0,00117238 0,104703 894,484 1703,756 2598,24 896,711 1900,469 2797,18 2,42266 3,93513 6,35779
20 212,377 0,00117675 0,0995851 906,145 1692,975 2599,12 908,498 1889,792 2798,29 2,44675 3,89226 6,33901
21 214,858 0,00118103 0,0949378 917,394 1682,496 2599,89 919,874 1879,386 2799,26 2,46988 3,85115 6,32103
22 217,249 0,00118523 0,0906985 928,267 1672,293 2600,56 930,875 1869,225 2800,1 2,49213 3,81164 6,30377

23 219,557 0,00118936 0,0868151 938,794 1662,346 2601,14 941,53 1859,29 2800,82 2,51356 3,77362 6,28718
24 221,789 0,00119343 0,0832442 949,002 1652,638 2601,64 951,866 1849,564 2801,43 2,53425 3,73695 6,2712
25 223,95 0,00119743 0,0799491 958,913 1643,147 2602,06 961,907 1840,023 2801,93 2,55425 3,70152 6,25577
26 226,046 0,00120138 0,0768987 968,55 1633,86 2602,41 971,673 1830,667 2802,34 2,57362 3,66724 6,24086
27 228,08 0,00120528 0,0740663 977,93 1624,75 2602,68 981,184 1821,476 2802,66 2,59239 3,63402 6,22641
28 230,057 0,00120913 0,0714292 987,071 1615,829 2602,9 990,456 1812,444 2802,9 2,61061 3,6018 6,21241
29 231,98 0,00121293 0,0689676 995,988 1607,072 2603,06 999,505 1803,555 2803,06 2,62832 3,57049 6,19881
30 233,853 0,00121669 0,0666644 1004,69 1598,47 2603,16 1008,34 1794,81 2803,15 2,64555 3,54003 6,18558
31 235,679 0,00122042 0,0645045 1013,2 1590,01 2603,21 1016,99 1786,18 2803,17 2,66232 3,51039 6,17271
32 237,459 0,0012241 0,0624748 1021,53 1581,68 2603,21 1025,44 1777,69 2803,13 2,67867 3,4815 6,16017
33 239,198 0,00122776 0,0605638 1029,67 1573,49 2603,16 1033,72 1769,3 2803,02 2,69462 3,45332 6,14794
34 240,897 0,00123138 0,0587612 1037,65 1565,42 2603,07 1041,84 1761,02 2802,86 2,7102 3,4258 6,136
35 242,557 0,00123497 0,0570579 1045,47 1557,47 2602,94 1049,8 1752,84 2802,64 2,72541 3,39892 6,12433
36 244,182 0,00123854 0,0554459 1053,15 1549,62 2602,77 1057,61 1744,77 2802,38 2,74029 3,37263 6,11292
37 245,772 0,00124208 0,0539178 1060,68 1541,88 2602,56 1065,27 1736,79 2802,06 2,75485 3,3469 6,10175
38 247,33 0,00124559 0,0524673 1068,07 1534,24 2602,31 1072,81 1728,88 2801,69 2,76911 3,3217 6,09081
39 248,857 0,00124908 0,0510885 1075,34 1526,69 2602,03 1080,21 1721,07 2801,28 2,78307 3,29702 6,08009
40 250,354 0,00125256 0,0497761 1082,48 1519,24 2601,72 1087,49 1713,33 2800,82 2,79676 3,27281 6,06957
41 251,823 0,00125601 0,0485254 1089,51 1511,86 2601,37 1094,66 1705,66 2800,32 2,81019 3,24906 6,05925
42 253,264 0,00125944 0,0473321 1096,42 1504,57 2600,99 1101,71 1698,08 2799,79 2,82337 3,22574 6,04911
43 254,68 0,00126286 0,0461922 1103,23 1497,35 2600,58 1108,66 1690,55 2799,21 2,83631 3,20284 6,03915
44 256,07 0,00126626 0,0451022 1109,93 1490,22 2600,15 1115,5 1683,1 2798,6 2,84902 3,18033 6,02935
45 257,437 0,00126965 0,0440589 1116,53 1483,15 2599,68 1122,25 1675,7 2797,95 2,86151 3,1582 6,01971
46 258,78 0,00127302 0,0430592 1123,04 1476,15 2599,19 1128,9 1668,36 2797,26 2,87379 3,13644 6,01023
47 260,101 0,00127638 0,0421005 1129,46 1469,21 2598,67 1135,46 1661,09 2796,55 2,88588 3,11501 6,00089
48 261,402 0,00127973 0,0411802 1135,8 1462,33 2598,13 1141,94 1653,86 2795,8 2,89777 3,09391 5,99168
49 262,681 0,00128306 0,040296 1142,04 1455,53 2597,57 1148,33 1646,69 2795,02 2,90947 3,07314 5,98261
50 263,941 0,00128639 0,0394459 1148,21 1448,77 2596,98 1154,64 1639,57 2794,21 2,92099 3,05268 5,97367
52 266,403 0,00129302 0,0378399 1160,31 1435,42 2595,73 1167,04 1625,46 2792,5 2,94354 3,0126 5,95614
54 268,795 0,00129961 0,0363484 1172,12 1422,27 2594,39 1179,14 1611,53 2790,67 2,96545 2,9736 5,93905
56 271,12 0,00130618 0,0349593 1183,67 1409,3 2592,97 1190,98 1597,77 2788,75 2,98676 2,93562 5,92238
58 273,382 0,00131273 0,0336622 1194,95 1396,53 2591,48 1202,57 1584,15 2786,72 3,00753 2,89855 5,90608
60 275,585 0,00131926 0,0324481 1206,01 1383,89 2589,9 1213,92 1570,67 2784,59 3,02778 2,86235 5,89013
62 277,733 0,00132579 0,0313092 1216,84 1371,41 2588,25 1225,06 1557,31 2782,37 3,04756 2,82694 5,8745
64 279,829 0,0013323 0,0302385 1227,46 1359,08 2586,54 1235,99 1544,07 2780,06 3,06688 2,79228 5,85916
66 281,875 0,00133882 0,0292299 1237,89 1346,86 2584,75 1246,72 1530,95 2777,67 3,08577 2,75834 5,84411
68 283,874 0,00134533 0,0282782 1248,13 1334,77 2582,9 1257,28 1517,91 2775,19 3,10427 2,72504 5,82931

70 285,829 0,00135186 0,0273784 1258,2 1322,78 2580,98 1267,66 1504,97 2772,63 3,12239 2,69236 5,81475
72 287,741 0,00135839 0,0265265 1268,1 1310,9 2579 1277,88 1492,11 2769,99 3,14016 2,66025 5,80041
74 289,614 0,00136493 0,0257184 1277,85 1299,11 2576,96 1287,95 1479,33 2767,28 3,1576 2,62868 5,78628
76 291,448 0,00137149 0,0249509 1287,45 1287,41 2574,86 1297,87 1466,62 2764,49 3,17471 2,59763 5,77234
78 293,245 0,00137806 0,0242209 1296,91 1275,79 2572,7 1307,65 1453,97 2761,62 3,19153 2,56705 5,75858
80 295,008 0,00138467 0,0235256 1306,23 1264,25 2570,48 1317,31 1441,37 2758,68 3,20807 2,53692 5,74499
82 296,737 0,00139129 0,0228626 1315,44 1252,76 2568,2 1326,84 1428,83 2755,67 3,22433 2,50722 5,73155
84 298,434 0,00139795 0,0222295 1324,52 1241,35 2565,87 1336,26 1416,34 2752,6 3,24034 2,47792 5,71826
86 300,1 0,00140463 0,0216243 1333,49 1229,99 2563,48 1345,57 1403,88 2749,45 3,25611 2,44899 5,7051
88 301,737 0,00141135 0,0210451 1342,35 1218,68 2561,03 1354,77 1391,46 2746,23 3,27165 2,42041 5,69206
90 303,345 0,00141811 0,0204902 1351,11 1207,42 2558,53 1363,87 1379,07 2742,94 3,28697 2,39216 5,67913
92 304,926 0,00142491 0,0199581 1359,77 1196,2 2555,97 1372,88 1366,71 2739,59 3,30208 2,36424 5,66632
94 306,481 0,00143176 0,0194472 1368,34 1185,02 2553,36 1381,8 1354,37 2736,17 3,317 2,3366 5,6536
96 308,01 0,00143865 0,0189564 1376,82 1173,87 2550,69 1390,63 1342,05 2732,68 3,33172 2,30925 5,64097
98 309,516 0,0014456 0,0184844 1385,22 1162,75 2547,97 1399,39 1329,73 2729,12 3,34627 2,28215 5,62842
100 310,997 0,00145259 0,01803 1393,54 1151,65 2545,19 1408,06 1317,43 2725,49 3,36065 2,2553 5,61595
102 312,456 0,00145965 0,0175923 1401,78 1140,58 2542,36 1416,67 1305,13 2721,8 3,37486 2,22869 5,60355
104 313,893 0,00146676 0,0171702 1409,95 1129,52 2539,47 1425,21 1292,83 2718,04 3,38892 2,20228 5,5912
106 315,308 0,00147394 0,0167629 1418,05 1118,47 2536,52 1433,68 1280,53 2714,21 3,40284 2,17608 5,57892
108 316,703 0,00148119 0,0163697 1426,09 1107,43 2533,52 1442,09 1268,22 2710,31 3,41661 2,15007 5,56668
110 318,079 0,00148851 0,0159896 1434,07 1096,39 2530,46 1450,44 1255,91 2706,35 3,43025 2,12423 5,55448
112 319,434 0,0014959 0,015622 1441,99 1085,35 2527,34 1458,74 1243,57 2702,31 3,44377 2,09855 5,54232
114 320,771 0,00150337 0,0152663 1449,85 1074,32 2524,17 1466,99 1231,21 2698,2 3,45717 2,07302 5,53019
116 322,09 0,00151093 0,0149218 1457,66 1063,27 2520,93 1475,19 1218,83 2694,02 3,47045 2,04764 5,51809
118 323,391 0,00151857 0,0145879 1465,43 1052,2 2517,63 1483,35 1206,42 2689,77 3,48363 2,02237 5,506
120 324,675 0,0015263 0,0142642 1473,14 1041,14 2514,28 1491,46 1193,99 2685,45 3,49671 1,99722 5,49393
122 325,942 0,00153413 0,01395 1480,82 1030,04 2510,86 1499,53 1181,52 2681,05 3,50969 1,97217 5,48186
124 327,194 0,00154205 0,013645 1488,45 1018,92 2507,37 1507,57 1169 2676,57 3,52258 1,94722 5,4698
126 328,429 0,00155009 0,0133487 1496,05 1007,78 2503,83 1515,58 1156,44 2672,02 3,53539 1,92234 5,45773
128 329,649 0,00155823 0,0130606 1503,61 996,6 2500,21 1523,56 1143,83 2667,39 3,54812 1,89754 5,44566
130 330,854 0,00156649 0,0127804 1511,14 985,39 2496,53 1531,51 1131,17 2662,68 3,56078 1,87279 5,43357
132 332,044 0,00157487 0,0125077 1518,65 974,13 2492,78 1539,43 1118,46 2657,89 3,57337 1,84809 5,42146
134 333,22 0,00158338 0,0122422 1526,12 962,84 2488,96 1547,34 1105,67 2653,01 3,5859 1,82342 5,40932
136 334,382 0,00159202 0,0119835 1533,58 951,49 2485,07 1555,23 1092,82 2648,05 3,59837 1,79879 5,39716
138 335,531 0,00160081 0,0117312 1541,01 940,1 2481,11 1563,1 1079,9 2643 3,61079 1,77416 5,38495
140 336,666 0,00160974 0,0114852 1548,42 928,64 2477,06 1570,96 1066,9 2637,86 3,62317 1,74953 5,3727
142 337,789 0,00161883 0,011245 1555,82 917,12 2472,94 1578,81 1053,81 2632,62 3,6355 1,72491 5,36041

144 338,899 0,00162809 0,0110105 1563,21 905,53 2468,74 1586,66 1040,63 2627,29 3,6478 1,70025 5,34805
146 339,996 0,00163752 0,0107814 1570,59 893,87 2464,46 1594,5 1027,36 2621,86 3,66007 1,67556 5,33563
148 341,082 0,00164714 0,0105574 1577,97 882,11 2460,08 1602,35 1013,98 2616,33 3,67232 1,65082 5,32314
150 342,155 0,00165695 0,0103384 1585,35 870,27 2455,62 1610,2 1000,5 2610,7 3,68456 1,62602 5,31058
152 343,217 0,00166697 0,010124 1592,72 858,35 2451,07 1618,06 986,89 2604,95 3,69678 1,60114 5,29792
154 344,268 0,00167722 0,00991401 1600,11 846,31 2446,42 1625,94 973,15 2599,09 3,70901 1,57617 5,28518
156 345,308 0,0016877 0,00970831 1607,5 834,17 2441,67 1633,83 959,29 2593,12 3,72123 1,5511 5,27233
158 346,337 0,00169843 0,00950666 1614,91 821,9 2436,81 1641,74 945,28 2587,02 3,73348 1,52589 5,25937
160 347,355 0,00170944 0,00930885 1622,34 809,51 2431,85 1649,69 931,1 2580,79 3,74574 1,50055 5,24629
162 348,362 0,00172073 0,00911469 1629,79 796,98 2426,77 1657,66 916,76 2574,42 3,75803 1,47505 5,23308
164 349,36 0,00173233 0,00892401 1637,27 784,3 2421,57 1665,68 902,24 2567,92 3,77036 1,44936 5,21972
166 350,347 0,00174427 0,00873661 1644,79 771,45 2416,24 1673,74 887,53 2561,27 3,78274 1,42348 5,20622
168 351,325 0,00175657 0,00855231 1652,34 758,45 2410,79 1681,85 872,62 2554,47 3,79518 1,39736 5,19254
170 352,293 0,00176926 0,00837095 1659,95 745,24 2405,19 1690,03 857,47 2547,5 3,8077 1,37098 5,17868
172 353,251 0,00178237 0,00819233 1667,61 731,84 2399,45 1698,27 842,09 2540,36 3,82029 1,34434 5,16463
174 354,2 0,00179593 0,00801628 1675,33 718,22 2393,55 1706,58 826,45 2533,03 3,83299 1,31737 5,15036
176 355,14 0,00181 0,00784262 1683,13 704,35 2387,48 1714,98 810,53 2525,51 3,8458 1,29005 5,13585
178 356,071 0,0018246 0,00767116 1691 690,24 2381,24 1723,48 794,3 2517,78 3,85873 1,26236 5,12109
180 356,992 0,0018398 0,00750171 1698,97 675,83 2374,8 1732,09 777,74 2509,83 3,87181 1,23424 5,10605
182 357,906 0,00185564 0,00733408 1707,04 661,12 2368,16 1740,81 760,83 2501,64 3,88506 1,20564 5,0907
184 358,81 0,00187219 0,00716806 1715,21 646,08 2361,29 1749,66 743,52 2493,18 3,89849 1,17653 5,07502
186 359,706 0,00188951 0,00700342 1723,52 630,66 2354,18 1758,66 725,78 2484,44 3,91212 1,14684 5,05896
188 360,594 0,00190767 0,00683992 1731,95 614,85 2346,8 1767,82 707,58 2475,4 3,92599 1,1165 5,04249
190 361,473 0,00192677 0,0066773 1740,55 598,59 2339,14 1777,15 688,86 2466,01 3,9401 1,08545 5,02555
192 362,344 0,00194689 0,00651526 1749,3 581,85 2331,15 1786,68 669,56 2456,24 3,9545 1,0536 5,0081
194 363,208 0,00196814 0,00635346 1758,25 564,54 2322,79 1796,43 649,62 2446,05 3,9692 1,02085 4,99005
196 364,063 0,00199064 0,00619151 1767,39 546,64 2314,03 1806,41 628,98 2435,39 3,98426 0,98707 4,97133
198 364,91 0,00201454 0,00602895 1776,77 528,04 2304,81 1816,66 607,52 2424,18 3,9997 0,95214 4,95184
200 365,749 0,00204003 0,00586522 1786,41 508,63 2295,04 1827,21 585,14 2412,35 4,0156 0,91585 4,93145
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Saturated Steam - Temperature based
Important Note
These tables have been compiled, by hand, from calculators available on the internet they are only suitable for rough calculations
and there may be typos. For serious work please use more reliable data. I provide links below and recommend for serious work
that you use the information from these links> (The NIST link probably the best.) I have checked various values and they seem
match (to the NIST data) to within about 0,01%
● ts = Saturation Temperature ..oC
● v f = Sat. Specific Liquid Volume..m3/kg
● v g = Sat. Specific Vapor Specific Volume..m3
● u f = Sat. Liquid Internal Energy..kJ/kg
● u fg = Sat. Evaporation Internal Energy..kJ/kg
● u g = Sat. Vapor Internal Energy..kJ/kg
● h f = Sat. Liquid Enthalpy..kJ/kg
● h fg = Sat. Enthalpy..kJ/kg
● hg = Sat. Vapor Enthalpy..kJ/kg
● s f = Sat. Liquid Entropy..kJ/kg.K
● s fg = Sat. Evaporation Entropy..kJ/kg.K
● s g = Sat. Vapor Entropy..kJ/kg.K
ts P vf vg uf u fg ug hf h fg hg sf s fg sg
0,01 0,006112 0,0010002 206 163 0,0 2375,6 2375,6 0,0 2501,6 2501,6 0,0000 9,1575 9,1575
1 0,006566 0,0010001 192607 4,2 2372,7 2376,9 4,2 2499,2 2503,4 0,0153 9,1158 9,1311
2 0,007055 0,0010001 179923 8,4 2369,9 2378,3 8,4 2496,8 2505,2 0,0306 9,0741 9,1047
3 0,007575 0,0010001 168169 12,6 2367,1 2379,7 12,6 2494,5 2507,1 0,0459 9,0326 9,0785
4 0,008129 0,00100 157272 16,8 2364,3 2381,1 16,8 2492,1 2508,9 0,0611 8,9915 9,0526
5 0,008721 0,0010000 14712 21,0 2361,3 2382,4 21,0 2489,7 2510,7 0,0762 8,9507 9,0269
6 0,0093 0,0010002 13774 25,19 2358,4 2383,5 25,19 2487,2 2512,4 0,09119 8,9090 9,0003
7 0,01 0,0010002 12904 29,39 2355,6 2385,0 29,39 2484,9 2514,3 0,10626 8,8690 8,9751
8 0,0107 0,001002 120,95 33,59 2352,8 2386,4 33,60 2482,4 2516,0 0,12119 8,8290 8,9500
9 0,00115 0,0010003 113,38 37,8 2349,9 2387,8 37,8 2480,1 2517,9 0,13614 8,7891 8,9252
10 0,0123 0,0010003 106,39 42,01 2347,2 2389,3 42,01 2477,7 2519,8 0,15102 8,7500 8,9007
11 0,0131 0,0010005 99,842 46,19 2344,3 2390,5 46,22 2475,5 2521,7 0,16583 8,7108 8,8766
12 0,0140 0,0010006 93,810 50,51 2341,5 2392,0 50,40 2473,1 2523,5 0,18057 8,6720 8,8524
13 0,0150 0,0010007 88,147 54,59 2338,6 2393,4 54,59 2470,7 2525,2 0,19527 8,6334 8,8284
14 0,016 0,0010008 82,804 58,8 2335,5 2394,3 58,8 2467,8 2526,7 0,20989 8,59454 8,80444

15 0,017051 0,001001 77,93 62,99 2333,1 2396,1 62,99 2465,9 2528,9 0,2245 8,5569 8,7814
16 0,182 0,0010011 73,347 67,17 2330,3 2397,5 67,19 2463,5 2530,8 0,23900 8,5192 8,7581
17 0,0194 0,0010012 69,053 71,37 2327,4 2398,9 71,37 2461,2 2532,6 0,25348 8,4816 8,7353
18 0,0206 0,0010014 65,037 75,57 2324,7 2400,2 75,59 2458,9 2534,3 0,26794 8,4444 8,7122
19 0,0220 0,0010016 61,302 79,76 2321,8 2401,5 79,76 2456,4 2536,2 0,28228 8,4075 8,6896
20 2,339 0,001002 57,79 83,95 2319,0 2402,9 83,96 2454,1 2538,1 0,2966 8,3706 8,6672
21 0,0249 0,0010020 54,519 88,13 2316,1 2404,2 88,15 2451,8 2539,8 0,31088 8,3342 8,6450
22 0,0264 0,0010022 51,457 92,32 2313,3 2405,7 92,32 2449,4 2541,7 0,32505 8,2979 8,6231
23 0,0281 0,0010025 48,585 96,51 2310,5 2407,0 96,51 2447,1 2543,6 0,33925 8,2619 8,6011
24 0,0298 0,0010027 45,890 100,69 2307,8 2408,5 100,69 2444,6 2545,3 0,35334 8,2261 8,5794
25 0,0317 0,0010029 43,362 104,88 2304,8 2409,7 104,88 2442,3 2547,2 0,36739 8,1906 8,5578
26 0,0336 0,0010032 41,004 109,06 2302,1 2411,2 109,06 2440,0 2549,1 0,38136 8,1552 8,5367
27 0,0357 0,0010035 38,782 113,23 2299,2 2412,5 113,25 2437,5 2550,8 0,39536 8,1202 8,5156
28 0,0378 0,0010037 36,698 117,42 2296,5 2413,8 117,42 2435,2 2552,7 0,40924 8,0854 8,4947
29 0,0401 0,0010041 34,739 121,60 2293,6 2415,2 121,60 2432,8 2554,4 0,42310 8,0508 8,4739
30 0,0425 0,0010043 32,900 125,79 2290,9 2416,5 125,79 2430,4 2556,3 0,43693 8,0165 8,4531
31 0,0450 0,0010047 31,151 129,95 2287,9 2418,0 129,96 2428,2 2558,1 0,45068 7,9822 8,4328
32 0,047596 0,001005 29,5264 134,089 2284,531 2418,62 134,094 2425,056 2559,15 0,464241 7,947099 8,41134
33 0,05053543 0,0010054 27,9982 138,269 2281,701 2419,97 138,274 2422,676 2560,95 0,477915 7,913365 8,39128
34 0,053251 0,0010057 26,56 142,449 2278,871 2421,32 142,454 2420,296 2562,75 0,491545 7,879855 8,3714
35 0,0562902 0,0010061 25,205 146,628 2276,042 2422,67 146,634 2417,916 2564,55 0,50513 7,84655 8,35168
36 0,0594789 0,0010064 23,9293 150,808 2273,212 2424,02 150,814 2415,526 2566,34 0,518671 7,813459 8,33213
37 0,0628229 0,0010067 22,7269 154,987 2270,373 2425,36 154,993 2413,147 2568,14 0,532169 7,780571 8,31274
38 0,0663284 0,001007 21,5933 159,167 2267,543 2426,71 159,173 2410,757 2569,93 0,545623 7,747897 8,29352
39 0,0700016 0,0010075 20,524 163,346 2264,704 2428,05 163,353 2408,367 2571,72 0,559034 7,715416 8,27445
40 0,07385 0,001008 19,515 167,53 2261,86 2429,39 167,533 2405,977 2573,51 0,5724 7,6831 8,2555
41 0,07788 0,010083 18,5628 171,705 2259,025 2430,73 171,713 2403,587 2575,3 0,5857 7,6511 8,2368
42 0,082095 0,001009 17,6635 175,885 2256,185 2432,07 175,893 2401,187 2577,08 0,599011 7,619199 8,21821
43 0,0865084 0,001009 16,814 180,065 2253,345 2433,41 180,074 2398,796 2578,87 0,612254 7,587516 8,19977
44 0,0911239 0,0010095 16,0111 184,245 2250,505 2434,75 184,254 2396,396 2580,65 0,625454 7,556026 8,18148
45 0,09595 0,00101 15,2521 188,425 2247,655 2436,08 188,435 2393,995 2582,43 0,63861 7,52473 8,16334
46 0,100994 0,00101 14,5342 192,605 2244,815 2437,42 192,616 2391,584 2584,2 0,651733 7,493617 8,14535
47 0,106265 0,00101 13,855 196,786 2241,964 2438,75 196,797 2389,183 2585,98 0,664812 7,462688 8,1275
48 0,111771 0,001011 13,2121 200,967 2239,113 2440,08 200,978 2386,772 2587,75 0,677851 7,431949 8,1098
49 0,117519 0,001012 12,6034 205,148 2236,262 2441,41 205,16 2384,36 2589,52 0,690849 7,401401 8,09225

50 0,123519 0,001012 12,0269 209,329 2233,401 2442,73 209,342 2381,948 2591,29 0,703809 7,371021 8,07483
51 0,129781 0,001013 11,498 213,35 2230,35 2443,7 213,37 2379,43 2592,8 0,7165 7,3425 8,059
52 0,136312 0,001013 10,979 217,53 2227,57 2445,1 217,55 2376,95 2594,5 0,7294 7,3124 8,0418
53 0,143123 0,001014 10,487 221,71 2224,69 2446,4 221,73 2374,57 2596,3 0,7422 7,2826 8,0248
54 0,150222 0,001014 10,021 225,89 2221,81 2447,7 225,91 2372,19 2598,1 0,755 7,253 8,008
55 0,157621 0,001015 9,5778 230,07 2218,93 2449 230,09 2369,71 2599,8 0,7678 7,2234 7,9912
56 0,165329 0,001015 9,1575 234,25 2216,05 2450,3 234,27 2367,33 2601,6 0,7805 7,1941 7,9746
57 0,173356 0,001016 8,7585 238,43 2213,17 2451,6 238,45 2364,85 2603,3 0,7932 7,165 7,9582
58 0,181714 0,001016 8,3795 242,61 2210,29 2452,9 242,63 2362,47 2605,1 0,8059 7,1359 7,9418
59 0,190413 0,001017 8,0194 246,79 2207,51 2454,3 246,81 2359,99 2606,8 0,8185 7,1071 7,9256
60 0,199464 0,001017 7,6771 250,97 2204,63 2455,6 250,99 2357,51 2608,5 0,8311 7,0784 7,9095
61 0,20866 0,001018 7,3517 255,15 2201,75 2456,9 255,17 2355,13 2610,3 0,8436 7,0499 7,8935
62 0,218 0,001018 7,0422 259,34 2198,86 2458,2 259,36 2352,64 2612 0,8561 7,0216 7,8777
63 0,229 0,001019 6,7478 263,52 2195,98 2459,5 263,54 2350,16 2613,7 0,8686 6,9934 7,862
64 0,239 0,001019 6,4676 267,7 2193,1 2460,8 267,73 2347,77 2615,5 0,881 6,9653 7,8463
65 0,25 0,00102 6,2008 271,88 2190,22 2462,1 271,91 2345,29 2617,2 0,8934 6,9375 7,8309
66 0,262 0,00102 5,9468 276,07 2187,33 2463,4 276,09 2342,81 2618,9 0,9058 6,9097 7,8155
67 0,273 0,001021 5,7048 280,25 2184,35 2464,6 280,28 2340,32 2620,6 0,9181 6,8821 7,8002
68 0,286 0,001022 5,4742 284,44 2181,46 2465,9 284,47 2337,83 2622,3 0,9304 6,8547 7,7851
69 0,298 0,001022 5,2544 288,62 2178,58 2467,2 288,65 2335,35 2624 0,9426 6,8275 7,7701
70 0,312 0,001023 5,0448 292,81 2175,69 2468,5 292,84 2332,86 2625,7 0,9548 6,8003 7,7551
71 0,325 0,001023 4,845 297 2172,8 2469,8 297,03 2330,37 2627,4 0,967 6,7733 7,7403
72 0,34 0,001024 4,6543 301,18 2169,92 2471,1 301,22 2327,88 2629,1 0,9792 6,7464 7,7256
73 0,354 0,001025 4,4724 305,37 2166,93 2472,3 305,41 2325,39 2630,8 0,9913 6,7197 7,711
74 0,37 0,001025 4,2987 309,56 2164,04 2473,6 309,6 2322,9 2632,5 1,0034 6,6932 7,6966
75 0,386 0,001026 4,1328 313,75 2161,15 2474,9 313,79 2320,41 2634,2 1,0154 6,6668 7,6822
76 0,402 0,001026 3,9744 317,94 2158,16 2476,1 317,98 2317,92 2635,9 1,0274 6,6405 7,6679
77 0,419 0,001027 3,8231 322,13 2155,27 2477,4 322,17 2315,43 2637,6 1,0394 6,6143 7,6537
78 0,437 0,001028 3,6784 326,32 2152,28 2478,6 326,37 2312,83 2639,2 1,0514 6,5883 7,6397
79 0,455 0,001028 3,5402 330,51 2149,39 2479,9 330,56 2310,34 2640,9 1,0633 6,5624 7,6257
80 0,474 0,001029 3,408 334,71 2146,49 2481,2 334,76 2307,84 2642,6 1,0752 6,5366 7,6118
81 0,493 0,00103 3,2815 338,9 2143,5 2482,4 338,95 2305,25 2644,2 1,0871 6,511 7,5981
82 0,513 0,00103 3,1605 343,1 2140,5 2483,6 343,15 2302,75 2645,9 1,0989 6,4855 7,5844
83 0,534 0,001031 3,0448 347,29 2137,61 2484,9 347,35 2300,25 2647,6 1,1107 6,4601 7,5708
84 0,556 0,001032 2,934 351,49 2134,61 2486,1 351,55 2297,65 2649,2 1,1224 6,435 7,5574

85 0,578 0,001032 2,8279 355,69 2131,71 2487,4 355,75 2295,05 2650,8 1,1342 6,4098 7,544
86 0,601 0,001033 2,7262 359,88 2128,72 2488,6 359,95 2292,55 2652,5 1,1459 6,3848 7,5307
87 0,625 0,001034 2,6289 364,08 2125,72 2489,8 364,15 2289,95 2654,1 1,1575 6,36 7,5175
88 0,65 0,001034 2,5356 368,28 2122,72 2491 368,35 2287,35 2655,7 1,1692 6,3352 7,5044
89 0,675 0,001035 2,4462 372,48 2119,82 2492,3 372,55 2284,85 2657,4 1,1808 6,3106 7,4914
90 0,701 0,001036 2,3605 376,69 2116,81 2493,5 376,76 2282,24 2659 1,1924 6,286 7,4784
91 0,728 0,001037 2,2783 380,89 2113,81 2494,7 380,97 2279,63 2660,6 1,2039 6,2745 7,4656
92 0,756 965,34 0,4236 376,69 2116,81 2493,5 376,76 2282,24 2659 1,1924 6,2605 7,4529
93 0,785 0,001038 2,1238 389,3 2107,8 2497,1 389,38 2274,42 2663,8 1,2269 6,2133 7,4402
94 0,815 0,001039 2,0512 393,51 2104,79 2498,3 393,59 2271,81 2665,4 1,2384 6,1892 7,4276
95 0,845 0,00104 1,9816 397,71 2101,79 2499,5 397,8 2269,2 2667 1,2499 6,1652 7,4151
96 0,877 0,00104 1,9147 401,92 2098,78 2500,7 402,01 2266,59 2668,6 1,2613 6,1414 7,4027
97 0,909 0,001041 1,8504 406,13 2095,77 2501,9 406,23 2263,97 2670,2 1,2726 6,1178 7,3904
98 0,943 0,001042 1,7887 410,34 2092,76 2503,1 410,44 2261,36 2671,8 1,284 6,0942 7,3782
99 0,978 0,001043 1,7294 414,56 2089,74 2504,3 414,66 2258,64 2673,3 1,2953 6,0707 7,366
100 1,013 0,001043 1,6725 418,77 2086,63 2505,4 418,87 2256,03 2674,9 1,3066 6,0473 7,3539
101 1,05 0,001044 1,6177 422,98 2083,62 2506,6 423,09 2253,41 2676,5 1,3179 6,024 7,3419
102 1,088 0,001045 1,565 427,2 2080,6 2507,8 427,31 2250,69 2678 1,3291 6,0009 7,33
103 1,127 0,001046 1,5144 431,42 2077,48 2508,9 431,53 2248,07 2679,6 1,3404 5,9778 7,3182
104 1,167 0,001047 1,4657 435,63 2074,47 2510,1 435,76 2245,34 2681,1 1,3515 5,9549 7,3064
105 1,208 0,001047 1,4188 439,85 2071,35 2511,2 439,98 2242,62 2682,6 1,3627 5,932 7,2947
110 1,433 0,001052 1,2096 460,97 2055,93 2516,9 461,12 2229,08 2690,2 1,4182 5,8191 7,2373
115 1,69 0,001056 1,036 482,12 2040,38 2522,5 482,3 2215,3 2697,6 1,473 5,7088 7,1818
120 1,985 0,00106 0,8913 503,32 2024,68 2528 503,53 2201,37 2704,9 1,5272 5,6006 7,1278
125 2,321 0,001065 0,77 524,55 2008,75 2533,3 524,79 2187,21 2712 1,5808 5,4947 7,0755
130 2,701 0,00107 0,668 545,82 1992,68 2538,5 546,11 2172,79 2718,9 1,6339 5,3908 7,0247
135 3,13 0,001075 0,5817 567,14 1976,36 2543,5 567,48 2158,02 2725,5 1,6864 5,2888 6,9752
140 3,613 0,00108 0,5084 588,51 1959,79 2548,3 588,9 2143,1 2732 1,7385 5,1886 6,9271
145 4,154 0,001085 0,4459 609,93 1943,07 2553 610,38 2127,82 2738,2 1,79 5,0903 6,8803
150 4,759 0,001091 0,3924 631,41 1926,09 2557,5 631,93 2112,37 2744,3 1,8411 4,9934 6,8345
155 5,432 0,001384 0,0235 1305,7 1265,5 2571,2 1316,8 1442,5 2759,3 3,207 2,5394 5,7464
160 6,18 0,001102 0,3067 674,54 1891,46 2566 675,22 2080,38 2755,6 1,9419 4,8044 6,7463
165 7,007 0,001108 0,2724 696,2 1873,8 2570 696,98 2063,82 2760,8 1,9917 4,712 6,7037
170 7,92 0,001115 0,2425 717,94 1855,76 2573,7 718,82 2046,98 2765,8 2,0411 4,6209 6,662
175 8,925 0,001121 0,2165 739,75 1837,55 2577,3 740,75 2029,75 2770,5 2,0902 4,5308 6,621

180 10,027 0,001128 0,1938 761,64 1818,96 2580,6 762,77 2012,23 2775 2,1388 4,4421 6,5809
185 11,325 0,001135 0,1739 783,62 1800,18 2583,8 784,89 1994,21 2779,1 2,1872 4,3542 6,5414
190 12,554 0,001142 0,1563 805,69 1780,91 2586,6 807,12 1975,78 2782,9 2,2352 4,2674 6,5026
195 13,991 0,001149 0,1409 827,86 1761,44 2589,3 829,46 1956,94 2786,4 2,2829 4,1815 6,4644
200 15,553 0,001157 0,1272 850,13 1741,57 2591,7 851,93 1937,57 2789,5 2,3303 4,0965 6,4268
205 17,248 0,001165 0,1151 872,51 1721,39 2593,9 874,52 1917,78 2792,3 2,3775 4,0121 6,3896
210 19,083 0,001173 0,1043 895,01 1700,79 2595,8 897,25 1897,45 2794,7 2,4244 3,9285 6,3529
215 21,067 0,001181 0,09466 917,64 1679,76 2597,4 920,13 1876,67 2796,8 2,4711 3,8455 6,3166
220 23,206 0,00119 0,08608 940,41 1658,29 2598,7 943,17 1855,33 2798,5 2,5176 3,763 6,2806
225 25,509 0,001199 0,07839 963,32 1636,48 2599,8 966,38 1833,32 2799,7 2,5639 3,681 6,2449
230 27,985 0,001209 0,07149 986,38 1614,12 2600,5 989,76 1810,84 2800,6 2,61 3,5995 6,2095
235 30,641 0,001219 0,06529 1009,6 1591,3 2600,9 1013,3 1787,6 2800,9 2,656 3,5183 6,1743
240 33,486 0,001229 0,0597 1033 1568 2601 1037,1 1763,8 2800,9 2,7018 3,4374 6,1392
245 36,53 0,00124 0,05464 1056,6 1544,1 2600,7 1061,1 1739,2 2800,3 2,7476 3,3566 6,1042
250 39,781 0,001251 0,05007 1080,4 1519,6 2600 1085,3 1713,9 2799,2 2,7932 3,2761 6,0693
255 43,249 0,001263 0,04593 1104,3 1494,6 2598,9 1109,8 1687,7 2797,5 2,8389 3,1955 6,0344
260 46,943 0,001276 0,04216 1128,6 1468,8 2597,4 1134,5 1660,8 2795,3 2,8845 3,1149 5,9994
265 50,873 0,001289 0,03873 1153 1442,4 2595,4 1159,6 1632,9 2792,5 2,9301 3,0342 5,9643
270 55,05 0,001302 0,0356 1177,7 1415,2 2592,9 1184,9 1604 2788,9 2,9758 2,9532 5,929
275 59,483 0,001317 0,03275 1202,7 1387,2 2589,9 1210,5 1574,2 2784,7 3,0217 2,8717 5,8934
280 64,184 0,001332 0,03013 1227,9 1358,4 2586,3 1236,5 1543,1 2779,6 3,0676 2,7899 5,8575
285 69,163 0,001349 0,02773 1253,5 1328,5 2582 1262,8 1511 2773,8 3,1138 2,7073 5,8211
290 74,433 0,001366 0,02553 1279,4 1297,6 2577 1289,6 1477,4 2767 3,1602 2,6239 5,7841
295 80,006 0,001384 0,0235 1305,7 1265,5 2571,2 1316,8 1442,5 2759,3 3,207 2,5394 5,7464
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Superheated steam 150,160.& 180o C
Important Note
These tables have been compiled, by hand, from calculators available on the internet they are only suitable for rough calculations and there may be
typos. For serious work please use more reliable data. I provide links below and recommend for serious work that you use the information from
these links> (The NIST link probably the best.) I have checked various values and they seem match (to the NIST data) to within about 0,01%
● t = oC
● v Specific Volume..m3 /kg
● h = Enthalpy..kJ/kg
● s = Entropy..kJ/kg
● u = Internal Energy..kJ/kg
T = 150o C
T = 160o C T = 180o C
P v h s u
P v h s u P v h s u
1 1,93665 2776,6 7,61475 2582,94
1 1,98406 2796,42 7,66105 2598,02 1 2,07846 2835,95 7,75027 2628,11
1,2 1,6111 2775,13 7,5279 2581,8
1,2 1,65083 2795,09 7,57453 2596,99 1,2 1,72987 2834,85 7,66426 2627,27
1,4 1,37854 2773,65 7,45402 2580,65
1,4 1,4128 2793,75 7,50099 2595,96 1,4 1,48086 2833,74 7,59124 2626,42
1,6 1,20411 2772,15 7,38963 2579,49
1,6 1,23425 2792,4 7,43694 2594,92 1,6 1,2941 2832,62 7,52772 2625,57
1,8 1,06842 2770,63 7,33246 2578,31
1,8 1,09538 2791,04 7,38013 2593,87 1,8 1,14883 2831,5 7,47145 2624,71
2 0,959855 2769,1 7,281 2577,13
2 0,984263 2789,66 7,32903 2592,81 2 1,03261 2830,36 7,4209 2623,84
2,2 0,871017 2767,55 7,23414 2575,93
2,2 0,893342 2788,27 7,28254 2591,74 2,2 0,93751 2829,22 7,37497 2622,97
2,4 0,796973 2765,99 7,19108 2574,71
2,4 0,817565 2786,87 7,23986 2590,66 2,4 0,858256 2828,07 7,33286 2622,09
2,6 0,734309 2764,4 7,15119 2573,48
2,6 0,753437 2785,46 7,20037 2589,56 2,6 0,791191 2826,92 7,29395 2621,21
2,8 0,680585 2762,81 7,11401 2572,24
2,8 0,698462 2784,03 7,16359 2588,46 2,8 0,7337 2825,76 7,25776 2620,32
3 0,634014 2761,19 7,07914 2570,98
3 0,650809 2782,59 7,12914 2587,35 3 0,683871 2824,58 7,22392 2619,42
3,2 0,593254 2759,55 7,04629 2569,71 3,2 0,609105 2781,14 7,09672 2586,23 3,2 0,640265 2823,41 7,19212 2618,52
3,4 0,557279 2757,89 7,0152 2568,42 3,4 0,572301 2779,68 7,06608 2585,09 3,4 0,601785 2822,22 7,16211 2617,61
3,6 0,525291 2756,21 6,98567 2567,11 3,6 0,539578 2778,19 7,03701 2583,95 3,6 0,567576 2821,02 7,13368 2616,7
3,8 0,496661 2754,51 6,9575 2565,78 3,8 0,510293 2776,7 7,00933 2582,79 3,8 0,536965 2819,82 7,10667 2615,78
4 0,470883 2752,78 6,93056 2564,43 4 0,48393 2775,19 6,9829 2581,62 4 0,509411 2818,61 7,08091 2614,85
4,2 0,44755 2751,03 6,90472 2563,06 4,2 0,460072 2773,66 6,95759 2580,43 4,2 0,484477 2817,39 7,0563 2613,91
4,4 0,426328 2749,24 6,87986 2561,66 4,4 0,438375 2772,12 6,93329 2579,23 4,4 0,461806 2816,16 7,03272 2612,97
4,6 0,40694 2747,42 6,85587 2560,23 4,6 0,418559 2770,56 6,90991 2578,02 4,6 0,441104 2814,93 7,01007 2612,02
4,76165 0,392453 2745,93 6,83707 2559,05 4,8 0,400388 2768,98 6,88737 2576,79 4,8 0,422123 2813,68 6,98828 2611,07
5 0,383664 2767,38 6,86558 2575,55 5 0,404657 2812,43 6,96728 2610,1
5,2 0,368221 2765,76 6,84449 2574,29 5,2 0,388532 2811,17 6,94699 2609,13
5,4 0,353914 2764,12 6,82403 2573 5,4 0,373598 2809,9 6,92737 2608,15
5,6 0,340623 2762,45 6,80415 2571,7 5,6 0,359728 2808,62 6,90837 2607,17
5,8 0,328242 2760,76 6,7848 2570,38 5,8 0,346812 2807,33 6,88993 2606,18
6 0,316679 2759,04 6,76594 2569,03 6 0,334753 2806,03 6,87203 2605,18
6,18235 0,306782 2757,44 6,74914 2567,78 6,2 0,32347 2804,72 6,85461 2604,17
6,4 0,312889 2803,4 6,83766 2603,15
6,6 0,302947 2802,07 6,82114 2602,12
6,8 0,293586 2800,73 6,80502 2601,09
7 0,284758 2799,38 6,78927 2600,04
7,2 0,276417 2798,01 6,77388 2598,99
7,4 0,268525 2796,64 6,75882 2597,93
7,6 0,261045 2795,25 6,74408 2596,86
7,8 0,253946 2793,85 6,72962 2595,77
8 0,247199 2792,44 6,71545 2594,68
8,2 0,240779 2791,01 6,70153 2593,57
8,4 0,234661 2789,57 6,68786 2592,45
8,6 0,228826 2788,11 6,67442 2591,32
8,8 0,223252 2786,64 6,6612 2590,18
9 0,217924 2785,15 6,64818 2589,02
9,2 0,212824 2783,65 6,63536 2587,85

9,4 0,207938 2782,13 6,62271 2586,66

9,6 0,203253 2780,58 6,61023 2585,46
9,8 0,198756 2779,02 6,59792 2584,24
10 0,194436 2777,44 6,58575 2583
10,0281 0,193842 2777,21 6,58405 2582,83
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Important Note
typos. For serious work please use more reliable data. I provide links below and recommend for serious work that you use the information from these
links> (The NIST link probably the best.) I have checked various values and they seem match (to the NIST data) to within about 0,01%
● t = oC
● u = Internal Energy..kJ/kg
T = 200o C T = 220o C T = 250o C

P v h s u P v h s u P v h s u
1 2,17243 2875,45 7,83556 2658,21 1 2,26609 2914,99 7,91742 2688,38 1 2,40615 2974,51 8,03458 2733,9
1,2 1,80846 2874,52 7,74992 2657,5 1,2 1,88675 2914,19 7,83204 2687,78 2 1,19889 2971,21 7,70995 2731,43
1,4 1,54848 2873,58 7,67726 2656,79 1,4 1,61578 2913,38 7,75966 2687,17 3 0,796444 2967,87 7,51802 2728,93
1,6 1,35349 2872,63 7,61412 2656,07 1,6 1,41255 2912,57 7,6968 2686,56 4 0,595196 2964,47 7,38037 2726,39
1,8 1,20182 2871,68 7,55823 2655,36 1,8 1,25448 2911,76 7,64119 2685,95 5 0,474428 2961,04 7,27243 2723,82
2 1,08048 2870,73 7,50807 2654,63 2 1,12803 2910,94 7,59131 2685,34 6 0,393901 2957,55 7,18324 2721,21
2,2 0,981203 2869,77 7,46254 2653,91 2,2 1,02456 2910,12 7,54607 2684,72 7 0,336367 2954,02 7,10698 2718,56
2,4 0,898465 2868,81 7,42083 2653,18 2,4 0,93833 2909,3 7,50465 2684,1 8 0,293205 2950,44 7,04014 2715,87
2,6 0,828453 2867,84 7,38232 2652,44 2,6 0,865367 2908,47 7,46644 2683,48 9 0,259623 2946,8 6,98049 2713,14
2,8 0,768439 2866,87 7,34655 2651,71 2,8 0,802825 2907,64 7,43096 2682,85 10 0,232747 2943,12 6,92648 2710,38
3 0,716424 2865,89 7,31313 2650,96 3 0,748619 2906,81 7,39784 2682,23 11 0,210748 2939,39 6,87703 2707,57
3,2 0,670907 2864,91 7,28175 2650,22 3,2 0,701187 2905,98 7,36676 2681,6 12 0,192407 2935,6 6,83131 2704,71
3,4 0,630743 2863,92 7,25217 2649,47 3,4 0,659334 2905,14 7,33749 2680,96 13 0,176878 2931,76 6,78871 2701,82
3,6 0,595039 2862,93 7,22418 2648,71 3,6 0,622129 2904,29 7,30981 2680,33 14 0,163561 2927,86 6,74875 2698,88
3,8 0,56309 2861,93 7,1976 2647,96 3,8 0,588839 2903,45 7,28355 2679,69 15 0,152011 2923,91 6,71106 2695,89
4 0,534334 2860,93 7,1723 2647,19 4 0,558876 2902,6 7,25857 2679,05 16 0,141898 2919,9 6,67532 2692,86
4,2 0,508315 2859,92 7,14814 2646,43 4,2 0,531765 2901,75 7,23473 2678,41 17 0,132967 2915,83 6,64129 2689,78
4,4 0,484658 2858,91 7,12502 2645,66 4,4 0,507118 2900,89 7,21194 2677,76 18 0,125022 2911,7 6,60875 2686,66
4,6 0,463056 2857,89 7,10285 2644,88 4,6 0,484612 2900,03 7,1901 2677,11 19 0,117907 2907,5 6,57752 2683,48
4,8 0,443253 2856,87 7,08154 2644,1 4,8 0,46398 2899,17 7,16912 2676,46 20 0,111496 2903,24 6,54746 2680,25
5 0,425032 2855,84 7,06102 2643,32 5 0,444997 2898,31 7,14894 2675,81 21 0,10569 2898,91 6,51844 2676,96
5,2 0,40821 2854,8 7,04123 2642,53 6 0,369051 2893,93 7,05799 2672,5 22 0,100405 2894,52 6,49035 2673,62
5,4 0,392632 2853,76 7,02211 2641,74 7 0,314778 2889,46 6,97988 2669,12 23 0,0955742 2890,05 6,46309 2670,23
5,6 0,378166 2852,72 7,00361 2640,95 8 0,274052 2884,9 6,91112 2665,66 24 0,0911395 2885,51 6,43657 2666,77
5,8 0,364695 2851,67 6,9857 2640,15 9 0,242356 2880,25 6,84946 2662,13 25 0,0870534 2880,89 6,41071 2663,26
6 0,352121 2850,61 6,96832 2639,34 10 0,21698 2875,51 6,79336 2658,53 26 0,0832757 2876,19 6,38546 2659,67
6,2 0,340356 2849,55 6,95145 2638,53 11 0,1962 2870,66 6,74171 2654,84 27 0,0797718 2871,41 6,36074 2656,03
6,4 0,329325 2848,49 6,93504 2637,72 12 0,178867 2865,72 6,6937 2651,08 28 0,0765122 2866,54 6,3365 2652,31
6,6 0,31896 2847,41 6,91908 2636,9 13 0,164184 2860,66 6,6487 2647,22 29 0,0734713 2861,59 6,3127 2648,52
6,8 0,309204 2846,34 6,90352 2636,08 14 0,151583 2855,49 6,60623 2643,27 30 0,0706271 2856,53 6,28927 2644,65
7 0,300004 2845,25 6,88836 2635,25 15 0,140647 2850,2 6,5659 2639,23 31 0,0679603 2851,38 6,26618 2640,71
8 0,260881 2839,75 6,81764 2631,04 16 0,131063 2844,78 6,52738 2635,08 32 0,0654539 2846,13 6,24339 2636,67
9 0,230421 2834,09 6,75388 2626,71 17 0,122592 2839,22 6,49042 2630,82 33 0,0630931 2840,76 6,22084 2632,55
10 0,206022 2828,26 6,69554 2622,24 18 0,115047 2833,52 6,45478 2626,44 34 0,0608646 2835,27 6,19851 2628,33
11 0,186029 2822,26 6,64149 2617,63 19 0,108281 2827,66 6,42027 2621,93 35 0,0587569 2829,66 6,17636 2624,02
12 0,169339 2816,06 6,59088 2612,85 20 0,102176 2821,63 6,3867 2617,28 36 0,0567595 2823,92 6,15434 2619,59
13 0,155187 2809,64 6,54305 2607,89 21 0,0966372 2815,4 6,35393 2612,47 37 0,054863 2818,03 6,13242 2615,04
14 0,143025 2802,96 6,49746 2602,72 22 0,091585 2808,97 6,3218 2607,48 38 0,053059 2811,99 6,11056 2610,37
15 0,132454 2795,98 6,45363 2597,3 23 0,0869547 2802,29 6,29016 2602,29 39 0,0513399 2805,78 6,08872 2605,56
15,5493 0,12721 2792,01 6,43015 2594,2 23,1959 0,0860924 2800,95 6,28401 2601,25 39,7617 0,050083 2800,93 6,07206 2601,79

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Important Note
typos. For serious work please use more reliable data. I provide links below and recommend for serious work that you use the information from
these links> (The NIST link probably the best.) I have checked various values and they seem match (to the NIST data) to within about 0,01%
● t = oC
● u =Internal Energy..kJ/kg
T = 300o C
P v h s u T = 350o C T = 400o C
1 2,63885 3074,53 8,21716 2810,65 P v h s u P v h s u
2 1,31623 3072,07 7,89406 2808,82 1 2,87095 3175,83 8,38658 2888,73 1 3,10269 3278,56 8,54515 2968,29
3 0,875344 3069,58 7,70371 2806,98 2 1,43297 3173,9 8,0644 2887,31 2 1,54933 3277,02 8,22355 2967,15
4 0,654892 3067,08 7,56769 2805,12 3 0,95363 3171,97 7,87498 2885,88 3 1,03154 3275,47 8,03472 2966
5 0,522612 3064,55 7,46142 2803,25 4 0,713958 3170,03 7,7399 2884,45 4 0,772645 3273,91 7,90024 2964,85
6 0,434418 3062,01 7,37396 2801,36 5 0,57015 3168,08 7,63459 2883,01 5 0,617304 3272,35 7,79553 2963,7
7 0,371416 3059,45 7,29947 2799,45 6 0,474275 3166,12 7,54811 2881,56 6 0,513741 3270,78 7,70966 2962,54
8 0,32416 3056,86 7,23446 2797,53 7 0,40579 3164,15 7,47462 2880,1 7 0,439767 3269,21 7,63679 2961,38
9 0,2874 3054,26 7,17669 2795,6 8 0,354423 3162,17 7,41063 2878,63 8 0,384284 3267,64 7,57342 2960,21
10 0,257988 3051,63 7,12462 2793,64 9 0,314469 3160,18 7,35389 2877,16 9 0,34113 3266,06 7,51732 2959,04
11 0,233919 3048,99 7,07716 2791,68 10 0,282504 3158,18 7,30287 2875,68 10 0,306606 3264,47 7,46694 2957,87
11 0,256348 3156,18 7,25648 2874,19 15 0,203021 3256,47 7,27096 2951,94
12 0,213858 3046,32 7,03349 2789,69 12 0,234551 3154,16 7,21391 2872,7 20 0,151215 3248,34 7,12916 2945,91
13 0,19688 3043,63 6,99301 2787,69 13 0,216104 3152,13 7,17453 2871,2 25 0,120119 3240,08 7,01697 2939,78
14 0,182324 3040,92 6,95523 2785,67 14 0,200292 3150,09 7,13788 2869,68 30 0,0993791 3231,69 6,92345 2933,55
15 0,169706 3038,19 6,91978 2783,63 15 0,186586 3148,05 7,10358 2868,17 35 0,0845562 3223,15 6,84274 2927,2
16 0,158662 3035,43 6,88635 2781,57 16 0,174593 3145,99 7,07132 2866,64 40 0,0734313 3214,47 6,77136 2920,75
17 0,148915 3032,65 6,85469 2779,5 17 0,164009 3143,92 7,04085 2865,1 45 0,0647715 3205,65 6,70705 2914,18
18 0,140248 3029,85 6,82459 2777,41 18 0,154599 3141,84 7,01196 2863,56 50 0,0578373 3196,67 6,64826 2907,48
19 0,132491 3027,03 6,79588 2775,3 19 0,146179 3139,75 6,98449 2862,01 55 0,0521579 3187,54 6,59391 2900,67
20 0,125507 3024,18 6,76842 2773,17 20 0,1386 3137,65 6,95828 2860,45 60 0,0474194 3178,25 6,54318 2893,73
21 0,119185 3021,31 6,74207 2771,02 22 0,125506 3133,42 6,90917 2857,31 65 0,0434045 3168,79 6,49544 2886,66
22 0,113437 3018,42 6,71673 2768,86 24 0,11459 3129,15 6,86384 2854,13 70 0,0399581 3159,16 6,45021 2879,45
23 0,108185 3015,5 6,69231 2766,67 26 0,10535 3124,83 6,82166 2850,92 75 0,0369663 3149,36 6,40709 2872,11
24 0,103369 3012,55 6,66872 2764,46 28 0,0974266 3120,47 6,78215 2847,68 80 0,0343438 3139,37 6,36579 2864,62
25 0,0989368 3009,58 6,6459 2762,24 30 0,0905564 3116,06 6,74493 2844,39 85 0,0320253 3129,19 6,32604 2856,97
26 0,0948431 3006,58 6,62377 2759,99 32 0,0845419 3111,61 6,70971 2841,08 90 0,0299599 3118,81 6,28762 2849,18
27 0,0910506 3003,56 6,60228 2757,73 34 0,079232 3107,11 6,67622 2837,72 95 0,0281076 3108,24 6,25036 2841,21
28 0,087527 3000,51 6,58139 2755,44 36 0,0745093 3102,56 6,64427 2834,33 100 0,0264363 3097,45 6,21408 2833,08
29 0,0842444 2997,44 6,56104 2753,13 38 0,070281 3097,97 6,61367 2830,9 105 0,02492 3086,44 6,17866 2824,78
30 0,0811788 2994,33 6,5412 2750,8 40 0,0664728 3093,32 6,58428 2827,43 110 0,0235374 3075,2 6,14397 2816,29
32 0,075617 2988,04 6,50289 2746,07 42 0,0630249 3088,63 6,55597 2823,92 115 0,0222709 3063,72 6,10992 2807,6
34 0,0707025 2981,64 6,4662 2741,25 44 0,0598878 3083,88 6,52864 2820,37 120 0,0211059 3051,99 6,07639 2798,72
36 0,0663271 2975,12 6,43093 2736,34 46 0,0570212 3079,08 6,50218 2816,78 125 0,0200301 3040 6,0433 2789,62
38 0,0624056 2968,47 6,39688 2731,33 48 0,0543911 3074,22 6,47652 2813,15 130 0,0190329 3027,74 6,01058 2780,31
40 0,0588697 2961,69 6,36391 2726,21 50 0,051969 3069,31 6,45157 2809,47 135 0,0181056 3015,18 5,97815 2770,76
42 0,055664 2954,78 6,33188 2720,99 55 0,0466751 3056,79 6,39197 2800,08 140 0,0172404 3002,33 5,94593 2760,97
44 0,0527432 2947,74 6,30068 2715,67 60 0,0422506 3043,9 6,33566 2790,4 145 0,0164308 2989,16 5,91387 2750,92
46 0,0500699 2940,54 6,2702 2710,22 65 0,0384942 3030,61 6,28198 2780,4 150 0,015671 2975,66 5,88189 2740,59
48 0,047613 2933,2 6,24035 2704,66 70 0,0352621 3016,91 6,23043 2770,08 155 0,014956 2961,8 5,84993 2729,98
50 0,0453462 2925,7 6,21105 2698,97 75 0,0324487 3002,76 6,18059 2759,39 160 0,0142814 2947,57 5,81793 2719,06
52 0,0432474 2918,03 6,18222 2693,15 80 0,0299747 2988,13 6,13209 2748,33 165 0,0136434 2932,94 5,78582 2707,82
54 0,0412974 2910,2 6,1538 2687,19 85 0,0277794 2972,99 6,08463 2736,86 170 0,0130384 2917,88 5,75355 2696,23

56 0,0394802 2902,17 6,12571 2681,08 90 0,0258156 2957,29 6,03795 2724,95 175 0,0124634 2902,38 5,72105 2684,27
58 0,0377815 2893,96 6,0979 2674,83 95 0,0240457 2940,98 5,9918 2712,55 180 0,0119156 2886,39 5,68825 2671,91
60 0,0361893 2885,54 6,07031 2668,4 100 0,0224397 2924,02 5,94594 2699,63 185 0,0113925 2869,89 5,65508 2659,13
62 0,0346929 2876,91 6,04288 2661,81 105 0,0209729 2906,34 5,90015 2686,12 190 0,010892 2852,83 5,62146 2645,88
64 0,0332828 2868,04 6,01556 2655,03 110 0,0196251 2887,85 5,85421 2671,98 195 0,0104119 2835,17 5,58732 2632,14
66 0,0319508 2858,94 5,98829 2648,06 115 0,0183793 2868,48 5,80787 2657,11 200 0,00995028 2816,86 5,55255 2617,85
68 0,0306895 2849,57 5,96101 2640,88 120 0,0172211 2848,09 5,76088 2641,44 205 0,00950544 2797,83 5,51706 2602,97
70 0,0294923 2839,91 5,93367 2633,47 125 0,0161379 2826,56 5,71296 2624,84 210 0,00907574 2778,03 5,48075 2587,44
72 0,0283534 2829,96 5,90621 2625,81 130 0,0151185 2803,72 5,66375 2607,17 215 0,0086596 2757,38 5,44348 2571,2
74 0,0272673 2819,67 5,87856 2617,89 135 0,014153 2779,32 5,61286 2588,25 220 0,00825555 2735,78 5,40511 2554,16
76 0,0262291 2809,02 5,85064 2609,68 140 0,0132315 2753,07 5,55975 2567,83 225 0,00786214 2713,13 5,36548 2536,23
78 0,0252344 2797,97 5,82239 2601,14 145 0,0123444 2724,54 5,50371 2545,54 230 0,00747796 2689,3 5,32439 2517,31
80 0,0242789 2786,49 5,79372 2592,25 150 0,011481 2693,12 5,44373 2520,9 235 0,00710159 2664,14 5,2816 2497,26
82 0,0233587 2774,51 5,76451 2582,97 155 0,0106279 2657,82 5,37822 2493,09 240 0,00673159 2637,47 5,23684 2475,91
84 0,0224699 2761,98 5,73466 2573,23 160 0,00976582 2616,96 5,30447 2460,71 245 0,00636647 2609,06 5,18977 2453,08
85,879 0,0216601 2749,64 5,70589 2563,62 165 0,0088586 2567,01 5,21683 2420,84 250 0,00600472 2578,64 5,13998 2428,52
165,294 0,00880238 2563,64 5,211 2418,14
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Thermos Index
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Important Note
These tables have been compiled, by hand, from calculators available on the internet they are only suitable for rough calculations and there
may be typos. For serious work please use more reliable data. I provide links below and recommend for serious work that you use the
information from these links> (The NIST link probably the best.) I have checked various values and they seem match (to the NIST data) to
within about 0,01%
● t = oC
● u =Internal Energy..kJ/kg
T = 450o C
T = 550o C
P v h s u T = 650o C
P v h s u
1 3,3342 3382,84 8,69457 3049,42 P v h s u
1 3,79675 3596,3 8,97095 3216,62
2 1,66546 3381,57 8,37336 3048,48 1 3,79675 3596,3 8,97095 3216,62
2 1,89726 3595,4 8,65022 3215,95
3 1,10921 3380,29 8,18492 3047,53 2 1,89726 3595,4 8,65022 3215,95
3 1,26409 3594,49 8,46227 3215,26
4 0,831085 3379,02 8,05084 3046,58 3 1,26409 3594,49 8,46227 3215,26
4 0,94751 3593,59 8,32867 3214,58
5 0,664209 3377,74 7,94654 3045,63 4 0,94751 3593,59 8,32867 3214,58
5 0,757559 3592,68 8,22486 3213,9
6 0,552957 3376,46 7,86108 3044,68 5 0,757559 3592,68 8,22486 3213,9
6 0,630925 3591,77 8,13988 3213,22
7 0,47349 3375,17 7,78861 3043,73 6 0,630925 3591,77 8,13988 3213,22
7 0,540472 3590,87 8,06791 3212,54
8 0,41389 3373,88 7,72566 3042,77 7 0,540472 3590,87 8,06791 3212,54
8 0,472632 3589,96 8,00545 3211,85
9 0,367533 3372,59 7,66997 3041,81 8 0,472632 3589,96 8,00545 3211,85
10 0,330447 3371,3 7,62001 3040,85 9 0,419867 3589,05 7,95025 3211,17 9 0,419867 3589,05 7,95025 3211,17
15 0,219182 3364,79 7,42617 3036,02 10 0,377655 3588,14 7,90079 3210,48 10 0,377655 3588,14 7,90079 3210,48
20 0,163542 3358,22 7,2866 3031,13 15 0,251017 3583,57 7,70948 3207,04 15 0,251017 3583,57 7,70948 3207,04
25 0,130152 3351,57 7,17673 3026,19 20 0,187695 3578,97 7,57249 3203,58 20 0,187695 3578,97 7,57249 3203,58
30 0,107887 3344,84 7,08561 3021,18 25 0,1497 3574,35 7,46526 3200,1 25 0,1497 3574,35 7,46526 3200,1
35 0,0919782 3338,05 7,0074 3016,12 30 0,124368 3569,7 7,37685 3196,6 30 0,124368 3569,7 7,37685 3196,6
40 0,0800428 3331,17 6,93861 3011 35 0,106273 3565,03 7,30141 3193,08 35 0,106273 3565,03 7,30141 3193,08
45 0,0707561 3324,23 6,877 3005,82 40 0,0926998 3560,34 7,23545 3189,54 40 0,0926998 3560,34 7,23545 3189,54
50 0,0633234 3317,2 6,82102 3000,58 45 0,0821418 3555,61 7,17674 3185,97 45 0,0821418 3555,61 7,17674 3185,97
55 0,0572391 3310,09 6,76958 2995,28 50 0,0736945 3550,87 7,12374 3182,39 50 0,0736945 3550,87 7,12374 3182,39
60 0,052166 3302,91 6,72187 2989,91 55 0,0667821 3546,09 7,07534 3178,79 55 0,0667821 3546,09 7,07534 3178,79
65 0,0478708 3295,64 6,67728 2984,48 60 0,0610209 3541,29 7,03074 3175,17 60 0,0610209 3541,29 7,03074 3175,17
70 0,0441867 3288,29 6,63532 2978,98 65 0,0561453 3536,47 6,98934 3171,52 65 0,0561453 3536,47 6,98934 3171,52
75 0,0409916 3280,85 6,59561 2973,42 70 0,0519655 3531,62 6,95064 3167,86 70 0,0519655 3531,62 6,95064 3167,86
80 0,0381936 3273,33 6,55785 2967,78 75 0,0483424 3526,74 6,91428 3164,17 75 0,0483424 3526,74 6,91428 3164,17
85 0,0357227 3265,72 6,52179 2962,08 80 0,0451716 3521,84 6,87994 3160,46 80 0,0451716 3521,84 6,87994 3160,46
90 0,0335243 3258,02 6,48722 2956,3 85 0,0423733 3516,91 6,84738 3156,73 85 0,0423733 3516,91 6,84738 3156,73
95 0,0315555 3250,23 6,45396 2950,45 90 0,0398853 3511,95 6,81639 3152,98 90 0,0398853 3511,95 6,81639 3152,98
100 0,0297817 3242,34 6,42186 2944,52 95 0,0376588 3506,97 6,7868 3149,21 95 0,0376588 3506,97 6,7868 3149,21
105 0,0281751 3234,36 6,39079 2938,52 100 0,0356545 3501,96 6,75846 3145,41 100 0,0356545 3501,96 6,75846 3145,41
110 0,0267128 3226,28 6,36066 2932,44 105 0,0338406 3496,92 6,73124 3141,6 105 0,0338406 3496,92 6,73124 3141,6
115 0,025376 3218,1 6,33135 2926,28 110 0,0321912 3491,86 6,70504 3137,76 110 0,0321912 3491,86 6,70504 3137,76
120 0,024149 3209,83 6,30278 2920,04 115 0,0306849 3486,77 6,67977 3133,9 115 0,0306849 3486,77 6,67977 3133,9
125 0,0230187 3201,44 6,27489 2913,71 120 0,0293037 3481,66 6,65535 3130,01 120 0,0293037 3481,66 6,65535 3130,01
130 0,0219737 3192,96 6,24761 2907,3 125 0,0280327 3476,51 6,63169 3126,11 125 0,0280327 3476,51 6,63169 3126,11
135 0,0210047 3184,36 6,22087 2900,8 130 0,0268591 3471,35 6,60874 3122,18 130 0,0268591 3471,35 6,60874 3122,18
140 0,0201035 3175,66 6,19462 2894,21 135 0,0257722 3466,15 6,58645 3118,22 135 0,0257722 3466,15 6,58645 3118,22
145 0,019263 3166,84 6,16882 2887,53 140 0,0247626 3460,93 6,56476 3114,25 140 0,0247626 3460,93 6,56476 3114,25
150 0,0184772 3157,91 6,14343 2880,75 145 0,0238224 3455,68 6,54363 3110,25 145 0,0238224 3455,68 6,54363 3110,25

155 0,0177408 3148,86 6,11839 2873,88 150 0,0229446 3450,4 6,52302 3106,23 150 0,0229446 3450,4 6,52302 3106,23
160 0,017049 3139,69 6,09369 2866,9 155 0,0221232 3445,09 6,50289 3102,18 155 0,0221232 3445,09 6,50289 3102,18
165 0,0163979 3130,4 6,06928 2859,83 160 0,0213529 3439,76 6,48321 3098,12 160 0,0213529 3439,76 6,48321 3098,12
170 0,0157839 3120,98 6,04513 2852,65 165 0,0206291 3434,41 6,46395 3094,03 165 0,0206291 3434,41 6,46395 3094,03
175 0,0152037 3111,43 6,02122 2845,37 170 0,0199476 3429,02 6,44509 3089,91 170 0,0199476 3429,02 6,44509 3089,91
180 0,0146545 3101,75 5,99751 2837,97 175 0,0193049 3423,61 6,4266 3085,77 175 0,0193049 3423,61 6,4266 3085,77
185 0,0141338 3091,94 5,97399 2830,47 180 0,0186977 3418,17 6,40845 3081,61 180 0,0186977 3418,17 6,40845 3081,61
190 0,0136393 3081,99 5,95063 2822,84 185 0,0181232 3412,7 6,39062 3077,42 185 0,0181232 3412,7 6,39062 3077,42
195 0,013169 3071,9 5,92741 2815,1 190 0,0175787 3407,21 6,37311 3073,21 190 0,0175787 3407,21 6,37311 3073,21
200 0,0127211 3061,66 5,90431 2807,24 195 0,017062 3401,69 6,35588 3068,98 195 0,017062 3401,69 6,35588 3068,98
205 0,012294 3051,28 5,8813 2799,25 200 0,0165711 3396,14 6,33893 3064,72 200 0,0165711 3396,14 6,33893 3064,72
210 0,011886 3040,75 5,85838 2791,14 205 0,0161039 3390,57 6,32224 3060,44 205 0,0161039 3390,57 6,32224 3060,44
215 0,011496 3030,06 5,83552 2782,89 210 0,0156588 3384,96 6,30579 3056,13 210 0,0156588 3384,96 6,30579 3056,13
220 0,0111226 3019,21 5,8127 2774,51 215 0,0152344 3379,34 6,28957 3051,8 215 0,0152344 3379,34 6,28957 3051,8
225 0,0107648 3008,2 5,78991 2765,99 220 0,0148291 3373,68 6,27357 3047,44 220 0,0148291 3373,68 6,27357 3047,44
230 0,0104216 2997,02 5,76713 2757,33 225 0,0144417 3368 6,25778 3043,06 225 0,0144417 3368 6,25778 3043,06
235 0,0100919 2985,68 5,74435 2748,52 230 0,0140711 3362,29 6,24219 3038,66 230 0,0140711 3362,29 6,24219 3038,66
240 0,00977496 2974,16 5,72155 2739,56 235 0,0137162 3356,56 6,22678 3034,23 235 0,0137162 3356,56 6,22678 3034,23
245 0,00947001 2962,46 5,69873 2730,45 240 0,013376 3350,8 6,21156 3029,78 240 0,013376 3350,8 6,21156 3029,78
250 0,00917632 2950,58 5,67585 2721,18 245 0,0130496 3345,01 6,1965 3025,3 245 0,0130496 3345,01 6,1965 3025,3
250 0,0127362 3339,2 6,18161 3020,8 250 0,0127362 3339,2 6,18161 3020,8
Steam Turbine Links


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Thermos Index
Steam Tables Index

Chemistry Equilibrium
ROYMECH
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Chemistry Index
Equilibrium
Equilibrium
A chemical reaction is in dynamic equilibrium when the forward reactions and the backward
reactions are proceeding at the same rate... Consider the reaction expressed by the stoichiometric
equation..
A and B are the reactants and C & D are the products. a ,& b, c and d are the number of moles of
each of the substances.
It has been found that
This relationship is known as the equilibrium law or the law of chemical equilibrium. Where Kc is
the equilibrium constant at a given constant...
By convention the productions on the right of the reaction equation are the on the top of the
equilibrium equation (numerator) and the reactants on the left of the reaction equation are on the
bottom line (denominator)or the equilibrium equation
The value of Kc provides an indication of the direction of the reaction. A low value indicates that
the [C] [D] are small compared to [A][D] and the backward reaction dominates. If [A] or/and [B] is
increased the reaction would move to the right causing [C][D] to increase to maintain Kc .
The relationship as expressed above is based on concentration measurements and a knowledge of

molar concentrations in m .dm-3 (m /litre).
For reaction involving gases it is more convenient to express the quantities in partial pressures. In
this case the constant is identified as Kp the reaction constant for any gas phase reaction at
constant temperature.. For the gaseous state reaction expressed by the stoichiometric equation..
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Chemistry Equilibrium
The following relationship
The above equilibrium constants are based on the temperature. If the forward reaction is
exothermic the value of the equilibrium constant decreases as the temperature rises. If the forward
reaction is endothermic the equilibrium constant increases as the temperature rises..
Relevant links..
1. Chemical Equilibrium... Clear study Notes

2. Chemical Equilibria... Menu driven site introducing most chemistry topics
Home
Chemistry Index
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Physical Chemistry - Real Gases
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Chemistry Index
Physical Chemistry
Real Gases
Introduction
This page relates to the physical properties of real gases. The webpage Gas Properties includes
some general physical properties of selected gases. Thermodynamic and heat transfer
relationships for fluids can be found on page Thermodynamics /Heat Transfer
The laws and rules for ideal gases are only reasonable accurate for gases at low pressures and
moderately high temperatures...At pressures around 1 bara or less the ideal gases are generally
reasonably accurate for real gases.
The main reasons for the divergence from the ideal gas laws are that molecules actually attract
each other and that molecules have real volumes. The ideal gas laws assume that the volume of a
gas molecule can be discounted and that molecules do not attract each other. It is also apparent
that as molecules approach very close, the attraction changes to repulsion.. In 1873 van der Waals
devised a crude simple equation to adapt the ideal gas laws to the behavior or real gases
Van der Waals Equation

Considering a molecule in a container. The molecule will be atracted to all other molecules when
located in away from the container wall. When local to the container wall there will be greater
attraction towards the molecules within the center of the container and its momentum will be
reduces. The higher the pressure greater the inward attract and the more significant is this effect.
The correction for pressure will depend on the number of molecules at the surface and the number
within the body of the gas. Both of these factors vary inversely with the volume V. Van der Walls
proposed that a compensatory factor a/V2 be added to the true pressure.
It is also true that the volume containing a gas within which the molecules are moving is reduced by
the effective volume of the molecules. This reduction is greater if the pressure is increased..Van
der Walls proposed a factor b to allow for this reduction this factor is greater at higher pressures.
The Gas law as modified by Van der Waals for real gases is as follows >
. Typical units are as follows
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Chemistry/Chem_Gas.html (1 of 3)10/24/2006 12:04:53 PM

● p = Pressure = Atm or Pa (N/m 2)

● V = Volume = liter or m 3
● Vm = volume of one l mole (litres) or volume of 1 kMole ( m 3)
● R = Universal Gas Constant = 8,314 J /mole.K or 8 314 J /kmole.K ( "," is my decimal point)
● n = Number of moles (kmoles)
Table of Van Der Waals Constants

a b a b
liter2.atm./ liter2.atm./
Substance mole2 litre/mole= Substance mole2 litre/mole=
(m3)2.Pa./ m3/kmole (m3)2.Pa./ m3/kmole
kmole2 kmole2
0,245 Hydrogen 3,8
Hydrogen 2,67x 10-2 4,1x 10-2
2,48x104 Chloride 3,85x105
0,034 4,0
Helium 2,36x 10-2 Ammonia 3,6x 10-2
3.44x103 4,05x105
1,380 4,4
Nitrogen 3,94x 10-2 Acetylene 5,1x 10-2
1,4x105 4,46x105
1,32 4,5
Oxygen 3,12x 10-2 Ethylene 5,6x 10-2
1,34x105 4,56x105
Carbon 1,491 5,5
4,00x 10-2 Chlorine 4,9x 10-2
Monxide 1,51x105 5,57x105
Carbon 3,60 Sulfur 6,7
4,28x 10-2 5,6x 10-2
Dioxide 3,65x105 Dioxide 6,79x105
Critical Temperature
The critical temperature for a matter is the maximum temperature that a gas can be liquified is
called the critical temperature for the gas. The liquid state cannot exist above this temperature.
The pressure to cause liquifaction at this temperature is called the critical pressure. A vapor is really
a gaseous state of a substance when its temperature is below the critical temperature. A vapour
can therefore by condensed to a liquid by increasing the pressure.
Critical Critical Critical Critical

Substance Temp Pressure Substance Temp Pressure
Deg. K atm Deg. K atm
He 5,2 2,26 H2S 373,5 89,0

H2 33,2 12,8 NH3 406,0 112,3
N2 126,0 33,5 Cl2 417,1 76,1
CO 133,6 35,5 SO2 430,3 77,6
O2 154,3 49,7 CCl4 556,2 45,0
CO2 304,2 73,0 C6H6 561,6 47,9
HCl 324,1 81,5 H2O 647,3 217,7
Relevant Chemistry Sites..
1. Real Gases....Useful Lectures notes and Audio lectures

2. Equations of State... A single page comprehensive set of notes.
3. Real gases and Van der Waals Equation... Useful set of notes
Home
Chemistry Index
Physical Chemistry

Physical Chemistry Liquids
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Chemistry Index
Physical Chemistry
Liquids
Introduction
A liquid is a phase of matter between the crystalline solid state and the gaseous state. The large
scale crystalline order of the true solid is absent but the liquid has a small scale close relationship
between adjacent atoms. There is no definitive theory of the liquid state. It is considered that the
molecules comprising liquids are attracted to each other by low energy bonds types such as the
Van der Waals Bond. These bonds being easily broken by heat when vaporisation is taking place.
A liquid has a fixed volume but it takes the shape of containing vessel. It normally has a
significantly greater density than the gaseous state but its density is generally not greatly different to
the solid state. The volume of a liquid is not significantly affected by changes in temperature or
pressure
A liquid has an important different characteristic to the gas in having a free surface which provides
the upper boundary on the volumes..
The physical (as opposed to the chemical ) properties of liquids are important to engineers as
● Lubricants providing low friction bearing surfaces,

● Mediums for transmitting energy in hydraulic motion systems
● Bodies and channels of water enable efficient high volume transport - seas,lakes, rivers, canals
● The low friction flow properties of fluids enable large volumes of useful fluids to be transported over distances (Ducts, pipes)
On examining the periodic table the majority of elements are solid at STP. The only liquids are Br
(Bromine) and Hg (mercury). The only gases are H(Hydrogen), He (Helium), N(Nitrogen), O
(Oxygen) F(flourine),Ne (Neon) Cl(chlorine) Ar (Argon), Kr(Krypron), Xe(Xenon), Ra (Radon).
General Characteristics and properties of Liquids
The properties of various representative solids are provided on page Liquid properties.
Thermodynamic and heat transfer relationships for fluids can be found on page Thermodynamics /
Heat Transfer
Fluid flow notes can be found on page Fluids

Fluid viscosity notes can be found on page .Viscosity Notes
Fluid lubrication notes can be found on page Liquid lubrication
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Physical Chemistry Liquids
Chemistry Sites..
1. Nist -Thermophysical properties of fluid systems... Calculator for determining properties of liquids
3. Physiochemical properties of liquids... Look-up for properties of over 70 liquids
4. Liquids and Solids... Physchem- Very useful notes
Home
Chemistry Index
Physical Chemistry
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Physical Chemistry solids
ROYMECH
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Chemistry Index
Physical Chemistry
Solids
Introduction
A solid has a definite rigid shape and volume under normal conditions. Its volume changes only
slightly with variations of temperature and pressure.
On examining the periodic table the majority of elements are solid at STP. The only liquids are Br
(Bromine) and Hg (mercury). The only gases are H(Hydrogen), He (Helium), N(Nitrogen), O
(Oxygen) F(flourine),Ne (Neon) Cl(chlorine) Ar (Argon), Kr(Krypron), Xe(Xenon), Ra (Radon).
The solid structure depends upon the bonding (covalent, ionic, metallic etc). The ideal solid
structure is a crystalline one with the molecules arranged in a regular 3 dimensional pattern or
lattice. Amorphous solids including glass, pitch, and plastics are generally in a state intermediate
between solid and liquid. Detailed notes on the structure of typical crystalline solids is found on
webpage Matter basics
The difference between a solid an a liquid, especially near its melting point is not great. Often the
density of the liquid is similar to the density of the solid so the packing of the molecules must be
similar. Solids have a short range structure between adjacent molecules and a long range structure
with large regular lattice arrangements. Liquids do not have the same long range structure..
General Properties of Solids
The properties of various representative solids are provided on page Solid properties.
The properties of various representative metals are provided on page Metal properties
Chemistry Sites..
3. Structures of Simple Inorganic Solids....Series of Lectures
4. Spark Notes Chapter 5....Information on solids an other parts of chemistry
5. Cheresources... Excellent site for Chemical Engineers
Home
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Physical Chemistry solids
Chemistry Index
Physical Chemistry
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Belt Drive Service Factors
ROYMECH
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Belt Drives
Service Factor Applicable to Belt Drives
Introduction
Selecting service factors for drive systems is a very imprecise science and it is recommended that the
engineer use the information provided by the drive system supplier for detailed design work. The table below
is provided to indicate in general, the level of service factor to apply for drive systems based on some
knowledge of the driver equipment, the driven equipment and the operating period.
Some judgment is required in applying service factors for it is clear that a well designed drive includes
provisions i.e flywheels, slipping clutches, fluid couplings etc which will effectively isolate the loads providing
relatively smooth drive conditions even with load which have high levels of shock loading.
Service Factors Synchronous Drives
Operating Period /day

< 8 h < 16 h > 16 h < 8 h < 16 h > 16 h < 8 h < 16 h >16 h
Driving Machine: Driving :Moderate Driving Machine:Heavy
Smooth Vibration Vibration
Driven Starting torque 100% - Starting torque 150% - Starting torque 250% -
Equipment; 150% FL 250% FL 400% FL
| Electic Motors -Star
v Delta
AC motors starting AC Motors (DOL)
DC motors-shunt
torque Two stroke Engines
wound
IC engines with 4-6 IC engines under 600
IC engines over 8 cyl'rs
cylinders rpm,
Water Turbines
Steam Turbines
Instrumentation
Office display equipment 1 1.2 1.4 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.6
Medical Equipment
Domestic Appliances
Oven Screens
1.1 1.3 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.7
Woodworking Drills
Woodworking Drills Lathes
Liquid agitators,
Heavy Woodworking Tools 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.6 1.8 2
Belt conveyors
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Service_Factors.html (1 of 4)10/24/2006 12:05:15 PM

Sludge Agitators,
Conveyors,
Milling Machines 1.3 1.5 1.7 1,5 1,7 1,9 1.6 1.8 2
Shaper Machines
Grinding Machines
Brick Machinery
Rubber Calendar Mills
Rubber Extruders 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.6 1.8 2 1.8 2 2.2
Centrifugal Blowers
Elevators
Centrifugers, Paper Pulpers,
1.5 1.7 1.9 1.7 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.1 2.3
Hammer Mills,
Blowers-positive displacment
Pulverisers. 1.6 1.8 2 1.8 2 2.2 2 2.2 2.4
Mine Fans
Reciprocating Compressors
Crushers
1.7 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.5
Steelmaking machines
Reciprocating pumps
Service Factors Vee ( V ) Belts
Operating Period /day

<8h < 16 h > 16 h <8h < 16 h >16 h
Driving Machine:
Driving Machine:
Driven Reasonable Smooth
Coarse
Equipment; Starting torque 100% - 200%
Starting torque 200%-400%
| FL
v DC Motors with series/
Electic Motors -Star Delta
mixed excitation
DC motors-shunt wound
AC Motors (DOL)
IC engines over 8 cyl'rs
Two stroke Engines
Turbines
IC engines under 600 rpm,
Smooth Machine Tools-Lathes drills etc
Liquid agitators,
Blowers, Exhausters 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,1 1,2 1,3
Light Duty conveyors
Centrifugal Pumps

Uneven Machine Tools-Milling /Gearcutting;etc

Printing machines
Laundry Machinery
Generators
Piston pumps and compressors(4+ cylinder)
Fans and blowers
Chain conveyors
Elevators
Circular saws for wood 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,2 1,3 1,4
Transmissions
Printing ,Paper-making machines
Food-industry machines-dough mixers
Heavy screens
Rotary furnaces
High-speed grinders
Positive Displacement Rotary Pumps
Revolving Vibrating screens
Punches/Presses
Planing machines
Vertical shapers and wood-processing
machines
Piston pumps and compressors with one or
two cylinders
Bucket elevators
Fans and blowers of heavy types
Exciters
1,2 1,3 1,4 1,3 1,4 1,6
Screw and drag conveyors
Crushers
Piston Pumps
Presses heavy flywheels
Weaving machines
Machines for cleaning cotton
Machines for pressing and pelletising fodder
Positive Displacement Blowers
Hoists
Excavators
dredgers
Heavy presses
shears
Mechanical hammers
1,3 1,4 1,5 1,5 1,6 1,8
Mills(ball, rod, tube)
Stone crushers
Hammer mills
Crushers (gyratory, jaw, roll)
Sawmill machines
Rubber Calendars, extruders, Mills


4. Development of Asbestos Free Brake Pad ..A paper download. Referring to a glass fibre composites options
5. Tribco ..Supplier of Kelvar composites
6. Clutches and Brakes ..A paper download with lots of useful notes
Home
Brakes

Thermodynamics

ROYMECH
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Thermodynamics/ Heat Transfer
Introduction
This page provides a limited notes on thermodyamics and heat transfer that may be
useful to mechanical engineers.
Notation
Units
Identifier Description
(typical)
Specific Heat
cp Capacity at Constant kJ/(kg K)
pressure
Specific Heat
cv Capacity at Constant kJ/(kg K)
Volume
p Absolute Pressure N/m2
v volume per unit mass m3
Work Output per unit
W kJ/kg
mass
Ro Universal Gas
kJ /(kg mole.K)
Constant = 8,31
Q Heat Quantity kJ
Gas Constant = R o /
R kJ /kg.K
M
Internal energy
U kJ
(thermal)
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Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Laws
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics...
When two objects are separately in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third they are in
equilibrium with each other
Objects in thermodynamic equilibrium are at the same temperature
First Law of Thermodynamics...
This law expresses the general law of conservation of energy. and states that heat and
work are mutually convertible
Heat In = Work Out over complete cycle

or Sum (d Q ) = sum (d W )
The basic energy equation results from this
dQ = dU + dW
Second Law of Thermodynamics...
This law in its simplest states that heat can only flow from hot to cold and not vice
versa. In terms of thermodynamic engine cycles the law states that the gross heat
supplied to a system in a complete cycle must exceed the work done by the system.
Therefore heat must be rejected. The thermal efficiency of an heat engine must be less
than 100%.
Process Relations
Reversible Polytropic Process
p v n = constant
W = ( p 2 v 2 - p 1 v 1 ) / ( 1 - n ) .. (n not 0 )
For a perfect gas
W = R ( T 2 - T 1 ) / (1 -n )
Q = ( Cv + R /(1 - n) ) ( T 2 -T 1 )

Thermodynamics
T 2 / T 1 = ( p 2 / p 1 ) ( n-1 ) / n
For Adiabatic processes (Q = 0 ) n = γ = cp / cv
γ = 1.4 for Air, H 2, O 2, CO, NO, Hcl
γ = 1.3 for CO 2, SO 2, H 2O, H 2S, N 2O, NH 3, CL 2, CH 4, C 2H 2, C 2H 4
Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer takes place by Conduction, Convection and Radiation
Heat Transfer by Conduction
● q = Heat Flow Rate W

● t 1 & t 2 = temperature, K (heat flows down (-))
● A = Area, m 2
● k = Coefficient of thermal conductivity, W m -1K -1
● U = Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient,W m -1K -1
● h = Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient, W m -2K -1
● R = Thermal Resistance, W -1.m -1.K
dq = kA(-dt/dx)
q = (k.A /x). (t 1-t 2)
U = k/x
Therefore q = U.A(t 1-t 2)
Thermal resistance R = 1 / U.A
The heat has to pass through the surface layers on both sides of the wall
q = A.h s1(t s1 - t 1) = k.A(t 1 -t 2) / x = Ah s2(t 2 -t s2)

U = 1 / (1/h s1 + x/k + 1/h s2 )
R = 1/A.h s1 + 1/A.h s2 + x/A.k = R s1 + R s2 + R
Table Showing Various values for k at 20 oC

Thermodynamics
k=
k=Wm- Misc. k =Wm-1K- Liquids Wm-
Metal 1K-1
1K-1 solids 1
Aluminium 237 Asphalt 1.26 Benzene 0.16
Antimony 18.5 Bitumen 0.17 Carb Tet'ide 0.11
Beryllium 218 Br'ze Block 0.15 Acetone 0.16
Brass 110 Brickwork 0.6 Ether 0.14
Cadmium 92 Brick-Dense 1.6 Glycerol 0.28
Cobalt 69 Carbon 1.7 Kerosene 0.15
Constantan 22 Conc-LD 0.2 Mercury 8
Copper 398 Conc-MD 0.5 Methanol 0.21
Gold 315 Conc-HD 1.5 Machine Oil 0.15
Iridium 147 Firebrick 1.09 Water 0.58
Cast Iron 55 Glass 1.05 Sodium 84
Pure Iron 80.3 Glass -Boro. 1.3
Wr't Iron 59 Ice 2.18 k=
Lead 35.2 Limestone 1.1 Gases Wm -
Magnesium 156 Mica 0.75 1K -1
Molybdenum 138 Cement 1.01 Air 0.024

Monel 26 Parafin Wax 0.25 Ammonia 0.022
Nickel 90.5 Porcelain 1.05 Argon 0.016
Platinum 73 Sand 0.06 Carbon Dio 0.015
Silver 427 Carbon Mon 0.023
C.Steel 50 Insulation Helium 0.142
St.Steel 25 Balsa 0.048 Hydrogen 0.168
Tin 67 Straw-Comp 0.09 Methane 0.030
Zinc 113 Cotton Wool 0.029 Nitrogen 0.024
Polystyrene- Oxygen 0.024
0.03
Plastics Expanded Water Vap. 0.016
Acrylic 0.2 Felt 0.04
Nylon 6 0.25; Glass Wool 0.04
Polythene High Kapok 0.034
0.5
Den Magnesia 0.07
PTFE 0.25 Plywood 0.13
PVC 0.19 Rock Wool 0.045
Sawdust 0.06
Slag Wool 0.042
Wood 0.13

Thermodynamics
Heat Transfer by Radiation
Emissivity Values
Refer to link Emissivity Values for better table
Surface Material Emmissity Surface Material Emmissity

Aluminium-
0.11 Tile 0.97
Oxidised
Aluminium-
0.05 Water 0.95
Polished
Aluminium
0.77 Wood-Oak 0.9
anodised
Aluminium
0.07 Paint 0.96
rough
Asbestos Board 0.94 Paper 0.93

Thermodynamics
Black Body -
1.00 Plastics 0.91 Av
Matt
Rubber-
Brass -Dull 0.22 0.91
Nat_Hard
Rubber
Brass- Polished 0.03 0.86
_Nat_Soft
Brick -Dark 0.9 Steel_Oxidised 0.79
Concrete 0.85 Steel Polished 0.07
Copper- St.Steel-
0.87 0.85
Oxidised Weathered
Copper - St.Steel-
0.04 0.15
Polished Polished
Glass 0.92 Steel Galv. Old 0.88
Plaster 0.98 Steel Galv new 0.23
Heat Transfer by Convection
Convective heat transfer occurs between a moving fluid and a solid surface.The rate of convective heat transfer between a
surface and a fluid is given by the Newton’s Law of Cooling;

Thermodynamics
It is customary to express the convection coefficient (average or local), in a non-dimensional form called the Nusselt Number.
Natural convection
Nu = C(Gr.Pr) n C and n are tabled below
Note: Convection heat transfer values are very specific to the geometry of the surface and the heat transfer conditions - These
example equations are very general in nature and should not be used for serious calcs. The links below provide much safer
equations..
Surface (Gr.Pr) C n
10 4 to 10 9 0.59 0.25
Vertical Plates/
Cylinders 10 9 to 10 0.13 0.33
12
Horizontal Pipes 10 3 to 10 9 0.53 0.25

10 5 to 2 x
Horizontal Plates 0.54 0.25
10 7

Thermodynamics
Heated Face up or 2 x10 7 to

Cooled Face Down 0.14 0.33
3 x10 10
Horizontal Plates
3 x10 5 to
Heated Face up or 0.27 0.25
3 x10 10
Cooled Face Down
Forced Convection
Laminar flow over Plate Nu = 0.664(Re) 1/2(Pr) 1/3
Fully Developed pipe flow Nu = 0.0866(D/L)Re.Pr / (1+0.04[D / L(Re.Pr)] 2/3) + 3.66
Turbulent Flow Over Flat Plate Nu = 0.036Pr 1/3Re 0.8
Turbulent Flow In Pipe Nu = 0.023Pr 0.4Re 0.8
Typical Values of Heat Transfer Coefficient h = W.m -2K -1
● Free Convection Over Various Shape - Air 2 - 23

● Free Convection Over Various Shape - Water 300 - 1700
● Turbulent Convection Over Various Shape and through tubes - Air 6 - 1400
● Turbulent Convection Over Various Shape and through tubes - Water 1100 - 9000
Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers normally transfer energy from a hot fluid to a colder fluid. The energy in = The energy out.
If the fluids are the same with the same specific heat. The mass flowrate x the temp drop of the hot fluid = the mass
flow rate x the temp rise of the cold fluid.

Thermodynamics
Typical Values for Overall Heat transfer U are
● Plate Heat Exchanger, liquid to liquid U range 1000 > 4000 W. m.-2K.-1
● Shell and Tube, liquid inside and outside tubes U range150 > 1200 W. m.-2K.-1.
● Spiral Heat Exchanger, liquid to liquid U range 700 > 2500 W. m.-2K.-1

4. Watlow.. Heat Losses From various Surfaces ->Reference -> Heat Transfer

Thermodynamics
5. APV_Phewizard... Free Plate Heat Exchanger Software for specify plate HX

6. Guide to Compact Heat Exchangers... A very informative document
7. Emissivity Values... A table of emissivity values
8. Cheresources... Various heat transfer values -Useful
Home

new
The purpose of this web site is to share technical information in the field of welding
and welding related activities. It has no affiliation to any organisation or company
Welcome, my name is John Dyson. I work as

a Chartered Engineer involved in the design
and commissioning of pressurised plant and
equipment. I am also a registered European
Welding Engineer.
Whats New
EN 287 Part 1 : 2004, has finally arrived !!
EN ISO 15614 Part 1, has finally arrived !!
The latest information on the new EN ISO standard for welding qualifications
This site is no longer hosted by btinternet. Search engines will still reference the old
site until they have been updated. And please don't use my old btinternet email
address.
Welding
How To Prevent Weld Failure :- Common causes of weld failure and how they can
be avoided.
Calculating the strength of welded connections :- Design Rules for calculating

the strength of butt and fillet welded joints subject to Direct, Bending and Torsional
loadings. Plus guidance on calculating centroids and second moment of area.
Welding Procedures and WPS's :- Welding procedure and welder approval

qualifications to European, ASME and the new EN ISO Standards explained. Plus
how to draft welding procedure specifications
Fatigue Of Welded Joints :- A practical guide to Fatigue in welded structures.
Fracture Mechanics : - Basic guide to fracture mechanics and fitness for purpose
assessment + ASME Impact requirements
http://www.gowelding.com/ (1 of 2)10/25/2006 5:12:56 PM

new
Preheat:- How to reduce the risk of hydrogen cracking in carbon and low alloy
steels. + Preheat calculator.
Welding Metallurgy :-Practical information on the welding and treatment of:-

stainless steel, duplex. More materials to be added shortly. + Welding dissimilar
materials and welding without PWHT.
Welding Symbols :- A brief guide to welding symbols to EN22553, BS499 and

AWS.
European Pressure Equipment Directive

This Directive covers the design, manufacture and installation of Pressure
Equipment Within Europe. + The latest views and interpretations
Pressure Vessel Design

Pressure vessel design to both American (ASME 8) and European codes
(EN13445).
Finite Element Analysis:-A basic guide to solving structural and heat transfer
problems using matrix methods. + Free Beam Calculation Software
Links
Links to other sites covering welding, metallurgy and free software + Sites of general
interest.
NOTE Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that all the information contained in this web site is correct no
responsibility can be accepted by the author for any error or omission that this site may contain
THANKS to all my colleagues who gave me advice and guidance on some of the technical issues
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http://www.gowelding.com/wp/index.htm
Welding Qualifications
HOME
PED Welding Procedures, Welder Approvals and Welding Procedure

Specifications explained.
CALCS
• European Standards
WPS
An introduction to
LINKS European Welding
Standards. (427Kb pdf
File)
• Basic Guide
A basic introduction to
Welding qualifications
and why they are
required
• Welding Procedure
Specifications(WPS)
Welding Procedure
Specifications
to EN288 Part 2. Why
are they required and
what should they
include.
• ASME Section IX
Guidance on the qualification of welding procedures and the
performance testing of welders to section 9 of the ASME boiler and
pressure vessel code.
Approval Range Calculator.
• NEW EN ISO Welding Standards
These new standards have now replace European Standards EN288-3
and EN287-1.
NEW Approval Range Calculator.
http://www.gowelding.com/wp/index.htm (1 of 2)10/25/2006 5:13:34 PM

http://www.gowelding.com/wp/index.htm
• OLD European Welding Standards

Whilst a lot of information in this guide is still relevant to the new
standards, as EN15614-1 is just an updated version of EN288-3,
some of the approval ranges have changed. However EN288 Part 3,
can still be used up to December 2004.
OLD Approval Range Calculator.
• Example of Completed WPAR to EN288-3
• Word Template for EN288/287 Qualifications
• Automatic/Machine Welding
Guidance on the qualification of welding operators to EN and ASME
Rules
• Independant Inspection Authority
Royal & SunAlliance is probably one of the most helpful Inspection
agencies around.
• Return To Main Menu Page
Please Note, whilst I am prepared to answer your questions, I can't

supply copies or extracts of standards because they are all subject to
copyright law. However copies of most standards can be purchased
online from the various standards authorities, see LINKS for their web
site addresses.
Page last updated 12 July
2004
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Welding Procedure Specifications
Welding Procedure Specification Example
A WPS is a document that describes how welding is to be carried out in production.

They are recommended for all welding operations and many application codes and
standards make them mandatory
What information should they include?
Sufficient details to enable any competent person to apply the information and
produce a weld of acceptable quality. The amount of detail and level of controls
specified on a WPS is dependant on the application and criticality of the joint to be
welded.
For most applications the information required is generally similar to that recorded
on a Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) or Welding Procedure Approval Record
(WPAR), except that ranges are usually permitted on thicknesses, diameters, welding
current, materials, joint types etc.
If a WPS is used in conjunction with approved welding procedures then the ranges
stated should be in accordance with the approval ranges permitted by the welding
procedure.
However careful consideration should be given to the ranges specified to ensure

they are achievable, as the ranges given by welding procedure standards do not
http://www.gowelding.com/wp/wps.htm (1 of 4)10/25/2006 5:24:39 PM

always represent good welding practice. For example welding positions permitted
by the welding procedure standard may not be achievable or practical for certain
welding processes or consumables.
EN 288 Part 2 European Standard For Welding Procedure Specifications

This part of EN 288 defines the contents of a Welding Procedure Specification in the
form of a list of information that should be recorded. For some applications it may
be necessary to supplement or reduce the list. For example only in the case of a
procedure requiring heat input control would there be a necessity to quote travel
speed or run-out length for manual processes.
ASME IX American Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

QW 250 Lists the variables for each welding process, all the variables stated should
be addressed. The range permitted by the WPS is dictated by the PQR or PQR’s
used to qualify it.
Typical Items That Should Be Recorded On W.P.S:-
Common to all Processes .
● Procedure number
● Process type
● Consumable Size, Type and full Codification.
● Consumable Baking Requirement if applicable
● Parent material grade and spec.
● Thickness range.
● Plate or Pipe, Diameter range
● Welding Position
● Joint Fit Up, Preparation, Cleaning, Dimensions etc.
● Backing Strip, Back Gouging information.
● Pre-Heat (Min Temp and Method)
● Interpass If Required (Maximum Temperature recorded )
● Post Weld Heat Treatment. If Required (Time and Temp)
● Welding Technique (weaving,max run width etc.)
● Arc Energy Limits should be stated if impact tests are required or if the
material being welded is sensitive to heat input.

MIG
SUB
Specific To Welding Processes MMA TIG MAG
ARC
FCAW
Welding current yes yes yes yes
Type of Welding current AC/DC Polarity yes yes yes yes
Arc voltage If Auto yes yes
Pulse parameters (Pulse time and peak &

If Used If Used
backgound current)
Welding Speed If Mechanised yes yes yes
Wire configuration yes
Shielding gas (comp,flow rate) yes yes
Purge gas (comp & flow rate) If Used If Used
Tungsten electode Diameter and type. yes
Nozzle diameter yes yes
Type of Flux Codification & Brand Name yes
Nozzle Stand Off Distance (Distance from tip

yes
of nozzle to workpiece).
Sketches
A sketch of the joint configuration is required which should include the basic
dimensions of the weld preparation. Some indication of the run sequence is also
beneficial, particularly if the correct sequence is essential to ensure the properties of
the weld are maintained.
Production Sequence
Whilst this is good practice it is not a requirement of either ASME 9 or EN288 Part 2;
it could be issued as a separate QA procedure if preferred.
Non Destructive Testing

A WPS is primarily concerned with welding not N D T, this activity should be

covered by separate N D T procedures.
● Welding Procedure Specification Example
● Welding Qualifications Sub Menu
Page last updated 26 November 2000

Welding Procedure Specification:- Example
Weld Procedure Number 30 P1 TIG 01 Issue A

Qualifying Welding Procedure (WPAR) WP T17/A
Method Of Preparation Machine and

Manufacturer: National Fabs Ltd and Cleaning: Degrease
25 Lane End
Birkenshaw Parent Metal Specification: Grade 304L Stainless
Leeds Steel
Parent Metal Thickness 3 to 8mm Wall
Location: Workshop Pipe Outside Diameter 25 to 100mm
Welding Process: Manual TIG Welding Position: All Positions
Joint Type: Single Sided Butt Weld
Welding Progression: Upwards
Joint Design Welding Sequences
Wire
Size Of Current Voltage Type Of Travel
Run Process Feed Heat Input
Filler Metal A V Current/Polarity Speed
Speed
1
TIG 1.2mm 70 - 90 DC-
2 And N/A N/A N/A N/A
TIG 1.6mm 80 - 140 DC-
Subs
http://www.gowelding.com/wp/wps1.html (1 of 2)10/25/2006 5:24:50 PM

Welding Consumables:- Production Sequence

Type, Designation Trade Name: BS 2901 Part 2 : 308S92
Any Special Baking or Drying: No 1. Clean weld and 25mm borders to
bright metal using approved
Gas Flux: Argon 99.99% Purity solvent.
Gas Flow Rate - Shield: 8 - 12 LPM
2. Position items to be welded
- Backing: 5 LPM
ensuring good fit up and apply
purge
Tungsten Electrode Type/ Size: 2% Thoriated 2.4mm Dia
3. Tack weld parts together using
Details of Back Gouging/ Gas Backing
TIG, tacks to at least 5mm min
Backing: length
5°C Min
200°C Max 4. Deposit root run using 1.2mm dia.
Preheat Temperature:
wire.
Interpass temperature:
Not Required 5. Inspect root run internally
Post Weld Heat Treatment 6. Complete weld using 1.6mm dia
Time, temperature, method: wire using stringer beads as
Heating and Cooling Rates*: required.
7. 100% Visual inspection of
completed weld
Revision History
Date Issue Changes Authorization
26/11/2000 A First Issue Jack Straw Jack Straw
● Welding Procedure Specifications
● Welding Qualifications Sub Menu
Page last updated 26 November 2000
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Welding Procedures, Welder Approvals and Welding Procedure Specifications

explained.
• European Standards
An introduction to European
Welding Standards. (427Kb pdf
File)
• Basic Guide
A basic introduction to Welding
qualifications and why they are
required
• Welding Procedure
Specifications(WPS)
to EN288 Part 2. Why are they
required and what should they
include.
• ASME Section IX
Guidance on the qualification of welding procedures and the performance
testing of welders to section 9 of the ASME boiler and pressure vessel code.
Approval Range Calculator.
• NEW EN ISO Welding Standards
These new standards have now replace European Standards EN288-3 and
EN287-1.
NEW Approval Range Calculator.
• OLD European Welding Standards
Whilst a lot of information in this guide is still relevant to the new standards, as
EN15614-1 is just an updated version of EN288-3, some of the approval ranges
have changed. However EN288 Part 3, can still be used up to December 2004.
OLD Approval Range Calculator.
http://www.gowelding.com/wp/quals.htm (1 of 2)10/25/2006 5:25:39 PM

• Example of Completed WPAR to EN288-3

• Word Template for EN288/287 Qualifications
• Automatic/Machine Welding
Guidance on the qualification of welding operators to EN and ASME Rules
• Independant Inspection Authority
Royal & SunAlliance is probably one of the most helpful Inspection agencies
around.
• Return To Main Menu Page
Please Note, whilst I am prepared to answer your questions, I can't supply copies
or extracts of standards because they are all subject to copyright law. However
copies of most standards can be purchased online from the various standards
authorities, see LINKS for their web site addresses.
Page last updated 12 July 2004
http://www.gowelding.com/wp/quals.htm (2 of 2)10/25/2006 5:25:39 PM

HSE
Health & Safety
Executive
Comparison of fatigue provisions

in codes and standards
Prepared by Bomel Limited

for the Health and Safety Executive
OFFSHORE TECHNOLOGY REPORT

2001/083
HSE
Health & Safety
Executive
Comparison of fatigue provisions

in codes and standards
Bomel Limited
Ledger House
Forest Green Road
Fifield
Maidenhead
Berkshire SL6 2NR
United Kingdom
HSE BOOKS
© Crown copyright 2002
Applications for reproduction should be made in writing to:
Copyright Unit, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office,
St Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich NR3 1BQ
First published 2002
ISBN 0 7176 2281 9
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior
written permission of the copyright owner.
This report is made available by the Health and Safety

Executive as part of a series of reports of work which has
been supported by funds provided by the Executive.
Neither the Executive, nor the contractors concerned
assume any liability for the reports nor do they
necessarily reflect the views or policy of the Executive.
ii
CONTENTS
Page No
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 GENERAL COMPARISONS 2
2.1 Overall Approach to Fatigue Assessment 2
2.2 Safety Factors 7
2.3 Modifications to S-N Curves 11
2.4 Provisions for Construction Details 14
3 COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES 20
3.1 Joints in Air 20
3.2 Joints in Seawater with Adequate Corrosion Protection 21
3.3 Joints in Seawater with Free Corrosion 21
3.4 Tubular Joints 21
3.5 Cast Joints 21
4 OVERALL SUMMARY OF S-N CURVE CHARACTERISTICS 22
APPENDIX A - TABLES OF S-N CURVE PARAMETERS 25
APPENDIX B - COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR JOINT IN AIR 40
APPENDIX C - COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR JOINTS IN SEAWATER 41

WITH ADEQUATE CORROSION PROTECTION
APPENDIX D - COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR JOINTS IN SEAWATER 42

WITH FREE CORROSION
APPENDIX E - COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR NODAL TUBULAR 43

JOINTS
APPENDIX F - COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR CAST JOINTS 44
APPENDIX G - PROVISIONS IN DOCUMENTS FOR JOINT TYPES 45
iii
iv
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this technical note is to present a comparison of the fatigue provisions
in the following documents:
1. NORSOK Standard. Design of Steel Structures. N-004. Rev 1, December

1998.
2. HSE 4th Edition Guidance Notes. Offshore Installations: Guidance on
Design, Construction and Certification. 1993 Consolidated Edition with
Amendment 3 (1995).
3. Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures - Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules
for Buildings. ENV 1993-1-1, April 1992.
4. ISO. Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries - Offshore Structures - Part 2:
Fixed Steel Structures. ISO/CD 13819-2. Draft 14.05.99.
5. API. Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing
Fixed Offshore Platforms. API RP2A WSD (20th Edition, July 1993) & LRFD
(1st Edition, July 1993).
6. IIW. Fatigue Design of Welded Joints and Components. A Hobbacher (ed.).
Recommendations of IIW Joint Working Group XIII-XV. XIII-1539-96 /
XV-845-96. Abington Publishing, 1996.
7. BSI. Code of practice for fatigue design and assessment of steel structures.
BS 7608: 1993 (with amendments AMD 8337, 15 February 1995).
The comparison covers general aspects, including the overall approach taken to
fatigue assessment, safety factors, and modifications to S-N or fatigue strength curves
(e.g. for thickness effects and weld improvement). The S-N curve parameters are
itemised for each document and comparisons between the curves made for joints in
air, in seawater with adequate corrosion protection, and in seawater with free
corrosion. Comparisons for nodal tubular joints and cast joints are given separately.
In Section 4, a summary table is provided to give an overall comparison between the

S-N provisions of the various documents.
1
2. GENERAL COMPARISONS
2.1 OVERALL APPROACH TO FATIGUE ASSESSMENT
2.1.1 NORSOK N-004

The NORSOK standard is a limit state document dealing with the design of steel
offshore structures. As such a partial safety factor approach is taken. Chapter 8 deals
with fatigue, and is very short, extensive detail being provided in Annex C. This covers
fatigue strength analysis (terminology used for fatigue life calculation), and is
supported by three Appendices dealing with classification of structural details, stress
concentration factors (SCFs) for tubular joints and SCFs for cutouts.
Fatigue assessment is by the standard combination of appropriately factored nominal

stress ranges (either through SCFs or constructional detail classification against
“standard types”), S-N curves, and the Palmgren-Miner linear cumulative damage rule.
Design fatigue factors (DFFs) are applied as multipliers on the number of load cycles
before computation of cumulative damage, and the result compared with unity to
assess acceptability. [In practical terms the comparison would be made between
unfactored damage and the inverse of DFF]. The DFFs are set according to
accessibility for inspection and repair, and damage consequence.
Design S-N curves are provided for a variety of classified structural details (see below)
as well as tubular joints. These curves are either bi-linear, or linear, on log-log plots of
stress range versus number of cycles to failure (endurance). Separate sets of curves
are given for joints in air, in seawater with cathodic protection and in seawater with
free corrosion. No endurance limits are specified on these curves, but conditions are
given of situations where a detailed fatigue analysis can be omitted.
Modifications to the design S-N curves must be made to allow for thickness effects.
Fatigue life enhancements are also allowable, to introduce the influences of weld
improvement techniques.
2.1.2 HSE 4th Edition Guidance Notes

The HSE 4th Edition Guidance Notes were not intended to be a comprehensive
design code. They have been withdrawn, but were originally issued to provide
guidance on specific aspects of design, construction and certification of offshore
installations. Section 21 of the document deals with steel, from a design point of view,
with subsections 21.2.10 - 15 covering fatigue aspects relevant to welded connections.
An appendix to the main section (A21) provides additional information, particularly in
respect of derivation of stress concentration factors and construction detail
classification for fatigue purposes.
2
The guidance notes evolved in an era preceding general use of limit state design for
steel, and an allowable stress approach was therefore taken in Section 21 of the
guidance. It was acknowledged, however, that limit state was due to take
pre-eminence and permitted the use of these type of codes/standards provided that
the level of safety achieved was not less than that from an allowable stress approach.
Fatigue assessment is by a combination of the product of nominal stress ranges and

SCFs or stress factors, S-N curves, and the Palmgren-Miner linear cumulative
damage rule. The damage is compared with unity to assess acceptability, but no
safety factors are specified in the document.
The setting of SCFs and their derivation is dealt with in the appendix to Section 21. A
system of joint classification is used to deal with a variety of constructional details in
terms of classification factors which are used as multipliers on stress range in
conjunction with the appropriate S-N curve. Welded details are dealt with as either
“classified” (i.e. falling within the scope of the information provided) or “unclassified”.
Basic S-N curves are provided for plate connections, cast joints and tubular joints.
The plate and tubular joint curves are modified to account for the environment and the
degree of corrosion protection. The plate S-N curves are used in conjunction with the
classification factors to deal with, largely, non-tubular joint connections. The S-N
curves provided are either bi-linear, or linear, on log-log plots of stress range verus
endurance. None of the curves has an endurance limit.
Modifications to the basic S-N curves may be made to allow for member thickness
effects, and the influences of weld improvement techniques.
2.1.3 Eurocode 3
Eurocode 3 is a limit state code dealing with the design of steel structures. As such,
partial safety factors are applied separately to loads and resistances to obtain the
required safety level. Part 1.1 covers general rules and rules for buildings, and
Chapter 9 deals with fatigue. Being essentially an onshore code, the necessity for
fatigue assessment does not include fluid-induced oscillations. Moreover, the code
limits the fatigue strengths specified as applicable to structures with suitable corrosion
protection and subjected only to a mildly corrosive environment (such as normal
atmospheric conditions).
S-N curves are referred to as “fatigue strength curves” and partial safety factors are
applied to these according to accessibility of the component during periodic inspection
and maintenance, and the consequence of failure.
The fatigue assessment procedures essentially start from a set of defined

constructional details. Different routes through the process are taken if the detail
3
under consideration falls within the classification, or differs from any standard detail
classified, and/or is unclassified. The routes prescribe the types of fatigue stress
range that can be used in the assessment (nominal or geometric) along with the
fatigue strength curve to be applied. Constant amplitude and variable amplitude
loading are addressed. In the case of the latter (the more general), assessment may
be based on cumulative damage (Palmgren-Miner rule) or equivalent constant
amplitude. Normal stresses (to the weld) and shear stresses, individually applied or in
combination can be dealt with.
Fatigue strength curves are bi-linear, or linear, on log-log plots of fatigue strength
(stress range) versus endurance, with some also having endurance limits (cut off
levels).
Fatigue strength modifications may be made according to the thickness of the detail,
and the use of weld improvement factors.
2.1.4 Draft ISO/CD 13819-2

The draft ISO document ISO/CD 13819 is a limit state code dealing with the design of
offshore structures for the petroleum and natural gas industries. A partial safety factor
approach is taken. Part 2 of this draft international standard covers fixed steel
structures and Chapter 15 of Part 2 deals with fatigue strength of connections. There
is also an extensive background and other information in an appended commentary,
the fatigue section of which is A.15.
Fatigue assessment is by a combination of nominal or geometric stress ranges

(obtained by the product of nominal stress ranges and SCFs), S-N curves and the
Palmgren-Miner linear cumulative damage accumulation rule. A partial safety factor is
applied to the cumulative damage, and the result compared with unity to assess
acceptability.
Safety factors are intended to depend on the failure consequences of the component
under consideration (i.e. criticality) and in-service inspectability. The detailed setting
of values of safety factors is, however, discussed in the commentary rather than being
prescribed in the body of the standard. The same is true for the values of stress
concentration factors for tubular joints, and the determination of geometric stresses for
other types of connections. The latter are handled by a system of classification of
constructional details, allied to “stress classification factors” instead of SCFs.
Basic design S-N curves are provided for tubular joints (TJ), cast joints (CJ), and other
connections corresponding to the classification of constructional details referred to
above. It is worth noting that the commentary refers to a class of detail “G” for which
no S-N curve is given in the main body of the standard. The S-N curves provided are
bi-linear on log-log plots of stress range versus endurance, and options are given for
4
joints in air or seawater with adequate corrosion protection (CP). Information
concerning S-N curves for joints without adequate CP is given in the commentary. No
endurance limits are specified for any of the basic S-N curves.
Modifications to the basic S-N curves may be made to allow for thickness effects, and
the influences of weld improvement techniques.
2.1.5 API RP2A

API RP2A deals with planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore platforms.
Design is according to a load and resistance factor approach or a working stress type
approach in the LRFD and WSD versions of this document, respectively. In the LRFD
version, whilst not a limit state code, partial safety factors are applied separately to
loads and resistances. Section F deals with fatigue and makes reference to Section L,
which covers fabrication, including weld profiling.
Fatigue assessment is by means of S-N curves and the Palmgren-Miner linear

cumulative damage accumulation rule. Nominal stresses (e.g. from a space frame
analysis) are used in the computation of stress ranges, along with suitable stress
concentration factors to give hot spot stresses. The microscopic effects, occurring at
the toe of a weld under consideration, are reflected in the choice of an appropriate S-N
curve. The only S-N curves provided in the document relate to tubular joints in steel
structures and modifications are to be applied to these to account for operating
environment, thickness effects and so forth.
The cumulative damage is multiplied by a safety factor sufficient to give a design

fatigue life of the weld under consideration equal to twice the intended service life of
the structure.
2.1.6 IIW Recommendations

The IIW document is not a code of practice or a standard but sets out
recommendations for the fatigue design of welded joints and components. It does
follow the ISO format insofar that fatigue action and fatigue resistance are clearly
separated, allowing for the use of partial safety factors on “load” and “resistance”. No
recommendations are given for the fatigue load (action) side, nor for the partial safety
factor on fatigue actions.
The fatigue resistance data given in the document refer to non-corrosive

environments, with normal protection against atmospheric corrosion assumed. No
specific recommendations are given in the document for corrosion fatigue
assessment.
The different approaches for the fatigue assessment of welded joints and components
considered are: nominal stress, geometric stress (hot spot stress), effective notch
5
stress, fracture mechanics method and component testing. The approaches of most
relevance to the present discussion are those based on nominal stress and geometric
stress.
The overall approach taken to fatigue assessment is broadly similar to that in

Eurocode 3, discussed above. The process starts with defining the constructional
detail under consideration. Different routes through the process are taken if the detail
falls within the set of standard classified types given, differs from those classified, or is
unclassified. If the joint corresponds to a classified detail, assessment is based on
nominal stress. Alternatively, assessment uses the geometric stress, and in the case
of nodal tubular joints this would involve the use of the nominal stress and appropriate
SCFs. Constant amplitude and variable amplitude loading are dealt with using
different fatigue strength (S-N) curves. In the case of variable amplitude loading (the
more general case), assessment is based on cumulative damage (Palmgren-Miner).
The document recommends that for load spectra which are sensitive to the position on
the S-N curve of fatigue limits or cutoff limits, additional assessment using a nonlinear
damage calculation method should be carried out. It is also recommended that, in
cases where no test data or service experience exist and the stress spectrum is not
close to constant amplitude, only half of the calculated life should be assumed.
The fatigue strength curves to be used in variable amplitude loading assessment are
bi-linear on log-log plots of stress range versus endurance. They also have cutoff
limits.
2.1.7 BS 7608: 1993

BS 7608: 1993 gives recommendations for methods for the fatigue design and
assessment of parts of steel structures that are subject to repeated fluctuations of
stress. It is restricted to wrought structural steel with a specified minimum yield
strength less than 700 MPa. The document is intended to be generic, possibly used
as an adjunct to other specific structure-related design codes. As such, it is not stated
to be either “limit state” or “working stress” and could take up whatever philosophy is
inherent in the citing structure-specific code.
The document has four main sections dealing with: general aspects, classification of
details, stress calculations and allowable fatigue stresses. The main document is
supported by a number of annexes dealing with specific technical items. These
include Annex A, which covers fatigue design philosophy.
Fatigue design and assessment is achieved by the standard combination of stress

ranges (nominal, coupled to standard detail classification or geometric, the latter
including SCFs), S-N curves for standard details, and the Palmgren-Miner linear
cumulative damage rule for joints subjected to a stress spectrum. The joint is deemed
satisfactory if the cumulative damage is less than unity.
6
S-N curves are provided for a variety of classified structural details. These are termed
“basic” S-N curves, and are mean fits through experimental data. For the purposes of
design, “standard basic” curves are derived from these by taking two standard
deviations below the mean values (see below). Strictly speaking, the term “design”
curve is used for the curve specific to the detail under consideration. S-N curves are
linear on log-log plots of stress range versus endurance, and are made bi-linear in the
standard manner to deal with spectra that contain a range of low stress cycles. The
curves given are applicable to joints in air, or in contact with seawater but having
adequate corrosion protection. Provision for joints in seawater under free corrosion is
made by a simple factor applied to the design curve. No endurance limits are
specified on these curves, but conditions are given that lead to situations where a
detailed fatigue analysis can be omitted.
Modifications to the design S-N curves must be made to allow for thickness effects.
Fatigue life enhancements are also allowable, to introduce the influences of weld
improvement techniques.
2.2 SAFETY FACTORS
2.2.1 NORSOK N-004

NORSOK N-004 provides partial safety factors (design fatigue factors) which are
applied as divisors of unity in the damage accumulation check. Their values depend
on the combination of, for the component under consideration, the consequence of
damage for the structure as a whole, and its degree of access for inspection and
repair. The DFFs are set out in the table below.
Damage Consequence
Access for Inspection
and Repair Without Substantial
Substantial Consequence
Consequence
Accessible above splash

1 2
zone
Accessible below splash

2 3
zone
Inaccessible or within
3 10
splash zone

No safety factors are specified in this document, but reference is made to background
information for an additional factor on fatigue life.
7
2.2.3 Eurocode 3
Partial safety factors are applied to the fatigue strength curves according to the
accessibility of the component during periodic inspection and maintenance, and the
consequences of failure. Components are designated as “fail safe” or non “fail safe”
according to whether local failure for the component:
Ÿ does not result in failure of the structure

Ÿ leads rapidly to failure of the structure.
The partial safety factors are summarised in the table below. It should be noted that
the UK National Application Document (NAD) sets the values given in brackets in the
table.
Periodic Inspection and “Fail Safe” Non “Fail Safe”

Maintenance, Accessibility Components Components
1.00 1.25
Accessible joint detail
(1.00)* (1.00)
1.15 1.35
Poor accessibility
(1.00) (1.00)
* ( ... ) value set by UK National Application Document (NAD)
2.2.4 Draft ISO/CD 13819-2

The main body of the standard recommends that for inspectable, non-failure critical
connections, and in lieu of a more detailed assessment, a safety factor of 2.0 (as a
multiplier on cumulative fatigue damage) should be used. When it can be justified, a
reduced value can be taken, but only to a minimum of 1.0.
The commentary provides more information and limited guidance on further

adjustments to the safety factor. These adjustments may cover risk (safety and
environmental), component location (i.e. ease of access) and inspection technique. In
the absence of such detailed considerations, it is recommended that the safety factors
are taken from the simple matrix of values given below.
Inspection Non “Failure Critical” “Failure Critical”
Inspectable 2 5
Not inspectable 5 10
8
2.2.5 API RP2A
No specific recommendations regarding safety factors are given in this document with
the exception of ensuring that the design fatigue life of the connection under
consideration is greater than or equal to twice the intended service life of the structure.

No specific recommendations regarding the values to be taken for partial safety
factors are given in this document. An appendix outlines statistical considerations for
safety and gives a possible example of partial safety factors for fatigue resistance
based on consequence of failure and “life strategy” for the component, as follows:
Fail Safe and

Safe Life and Infinite Life
Consequence of Failure Damage Tolerant
Strategy
Strategy
Loss of secondary structural

1 1.15
parts
Loss of entire structure 1.15 1.3
Loss of human life 1.3 1.4
2.2.7 BS 7608: 1993

No specific values of safety factors are given in BS 7608:1993. However, for each
class of joint the relationship between the applied stress range and the endurance is
as follows:
log N = log a 0 − dr − m log Dr = log a − m log Dr
where N is the endurance

a0 is the mean value of the S-N curve constant
d is the number of standard deviations below the mean
r is the standard deviation of logN
m is the inverse slope of the logDr versus logN (S-N) curve
Dr is the stress range
a is value of the S-N curve constant used for design/assessment purposes.
Values of a0, d and r are tabulated in the document and appropriate curves
determined through the use of these. In particular the values of d are related to the
nominal probabilities of failure as follows:
9
Nominal Probability of
d
Failure (%)
50 0§
31 0.5
16 1.0
2.3 2.0 #
0.14 3.0
§ mean line curve

# standard design curve
Thus, the standard design curve would be obtained through the use of a value of d of
2.0, but as indicated in Annex A of the document, other values could be taken
depending on the consequential criticality of fatigue cracking.
2.2.8 Nature of S-N Curves in Relation to Safety Factors

The basis of comparison used here is quoted design S-N curves from each document.
In each case, these tend to be some form of characteristic curve, although their
derivation may differ from document to document. The designer, in using the S-N
curves and possibly making comparisons between fatigue lives derived from different
documents, would not necessarily be cognizant of these subtle differences. Such
comparisons would therefore include inherent safety factor differences due to the
different derivations of the characteristic S-N curves.
For information, the bases of derivation of each of the characteristic sets of S-N curves
are as follows:
Document Basis for Characteristic/Design S-N Curve
NORSOK N-004 mean minus two x standard deviation on logN test data
HSE 4th Ed GNs mean minus two x standard deviation on logN test data
EUROCODE 3 75% confidence interval of 95% probability of survival for logN

test data, accounting for standard deviation and sample size
ISO/CD 13819-2 95% confidence interval of 97.5% probability of survival for logN
test data
API RP2A Lower bound on test data
IIW 95% probability of survival for logN test data, from mean value
two-sided 75% confidence level
BS 7608:1993 mean minus two x standard deviation on logN test data
10
2.3 MODIFICATIONS TO S-N CURVES
2.3.1 Thickness effects

In all the documents the S-N curves provided are based on a standard thickness t0.
To account for components that have thicknesses that are in excess of this, the stress
ranges are changed in the following way:
q
Dr t = Dr t
t0
where Dr t is the increased value of stress range

Dr is the original value of stress range
t is the thickness of the component under consideration
t0 is the thickness associated with the S-N curve under consideration
q is a thickness correction exponent.
The values of the parameters t0 and q differ from document to document, and between
types of connection as set out in the table given below.
In the case of the NORSOK document, for standard connections the thickness
correction exponent depends on which S-N curve is under consideration. For tubular
joints, the thickness correction exponent depends on the SCF used for the weld under
consideration:
SCF [ 10 q = 0.25
SCF > 10 q = 0.30
In the case of API RP2A, two S-N curves are provided for tubular joints, each with its
respective value of branch thickness.
Otherwise, the respective values of t0 and q are summarised in the following table.
11
HSE 4th Ed GNs
NORSOK N-004
ISO/CD 13819-2
BS 7608: 1993
EUROCODE 3
API RP2A
IIW
t0 (mm) 25 16 25 16 - 25 16
0.0,
Standard 0.1,
0.15,
Connections 0.2
q 0.20 0.3 0.25 0.3 - 0.25
or
or
0.3
0.30
16 or
t0 (mm) 32 16 25 16 - 16
25
Tubular Joints 0.25
q or 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.25 - 0.25
0.30
Cast t0 (mm) 25 38 - 38 - - -
Nodes/Joints q 0.15 0.15 - 0.15 - - -
2.3.2 Weld Improvements

The NORSOK document, provided certain quality control aspects are followed, allows
advantage to be taken of the following weld improvement techniques:
Ÿ weld profiling by machining or grinding

Ÿ TIG dressing
Ÿ hammer peening.
In TIG dressing, the weld toe is remelted and the weld pool is washed into the plate
surface in such a way as to produce a smoother weld profile.
The HSE 4th Edition Guidance Notes indicate that for welded joints an improvement
of 2.2 on fatigue life can be obtained by controlled local machining or grinding to
produce a smooth concave profile at the weld toe, which blends smoothly with the
parent metal. This benefit may be claimed for welded joints in air, and for joints
exposed to seawater with adequate corrosion protection.
ISO/CD 13819-2 suggests that post-weld fatigue improvement techniques may be

used to improve fatigue life. These techniques work by modifying the local geometry
at the weld toe, reducing the stress concentrations and modifying residual stresses.
12
The techniques that can be employed include weld profiling, weld toe grinding, flush
grinding of butt welds and hammer peening.
API RP2A indicates that weld grinding has beneficial effects on fatigue life and
suggests that under certain circumstances, the thickness correction need not be
applied in cases where the thickness of the component exceeds that corresponding to
the S-N curve under consideration.
The IIW recommendations indicate post weld improvement techniques may raise the
fatigue resistance. These techniques can be classified into three types:
Improvement of weld profile Machining or grinding of weld seam

flush to surface
Machining or grinding of the weld
transition at the toe
Remelting of the weld toe by TIG,
plasma or laser dressing
Improvement of residual stress Peening (hammer, needle, shot or brush

conditions peening)
Coining
Overstressing
Stress relieving thermal treatment
Improvement of environmental Painting

conditions Resin coating
BS 7608: 1993 discusses post-welding treatments (controlled machining, grinding and

peening), but recommends that no advantage of improvement techniques should be
taken at the initial design stage. However, advantage may be taken when assessment
is carried out at a late stage of fabrication, or when the structure concerned is already
in service. A specific enhancement factor on fatigue life is only given for weld profiling
by machining or grinding.
The various improvement factors, where they are specified in the documents
concerned, are summarised in the following table:
13
HSE 4th Ed GNs
NORSOK N-004
ISO/CD 13819-2
BS 7608: 1993
EUROCODE 3
API RP2A
IIW
Improvement Technique
Weld profiling by
2 2.2 - 2 - - 2.2
machining or grinding
TIG dressing 2 - - - - - -
Hammer peening 4 - - 4 - - -
2.4 PROVISIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
2.4.1 NORSOK N-004

This document provides sets of S-N curves for three environments, namely for joints in
air, in seawater with cathodic protection, and in seawater with free corrosion. For each
environment, fourteen curves (designated as B1 through to W3) are given for standard
constructional details and one curve is provided for tubular joints (designated as T).
For cast nodes, the C curve from the list of S-N curves for standard details is
recommended for use.
Details of the parameters associated with each of the S-N curves are given in Tables
A.1, A.2 and A.3 for joints in air, seawater with cathodic protection, and seawater with
free corrosion, respectively. Essentially, the S-N curves in air, and in seawater with
corrosion protection, are bi-linear on log-log plots of stress range versus endurance
limit, taking exponents on stress range of 3 and 5 below and above the endurance at
slope change, respectively. The endurance at slope change is 107 and 106 for joints in
air, and in seawater with CP, respectively. They have no endurance limit.
The S-N curves for joints in seawater with free corrosion are a single line on a log-log
plot of stress range versus endurance, i.e. no slope change is used. The exponent on
stress range is 3. No endurance limit is used.

This document provides basic design S-N curves for joints in air, seawater with
cathodic protection, and in seawater with free corrosion. For each environment, two
curves are given: one for plates (designated as the P curve) and one for welded
tubulars (designated as the T’ curve). A basic design curve for cast nodes
(designated CS) is also provided, but this applies only to joints in air. The P curve is
used to deal with standard non-nodal connections (standard construction details) in
conjunction with weld classification factors. These act as multipliers on stress range
14
and by adopting values ranging from 0.64, through 1.00, to 2.54, have the effect of
generating a series of eight P curves. The introduction of the weld classification
factors has the effect of altering the intercept parameter of the basic design S-N P
curve.
A.4, A.5 and A.6 for joints in air, seawater with cathodic protection, and seawater with
free corrosion, respectively. Essentially, the P and T’ S-N curves in air and in
seawater with corrosion protection, are bi-linear on log-log plots of stress range versus
endurance limit, taking exponents on stress range of 3 and 5 below and above the
endurance at slope change, respectively. The endurance at slope change is 107 (both
P and T’ curves for joints in air), and 1.026 x 106 (P curves) or 1.745 x 106 (T’ curve)
for joints in seawater with CP. No curve has an endurance limit.
The S-N curve for cast joints is a single line on a log-log plot of stress range versus
endurance, i.e. no slope change is used. The exponent on stress range is 4. No
endurance limit is used.
stress range is 3. No endurance limit is used.
2.4.3 Eurocode 3
As stated above, the S-N curves provided in the Eurocode 3 document are only
applicable to joints in air or in mildly corrosive environments with CP. The curves are
designated by an integer number that represents the stress range on the S-N curve (in
MPa) corresponding with 2 million cycles. Two sets of curves that are of interest here
are given.
The first set of fatigue strength curves relates to the following five categories of typical
constructional details:
1. Non-welded details
2. Welded built-up sections
3. Transverse butt welds
4. Welded attachments with non-load carrying welds
5. Welded joints with load carrying welds.
This set contains 14 S-N curves with designations ranging between 160 and 36 MPa.
Details of the parameters associated with each of the S-N curves are given in Table
A.7. Essentially, the curves are bi-linear on log-log plots of stress range versus
15
endurance at slope change, respectively. The endurance at slope change is 106.
They have an endurance limit of 108.
The second set of fatigue strength curves relates to joints in tubular lattice girders (the
closest classification in this document to nodal joints in offshore steel structures). This
set contains six S-N curves with stress range designations ranging between 90 and 36
MPa. Details of the parameters associated with each of the S-N curves are given in
Table A.8. Essentially, the curves are linear on log-log plots of stress range versus
endurance limit, taking an exponent on stress range of 5, with no slope change. They
also have an endurance limit of 108.
Only a limited number of tubular lattice girder joints are classified, as follows:
1. Circular hollow sections, K and N joints with gap

2. Rectangular hollow sections, K and N joints with gap
3. Circular and rectangular hollow sections, K joints with overlap
4. Circular and rectangular hollow sections, N joints.
Quite severe restrictions on geometry are imposed on classified joints, to the extent
that the majority of major nodes in an offshore structure would be “unclassified” and
the most onerous fatigue strength curve (designation 36MPa) would have to be used
for fatigue assessment.
2.4.4 Draft ISO/CD 13819-2

This document provides a set of basic design S-N curves for joints in air and in
seawater with cathodic protection (single set). Using information given in the
commentary, a set for joints in seawater with free corrosion can be derived from these.
Thus, for each of these two environments, seven curves (designated as B through to
W’) are given for standard constructional details, one curve is provided for tubular
joints (designated as TJ), and one for cast nodes (designated as CJ).
A.9 and A.10 for joints in air and in seawater with cathodic protection, and seawater
with free corrosion, respectively. Essentially, the S-N curves in air and in seawater
with corrosion protection, are bi-linear on log-log plots of stress range versus
endurance at slope change, respectively. The endurance at slope change is 108. The
exceptions to this are the C and CJ curves, which take exponents of 3.5 and 4 below
the endurance at slope change, respectively. They have no endurance limit.
16
stress range is 3 (with the exceptions of 3.5 and 4 indicated in the previous
paragraph). No endurance limit is used.
2.4.5 API RP2A

These documents (the LRFD and WSD versions are the same in this respect) provide
two basic design S-N curves only for circular tubular joints. They relate to joints in
seawater with effective CP. The first curve (designated as the X’ curve) relates to
welds without profile control, but conforming to the basic standard AWS flat profile and
with a branch thickness less than 16mm. The second curve (designated as the X
curve) relates to welds with profile control and with branch thickness less than 25mm.
Both curves are single lines on a log-log plot of stress range versus endurance, with
exponents of 3.74 for X’ and 4.38 for X, and have an endurance limit of 2 x 108 cycles.
These basic curves are modified to obtain curves for use on joints in atmospheric
service, undergoing free or excessive corrosion, or located in the splash zone, by
adjusting the endurance limits. For the case of atmospheric service, the endurance
limits for the X’ and X curve are set to 20 and 10 million cycles, respectively. For joints
undergoing free corrosion, or located in the splash zone, no endurance limit is
permitted.
In this way, six S-N curves for circular tubular joints can be generated. The details of
the parameters associated with each of them are summarised in Table A.11.

The S-N curves provided in the IIW document are only applicable to joints in air or
mildly corrosive environments with CP. The curves are designated an integer number
that represents the stress range on the S-N curve (in MPa) corresponding with 2 x 106
cycles.
The curves relate to nine categories of typical construction details:
1. Unwelded parts of a component

2. Butt welds, transverse loaded
3. Longitudinal load-carrying welds
4. Cruciform joints and/or T-joints
5. Non-load-carrying attachments
6. Lap joints
7. Reinforcements
8. Flanges, branches and nozzles
9. Tubular joints.
Despite its name, the last category does not include nodal type joints in steel offshore
structures. Assuming these to be fillet welded connections, they are covered by the
17
procedure for dealing with fatigue resistance against geometric (hot spot) stress. This
recommends that fillet welds at the toe should be assessed using curve designations
112 and 100, according to whether the weld toes are ground or in the as-welded
condition, respectively.
As shown in Table A.12, the thickness correction exponent can take values between
0.1 and 0.3, according to the following:
Joint Category Condition of Weld q
Cruciform joints, transverse

T-joints, plates with as-welded 0.3
transverse attachments
Cruciform joints, transverse

T-joints, plates with toe ground 0.2
transverse attachments
Transverse butt welds as-welded 0.2
Butt welds ground flush, base

material, longitudinal welds or Any 0.1
attachments
2.4.7 BS 7608:1993
This document provides basic S-N curves that are applicable to joints which are either
in air, or exposed to seawater but adequately protected from corrosion. Curves
suitable for joints subjected to seawater and without corrosion protection, can be
derived from the in-air ones by applying a dividing factor of 2 on fatigue life. Thus for
each environment there is a total of eight curves (designated as B through to W) for
standard constructional details, one curve for shear studs (S), and one for tubular
nodal joints (T).
The standard constructional details are dealt with by twelve tables covering the
following types:
1. Plain material
2. Lapped or spliced, rivetted or bolted joints
3. Fasteners
4. Continuous longitudinal welded attachments
5. Other welded attachments
6. Transverse butt welds in plates
7. Transverse butt welds in sections and tubes
8. Load-carrying fillet and T-butt joints
9. Slotted connections and penetrations through stressed members
18
10. Details related to tubular members
11. Seam welds in vessels
12. Branch connections to vessels.
Details of the parameters associated with each of the curves (in environments of air
and seawater with adequate corrosion protection, and seawater with free corrosion)
are given in Tables A.13 and A.14. The curves in air (or in seawater with adequate
corrosion protection) are bi-linear on log-log plots of stress range versus endurance if
low stress cycles are present in the stress range spectrum. The exponents range
within 3 - 4, and 5 - 6, below and above the endurance at slope change, respectively.
The endurance at slope change is 107. No curve has an endurance limit.
plot of stress range versus endurance, i.e. no slope change is used to deal with
additional low stress cycles. The exponent on stress range is in the range 3 - 4. No
endurance limit is used.
There are no S-N curves applicable to cast joints.
19
3. COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES
3.1 JOINTS IN AIR
A comparison between the S-N curves for joints in air is made in Appendix B. This is
the only case for which it is possible to compare the curves from all the codes because
of the restrictions on environment in Eurocode 3 and the IIW document. The entries
from each document have been put into descending order according to the magnitude
of the log(a) parameter corresponding with 16mm thickness and endurance less than
that at slope change.
The list reveals that the correspondence between NORSOK and Eurocode 3 S-N
curves (quoted in the NORSOK document). It would also be possible to place the
curves from all the other documents into equivalent groupings. The NORSOK -
Eurocode 3 correspondence is as follows:
NORSOK Eurocode 3
B1 160
B2 140
C 125
C1 112
C2 100
D 90
E 80
F 71
F1 63
F3 56
G 50
W1 45
W2 40
W3 36
20
3.2 JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH ADEQUATE CORROSION
PROTECTION
A comparison between the S-N curves for joints in seawater with adequate corrosion
protection is made in Appendix C. The entries from each document have been put
into descending order according to the magnitude of the log(a) parameter
corresponding with 16mm thickness and endurance less than that at slope change.
3.3 JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH FREE CORROSION
A comparison between the S-N curves for joints in seawater with free corrosion is
made in Appendix D. The entries from each document have been put into descending
order according to the magnitude of the log(a) parameter corresponding with 16mm
thickness and endurance less than that at slope change.
3.4 TUBULAR JOINTS
A comparison between the S-N curves for nodal tubular joints is made in Appendix E.
Separate tables are given for joints in air, in seawater with adequate corrosion
protection, and in seawater with free corrosion.
3.5 CAST JOINTS
A comparison between the S-N curves for cast joints is made in Appendix F. Separate
tables are given for joints in air, in seawater with adequate corrosion protection, and in
seawater with free corrosion. This excludes Eurocode 3, API RP2A, IIW and BS
7608:1993, as there are no provisions for cast joints in these documents.
21
4. OVERALL SUMMARY OF S-N CURVE CHARACTERISTICS
The overall summary is presented in the table below and on pages 25 and 26, which
condenses the information in Appendix A.
HSE 4th Ed GNs
ISO/CD 13819-2
NORSOK N-004
BS 7608: 1993
EUROCODE 3
API RP2A
IIW
t0 (mm) 25 16 25 16 25 16
0- 0.1 -
q 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.25
0.25 0.3
Joints in Air
Slope Change N 107 107 5 x 106 108 5 x 106 107
3-4& 3-4&
m 3&5 3&5 3&5 3&5
5 5-6
Endurance Limit N/A N/A 108 N/A 108 N/A
t0 (mm) 25 16 16 16
Joints in Seawater
0-
q 0.3 0.3 0.25
0.25
Slope Change N 106 106 108 107
3-4& 3-4&
m 3&5 3&5
5 5-6
Endurance Limit N/A N/A N/A N/A
t0 (mm) 25 16 16 16
Joints in Seawater
0-
Free Corrosion
q 0.3 0.3 0.25

0.25
Slope Change N N/A N/A N/A N/A
m 3 3 3-4 3-4
22
HSE 4th Ed GNs
ISO/CD 13819-2
NORSOK N-004
BS 7608: 1993
EUROCODE 3
API RP2A
IIW
16 &
t0 (mm) 32 16 25 16 25 16
25
0.25 - 0.1 -
q 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.25 0.25
Tubular Joints in Air
0.3 0.3
5x
Slope Change N 107 107 N/A 108 N/A 107
106
3.74
m 3&5 3&5 5 3&5 & 3&5 3&5
4.38
2&1
Endurance Limit N/A N/A 108 N/A 108 N/A
x 107
16 &
t0 (mm) 32 16 16 16
25
0.25 -
with Corrosion Protection
Tubular Joints in Seawater
q 0.3 0.3 0.25 0.25

0.3
1.7 x
Slope Change N 106 108 N/A 107
106
3.74
m 3&5 3&5 3&5 & 3&5
4.38
2x
108
16 &
t0 (mm) 32 16 16 16
25
Tubular Joints in Seawater
0.25 -
with Free Corrosion
q 0.3 0.3 0.25 0.25

0.3
Slope Change N N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
3.74
m 3 3 3 & 3
4.38
Endurance Limit N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
23
HSE 4th Ed GNs
ISO/CD 13819-2
NORSOK N-004
BS 7608: 1993
EUROCODE 3
API RP2A
IIW
t0 (mm) 25 38 38
Cast Joints in Air
q 0.15 0.15 0.15
Slope Change N 107 N/A 108
m 3&5 4 4&5
Endurance Limit N/A N/A N/A
t0 (mm) 25 38
Corrosion Protection
q 0.15 0.15
Seawater with
Cast Joints in
Slope Change N 106 108
m 3&5 4&5
Endurance Limit N/A N/A
t0 (mm) 25 38
Seawater with Free
Cast Joints in
q 0.15 0.15
Corrosion
Slope Change N N/A N/A
m 3 4
Endurance Limit N/A N/A
24
APPENDIX A
TABLES OF S-N CURVE PARAMETERS
Containing Document C878\01\032U-A
List of Tables
Table Document Description
A.1 NORSOK N-004 S-N curves for joints in air
A.2 NORSOK N-004 S-N curves for joints in seawater with adequate corrosion
protection
A.3 NORSOK N-004 S-N curves for joints in seawater with free corrosion
A.4 HSE 4th Ed GNs S-N curves for joints in air
A.5 HSE 4th Ed GNs S-N curves for joints in seawater with adequate corrosion
protection
A.6 HSE 4th Ed GNs S-N curves for joints in seawater with free corrosion
A.7 Eurocode 3 S-N curves for joints in air or mildly corrosive environments
with corrosion protection
A.8 Eurocode 3 S-N curves for hollow section joints in air or mildly corrosive
environments with corrosion protection
A.9 ISO 13819-2 S-N curves for joints in air and seawater with adequate
corrosion protection
A.10 ISO 13819-2 S-N curves for joints in seawater with free corrosion
A.11 API RP2A S-N curves for tubular joints
A.12 IIW S-N curves for joints in air or mildly corrosive environments
with corrosion protection
A.13 BS 7608: 1993 S-N curves for joints in air and seawater with adequate
corrosion protection
A.14 BS 7608: 1993 S-N curves for joints in seawater with free corrosion
25
N <= Slope Change N > Slope Change
NORSOK N-004: Joints in air
Endurance Endurance
Stress
Range at
Base level Thickness Slope
S-N Curve Slope log(a) for log(a) for
Thickness Adjustment Change m m
ID Change 16mm 16mm
(mm) Exponent Endurance
Endurance
(MPa)
B1 25 0 1.00E+007 94 12.913 3 16.856 5
B2 25 0 1.00E+007 82 12.739 3 16.566 5
C 25 0.15 1.00E+007 73 12.592 3 16.320 5
C1 25 0.15 1.00E+007 66 12.449 3 16.081 5
C2 25 0.15 1.00E+007 58 12.301 3 15.835 5
D 25 0.2 1.00E+007 53 12.164 3 15.606 5
E 25 0.2 1.00E+007 47 12.010 3 15.350 5
F 25 0.25 1.00E+007 42 11.855 3 15.091 5
F1 25 0.25 1.00E+007 37 11.699 3 14.832 5
F3 25 0.25 1.00E+007 33 11.546 3 14.576 5
G 25 0.25 1.00E+007 29 11.398 3 14.330 5
W1 25 0.25 1.00E+007 26 11.261 3 14.101 5
W2 25 0.25 1.00E+007 23 11.107 3 13.845 5
W3 25 0.25 1.00E+007 21 10.970 3 13.617 5
T 32 0.25 or 0.30 1.00E+007 53 12.164 3 15.606 5
Table A.1 NORSOK N-004: S-N Curves for Joints in Air
26
NORSOK N-004: Joints in seawater with adequate CP
Endurance Endurance
Stress
Range at
ID Change 16mm 16mm
Endurance
(MPa)
B1 25 0 1.00E+006 148 12.513 3 16.856 5
B2 25 0 1.00E+006 130 12.339 3 16.566 5
C 25 0.15 1.00E+006 116 12.192 3 16.320 5
C1 25 0.15 1.00E+006 104 12.049 3 16.081 5
C2 25 0.15 1.00E+006 93 11.901 3 15.835 5
D 25 0.2 1.00E+006 83 11.764 3 15.606 5
E 25 0.2 1.00E+006 74 11.610 3 15.350 5
F 25 0.25 1.00E+006 66 11.455 3 15.091 5
F1 25 0.25 1.00E+006 58 11.299 3 14.832 5
F3 25 0.25 1.00E+006 52 11.146 3 14.576 5
G 25 0.25 1.00E+006 46 10.998 3 14.330 5
W1 25 0.25 1.00E+006 42 10.861 3 14.101 5
W2 25 0.25 1.00E+006 37 10.707 3 13.845 5
W3 25 0.25 1.00E+006 33 10.570 3 13.617 5
T 32 0.25 or 0.3 1.00E+006 83 11.764 3 15.606 5
Table A.2 NORSOK N-004: S-N Curves for Joints in Seawater with Adequate Corrosion Protection
27
NORSOK N-004: Joints in seawater with free corrosion
Endurance Endurance
Stress
Range at
ID Change 16mm 16mm
Endurance
(MPa)
B1 25 0 N/A N/A 12.436 3 N/A N/A
B2 25 0 N/A N/A 12.262 3 N/A N/A
C 25 0.15 N/A N/A 12.115 3 N/A N/A
C1 25 0.15 N/A N/A 11.972 3 N/A N/A
C2 25 0.15 N/A N/A 11.824 3 N/A N/A
D 25 0.2 N/A N/A 11.687 3 N/A N/A
E 25 0.2 N/A N/A 11.533 3 N/A N/A
F 25 0.25 N/A N/A 11.378 3 N/A N/A
F1 25 0.25 N/A N/A 11.222 3 N/A N/A
F3 25 0.25 N/A N/A 11.068 3 N/A N/A
G 25 0.25 N/A N/A 10.921 3 N/A N/A
W1 25 0.25 N/A N/A 10.784 3 N/A N/A
W2 25 0.25 N/A N/A 10.630 3 N/A N/A
W3 25 0.25 N/A N/A 10.493 3 N/A N/A
T 32 0.25 or 0.3 N/A N/A 11.687 3 N/A N/A
Table A.3 NORSOK N-004: S-N Curves for Joints in Seawater with Free Corrosion
28
HSE GNs: Joints in air
Endurance Endurance
Stress
Range at
ID Change 16mm 16mm
Endurance
(MPa)
0.64P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 83 12.763 3 16.606 5
0.76P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 70 12.540 3 16.233 5
1.00P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 53 12.182 3 15.637 5
1.14P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 47 12.011 3 15.352 5
1.34P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 40 11.801 3 15.001 5
1.52P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 35 11.636 3 14.728 5
1.83P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 29 11.395 3 14.325 5
2.54P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 21 10.967 3 13.613 5
T' 16 0.3 1.00E+007 67 12.476 3 16.127 5
CS 38 0.15 N/A N/A 15.170 4 N/A N/A
Table A.4 HSE 4th Edition Guidance Notes: S-N Curves for Joints in Air
29
HSE GNs: Joints in seawater with adequate CP
Endurance Endurance
Stress
Range at
ID Change 16mm 16mm
Endurance
(MPa)
0.64P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 131 12.365 3 16.606 5
0.76P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 111 12.142 3 16.233 5
1.00P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 84 11.784 3 15.637 5
1.14P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 74 11.613 3 15.352 5
1.34P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 63 11.403 3 15.001 5
1.52P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 55 11.238 3 14.728 5
1.83P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 46 10.997 3 14.325 5
2.54P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 33 10.569 3 13.613 5
T' 16 0.3 1.745E+006 95 12.175 3 16.127 5
CS N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Table A.5 HSE 4th Edition Guidance Notes: S-N Curves for Joints in Seawater with Adequate Corrosion Protection
30
HSE GNs: Joints in seawater with free corrosion
Endurance Endurance
Stress
Range at
ID Change 16mm 16mm
Endurance
(MPa)
0.64P 16 0.3 N/A N/A 12.286 3 N/A N/A
0.76P 16 0.3 N/A N/A 12.063 3 N/A N/A
1.00P 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.705 3 N/A N/A
1.14P 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.534 3 N/A N/A
1.34P 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.324 3 N/A N/A
1.52P 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.159 3 N/A N/A
1.83P 16 0.3 N/A N/A 10.918 3 N/A N/A
2.54P 16 0.3 N/A N/A 10.490 3 N/A N/A
T' 16 0.3 N/A N/A 12.000 3 N/A N/A
CS N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Table A.6 HSE 4th Edition Guidance Notes: S-N Curves for Joints in Seawater with Free Corrosion
31
EUROCODE 3: Joints in air or mildly corrosive N <= Slope Change N > Slope Change
environments with CP Endurance Endurance
Stress
Stress
Range at
Base level Thickness Slope Range at
Thickness Adjustment Change m m Cut-off
ID Change 16mm 16mm
(mm) Exponent Endurance Limit
Endurance
(N = 10^8)
(MPa)
160 25 0.25 5.00E+006 117 12.901 3 17.036 5 64
140 25 0.25 5.00E+006 104 12.751 3 16.786 5 57
125 25 0.25 5.00E+006 93 12.601 3 16.536 5 51
112 25 0.25 5.00E+006 83 12.451 3 16.286 5 45
100 25 0.25 5.00E+006 74 12.301 3 16.036 5 40
90 25 0.25 5.00E+006 66 12.151 3 15.786 5 36
80 25 0.25 5.00E+006 59 12.001 3 15.536 5 32
71 25 0.25 5.00E+006 52 11.851 3 15.286 5 29
63 25 0.25 5.00E+006 46 11.701 3 15.036 5 26
56 25 0.25 5.00E+006 41 11.551 3 14.786 5 23
50 25 0.25 5.00E+006 37 11.401 3 14.536 5 20
45 25 0.25 5.00E+006 33 11.251 3 14.286 5 18
40 25 0.25 5.00E+006 29 11.101 3 14.036 5 16
36 25 0.25 5.00E+006 26 10.951 3 13.786 5 14
Table A.7 Eurocode 3: S-N Curves for Joints in Air or Mildly Corrosive Environments with Corrosion Protection
32
EUROCODE 3: Hollow section joints in air or mildly N <= Slope Change N > Slope Change
corrosive environments with CP Endurance Endurance
Stress
Stress
Range at
ID Change 16mm 16mm
Endurance
(N = 10^8)
(MPa)
90 25 0.25 N/A N/A 16.051 5 N/A N/A 41
71 25 0.25 N/A N/A 15.551 5 N/A N/A 32
56 25 0.25 N/A N/A 15.051 5 N/A N/A 26
50 25 0.25 N/A N/A 14.801 5 N/A N/A 23
45 25 0.25 N/A N/A 14.551 5 N/A N/A 20
36 25 0.25 N/A N/A 14.051 5 N/A N/A 16
Table A.8 Eurocode 3: S-N Curves for Hollow section joints in Air or Mildly Corrosive Environments with Corrosion Protection
33
ISO 13819-2: Joints in air and seawater with adequate CP
Endurance Endurance
Stress
Range at
ID Change 16mm 16mm
Endurance
(MPa)
B 16 0.3 1.00E+008 57 15.010 4 16.760 5
C 16 0.3 1.00E+008 41 13.630 3.5 16.040 5
D 16 0.3 1.00E+008 25 12.180 3 14.970 5
E 16 0.3 1.00E+008 22 12.020 3 14.690 5
F 16 0.3 1.00E+008 18 11.800 3 14.330 5
F2 16 0.3 1.00E+008 16 11.630 3 14.060 5
W' 16 0.3 1.00E+008 10 10.970 3 13.330 5
TJ 16 0.3 1.00E+008 31 12.480 3 15.470 5
CJ 38 0.15 1.00E+008 62 15.170 4 15.170 5
Table A.9 Draft ISO/CD 13819-2: S-N Curves for Joints in Air and Seawater with Adequate Corrosion Protection
34
ISO 13819-2: Joints in seawater with free corrosion
Endurance Endurance
Stress
Range at
ID Change 16mm 16mm
Endurance
(MPa)
B 16 0.3 N/A N/A 14.533 4 N/A N/A
C 16 0.3 N/A N/A 13.153 3.5 N/A N/A
D 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.703 3 N/A N/A
E 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.543 3 N/A N/A
F 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.323 3 N/A N/A
F2 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.153 3 N/A N/A
W' 16 0.3 N/A N/A 10.493 3 N/A N/A
TJ 16 0.3 N/A N/A 12.003 3 N/A N/A
CJ 38 0.15 N/A N/A 14.693 4 N/A N/A
Table A.10 Draft ISO/CD 13819-2: S-N Curves for Joints in Seawater with Free Corrosion
35
API RP2A: Tubular joints
Endurance Endurance
Stress
Stress
Range at
Base level Thickness Slope Endurance Range at
S-N Slope log(a) for log(a) for
Thickness Adjustment Change m m Cut-off Endurance
Curve ID Change 16mm 16mm
(mm) Exponent Endurance Limit Cut-off
Endurance
Limit
(MPa)
X' in air 16 0.25 N/A N/A 13.398 3.74 N/A N/A 2.00E+007 43
X' sw + cp 16 0.25 N/A N/A 13.398 3.74 N/A N/A 2.00E+008 23
X' sw + fc 16 0.25 N/A N/A 13.398 3.74 N/A N/A Not permitted
X in air 25 0.25 N/A N/A 15.061 4.38 N/A N/A 1.00E+007 69
X sw +cp 25 0.25 N/A N/A 15.061 4.38 N/A N/A 2.00E+008 35
X sw + fc 25 0.25 N/A N/A 15.061 4.38 N/A N/A Not permitted
sw + cp = seawater with adequate corrosion; sw + fc = seawater with free corrosion
Table A.11 API RP2A: S-N Curves for Tubular Joints
36
IIW RECOMMENDATIONS: Joints in air or mildly
N <= Slope Change Endurance N > Slope Change Endurance
corrosive environments with CP
Stress
Stress
Range at
S-N Curve Slope log(a) for log(a) for log(a) for log(a) for
ID Change 16mm 25mm 16mm 25mm
Endurance
(N = 10^8)
(MPa)
225 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 166 13.358 13.358 3 17.797 17.797 5 91
200 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 147 13.204 13.204 3 17.541 17.541 5 81
180 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 133 13.067 13.067 3 17.312 17.312 5 73
160 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 118 12.913 12.913 3 17.057 17.057 5 65
140 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 103 12.739 12.739 3 16.766 16.766 5 57
125 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 92 12.592 12.592 3 16.520 16.520 5 51
112 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 83 12.449 12.449 3 16.282 16.282 5 45
100 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 74 12.301 12.301 3 16.036 16.036 5 40
90 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 66 12.164 12.164 3 15.807 15.807 5 36
80 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 59 12.005 12.005 3 15.551 15.551 5 32
71 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 52 11.855 11.855 3 15.292 15.292 5 29
63 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 46 11.699 11.699 3 15.033 15.033 5 25
56 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 41 11.546 11.546 3 14.777 14.777 5 23
50 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 37 11.398 11.398 3 14.531 14.531 5 20
45 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 33 11.261 11.261 3 14.302 14.302 5 18
40 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 29 11.107 11.107 3 14.046 14.046 5 16
36 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 27 10.970 10.970 3 13.817 13.817 5 15
32 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 24 10.817 10.817 3 13.561 13.561 5 13
28 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 21 10.642 10.642 3 13.272 13.272 5 11
25 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 18 10.495 10.495 3 13.025 13.025 5 10
22 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 16 10.328 10.328 3 12.748 12.748 5 9
20 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 15 10.204 10.204 3 12.541 12.541 5 8
18 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 13 10.067 10.067 3 12.312 12.312 5 7
16 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 12 9.913 9.913 3 12.057 12.057 5 6
14 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 10 9.739 9.739 3 11.766 11.766 5 6
Table A.12 IIW RECOMMENDATIONS: S-N Curves for Joints in Air or Mildly Corrosive Environments with Corrosion Protection
37
BS 7608: 1993: Joints in air and seawater with adequate CP
Endurance Endurance
Stress
Range at
ID Change 16mm 16mm
Endurance
(MPa)
B 16 0.25 1.00E+007 100 15.006 4 19.008 6
C 16 0.25 1.00E+007 78 13.626 3.5 17.412 5.5
D 16 0.25 1.00E+007 53 12.182 3 15.636 5
E 16 0.25 1.00E+007 47 12.015 3 15.359 5
F 16 0.25 1.00E+007 40 11.800 3 15.001 5
F2 16 0.25 1.00E+007 35 11.634 3 14.724 5
G 16 0.25 1.00E+007 29 11.394 3 14.323 5
W N/A N/A 1.00E+007 25 11.197 3 13.995 5
S N/A N/A 1.00E+007 82 22.319 8 26.149 10
T 16 0.25 1.00E+007 53 12.164 3 15.606 5
Table A.13 BS 7608: 1993: S-N Curves for Joints in Air and Seawater with Adequate Corrosion Protection
38
BS 7608: 1993: Joints in seawater with free corros ion
Endurance Endurance
Stress
Range at
ID Change 16mm 16mm
Endurance
(MPa)
B 16 0.25 N/A N/A 14.704 4 N/A N/A
C 16 0.25 N/A N/A 13.325 3.5 N/A N/A
D 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.881 3 N/A N/A
E 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.714 3 N/A N/A
F 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.499 3 N/A N/A
F2 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.333 3 N/A N/A
G 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.093 3 N/A N/A
W N/A N/A N/A N/A 10.896 3 N/A N/A
S N/A N/A N/A N/A 22.018 8 N/A N/A
T 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.863 3 N/A N/A
Table A.14 BS 7608: 1993: S-N Curves for Joints in Seawater with Free Corrosion
39
APPENDIX B
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR JOINTS IN AIR
Containing Document C878\01\032U-A Pages 1 - 3
40
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR JOINTS IN AIR N <= Slope Change Endurance N > Slope Change Endurance
Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
Change log(a) for log(a) for log(a) for log(a) for
Document S-N Curve ID Thickness Adjustment Change m m Cut-off Endurance
Endurance 16mm 25mm 16mm 25mm
Limit
Limit Limit
(MPa)
ISO 13819-2 B 16 0.3 1.00E+008 57 15.010 14.777 4 16.760 16.469 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 B 16 0.25 1.00E+007 100 15.006 14.812 4 19.008 18.718 6 N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 C 16 0.3 1.00E+008 41 13.630 13.426 3.5 16.040 15.749 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 C 16 0.25 1.00E+007 78 13.626 13.456 3.5 17.412 17.146 5.5 N/A N/A
IIW 225 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 166 13.358 13.358 3 17.797 17.797 5 1.00E+008 91
IIW 200 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 147 13.204 13.204 3 17.541 17.541 5 1.00E+008 81
IIW 180 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 133 13.067 13.067 3 17.312 17.312 5 1.00E+008 73
IIW 160 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 118 12.913 12.913 3 17.057 17.057 5 1.00E+008 65
NORSOK B1 25 0 1.00E+007 94 12.913 12.913 3 16.856 16.856 5 N/A N/A
EUROCODE 3 160 25 0.25 5.00E+006 117 12.901 12.901 3 17.036 17.036 5 1.00E+008 64
HSE GNs 0.64P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 83 12.763 12.589 3 16.606 16.315 5 N/A N/A
EUROCODE 3 140 25 0.25 5.00E+006 104 12.751 12.751 3 16.786 16.786 5 1.00E+008 57
IIW 140 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 103 12.739 12.739 3 16.766 16.766 5 1.00E+008 57
NORSOK B2 25 0 1.00E+007 82 12.739 12.739 3 16.566 16.566 5 N/A N/A
EUROCODE 3 125 25 0.25 5.00E+006 93 12.601 12.601 3 16.536 16.536 5 1.00E+008 51
NORSOK C 25 0.15 1.00E+007 73 12.592 12.592 3 16.320 16.320 5 N/A N/A
IIW 125 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 92 12.592 12.592 3 16.520 16.520 5 1.00E+008 51
HSE GNs 0.76P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 70 12.540 12.365 3 16.233 15.942 5 N/A N/A
EUROCODE 3 112 25 0.25 5.00E+006 83 12.451 12.451 3 16.286 16.286 5 1.00E+008 45
NORSOK C1 25 0.15 1.00E+007 66 12.449 12.449 3 16.081 16.081 5 N/A N/A
IIW 112 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 83 12.449 12.449 3 16.282 16.282 5 1.00E+008 45
IIW 100 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 74 12.301 12.301 3 16.036 16.036 5 1.00E+008 40
EUROCODE 3 100 25 0.25 5.00E+006 74 12.301 12.301 3 16.036 16.036 5 1.00E+008 40
NORSOK C2 25 0.15 1.00E+007 58 12.301 12.301 3 15.835 15.835 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs 1.00P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 53 12.182 12.008 3 15.637 15.346 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 D 16 0.25 1.00E+007 53 12.182 12.036 3 15.636 15.394 5 N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 D 16 0.3 1.00E+008 25 12.180 12.006 3 14.970 14.679 5 N/A N/A
C878\01\002U - C878-01-032U-A.123 Rev A April 2000 Page 1 of 3

Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
Limit
Limit Limit
(MPa)
NORSOK D 25 0.2 1.00E+007 53 12.164 12.164 3 15.606 15.606 5 N/A N/A
IIW 90 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 66 12.164 12.164 3 15.807 15.807 5 1.00E+008 36
EUROCODE 3 90 25 0.25 5.00E+006 66 12.151 12.151 3 15.786 15.786 5 1.00E+008 36
ISO 13819-2 E 16 0.3 1.00E+008 22 12.020 11.846 3 14.690 14.399 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 E 16 0.25 1.00E+007 47 12.015 11.870 3 15.359 15.116 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs 1.14P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 47 12.011 11.837 3 15.352 15.062 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK E 25 0.2 1.00E+007 47 12.010 12.010 3 15.350 15.350 5 N/A N/A
IIW 80 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 59 12.005 12.005 3 15.551 15.551 5 1.00E+008 32
EUROCODE 3 80 25 0.25 5.00E+006 59 12.001 12.001 3 15.536 15.536 5 1.00E+008 32
NORSOK F 25 0.25 1.00E+007 42 11.855 11.855 3 15.091 15.091 5 N/A N/A
IIW 71 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 52 11.855 11.855 3 15.292 15.292 5 1.00E+008 29
EUROCODE 3 71 25 0.25 5.00E+006 52 11.851 11.851 3 15.286 15.286 5 1.00E+008 29
HSE GNs 1.34P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 40 11.801 11.626 3 15.001 14.711 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 F 16 0.25 1.00E+007 40 11.800 11.655 3 15.001 14.758 5 N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 F 16 0.3 1.00E+008 18 11.800 11.626 3 14.330 14.039 5 N/A N/A
EUROCODE 3 63 25 0.25 5.00E+006 46 11.701 11.701 3 15.036 15.036 5 1.00E+008 26
IIW 63 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 46 11.699 11.699 3 15.033 15.033 5 1.00E+008 25
NORSOK F1 25 0.25 1.00E+007 37 11.699 11.699 3 14.832 14.832 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs 1.52P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 35 11.636 11.462 3 14.728 14.437 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 F2 16 0.25 1.00E+007 35 11.634 11.489 3 14.724 14.481 5 N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 F2 16 0.3 1.00E+008 16 11.630 11.456 3 14.060 13.769 5 N/A N/A
EUROCODE 3 56 25 0.25 5.00E+006 41 11.551 11.551 3 14.786 14.786 5 1.00E+008 23
NORSOK F3 25 0.25 1.00E+007 33 11.546 11.546 3 14.576 14.576 5 N/A N/A
IIW 56 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 41 11.546 11.546 3 14.777 14.777 5 1.00E+008 23
EUROCODE 3 50 25 0.25 5.00E+006 37 11.401 11.401 3 14.536 14.536 5 1.00E+008 20
NORSOK G 25 0.25 1.00E+007 29 11.398 11.398 3 14.330 14.330 5 N/A N/A
IIW 50 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 37 11.398 11.398 3 14.531 14.531 5 1.00E+008 20

Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
Limit
Limit Limit
(MPa)
HSE GNs 1.83P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 29 11.395 11.220 3 14.325 14.034 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 G 16 0.25 1.00E+007 29 11.394 11.249 3 14.323 14.081 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK W1 25 0.25 1.00E+007 26 11.261 11.261 3 14.101 14.101 5 N/A N/A
IIW 45 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 33 11.261 11.261 3 14.302 14.302 5 1.00E+008 18
EUROCODE 3 45 25 0.25 5.00E+006 33 11.251 11.251 3 14.286 14.286 5 1.00E+008 18
BS 7608: 1993 W N/A N/A 1.00E+007 25 11.197 N/A 3 13.995 N/A 5 N/A N/A
IIW 40 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 29 11.107 11.107 3 14.046 14.046 5 1.00E+008 16
NORSOK W2 25 0.25 1.00E+007 23 11.107 11.107 3 13.845 13.845 5 N/A N/A
EUROCODE 3 40 25 0.25 5.00E+006 29 11.101 11.101 3 14.036 14.036 5 1.00E+008 16
NORSOK W3 25 0.25 1.00E+007 21 10.970 10.970 3 13.617 13.617 5 N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 W' 16 0.3 1.00E+008 10 10.970 10.796 3 13.330 13.039 5 N/A N/A
IIW 36 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 27 10.970 10.970 3 13.817 13.817 5 1.00E+008 15
HSE GNs 2.54P 16 0.3 1.00E+007 21 10.967 10.793 3 13.613 13.322 5 N/A N/A
EUROCODE 3 36 25 0.25 5.00E+006 26 10.951 10.951 3 13.786 13.786 5 1.00E+008 14
IIW 32 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 24 10.817 10.817 3 13.561 13.561 5 1.00E+008 13
IIW 28 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 21 10.642 10.642 3 13.272 13.272 5 1.00E+008 11
IIW 25 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 18 10.495 10.495 3 13.025 13.025 5 1.00E+008 10
IIW 22 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 16 10.328 10.328 3 12.748 12.748 5 1.00E+008 9
IIW 20 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 15 10.204 10.204 3 12.541 12.541 5 1.00E+008 8
IIW 18 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 13 10.067 10.067 3 12.312 12.312 5 1.00E+008 7
IIW 16 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 12 9.913 9.913 3 12.057 12.057 5 1.00E+008 6
IIW 14 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 10 9.739 9.739 3 11.766 11.766 5 1.00E+008 6

APPENDIX C
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH
ADEQUATE CORROSION PROTECTION
41
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH ADEQUATE CP N <= Slope Change Endurance N > Slope Change Endurance
Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
S-N Curve Change log(a) for log(a) for log(a) for log(a) for
Document Thickness Adjustment Change m m Cut-off Endurance
ID Endurance 16mm 25mm 16mm 25mm
Limit
Limit (MPa Limit
)
ISO 13819-2 B 16 0.3 1.00E+008 57 15.010 14.777 4 16.760 16.469 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 B 16 0.25 1.00E+007 100 15.006 14.812 4 19.008 18.718 6 N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 C 16 0.3 1.00E+008 41 13.630 13.426 3.5 16.040 15.749 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 C 16 0.25 1.00E+007 78 13.626 13.456 3.5 17.412 17.146 5.5 N/A N/A
NORSOK B1 25 0 1.00E+006 148 12.513 12.513 3 16.856 16.856 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs 0.64P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 131 12.365 12.191 3 16.606 16.315 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK B2 25 0 1.00E+006 130 12.339 12.339 3 16.566 16.566 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK C 25 0.15 1.00E+006 116 12.192 12.192 3 16.320 16.320 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 D 16 0.25 1.00E+007 53 12.182 12.036 3 15.636 15.394 5 N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 D 16 0.3 1.00E+008 25 12.180 12.006 3 14.970 14.679 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs 0.76P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 111 12.142 11.967 3 16.233 15.942 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK C1 25 0.15 1.00E+006 104 12.049 12.049 3 16.081 16.081 5 N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 E 16 0.3 1.00E+008 22 12.020 11.846 3 14.690 14.399 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 E 16 0.25 1.00E+007 47 12.015 11.870 3 15.359 15.116 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK C2 25 0.15 1.00E+006 93 11.901 11.901 3 15.835 15.835 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 F 16 0.25 1.00E+007 40 11.800 11.655 3 15.001 14.758 5 N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 F 16 0.3 1.00E+008 18 11.800 11.626 3 14.330 14.039 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs 1.00P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 84 11.784 11.610 3 15.637 15.346 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK D 25 0.2 1.00E+006 83 11.764 11.764 3 15.606 15.606 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 F2 16 0.25 1.00E+007 35 11.634 11.489 3 14.724 14.481 5 N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 F2 16 0.3 1.00E+008 16 11.630 11.456 3 14.060 13.769 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs 1.14P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 74 11.613 11.439 3 15.352 15.062 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK E 25 0.2 1.00E+006 74 11.610 11.610 3 15.350 15.350 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK F 25 0.25 1.00E+006 66 11.455 11.455 3 15.091 15.091 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs 1.34P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 63 11.403 11.228 3 15.001 14.711 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 G 16 0.25 1.00E+007 29 11.394 11.249 3 14.323 14.081 5 N/A N/A

COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH ADEQUATE CP N <= Slope Change Endurance N > Slope Change Endurance
Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
Limit
Limit (MPa Limit
)
NORSOK F1 25 0.25 1.00E+006 58 11.299 11.299 3 14.832 14.832 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs 1.52P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 55 11.238 11.064 3 14.728 14.437 5 N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 W N/A N/A 1.00E+007 25 11.197 N/A 3 13.995 N/A 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK F3 25 0.25 1.00E+006 52 11.146 11.146 3 14.576 14.576 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK G 25 0.25 1.00E+006 46 10.998 10.998 3 14.330 14.330 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs 1.83P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 46 10.997 10.822 3 14.325 14.034 5 N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 W' 16 0.3 1.00E+008 10 10.970 10.796 3 13.330 13.039 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK W1 25 0.25 1.00E+006 42 10.861 10.861 3 14.101 14.101 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK W2 25 0.25 1.00E+006 37 10.707 10.707 3 13.845 13.845 5 N/A N/A
NORSOK W3 25 0.25 1.00E+006 33 10.570 10.570 3 13.617 13.617 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs 2.54P 16 0.3 1.026E+006 33 10.569 10.395 3 13.613 13.322 5 N/A N/A

APPENDIX D
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH
FREE CORROSION
42
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH FREE
CORROSION
Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
Limit
Limit (MPa Limit
)
ISO 13819-2 B 16 0.3 N/A N/A 14.533 14.300 4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 B 16 0.25 N/A N/A 14.704 14.511 4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 C 16 0.25 N/A N/A 13.325 13.155 3.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 C 16 0.3 N/A N/A 13.153 12.949 3.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK B1 25 0 N/A N/A 12.436 12.436 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
HSE GNs 0.64P 16 0.3 N/A N/A 12.286 12.112 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK B2 25 0 N/A N/A 12.262 12.262 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK C 25 0.15 N/A N/A 12.115 12.115 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK C1 25 0.15 N/A N/A 11.972 11.972 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 D 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.881 11.735 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK C2 25 0.15 N/A N/A 11.824 11.824 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 E 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.714 11.569 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 D 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.703 11.528 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK D 25 0.2 N/A N/A 11.687 11.687 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 E 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.543 11.368 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK E 25 0.2 N/A N/A 11.533 11.533 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 F 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.499 11.354 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK F 25 0.25 N/A N/A 11.378 11.378 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 F2 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.333 11.188 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 F 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.323 11.148 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK F1 25 0.25 N/A N/A 11.222 11.222 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH FREE
CORROSION
Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
Limit
Limit (MPa Limit
)
ISO 13819-2 F2 16 0.3 N/A N/A 11.153 10.978 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 G 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.093 10.948 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK F3 25 0.25 N/A N/A 11.068 11.068 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK G 25 0.25 N/A N/A 10.921 10.921 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 W N/A N/A N/A N/A 10.896 N/A 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
NORSOK W1 25 0.25 N/A N/A 10.784 10.784 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 W' 16 0.3 N/A N/A 10.493 10.318 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

APPENDIX E
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR NODAL TUBULAR JOINTS
Containing Document C878\01\032U-A Page 1
43
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR TUBULAR JOINTS IN AIR N <= Slope Change Endurance N > Slope Change Endurance
Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
S-N Curve Change log(a) for log(a) for log(a) for log(a) for log(a) for log(a) for
ID Endurance 16mm 25mm 32mm 16mm 25mm 32mm
Limit
Limit (MPa Limit
)
NORSOK T 32 0.25 or 0.30 1.00E+007 53 12.164 12.164 12.164 3 15.606 15.606 15.606 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs T' 16 0.3 1.00E+007 67 12.476 12.302 12.205 3 16.127 15.836 15.675 5 N/A N/A
EUROCODE 3 36 25 0.25 N/A N/A 14.051 14.051 13.917 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A 1.00E+008 16
ISO 13819-2 TJ 16 0.3 1.00E+008 31 12.480 12.306 12.209 3 15.470 15.179 15.018 5 N/A N/A
API RP2A X' in air 16 0.25 N/A N/A 13.398 13.217 13.117 3.74 N/A N/A N/A N/A 2.00E+007 43
API RP2A X in air 25 0.25 N/A N/A 15.061 15.061 14.944 4.38 N/A N/A N/A N/A 1.00E+007 69
IIW 112 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 83 12.449 12.449 12.352 3 16.282 16.282 16.121 5 1.00E+008 45
IIW 100 25 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 5.00E+006 74 12.301 12.301 12.205 3 16.036 16.036 15.875 5 1.00E+008 40
BS 7608: 1993 T 16 0.25 1.00E+007 53 12.164 12.018 11.938 3 15.606 15.364 15.230 5 N/A N/A
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR TUBULAR JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH

ADEQUATE CP
Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
Limit
Limit (MPa Limit
)
NORSOK T 32 0.25 or 0.3 1.00E+006 83 11.764 11.764 11.764 3 15.606 15.606 15.606 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs T' 16 0.3 1.745E+006 95 12.175 12.001 11.904 3 16.127 15.836 15.675 5 N/A N/A
EUROCODE 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 TJ 16 0.3 1.00E+008 31 12.480 12.306 12.209 3 15.470 15.179 15.018 5 N/A N/A
API RP2A X' sw + cp 16 0.25 N/A N/A 13.398 13.217 13.117 3.74 N/A N/A N/A N/A 2.00E+008 23
API RP2A X sw +cp 25 0.25 N/A N/A 15.061 15.061 14.944 4.38 N/A N/A N/A N/A 2.00E+008 35
BS 7608: 1993 T 16 0.25 1.00E+007 53 12.164 12.018 11.938 3 15.606 15.364 15.230 5 N/A N/A
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR TUBULAR JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH

FREE CORROSION
Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
Limit
Limit (MPa Limit
)
NORSOK T 32 0.25 or 0.3 N/A N/A 11.687 11.687 11.687 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
HSE GNs T' 16 0.3 N/A N/A 12.000 11.826 11.729 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
EUROCODE 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 TJ 16 0.3 N/A N/A 12.003 11.828 11.732 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
API RP2A X' sw + fc 16 0.25 N/A N/A 13.398 13.217 13.117 3.74 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
API RP2A X sw + fc 25 0.25 N/A N/A 15.061 15.061 14.944 4.38 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
BS 7608: 1993 T 16 0.25 N/A N/A 11.863 11.717 11.637 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

APPENDIX F
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR CAST JOINTS
Containing Document C878\01\032U-A Page 1
44
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR CAST JOINTS IN AIR N <= Slope Change Endurance N > Slope Change Endurance
Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
Document Thickness Adjustmen Change m m Cut-off Endurance
(mm) t Exponent Endurance Limit Cut-off
Limit
Limit Limit
(MPa)
NORSOK C 25 0.15 1.00E+007 73 12.592 12.510 3 16.320 16.184 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs CS 38 0.15 N/A N/A 15.170 15.170 4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 CJ 38 0.15 1.00E+008 62 15.170 15.170 4 15.170 15.170 5 N/A N/A
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR CAST JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH

ADEQUATE CP
Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
Limit
Limit Limit
(MPa)
NORSOK C 25 0.15 1.00E+006 116 12.192 12.110 3 16.320 16.184 5 N/A N/A
HSE GNs N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 CJ 38 0.15 1.00E+008 62 15.170 15.170 4 15.170 15.170 5 N/A N/A
COMPARISON OF S-N CURVES FOR CAST JOINTS IN SEAWATER WITH FREE

CORROSION
Stress
Range at Stress
Slope
Limit
Limit Limit
(MPa)
NORSOK C 25 0.15 N/A N/A 12.115 12.033 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
HSE GNs N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
ISO 13819-2 CJ 38 0.15 N/A N/A 14.693 14.693 4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

APPENDIX G
PROVISIONS IN DOCUMENTS FOR JOINT TYPES
Joint Types used in ISO/CD 13819-2
Joint Type Description
1 Material free from welding
2 Welds essentially parallel to the direction of applied stress
3 Transverse butt welds in plates and tubulars (perpendicular to the direction of

stress)
4 Welded attachments on the surface of a stressed member
5 Load-carrying fillet and T butt welds
6 Details in welded girders and tubulars
45
1.1 Plain steel
after cutting
Description
1.2 Bolted connection

(b) With edges flame cut
(a) In as-rolled condition or
ground smooth or machined
Examples
A.15.4-1 Table No
1.2 1.1(b) 1.1(a) Item No
46
ISO 13819-2
C C B S-N Curve
2 1 1 Table No
2.1, 2.2 1.3, 1.4 1.1, 1.2 Item No

NORSOK
C1 B2, C B1 S-N Curve
TYPE 1 TYPE 1 Table No
1.1(c) 1.1(a), (b), 1.2 Item No

HSE GNs
0.76P 0.64P S-N Curve
9.81 9.8.1 9.8.1 Table No
6, 7 4, 5 1, 2, 3 Item No
Eurocode 3
112 140, 125 160 S-N Curve
3.2-1 3.2-1 Table No
Item No
IIW
121 -124 111
80 - 140, m=3 160, m=5 S-N Curve
2 1 1 Table No
2.1 - 2.7 1.3, 1.4 1.1, 1.2 Item No

BS 7608
C, D, E, G B, C A, B S-N Curve
ISO 13819-2 NORSOK HSE GNs Eurocode 3 IIW BS 7608
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Description Examples
2.1 Complete or partial joint

penetration groove
Parent or weld metal in
members; without attachments;
built up of plates or sections;
125 - 140
TYPE 2
2.1(a)
2.1(a)
0.64P
3.2-1
9.8.2
joined by continuous welds
312
125
3.1
4.1
C
B
B
3
4
(a) Complete joint penetration
groove welds; weld overfill
dressed flush with surface;
machine-finished in direction
of stress; free from
significant defects
(b) Groove or fillet welds made
TYPE 2
3.1, 3.2
0.76P
2.1(b)
2.1(b)
3.2-1
9.8.2
125
313
125
from both sides; automatic
4.2
C
C
3
4
process; no stop-starts
A.15.4-2
(c) As (b) weld from one side
0.76P
2.1(b)
2.1(c)
3.2-1
9.8.2
112
323
3.6
C2
T2
90
D
4
(d) As (b) with stop-starts
2.1(d)
2.1(c)
3.2-1
9.8.2
1.0P
112
313
3.3
4.3
C1
T2
90
D
D
3
4
(e) As (b) manual welding
2.1(e)
100
323
3.5
C2
90
D
3.2-1
9.8.2
2.2 Discontinuous weld
1.14P
2.2
6.5
4.1
6.5
4.4
<80
324
T6
80
E
E
4
4
47
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
3.1 Parent and weld metal at

complete penetration butt
joints welded from both
sides
5.1, 5.2, 5.3
TYPE 3
(a) With weld cap ground flush
1, 2, 3
0.76P
3.1(a)
3.1(a)
3.2-1
9.8.3
112
211
125
6.1
C1
C
C
5
6
with surface; free from
significant defects
(b) Weld made manually or
A.15.4-3
automatically other than
5.4 - 5.7
TYPE 3
4, 5, 6
3.1(b)
3.1(b)
3.2-1
9.8.3
1.0P
212
100
6.2
90
submerged arc; all runs
D
5
6
made in downhand position
(c) Welds made other than in
TYP 3
1.14P
3.1(c)
3.1(c)
3.2-1
(a) or (b)
9.8.3
213
6.3
80
80
E
E
7
6
(d) Welds between plates of
unequal width; welds ground
TYPE 3
F1, F3
1.52P
3.1(d)
5.8
3.3
6.5
F2
F2
to radius not less than 1.25t
5
6
48
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No

complete joint penetration
butt joints made from one
side on a permanent
112, 100
214, 215
TYPE 3
backing strip
80, 71
1.34P
3.2-1
9.8.2
3.2
6.2
3.2
6.4
F
F
6
F
If backing strip is fillet
welded or tack welded to
A.15.4-3
member, joint shall be
assessed using joint type
4(c)

full penetration weld made
71, 45
3.2-1
216
W3
3.3
6.1
F2
6
from one side without
permanent backing strip
49
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
4 Welded attachments
Parent metal of stressed
member:
Ÿ adjacent to toes or ends of
E, D, F, F1, F3, G, W1, W2

groove or fillet welded
attachments (loaded or
90, 80, 71, 50, 45

unloaded); regardless of
orientation and continuity of
511, 521
7.1 - 7.4
TYPE 4
4.1(a)
1.34P
3.2-1
9.8.4
weld
4(a)
1, 2
5.2
F
F
7
5
Ÿ at toe of full penetration
100 - 71, 80 - 50
weld connecting stressed
member to another slotted
member through it
(a) With attachment length
(parallel to direction of
A.15.4-4
applied stress) <= 150 mm
and edge distance >=
10 mm
(b) With attachment length >

150 mm and edge distance
511, 521
TYPE 4
F1, F3
4.1(b)
1.52P
>= 10 mm
3.2-1
9.8.4
4(b)
7.1
5.3
F2
F2
50
7
5
(c) Weld within 10 mm of edges
or corners of stressed
TYPE 4
1.83P
member
4(c)
7.8
4.2
5.5
G
G
7
5
50
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
5.1 Parent metal adjacent to

cruciform joints or T-joints
(member marked X in
sketches)
TYPE 5
(a) Joint made with complete
5.1(a)
5.1(a)
1.34P
9.8.5
8.1
8.1
71
F
F
8
8
joint penetration groove
welds and with any
undercutting at corners of
member dressed out by
local grinding
(b) Joint made with partial

penetration or fillet welds
TYPE 5
1.52P
5.1(b)
5.1(b)
9.8.5
8.2
8.1
with any undercutting at the
F2
F2
36
A.15.4-5
G
8
8
corners of the member
dressed out by local grinding

toe of load-carrying fillet
welds that are essentially
TYPE 5
8.6, 8.7
5.2(a)
5.2(a)
1.52P
F2, G
3.2-1
9.8.5
611
8.3
transverse to direction of
F2
F1
63
63
8
8
applied stress (member X
in sketch)
(a) Edge distance >= 10 mm
(b) Edge distance < 10 mm
1.88P
5.2(b)
5.2(b)
T5
G
51
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
5.3 Parent metal at ends of

load-carrying fillet welds
that are essentially parallel
to direction of applied
TYPE 5
1.83P
stress, with weld end on
3.2-1
9.8.5
6.12
W1
5.3
8.4
5.3
8.8
45
50
G
G
8
8
plate edge (member Y in
sketch)
A.15.4-5
5.4 Weld metal in
load-carrying joints made
with fillet or partial joint
penetration groove welds,
11.3, 11.5
611, 612
80, m=5
TYPE 5
45, 50
2.54P
with welds either
3.2-1
9.8.5
D, W
6, 7
W3
5.4
8.4
5.4
W’
11
8
transverse or parallel to
direction of applied stress
(based on nominal shear
stress on the minimum weld
throat area)
52
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
6.1 Parent metal at toe of weld

connecting stiffener,
diaphragm, etc, to girder
80, 71
3, 4, 5
6.1(a)
6.1(a)
1.34P
9.8.4
E, F
flange
7
(see joint type 4.2)
TYPE 6
7.5, 7.6
1.83P
6.1(b)
6.1(b)
F, F1
G
7
A.15.4-6
6.2 Parent metal at end of
weld connecting stiffener,
100 - 71
TYPE 6
diaphragm, etc, to girder
7.5, 7.6
80, 71
3, 4, 5
1.14P
3.2-1
9.8.4
E, F
512
6.2
6.2
web in region of combined
7
bending and shear
(includes all attachments to
girder webs)
TYPE 6
6.3(a)
6.3(a)
1.34P
3.2-1
9.8.4
513
7.7
5.1
80
80
welded shear connectors
E
F
F
7
5
TYPE 6
6.3(b)
6.3(b)
1.83P
7.7
G
G
(see type 4(a))
7
53
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
56 - 45, 71 - 56 S-N Curve
S-N Curve
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
6.4 Parent metal at end of
711, 712
partial length welded
TYPE 6
G, W3
50, 36
1.83P
3.2-1
9.8.5
cover plate, regardless of
6.4
8.5
6.4
5.4
G
G
8
5
whether plate has square
or tapered ends and
whether or not there are
welds across ends
(includes cover plates which
are wider than flange)
A.15.4-6
36 -80, 36 - 71
1.14P, 1.34P
324, 325
ends of discontinuous
TYPE 6
4.1, 4.2
4.4, 4.5
80, 71
3.2-1
9.8.2
E, F
E, F
8, 9
6.5
6.5
welds, e.g., intermittent
F
4
web/flange welds, tack
welds unless subsequently
buried in continuous runs;
the same, adjacent to cope
holes
54
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Table No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
Item No
6.6 Gusseted connections

(a) Parent metal of gusset plate
adjacent to or weld in full
TYPE 7
1.34P
6.6(a)
7.6(a)
Printed and published by the Health and Safety Executive
penetration welds
F
connecting gusset plate to
member - Location 1
(b) Parent metal of member

adjacent fillet, full or partial
C0.50
A.15.4-6
penetration welded
90, 71 - 63
522, 523
TYPE 7
6.6(b)
7.6(b)
1.34P
gusseted connection -
3.2-1
10.3
10.4
F1
10
10
F
F
Location 2. Full penetration
2/02
welds normally required in

such joints
(c) Weld metal in fillet or

partial-penetration welds
TYPE 7
2.54P
6.6(c)
7.6(c)
10.4
attaching gusset plate to
F3
W’
10
member - Location 3
55
ISBN 0-7176-2281-9
OTO 2001/083
£15.00 9 780717 622818

Useful Tables Drawing Draw Geom

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Useful Tables Drawing Draw Geom

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Geometrical Tolerances

The tolerance zone will be one of the following:

● The area within a circle

Tolerance Frame with Symbol identifications

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Tolerance Frame Variations

The tolerance frame can be divided into two or more compartments.

● The symbol for the feature to be toleranced

Maximum Material Indication in Tolerance Frame

See the figures below:

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Additional Frames- Notes

Positioning of Frames /Datum triangles

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The datum can be located on the axes or median line when

● The axis or median line is clearly for a single feature

Geometric Tolerancing Examples

1. Maximum Material Condition

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BS 8888:2004 Technical Product Documentation (TPD)

● Engineering Flow Diagrams,

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● Kit 1 :General principles kit.

British Standards - ISO Drawing Aids

Drawing Sheet Sizes Title Block Notes Drawing Guide

Links Providing information on Drawing

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Geometrical Tolerancing Examples

Examples of Form Control

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Examples of Maximum Material Condition

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Examples of Profile Tolerancing

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Geometrical Tolerancing Examples

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