Earth-Science Reviews, 30 (1991) 81-124 81

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., A m s t e r d a m

Geology, basin analysis, and hydrocarbon potential

of Mozambique and the Mozambique Channel

Alan E.M. Nairn, Ian Lerche and James E. Iliffe

ESRI and Department of Geological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA

(Received October 25, 1989; revised and accepted January 25, 1990)

ABSTRACT

Nairn, A.E.M., Lerche, I. and Iliffe, J.E., 1991. Geology, basin analysis and hydrocarbon potential of Mozambique and the
Mozambique Channel. Earth-Sci. Rev., 30: 81-124.

The Phanerozoic structural and stratigraphic history of Mozambique can be separated into a "Karoo" and a post-Karoo
phase. Outcrops of Karoo rocks, limited to the Zambezi valley and small outliers in the Mozambique belt to the north show an
eastward facies change marked by an increased argillaceous content and the appearance of carbonates. The wide coastal plain
and immediate offshore of southern Mozambique is marked by extensional horsts and grabens with a Mesozoic fill covered by
Cenozoic sediments. Little is known of lower stratigraphic horizons. In this coastal province there is a facies transition from
continental clastics in the northwest and west to more lacustrine and marine deposits to the southeast and east. Upwards the
succession passes into the Cenozoic without a noticeable break.
In the offshore in the north seismic lines help define two basins, the Zambezi Delta basin and the Mozambique Channel
basin separated by the Beira High. In the south several offshore grabens have been defined, one of which, the South
Mozambique graben, has been examined here by an integrated basin analysis technique. The technique, which uses available
depositional, structural and thermal data, provides information on maturation and the timing of hydrocarbon maturation.
The analysis showed variation in the extension rate with time, and two phases of rifting. The greatest rate of extension,
accumulation and subsidence, between 96 and 76 Ma, depends upon interpretational assumptions. During this time interval
fault blocks were systematically tilted "domino" fashion. This event broadly coincides with the rifting between Madagascar
and Antarctica, a period of plate reorganization. The earlier rifting phase was probably related to the strike-slip separation of
Madagascar from Africa.
Modelling heat flow suggests that the later event is the more important from the maturation-hydrocarbon standpoint. The
offshore, and potentially the deeper, onshore post-Karoo basins have traps, reservoirs and seals with the presumed source rock
within Lower Cretaceous or Jurassic strata. There is, at the present time, no means to evaluate the potential of the Karoo
rocks.

INTRODUCTION province; even the interior basins in the Sudan

Many striking parallels exist between the
east and west coasts of Africa. Both are pas-
sive margins, both show a phase of exten-
sional rifting during mid-Cretaceous time, lin-
ked with the opening of the South Atlantic in
the west and the late stage of separation of
East from West Gondwana in the east. The
two regions are even linked through the
Central African shear zone. The principal dif-
ference resides in the fact that the west coast
basins have proved to be rich hydrocarbon
show a currently established potential of 400
million barrels, whereas, apart from some gas,
the east coast grabens have proven singularly
barren. This difference can scarcely be attri-
buted to the fact that movement in the west
was dominantly extensional whereas in the
east shear motion predominated, nor can it be
attributed to distinctive differences in sedi-
mentary history. The question is, therefore, to
what extent does the difference reflect the
extent of, or degree of sophistication of, the
exploration methods? We present here the

0012-8252/91/$15.40 © 1991 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

82 A.E.M. N A I R N ETAL.

suggestion that, with the application of more
sophisticated techniques currently being de-
veloped, the East African margin may be
found to possess an unrealized hydrocarbon
potential. This view is supported by a review
of currently available data on the geology of
Mozambique and an illustration of what
potential plays may be derived from the use
of more sophisticated analysis of existing data
for a single offshore graben near Maputo
(Iliffe et al., 1989). In this analysis we go
beyond the position adopted by Kihle (1983)
and DeBuyl and Flores (1986) following the
acquisition of over 25,000 km of offshore
seismic lines, and show that the currently
existing data can be used to evaluate what is a
speculative basin. We further indicate what
additional data are required to reduce signifi-
cant uncertainties. Our procedure and evalua-
tion method for Mozambique can be applied
equally to offshore Tanzania, Kenya or
Somalia.
The geology of Mozambique should be
viewed in historical perspective. Until inde-

Alan E.M. Nairn received his B. Sc. from the University of Durham in 1951. Following graduation
from the University of Glasgow in 1954 with a thesis on Carboniferous stratigraphy, Dr. Nairn
worked in paleomagnetism, concentrating first on the establishment of polar wander curves to
validate continental drift; this led into paleoclimatic studies. Subsequently, following the general
acceptance of drift/plate tectonics, smaller scale geologic applications of paleomagnetism were
studied: microplate rotation (e.g., Corsica, Bohemian platform), rotation of thrust sheets (e.g.,
central France, Sicily), and early magneto-stratigraphy (Permian sediments of the western United
States and Tertiary volcanic rocks primarily in Europe, and carbonates in Tunisia). More recently,
Dr. Nairu has turned his attention to the history of tectonic belts, with a variety of results from
the Eastern Desert, southern France, and the Appalachians. Currently, his research efforts include
integration of regional geology and plate tectonics. Dr. Nairn is Senior Associate Director and
Professor at the Earth Sciences and Resources Institute (ESRI) of the University of South
Carolina, Columbia. Dr. Nairu is internationally recognized as an editor: two symposia volumes
on paleoclimate; several volumes in Elsevier's Phanerozoic Geology of the Worm series, and
Plenum's eight volume series on Ocean Basins and Margins. He is also Editor-in-Chief of all ESRI
publications.He has published numerous papers in a variety of professional journals and has been
responsible for many reports resulting from industry-sponsored projects. He also directs ESRI's
training programs.

Ian Lerche received a B.Sc. in 1962 and his Ph.D. in astronomy from the University of
Manchester, England. During the period 1965-1981 he was a member of the Physics Department
faculty of the University of Chicago. From 1981 to 1984 he was employed by Gulf Research and
Development Company (GRDC), as a Research Associate in Geophysics. Since 1984 he is a
Professor of Geology at the University of South Carolina. Lerche is a recipient of the Alfred P.
Sloan Foundation Fellowship (1966-1968), Alexander yon Humboldt Senior U.S. Scientist Award
(1974-75), Visiting Professor at M.I.T. (1975), visiting principal research officer at the Division of
Radiophysics at C.S.I.R.O., Sydney, Australia (1977-1979), visiting research scholar (GRDC)
(1980-1981), and a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.

James E. Iliffe received his B.Sc. (Hons.) from University College, Swansea, Wales (1982), his M.S.
from the University of South Carolina (1985), and submitted his Ph.D for 1990 graduation, again
from the University South Carolina, where he is currently a Research Assistant. His M.S. was a
structural and stratigraphic field study of part of the western margin of the Gulf of Suez Rift,
Egypt. His Ph.D. research investigated the mechanical, thermal and economic aspects of the
development of extensional regimes at both the individual fault block level using forward
numerical modelling, and at the basinwide scale in the Northern North Sea Viking Graben and
the South Mozambique Graben. In addition to Ph.D. studies, James has also worked as an
exploration geologist for Westmont Mining Inc. (U.S.A.) and D.H.E. (Ghana) investigating gold
mineralization in the transpressive terrains of the South Carolina Slate Belt, and the Birrimian of
Ghana, West Africa. Present address; Department of Geological Sciences, University of South
Carolina, Columbia, S.C. 29208, U.S.A.
GEOLOGY. BASIN ANALYSIS A N D HYDROCARBON POTENTI AL OF M O Z A M B I Q U E 83

pendence in 1975, the major part of the litera-
ture resulted from work under the colonial
administration, was published in Portuguese
and not readily available. Most of the gener-
ally available information was derived from
summary reports at international meetings
(e.g. Borges, 1952) or from regional surveys
(e.g. Flores, 1973), or from papers published
in South Africa (e.g. Flores, 1964; 1970), al-
though the latter tended to concern specific
regional problems (e.g. King, 1957). The
situation was aggravated by several geological
problems, in addition to the perennial prob-
lem of lack of outcrop in the coastal plain. In
particular the failure to recognize the inter-
ference pattern of more than one period of
rifting and, in the off-shore, the delay in
recognizing until very recently the pattern of
movement in the Mozambique Channel, have
hindered basic understanding of the geology
of Mozambique. Although the northern de-
rivation of Madagascar in the opening of the
Mozambique Channel was indicated by Du
Toit (1937), and by Heirtzler and Burroughs
(1971), Flores (1970) still followed Wegener's
original juxtaposition of Madagascar against
Mozambique, and Kamen-Kaye (1982) main-
tained that the Mozambique Channel was an
open-ended, non-compressional "geosyn-
cline" which existed since at least Carbonifer-
ous time.
First we summarize the basic stratigraphic
and structural history of Mozambique as a
means of delineating areas of potential ex-
ploration interest. Following this review we
then apply quantitative techniques to an off-
shore basin, an area with the greatest poten-
tial to delineate high-risk and lower-risk areas
in this frontier basin.
SUMMARY O F MOZAMBIQUE GEOLOGY
The principal area covered in this paper
extends from the Zimbabwe-Mozambique

TABLE 1
Stratigraphic succession in the Zambezi Karoo

1 2 3
Between Lower Chire Moatize (Tete) Upper Zambezi
and the Zambezi Basin (Zimbabwe)
Basalts Stormberg
Rhyolites Batoka basalts
Red standstone Batonga Forest
with dinosaurs sandstone sandstone
Upper sandstone Guenga
with Dadoxylon sp. sandstone Escarpment
and Rhexoxylon grit (and
africanus Somabula beds)
Beaufort,
Upper and
Middle
Red marls with Mpiusa shale Madumabisa Beaufort,
Cyzicus and with vertebrates shale Lower
Palaeanodonta and Glossopteris
fish scales
Middle sandstone Tete sandstone Upper Wankie
sandstone
Locations for the successions are shown on Figure 2.
84 A.E.M. NAiRN ET AL.

border in the west to the Davie Ridge, which mouth of the Zambezi. The northern half of
traverses the Mozambique Channel, in the the country, between the Malawi border and
east (Fig. 1) and northwards to about the the ocean, is predominantly the domain of

1 t t [ I t
30" 32" 34 36" 38"
TANZANIA
Tunduru
Basin
Basin
12" - -
+ + + + + + + + + +++++
+
.~- + + + + + + + + + + + + :
+ + + + +
+ + + .-:=.
+ + + + + + + + + + ~ + + + + +
++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4 Porto
Amelia
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
t ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

ZAMBIA I.~ALA W ~+ + + ++
-, ~ ÷ + % + ¢ .* M. O
++.+~
. .Z A . M . .B.I Q . U . E. . '
\ ÷ d + .+ .+ .+ .+ .+.+.+.+. +.+. +. +. + + + + + + + + + + * + +
~+ •
÷+ *
+
+

+
+
+ * +
+
+
B~'L
+
+

+ +
+
T+
+
÷
. +.
+

+ Mocamblque
+
+.
+
.. . +.
+ +
+
÷*+÷+++÷
/" +++++++++++++++ +++++++++++
+ + + + + + * + + + + +
+ * + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
* + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + ++ + / ~
Z a m b e z l ++++++++++++++++ + ++
K a r o o + + + + + + + + +~

Basin
.•+++++•
~+
+
+
+
+
+
+ + + + .+ <1

f ~vQUellmln e
"~ _Nah~ura 1 |8"--
z ~ ,~lceune 1

Z I M B A B W E ix.J/~ eZembezl 1
oSangussl

eSengo

~.,. •Zembezl 3 20" - -

•Namo

/ ~ Mambonel
emane 2
. ~ Pande 1"o o u-,~lnhessora I

DO

_ s %0 ,.h.....
AFRICA
RICA '~'i,~.., - ~,N_ Inharrlme~ASuflrey 12
i ! ~ 1 e Zendamela 1
Palm•Ire Basement-Igneous and

\.Map.tolJ ( e~ Sunray i T T j Metemocphlc Rocks

26* --
--=,. ..~oi 1 ~ Outcrop of Mesozoic
and Cenozoic Basins
SWAZILAND ~ . ~ _ Wells with soma
stretlgraphlc information

o Wells without strstlgrephic

information

-- =~'UL U L A N D / A+ 'A' Cross Section

0 100 200 300kin

so- / ( 32- ~° 38- 4o- 42-

I I | I J
Fig. 1. Mozambique and adjoining areas showing principal sedimentary basins outlined in this paper. Approximate
well locations are shown, and wells are named where some stratigraphic information is available. Line of section (Fig.
3) A-A'.
GEOLOGY, BASINANALYSISAND HYDROCARBON POTENTIALOF MOZAMBIQUE
3'0"E
i I ~ m A w
Fig. 2. The distribution of Karoo Systemrocks in the Zambezi Valley simplified after Borges (1952). No attempt has
been made to subdivide the Karoo as in many areas the sequence is undifferentiated (volcanics excluded). The
numbers refer to local successionslisted in Table 1.
the Precambrian Mozambique belt. In this
northern region, Phanerozoic, Karoo, sedi-
ments occur in a small basin along the Litule
River, and in the graben-like Tunduru depres-
sion, which extends northeastwards from Lake
Nyassa parallel to the Ruhuhu graben of
Tanzania. The section is of interest because
Flores (1973) reported the occurrence of a
middle limestone section in the Ecca Songea
(or Lunho) Series. Along the coast of the
northern area, to about the latitude of Porto
Amelia, Phanerozoic sediments are restricted
to a narrow strip. North of Porto Amelia a
small basin gradually widens to a maximum
of 120 km along the Rovuma River continu-
ing north into Tanzania to approximately the
latitude of Lindi.
The Zimbabwe-Mozambique border, which
strikes approximately north-south from the
Zambezi River, follows the line of the
Lebombo monocline, a major crustal fracture
through which enormous volumes of lava were
extruded. These lavas can be traced under the
Mozambique coastal plain out into the
Mozambique Channel (F~Srster, 1975). The
Lebombo monoclinal axis is parallel to the
Davie fracture zone, which forms the eastern
85
~3" 3f6"[
I
margin of the southern Mozambique basin.
The southern limit close to Maputo (Lauren~o
Marques) is marked by the northeast-striking
line of a gravity high which appears to trun-
cate or offset the line of the Mozambique
Ridge (the location of the hinge line of De
Buyl and Flores, 1986).
The junction between the northern and
southern provinces occurs where the older
Zambezi graben is intersected by the younger
Chire-Urema graben (about 18°S). West of
the Lupata gorge where the Zambezi cuts
through Cretaceous volcanics, along the line
of the Zambezi River, lies the best develop-
ment of Karoo Supergroup rocks in Mozam-
bique.
The areas of potential exploration interest
are thus restricted to southern Mozambique
and concern primarily Mesozoic rocks. How-
ever, some consideration must be given to the
Karoo sequence because of the possible source
rock potential of the Ecca shales, and to the
Cenozoic sediments of the Zambezi River
basin. Sources of information on this vast
area are unfortunately few. Although the pace
of exploration increased since World War II,
with independence in 1975 there has been a
86 A.E.M. NAIRN ET AL.

Potential S o u r c e R o c k s Generalized Stratigraphy P o t e n t i a l R e s e r v o i r Rocks

PLIOCENE "'•'•'.'.•••-: MORRUMBENE I r••,••••'l I

.•••.:~.~ • !. . .r...:.•. : • : • : ! Tc

~ J,,~J,.J,,z.,,e¢.

:~. MIOCENE "'••.'.'•'.•o] MAZAMBA / .-.-.-,-.• B a s a l Tb sands, basal part

rr ........ INHARRIME w-~-.,-~ of a t r a n s g r e s s i v e cycle
V-
'4: " : ; ; ; ~ • ' , ,,.~ ._ , Ti0 Potential pay thickness
OUGOCENE .:.:.:~. '" " " " " 1 0 0 - 1 3 5 feet
........•.•.: ~.~'~...'-," Potential porosity 25-30%
I ~ ~ ""
Ta s h a l e s EOCENE I I I 7_._._ -- ~:i Ta limestones
I I I ;.-.•..........~_.L--7. Ta P o t e n t i a l p o r o s i t y 1 0 - 1 5 %
I J CHERINGOMA . : .,-.,-.,-.,-.,-.,-?~.
. .r:. Ta s a n d s , c o a r s e n i n g s a n d s ,
PALEOCENE ° 7__ Potential porosity 30%
':"~". " " ' • " " 7 ~ i P o t e n t i a l p a y t h i c k n e s s 150 feet

• • ,-,-,. . ~ • -.+.."T~ " Kb2 s a n d s , r e s e r v o i r Ior P a n d e ,

i ! i ~ ...,-,-,.-"'a'~"" T e m a n e and Buzi wills o n s h o re
Kb2 s h a l e s SENONIAN Z_ ~ (b; U p w a r d c o a r s e n i n g s a n d s ,
• . units u s u a l l y 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 feet
• :." .~...~-- Z_ GRUDJA .---..-...-"
w Potential porosity 20-30%
¢,0 C.c'-
= ~ ---
o 7__ Kbl sands, widely spread
tu :.:.:...,;-,-,"~.;. " " " P o t e n t i a l pay t h i c k n e s s
Kbl shales o< 7_ 7-- .~
..... Kb 130-140 feet
TU•ONIAN 7--- ~-- ~ Potential porosity 20-25%
CC 7__ . z...~..-;-.
Ka2 s h a l e s o -- ~ "" Ka s a n d s , v a l u e reduced
CENOMANIAN S E N A 7__ 7__DOM 0 = ~ :.
"" ~ by p r e s e n c e of f e l l d s p a r
..':" " ".'. ca; and volcaniclastics
ALBIAN Z- 7--. - - ..~, , . Potential porosity 10-17%
Z_MAPUTO ' "~-"~':
•
,PT,,N Z
VVVVVV VVVV "~
vvvvv BELO vvv
VVVVVV VYVV

Fig. 3. Generalized stratigraphic index of the post-Karoo beds of Mozambique.

downturn in the volume of published infor- sive account of the region with the map re-
mation, although through the works of Kihle produced here on Figure 2. The beds found
(1983) and De Buyl and Flores (1986) the range in age from Ecca to Beaufort and
government of Mozambique has tried to Stormberg and can be correlated with out-
stimulate interest in exploration and commis- crops in Zimbabwe and South Africa (Table
sioned the shooting of 25,000 km of offshore 1). Some important facies differences occur
seismic lines. As a result more is known of the and the amount of shale present is higher
offshore than of the onshore• than in either of the other two areas, the
presence of limestone is reported, and the
The Karoo Sequence of the Zambezi faunal and floral content seems to be higher.
Downstream (i.e. eastwards) the section
Although Karoo rocks crop out in the thickens. All of these features seem to indi-
Limpopo embayment (the Zoutspanberg re- cate a basinal environment more to the east
entrant) the Zambezi graben holds the best and the possibility of not too distant marine
studied sequence. The general distribution is conditions, suggesting that if the Karoo exists
shown on Figure 1. In the Zambezi valley, in the lower Zambezi it may possess enhanced
Borges (1952) provided the most comprehen- source-rock potential.
(IEOLOGY, BASIN ANALYSIS AND HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF MOZAMBIQUE
Two volcanic sequences are known, the
Batonga basalts which are the local equiv-
alents of the Stormberg basalts of South
Africa, and the Lupata volcanics which have
a Cretaceous age. Basalts of older sequences
have yielded radiometric ages consistent with
a Liassic age, as suggested by the flora in
intercalated and immediately underlying beds.
Of the same age as the younger Lupata
volcanics are the Movene basalts, known in
southermost Mozambique. The faults of the
Zambezi graben were active in post-Karoo,
Early Cretaceous time for they contain Lower
Cretaceous sandstones. No record of the Mid-
dle to Late Jurassic transgression in the
Zambezi exists.
Basic stratigraphy of the southern basin
The Mozambique and Rovuma Basins took
on their present configuration in the Early
Cretaceous when a marine transgression
flooded the eastern margin. In both basins, a
belt of Lower-Middle Cretaceous continental
or transitional sediments parallel Karoo or
Precambrian rocks to the west. To the east
and upward, they grade into marine rocks
which extend through Upper Cretaceous-
Paleocene-Eocene-Oligocene. The Creta-
ceous sediments in Mozambique may rest di-
rectly on Karoo or post-Karoo igneous rocks
or even on Precambrian basement. Whether
there was a pre-existing Jurassic or older de-
pocenter is speculative. The generalized
stratigraphy is shown in Figure 3 (from Kihle,
1983).
The sedimentary history reflects, and is in
part controlled by, rifting and associated
faulting. Compressive structures are absent;
folding is represented only by broad warping
which itself may be related to early stages of
a rifting cycle. Two major fault trends are
seen at the surface to as far as the Buzi River;
these have N W - S E and N N E - S S W trends.
South of the Buzi River, the fault continua-
tions are inferred from magnetic, gravity, and
airphoto studies. As far as is known (Flores,
1973), the rifting was not associated with the
87
formation of evaporites, although in the
Western Geophysical report (1982) existence
of evaporites is postulated.
The combined Cretaceous and Cenozoic
history is relatively simple: a transgression
which reached a maximum in the Eocene,
with regression setting in during Late Eocene.
Examination of the foraminifera in cores from
pockets of sediment on top of the Davie
Ridge have been interpreted as evidence that
water depths of about 2 km have persisted
since Eocene time. Onshore, Oligocene is
either absent or represented by continental
facies and Flores (1973) associated this inter-
val with the deepening of the Mozambique
channel. In the Lower Save River there was
an incipient evaporitic phase during the
Oligocene, whereas in the offshore the Oligo-
cene is persitently marine. Major transgres-
sion resumed in Late Miocene and Pliocene.
In contrast to the thick Karoo of the
Zambezi-Chire region, the sequence is nota-
bly thin west and southwest of Beira. There
are scattered outcrops with thicknesses of the
order of 600 feet maximum for the sub-
volcanic sediments. Similar thicknesses were
recorded in exploration well Nhamura-1,
about 25 km north of a gas seep. After pass-
ing through a 100-foot (30-m) basalt cap, the
drill penetrated about 650 feet (200 m) of a
red bed, quartzitic, sandstone lithology rest-
ing on metamorphic basement. An apparent
age of the basalt is 200-300 Ma (the unpub-
lished date given by Kamen-Kaye (1982) is
presumably a K / A r minimum age, see also
DeBuyl and Flores, 1986).
The age range of the basalt in Nhamura-1
(see Fig. 1) is just wide enough to frustrate
any attempt to assess Karoo potential there.
The only source rocks in the Karoo, based on
what is known of the lithologies or outcrop in
southeastern Africa and Antarctica (which is
presumed adjacent at the time), lie in the
Ecca. At 200 Ma for the basalt, Ecca would
be presumed absent; a date of 300 Ma would
be equivalent to basal or sub-basal Dwyka.
Kamen-Kaye (1982) assumed the former. In
Malawi, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, Ecca does
88
occur and contains coal, but nowhere is the
coal-bearing sequence thick and, in Tanzania
at least, lies within a predominantly red bed
sequence. Coal occurs in the Ecca section in
the Zambezi graben, but source-rock poten-
tial cannot be highly rated.
In southernmost Mozambique, west of
Maputo, the outcrops mostly consist of
volcanics, although some Stormberg sand-
stones may crop out. More detailed study
shows a disconformity between the lower and
upper volcanics. The latter, known as the
Movene volcanics, yield a radiometric age of
137 + 10 Ma (Flores, 1970); they are there-
fore Early Cretaceous-Late Jurassic in age
and equivalent to the Lupata volcanics fur-
ther north. The volcanics, which appear to be
eruptions from fissures, young from west to
east. Du Toit (1937) reported that vents and
pipes are inclined, interpreted as a result of
tilting contemporaneous with extrusion. The
structure of the Lebombo Range, where the
volcanics are best exposed, is monoclinal with
dips of 18-19 ° (exceptionally rising to 25-
30°).
In places the volcanics are directly overlain
by the marine Cretaceous (Albian-Aptian)
Domo shales, in others by the Maputo sand-
stone. The volcanics appear to underlie the
plain of Mozambique and, according to their
age, were extruded during the southern move-
ment of Madagascar. The basement on which
Mt Gorongosa
W /
,,.,¢~.**.%~2~,w.-,...~
MAZAMBASANDSTONE
CHERINGOMALIMESTONE
I.*,-'..'.'~,'.1 GRUDJAFORMAT~ON
[~:'l BELOFORMATIONAND
SENA SANDSTONE(WITH IGNEOUS MEMBERS)
Fig. 4. A cross-section across the Urema graben which cuts the Zambezi grahen (see Fig. 12) with only relicts of
Stormberg volcanics shown (simplified from Flores, 1973). Line of section shown on Fig. 1 of A-A'.
A.E.M. NAIRN ET A L
the volcanics lie is not known, but is assumed
to be associated with the thinning of the crust
in the Mozambique Channel and restricted
extension. The presence of a Karoo section
below these lavas has been inferred, with the
estimated thickness in excess of 1,000 m from
the dip of the pyroclastics. The volcanics here
have never been penetrated; of the nine wells
with TD's in excess of 4,000 m, only five
reached basalt. No presumption can be made
of the age of the volcanics (Cretaceous or
Karoo?) which are subaerially altered.
Above the volcanics lie shales of the Domo
series, regarded by Kamen-Kaye (1983) as
potential source rocks, which grade westward
to continental and eastward to open marine
conditions (found in Turonian-Senonian).
The post-Karoo sequence
The relationship of the Karoo to post-
Karoo beds is best seen in the eastem part
Zambezi graben (Fig. 3) where the continen-
tal sediments (Sena Formation) and inter-
calated volcanics (Lupata volcanics) of the
Lupata Group rest upon the Early Jurassic
lavas which terminate the Karoo sequence.
The Sena Formation is usually assigned to
C e n o m a n i a n - T u r o n i a n to Senonian; how-
ever, if the dating of the igneous intercala-
tions is accurate the formation is somewhat
older. The K / A r date given is 115 + 10 Ma
(F~3rster, 1975).
Horizontal Scale 1:250,000
Vertical Exaggeration x 10
E
Inhaminga
. + + + + + ,..~::.~'f::" -
~ STORMBERGSERIES
P'+~'~;';] GORONGOSAGRANITE
I*++ 1 BASEMENT
GEOLOGY, BASIN ANALYSIS AND HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF MOZAMBIQUE
The continental sandstones of the Sena
Formation fill the Zambezi graben and can be
traced east across the Urema graben, where
they are downfaulted to the Inhaminga high,
and southward to the Save River. The maxi-
m u m thickness reached in the Inhaminga re-
gion (Fig. 4, from Flores, 1973), 8,030 feet
(2675 m), diminishes toward the coast, and in
the Beira area only 600-1,500 feet (180-450
m) are recorded in the subsurface. In two
wells offshore from Beira, the Sena Forma-
tion is not present; nor is it found north of
the Zambezi delta, nor south of 23 ° S.
In the vicinity of the mouth of the Save
River, the Sena Formation is replaced by a
shaly, glauconitic, marine sandstone lithology
that has an assigned Albian-Aptian age. The
Quelimane
Gas S e e p
/ tion, which is found in all coastal wells and in
///
2g'l- .o/1///R'f
__~/
25" ~ 5"
34 ° 35 ° 36 °
Fig. 5. Structure contour of the D o m o
(Flores, 1973). Contour interval 500 feet.
89
contact is said to be transitional, reflecting
the deepening of the Mozambique basin. This
250-foot (75-m)-thick sequence, called the
Maputo Formation, crops out west of Maputo
(Laurenco Marques) and can be traced into
Zululand. FOrster (1975) attempted to give
possible coastal limits for the area im-
mediately north and south of Maputo.
The Maputo is succeeded by the Domo
Formation. This formation, which is known
only in subsurface, consists of dark grey to
black, thinly bedded, marly shale with rare
sand streaks. It extends from Beira in the
north, south to beyond Inhamabane, parallel-
ing the coast. Figure 5 illustrates D o m o thick-
ness and distribution. The age range of the
Domo is from Albian--Aptian up to Cenoma-
nian-Turonian, and, off the mouth of the
38" Save River, the lithology reaches well up into
the Turonian. Flores (1973) suggested, on the
basis of the poorly oxygenated sediments, that
this may be an initial graben fill.
18"
Above the Domo lies the Grudja Forma-
two deep offshore tests according to Flores
19* (1973), with thicknesses of the order of 5,000
feet (1500 m). Where exposed on the Imham-
inga and Buzi highs, however, the thickness is
reduced to 60 (18 m) and 300 feet (90 m),
respectively. Within the Grudja there are ten
relatively well defined sand bodies traceable
21 ~
along strike parallel to the coast. The general
depositional environment indicated is of lit-
toral to neritic conditions. The isopach map
(Fig. 6) gives an indication of distribution of
the Grudja Formation.
To the south in Zululand, an unconforma-
ble relation has been reported, with the
23 °
Grudja Formation possibly unconformable
upon the Cenomanian in the onshore. How-
ever, in subsurface, no break is obvious and
J24" the formation appears to span from Conia-
cian to Paleocene.
o 40 sokm
The interesting relationship during the Up-
per C r e t a c e o u s is that while p o o r l y
37* oxygenated conditions existed in the Beira-In-
Formation hambane offshore, open marine conditions
reigned northeastward in the northern basin
90 A.E.M. NAIRN ET AL

34 ° 35 ° 36 ~ 37 ° 38 °
Lithologically, the Cheringoma Formation
is typified by its development, near the mouth
Ouellmllne of the Save River, as an algal-oolitic limes-
18 ° tone which persisted through the Eocene and
GasSeep represents the peak of the transgression be-
gun during the Cretaceous. In the west, the
II/ ~ ~Ooo Cheringoma may rest directly upon the A1-
19 °
/I /7~-Oo~~_ "
>~ II/ 3~_uO
<> ~< ~ i / ~ d o ~ °uO
_ o0 bian-Aptian Maputo Formation in the area
i: o south of Lauren~o Marques; eastward, the
,14/1
Blifl 20 °
Cheringoma grades to, and intercalates with,
marly and sandy facies which are likely de-
,( t
rived from a region such as the Beira high.
North of the Zambezi delta, Lower Eocene
21 °
q ,","0/% is absent and the Cheringoma Formation is
) ~'o~o;o°ov present in a marly, sandy facies resting un-
'QO conformably upon beds of the Grudja For-
>2° mation. A thickness of 1,500 feet (450 m) is

t \ \.._ ,ooo 36 °
\ "--,.,.,- ~ ~' 3000
-~" 2000 23 = \÷

~ 2000 t " Quellmlne

24 ° / ~hambane 24
o

40
I
80km 2500
i~>l - / l l l / / J l " : . o ~' / ~ -li9"
25 °
25" / A'~ I ~°
34 ° 35 ° 36 ° 317o

Fig. 6. Isopach map of the Grudja Formation Flores, J,,

1973). Contour interval 1000 feet. I
\

and to the southeast. The Beira Ridge seen

offshore may represent the other margin of a
proposed graben.
There is no significant break at the Meso-
zoic-Cenozoic boundary, because where the
Grudja Formation is complete the same pat-
tern of sedimentation continues through the
Paleocene.
The Grudja is followed by the Paleocene-
Eocene Cheringorna F o r m a t i o n , a dominantly nhlmbane
carbonate unit 400-500 feet (120-150 m) 24 °

thick near the mouth of the Save River, but

,o . .,m
only half that thickness in the region of the
Inhaminga high (the coastal area on the 25 ° 25"
southeast continuation of the Zambezi 34" 3.5" 36 ° 37 °

graben) and up to 1,500 feet (450 m) thick Fig. 7. Isopach map of the Cheringoma Formation
north of the Zambezi delta (Fig. 7). (Flores, 1973). Contour interval 100 feet.
GEOLOGY, BASIN ANALYSIS A N D HYDROCARBON POTENTI AL OF M O Z A M B I Q U E 91

~o 36*
recorded in Micaune-1 well and even greater
thicknesses, in excess of 2,000 (600 m) feet
and more complete Cheringoma Formation Quel~mane

equivalents (Lower Eocene is present), are

/
GII Seep
reported for the so-called "inclined beds" in-
terval seen in seismic data between Beira and
the mouth of the Zambezi. The explanation 19"

lies in tectonic events--the activity of the

Inhaminga fault system which resulted in the
deflection of the clastic sediments of the Begrll

Zambezi River by the active tilting of the

lower part of the Zambezi graben.
The regression which made itself felt at the
21"- ~'~ \ 2~"
end of the Eocene continued through the \\
Oligocene. The marine Inharrime Formation,
known both in outcrop and subsurface, con-
sists of shale with some sand inclusions. The ~- I 22"
"200 ~ . / /
lower part of the Inharrime is equivalent to
the top of the Cheringoma Formation in the
area of the Save River. North of the Zambezi
delta, the facies equivalent, a sand-shale se-
q u e n c e - t h e Buzi Formation, represents a
nhmmblne
continuation of the deposition of Zambezi 24
River sediment.
The continuing regression, however, left a
local development of evaporites, dark grey
o ,,0 ,0,kmJ
25° ~ 25
claystone, with intercalations of gypsum,
34* 35 ° 36 ° 37 ° 38 °
anhydrite, and stringers of gypsiferous limes-
Fig. 8. Isopach map of the Temane Formation (Flores,
tone and sands, all of which are referred to 1973). Contour interval 100 feet.
the Temane Formation. The localization of
this formation is clearly seen on the isopach oolites common in the Jofane Formation are
map (Fig. 8). indicative of high-energy conditions. The
The Miocene in Mozambique is referred to thickness may reach 500-600 feet (150-180
as the Mazamba Formation and consists of m), but the formation seems restricted to the
continental sandstone and conglomerates that coastal areas south of the Save River.
may contain a brackish water fauna at the The Pliocene-Holocene consists primarily
base. The Mazamba has an unconformable, of sands resting disconformably on the
erosional contact with the underlying rocks, Mazamba deposits; however, in the southern
which may be as old as Senonian in the
part of the basin, in coastal areas around
Umfolozi River areas in Zululand. Lithologi-
Inharrime, there is a marine Pliocene facies
cally, the formation has many similarities to
and data from Zululand indicate a not too
the Sena Formation, which it oversteps in the distant shoreline or shallow offshore environ-
western part of the basin. ment.
In the eastern part of the area, and in the
coastal wells, marine conditions persist in Basic stratigraphy of the northern Roouma basin
Middle Miocene, with sandy limestones and
dolomites (the Jofane Formation), which also The small Rovuma basin is poorly known
have a basal unconformity. Coral debris and in Mozambique (see Fig. 14) for the greater
92
part of the basin lies in Tanzania. Flores
(1973) suggested that it may be the western
segment of a NNW-ESE-trending coastal
graben. The oldest sedimentary unit, the
Makonda Beds, consists of up to 1,500 (450
m) feet of sandstone and conglomerate in
fault contact with Precambrian. The beds
which thin toward Tanzania are characteristi-
cally cross-bedded and suggest deposition in
a fluviatile environment. On the basis of fossil
wood found in the Makonda beds, they are
regarded as Neocomian and equivalent to the
Dinosaur Beds of Malawi.
Eastward, the Makonda Beds grade into
finer lithologies with evidence of a marine
littoral character, though conglomeratic inter-
vals remain. The thickness, however, is re-
duced to 180 feet (54 m).
In the southern part of the Rovuma Basin
there are more open marine facies, of
Neocomian to Albian-Aptian age. The beds
referred to as the Porto Amelia Beds are
dated by ammonites and consist of about 100
feet (30 m) of marls, limestones, and silt-
stones. A sequence of about 700 feet (210 m)
of Globotruncana marls is also found, of
Campanian to Maestrichtian age. The other
Cretaceous horizons are missing.
The Cenozoic section is likewise incom-
plete, with Paleocene sandy limestones fol-
lowed by middle Lower Eocene nummulitic
limestones (similar to the Cheringoma limes-
tone in the southern basin). Possible Lower
Eocene biohermal limestones around Porto
Amelia continue up into Oligocene and are
followed by silty marls and shales. Lower
Miocene in the same area shows about 100
feet (30 m) of calcarenites which rest uncon-
formably on Oligocene. The Mio-Pliocene
beds are the cross-bedded, reddish, fluvio-del-
taic Mikindani Beds.
It is impossible to tell from literature
whether the gaps may be due to faulting or to
non-deposition. The impression, however, is
of being near a depositional margin, with the
principal depositional area presumably east
and northeast--i.e, in Tanzania.
A.E.M. N A I R N Err AL.
OFFSHORE MOZAMBIQUE
General considerations
The Mozambique Channel is floored by
thinned continental or intermediate crust
which is isostatically compensated (Darracott,
1944). Oceanic crust exists to the south in the
Mozambique basin. The line of separation,
approximately 24°S, is not marked by any
physical discontinuity but does coincide with
a gravity anomaly axis and, as the line also
marks the southern limit of a zone of weak
seismicity, it can reasonably be taken as
marking one limit of the Mozambique Chan-
nel. In the north, oceanic crust underlies the
Comores Islands.
The current consensus supposes that
Madagascar was derived from a northerly lo-
cation against Somalia and Tanzania and was
displaced southward by activity along a ridge
and transform system which was oriented
east-west. The anomalies associated with this
system have been identified as the M anomaly
sequence and are found in both the Mozam-
bique basin and the Somali basin. The
anomalies indicate the displacement of
Madagascar, presumably as part of East
Gondwana, occurred from early Upper
Jurassic to Hauterivian-Barremian time al-
though marine horizons of this age have not
been recorded in Mozambique up to the pre-
sent time. No further movement of Mada-
gascar relative to Africa has occurred since.
These magnetic anomaly data rule out a de-
rivation from a position adjacent to Mozam-
bique. A result consistent with paleomagnetic
data, which of itself is not conclusive.
The Davie Ridge and associated fractures
mark the line of displacement of Madagascar.
The ridge, which strikes obliquely across the
Mozambique Channel, is an asymmetric
east-facing scarp. From sediments in pockets
on top of the ridge, it has been established
that the ridge has been at its present depth,
the crest 2 km below the surface, since Eocene
time. The parallel Mozambique Ridge to the
GEOLOGY, BASIN ANALYSIS AND HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF MOZAMBIQUE 93

south, which forms the offshore margin of the available (Fig. 9a, b). Those interpretations
Natal Valley we regard as a similar structure. are biased by the assumption of a "Mozam-
The few islands in the Mozambique Chan- bique geosyncline" following Dixey (1956)
nel (Europa Island and Bassas da India) are and continued by Kamen-Kaye (1982). The
either volcanic or built around extinct pre-Cretaceous surface cannot be identified
volcanoes. with any certainty. However, a thick Tertiary
section (4,000-5,000 feet) (1200-1500 m) and
Offshore seismic data a Cretaceous section of at least 3,000-7,500
feet (900-2250 m), seem to be present. On
The earliest seismic lines are the 1969 MC9 there appear to be three basins: the
Gulfrex lines, and include two lines, MC7 Limpopo Proximal Natal Valley basin, the
and MC9, which cross the Mozambique Zambezi Delta basin, and the Mozambique
Channel, and shorter fines examining the Channel basin. In this section, the Davie
coastal zone off Maputo. Only provisional Ridge fracture zone is close to the Madagas-
interpretations from the Cruise Report are car coast. The sections cannot easily be corre-

SEA LEVEL
LINE MC-9
East Horizontal
tlary == Mozambique Channel Vertical ~
G u l f r e x C r u i s e 42

-500OFT
- - ~ "t'~s ca rp me n I lie Europa

~%~.~7 ~.~, Cretaceous Rough sea bottom

i~ Morondava
Basin
IO000FT

- - -15000FT

-20000FT.

SEA LEVEL
scarpment L IN E MC-7
East Mozambique Channel Horizontal t
/~.~ertiary v Gulfrex Cruise 42 Vertical ~ 90-
-5000 FT.

- - ~ Cret . . . . . . ,1~/

- - ~ E~ent~ -tO000 FT.

-15000 FT

-20000 FT

NatalBasin
-25000 FT

Fig. 9. Provisional interpretation of the Gulfrex seismic lines MC7 and MC9 which cross the Mozambique Channel.
94 A . E . M . N A I R N E T AL.

40"
1 0*5
30"E 315" 45"
I
5~'E
I0"S scarp facing east. Behind the scarp is a west-
dipping wedge of sediments off the port of
5.OOkm
i~ c...... ha,,..3"'
)//~
,/ Beira.
MOZAMBIQUE "" ,~/F,~ \ The Mozambique Channel basin pinches
-'~ 3 ~ / "'s"
-'r
out to the north where the Davie Ridge comes
close to the African coast. To the south, the
tl / ; ~ . / ,
I/ &1) _ f basin appears to merge into the Mozambique
Channel.
( The acoustic basement is irregular and
\ x 'x,s It W" --, faulted (where seen) and "is probably differ-
ent in the east and west of the basin" (Lort et
A: Zambezi Della Basin
al., 1979). Sills are observed in some profiles.
B: Cretaceous Mozambique Basin In the west, near the African coast, the margin
30°E 4b. 4~. s~,E of the basin is marked by a series of basement
Fig. 10. As isopach map of the northern Mozambique high features.
Channel (from Lort et al., 1979) showing the location of
The velocity data on the sediments is con-
the Zambezi Mouth basin and the Mozambique Chan-
nel basin, separated by the Beira High. It should be sistent with Mesozoic-Cenozoic sediments.
observed that the Beira high is not a well defined The basement velocities are in the range for
feature; it does not impede the Zambezi submarine Karoo sediments, or weathered basalt. A con-
channel. To the south of the Sul do Salve province the tinuous reflector (B) marking the base of
isopach pattern appears to contradict the isopachs
velocity 1.8 k m / s may be correlated with the
shown in Figs. 7-9.
base of the Tertiary in AGIP's Mariarano
well and is consistent with DSDP Tertiary
velocities at sites 241 and 249 (the latter on
lated with the lines published by Lort et al. the Mozambique Ridge). A second reflector
(1979) without reprocessing the data; inclu- (C) (possibly an intra-Cretaceous discontinu-
sion here is by way of information. ity?) separates sediments with velocities be-
The new information they provide is of the low 3 k m / s from those with higher velocities.
possible existence of as much as 1,000-1,500 The DSDP wells do not penetrate deeply
feet (300-450 m) of Tertiary volcanics east of enough to identify the reflector, but the
lie Europe. Although Islas Europe and Bassas Mariarano well indicates a potential boundary
da India are of Cenozoic volcanic origin, this with the Upper Cretaceous volcanics [at least
is the first report of extensive Tertiary in the northeastern part of the channel (Lort
volcanicity south of the northern tip of et al., 1979)]. This interpretation is questiona-
Madagascar. ble since Mariarano is in the Madagascar
The results of seismic reflection and refrac- block on which relative motion ended only in
tion data collected from the Mozambique the Early Cretaceous, and synchroneity of the
Channel between 1971 and 1973 (Lort et al., Upper Cretaceous igneous rocks would have
1979) shows two offshore basins, the to be established, although ages of about 80
Mozambique Channel basin, roughly triangu- Ma have been estimated for both basaltic
lar in shape, and the Zambezi Mouth (Delta) lavas, and gabbroic intrusions known onshore
basin. The greater sediment thickness in the in Madagascar.
latter is in the upper part of the section and More recently Geco and Western Geo-
consists of clastic sediments from the physical have shot a sequence of near shore
Zambezi. The two basins are separated by a lines as a consequence of the Mozambique
high, referred to as the Beira High (Fig. 10). government's attempt to generate exploration
As with the Davie Ridge, the Beira High is interest. Petroleum exploration activity is
asymmetrical, with the steeper, 1,500 meter summarized in Tables 2 and 3. Table 4 sum-
GEOLOGY, BASIN ANALYSIS AND HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF MOZAMBIQUE 95

Section Ga 6-1 l from Loft et al.

marizes gas production in the three onshore Bassa$
NW da Zambezi SE
fields (see Hydrocarbon Prospects). India

~ ~ Canyon
-

STRUCTURAL MODEL FOR MOZAMBIQUE I

"> I '( Mozambique Channel Basin
Zambezi Delta Basin
Structure model
16"

There have been relatively few attempts to

develop a structural model for the origin of
the Mozambique Channel, which should in- p(qB ~ Quelimane

clude the broad plain now forming the greater Mozambique

part of Mozambique. The only structural Inhamin9~ ~-~--~''-- . Channel

model of distinction is that of Flores (1973) / Hu

~ ~ Basin

su,
~lra ",Basin
which was generated before the M anomaly
sequence was recognized. The old geosyncli-
.X""%.. oi".
",\ 20"

nal model of Dixey (1956) is tenacious and la ~°'°);o,,; ':\

,
was espoused by Kamen-Kaye (1982); pre- Do
Salve
sumably the model is related to the con-
M
troversy surrounding the location of Mada-
gascar and reflects the difficulties which arise lnhambane

when considering a problem in isolation. MMR- Mobote (Mazengo) Rift

To date there does not appear to have been
assembled the variety of geological and geo-
physical data essential to provide a compre-
hensive assessment. The structural patterns in
Kihle (1983), Kamen-Kaye (1982), Western
Geophysical (1982), and Salman (1982) are
perfunctory and inadequate and, for the most
part, are repetitions without any improve-
ment over the figure given by Flores (1973).
Figure 11 has been drawn to emphasize the
principal structural features. Some features,
such as the Davie Ridge or fracture zone, are
well known, others are less well known and
their significance is in doubt, still others have
seldom been included in the context of the
origin of the Mozambique Channel, such as
the Lebombo monocline and volcanics, and
yet others have not been suggested.
Ridges
The Davie Ridge or fracture zone is the
best known; it is an asymmetrical structure
with an east facing scarp, and is regarded as
marking the line of southerly movement of
Madagascar. This motion is apparently con-
firmed by the M anomaly pattern and is
consistent with the paleomagnetic data. When
FR- Funhalouro Rift
SR- Southern Rift
UCG- Urema Chire Graben
aputo
BH- Beira High
Proximal CG- Chissenga Graben
Natat PG- Palmeira Graben
Valley
Basra
32"E 36* 40°
Fig. 11. The principal structural features of Mozam-
bique.
traced to the north, the Ridge appears to
trend into the Lamu Embayment, and off-
shore a parallel series of fractures has been
identified (e.g., Dhow, VLCC).
Parallel to the Davie Ridge lies the
Mozambique Ridge, which appears to be
structurally similar. At its southern extremity,
the Mozambique Ridge appears to fit well
with the tip of the Falkland Plateau exten-
sion. The northern extension is much less
clear; Dingle and Scrutton (1974) seem to
show the extension offset but, continuing
northward, the extension would trend toward
the Inhaminga high and the western side of
the Zambezi graben.
The Beira Ridge is the least distinct struc-
ture with the same trend, it has been recog-
nized on some of the seismic profiles of Lort
96
et al. (1979), but no structural features are
known.
Although not obviously a ridge, the
Lebombo monocline has the same trend and
the same steep easterly face; it certainly indi-
cates a line or zone of deep crustal fractures
which provided egress for Jurassic and Creta-
ceous volcanics and coincides with a large
positive isostatic anomaly. A lesser known
north-south feature is a line of weak seismic-
ity with which the Zambezi canyon coincides.
Basins
Between these ridges, basinal sediments
have been ponded. In the north, the dip slope
of the Davie Ridge forms the margin of the
Mozambique Channel basin; the Beira Ridge
ponds the Zambezi Delta basin sediments,
while the Mozambique Ridge retains the sedi-
ments of the proximal Natal Valley fed by the
Limpopo River.
Cross-structural elements
These elements are the most heterogeneous
of the three groupings, but are considered
together solely on the basis of a coherent
ENE trend. The most northerly element sim-
ply represents the line of Precambrian out-
crop which, northeast of Qualimane, ap-
proaches very close to the coast. In the east,
the most southerly element marks the transi-
tion from the Mozambique Channel to the
basin, at about 24°S. North of 24°S the M
anomalies disappear and the magnetic re-
sponse of the basement changes. Onshore,
and continuing into offshore along the same
trend, is the axis of a gravity anomaly. The
change in the Mozambique Ridge has led to
the suggestion that this axis may also coincide
with a major fault downthrown to the south.
It is along this axis that, according to Dingle
and Scrutton (1974), the ridge may be offset
by about 60 km. Onshore, the trend of the
Limpopo and the Zoutspanberg re-entrant, as
well as the change in trend of the Karoo
outcrops suggest tha this parallel feature may
be controlled by basement structures. In a
A . E . M . N A I R N E T AL.
similar manner, the course of the Upper
Zambezi is also parallel to this trend.
The simplest interpretation of the ridges is
to suppose they are merely tilted horst blocks
and, given the trend of the M anomalies,
mark fracture lines normal to the spreading
axis on which the anomalies were generated.
This suggestion is not new for the Davie
fracture zone, for Norton and Sclater (1979)
illustrated such a pattern, although their tim-
ing of the event is suspect. It is, as far as we
know, new to suggest the other fractures per-
form the same functions, providing an easy
interpretation of the Mozambique Ridge,
which is similar structurally to the Davie frac-
ture zone. These lines, therefore, accommod-
ated the relative southerly movement of East
Gondwana from early Late Jurassic until
mid-Early Cretaceous (Hauterivian-Barre-
mian).
The obvious question, then, is whether the
Mozambique Channel has an oceanic crust.
The difference in the magnetic anomaly pat-
tern compared to those found in the
Mozambique basin would argue against oc-
eanic crust. Darracott's (1974) interpretation
of the gravity data, as showing generally iso-
static equilibrium, is consistent with the ex-
istence of thinned or transitional crust.
This thinning most likely resulted from
tensional forces associated with the sundering
of Gondwana. The degree of extension which
occurred is reflected in the pattern of block
faulting, with the offset of the Mozambique
Ridge (60 km) providing a minimum value.
The total extension was probably not much
more than double that amount. Heat gener-
ated by the movements was disseminated by
volcanic activity, and the Movume basalts
date from about the time movement was com-
ing to an end.
Subsequently, due perhaps to the initiation
of movements in the Atlantic and the isola-
tion of Madagascar, there was a swing in the
regional stress field and a new set of fractures
developed which had the present Indian Oc-
ean trend. Leaky transforms may have devel-
oped. The north-south fractures became inert
GEOLOGY, BASIN ANALYSIS A N D H Y D R O C A R B O N P O T E N T I A L OF M O Z A M B I Q U E
and, as the crust gradually cooled, further
thick sedimentary wedges developed fed by
the detritus brought down from the uplifted
interior by the Limpopo and Zambezi Rivers.
At the onset of these movements, the Agulhas
fracture zone developed, with the Falkland
spur separating from the African margin.
The final phase of movements was the de-
velopment of the East African rift system and
its extension south of Lake Nyassa through
the Chire-Urema graben system. This activity
is discussed later because of its importance in
the development of the paleo-Zambezi delta
system. In the continental slope in northern
Mozambique young grabens, associated with
N tensional fracturing, with the development of
Zambezi Graben
A
A
Urema-Chire Graben
Fig. 12. The interpretation of the tectonic history of the
Zambezi-Urema-Chire graben systems (after Flores,
1973).
97
the East African rift system have been de-
scribed by Mougenot et al. (1986 a, b).
The sequence of events described essen-
tially dates from the Late Jurassic. The
n o r t h - s o u t h structures are imposed upon
older structures, but do not entirely obliterate
them. Predicting what form the older struc-
tures may take is difficult since there is little
onshore seismic data and virtually no bore-
hole data. Some inferences may be drawn
from the exposed Karoo sequence, which
terminated with the extrusion of lavas in the
Early Jurassic. From the exposures in the
Zambezi valley graben, as well as the pattern
of outcrops from the surrounding regions,
horsts and grabens, also occurred during Late
Permian and Triassic times.
It is not clear from the literature (cf. Borges,
1952) whether the oldest (Ecca) sediments
preceded or were contemporaneous with
graben formation, or if they are merely pre-
served within a graben. It seems likely that
there was Late Permian-Early Triassic frac-
turing as the Karoo Basin widened and sedi-
ment spread over the Upper Zambezi region,
as may be inferred from the geological record
in Zimbabwe. A similar event is known in
Madagascar, where, in the south an Upper
Permian marine horizon occurs. Unfor-
tunately, little is known of the transport di-
rections of the clastic Karoo sediments in
Mozambique.
Turning to the smaller-scale features
onshore, Flores (1973) showed a pattern of
faults and intersecting graben systems. The
Chire-Urema-Chissenga graben system has
been related to the continuation of the Nyassa
Rift, thereby providing a link to the East
African rift system. The faults of the system
cut across the Zambezi Rift, which to the east
is scarcely identifiable (Fig. 12). The Zambezi
Rift could continue to the east at depth under
the depression of the Zambezi Delta, or it
could die out in a fault splay, producing a
number of small semi-grabens. Although the
latter is the preferred interpretation, it must
be stressed that there are no data which would
98 A.E.M. NAIRN ET AL

help discriminate between the two interpreta- Mozambique basin is widest, the structure is
tions. difficult to infer. Outcrops are restricted to
The earliest age of activity in the Chire- young rocks, and seismic data are absent.
Urema-Chissenga system, during the Early Flores (1973) interpreted the gravity and
Cretaceous, is in part defined by the role magnetic data in terms of "magnetic arches."
played in the development of the paleo- As the magnetic highs tended to coincide with
Zambezi Delta as illustrated very clearly by gravity lows, he suggested they marked
Flores (1973) (Fig. 12). The grabens are shown troughs of a sedimentary fill with "magnetic"
as if a single system, but are more probably a sediments, i.e., conceivably significant thick-
series of straight segments with offsets. The nesses of tuff. The pattern of magnetic arches
southern Chissenga graben is traced south- is consistent with the general structural trend
eastward by a combination of indirect tech- and the existence of grabens north of the Save
niques, geomorphological and geophysical. In River. More arches may exist in the western
the offshore continuation of the trend, dark part of the basin and, potentially, some may
Domo shales imply that the continuation is simply be tilted blocks.
reasonable. South of the Save, in the Sul da The tectonic activity of the fault systems,
Save area, which is the region where the except for some subsequent rejuvenation, pre-

A LEBOMBO MTNS, C LEBOMBO

0 ~ COAST 02~ M T N C
OA
S
T $ ,

:::::" • ..... -.:.::::::

km 21 ,, \' -'-
B o
0
0
l"~" MOZAMBIQUE • PROXIMAL
-~:.:..~ R,OGE ,'o NATAL MOZAMBIQUE
".'.'. 249 ".', VALLEY RIDGE
WE B,E..
L~t-'.'-'.'-'.'.~-; "~ MOZAMBIQUE
\ .,oDE • ." ' ' ' ' . ' . ' " • WESTERN
•" . . . . . . MOZAMBIQUE
4 ~" " " ' * ' " "* °* "" °" "" """
j+~--:.:-:.:-:-] ? \.8 4 "':':':'" " 2. BA~'N

...:.:.:.:."
6-~ +++'+++ ~:-:.:.:.:.:. 6 "-:-:.'.'"
km ++++++ .v.v. ~
. v vvvv
vvvv

Sediment

Continental Crust

•
Oceanic

Site
Crust
•
/
"7 /].
!/::
lOOml
J
• i
IOOkm

Fig. 13. Sections across the Z a m b e z i Cone a n d the proximal N a t a l valley (A ~nd B) modified to show a s y m m e t r y (C
a n d D).
G E O L O G Y , BASIN ANALYSIS A N D HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF M O Z A M B I Q U E
sumably ended within the Late Cretaceous
when the current spreading pattern became
established in the Indian Ocean. With the
cooling and gradual subsidence of the thinned
crust, a wedge of sediments built cut into the
Mozambique Channel. The sections of Dingle
and Scrutton (1974) which show the gradual
submergence of early structures under this
sedimentary prism have been modified to
suggest an asymmetry (Fig. 13). There is some
support for this model, for sediments derived
from the east have been described in offshore
wells.
Relevance of the model to petroleum explora-
tion
Because the sedimentary pattern, in both
thickness and distribution of the different
lithologies, was controlled by the underlying
structure, the tentative conclusions drawn
from the model are relevant to exploration.
The Karoo sequence has proven disap-
pointing whenever examined in South and
East Africa; reservoirs are numerous, but it is
difficult to isolate a good source rock. The
most suitable source would lie within the
Ecca where the presence of coal indicates the
preservation of organic matter. Marine hori-
zons occur within Ecca rocks (in both Natal
and Mozambique), but little evidence exists
that such marine horizons have ever been
either extensive or of long duration. Coal
horizons have been recorded and coal has
been worked in the Zambezi Valley, but its
subsurface extent is unknown. The southeast
continuation of Ecca beds in the Inhaminga
area depends upon which model for the Karoo
is used.
The most promising prospects rest in the
beds of the Sena Formation, a diachronous
sequence which overlies the Belo Formation
in the Zambezi graben. Facies equivalents
elsewhere rest upon volcanics. The Sena For-
mation consists of continental clastic beds
which pass southward into the marine hori-
zon of the Maputo Formation in the general
99
area of the Sul da Save region. Above the
Maputo beds lie the rocks of the Domo For-
mation, which are facies equivalents of higher
levels of the Sena Formation. The Domo For-
mation has a middle sandstone division en-
closed between shales which have been de-
scribed as euxinic. A considerable thickness
of the Domo Formation has been drilled in
wells which appear to penetrate Domo shales
laying within the continuation of the Chis-
senga graben. The distribution and thickness
of these shales and enclosing beds has been
indicated in the structure contour and iso-
pach maps of the region (Figs. 4-6). This
pattern may be repeated on the eastern side
of the Beira Ridge in the Mozambique Chan-
nel basin.
Because Cretaceous beds lap onto volcanics
of probable Lower Cretaceous age, no control
exists on whether these beds may be pre-
served in an offshore basin, the marine equiv-
alent of the Belo Formation. Such a sugges-
tion is incorporated in an interpretation in
the Western Geophysical report. The pres-
ence of marine Jurassic in this region is un-
known, but its occurrence in both South
Africa (Knysna) and southern Tanzania sug-
gests that it may well be present.
The mixed clastics of the Grudja Forma-
tion, in which there are several stratigraphi-
cally distinctive sandstone horizons (gas-
bearing), contain organic matter. The forma-
tion tends to develop a more open marine
character eastward where it may have source
rock potential. These "tilted beds", recog-
nized in seismic lines, are unconformably
overlain by Eocene, so that migration and
trapping potential exists. The whole paleo-
Zambezi delta complex deserves more atten-
tion.
The preservation of evaporites (Temane
Formation, Fig. 6) near the mouth of the Save
River during the regressive conditions of the
Oligo-Miocene probably has little significance
from the standpoint of hydrocarbon poten-
tial, for the evaporites are not associated with
a "black shale" facies. The regressive Oligo-
Miocene clastics seem to hold little potential,
100 A.E.M. NAIRN ET AL.

nor do their equivalents seem to have much
of a potential.
HYDROCARBON PROSPECTS
History of exploration
This history of exploration in Mozambique
can be divided into three main phases. The
early phase covers the period from the first
exploratory wells up to the granting of a
concession to Gulf Oil in 1948. The middle
phase lasted until 1976 when, due to local
political activities, the last company withdrew.
The present phase began with promulgation
of new hydrocarbon legislation and the for-
mation of a national agency to promote ac-
tive exploration as part of a development
program in the early 1980's. This history has
been reviewed (Hn77ard et al., 1971; Kamen-
Kaye, 1983; Kihle, 1983; Armstrong, 1985)
and in various reports (Salman, 1982; SECH,
1982; Western Geophysical, 1983). The most
succinct exploration history of the area is that
of Kihle (1983), the most detailed is that of
Salman (1982). A summary of exploration
activity and of gas production and reserves is
provided in Tables 2-5.
Basically, until Gulf was granted a conces-
sion in 1948, exploration had been sporadic
and seemingly uncoordinated. Exploration
was concentrated around the known gas seep,
with shallow wells of less than 500 meter
depth being drilled during the periods 1904-
1907 and 1927-1934. One deep well, Inham-
inga-5, did result in a gas flow of short dura-
tion. Salman (1982) provides most of the de-
tails and refers to gas and oil seeps, but
elsewhere reference is to a single gas seep.
The second phase of activity began with
Gulf's initial exploration efforts which com-
bined field and photogeology, geomorphic

TABLE 2
S u m m a r y of gas field p r o d u c t i o n

Pande gas field (5 wells)

Producing horizon (principal) G6 Sands 8 - 1 6 m
thick (three
other sands
produce)
Initial b o t t o m hole pressure 118.1 atm
Final b o t t o m hole pressure 100.8 atm
Flow 260.0 x 103 m 3
Reserves estimated (1981) 9.9 × 109 m 3
Reserves estimate (1973) 30.0 x 109 m 3

Temane gas fieM (2 wells)

Producing horizon G9
Bottom hole pressure 141 a t m
Flow 189.0 x 103 m 3 some c o n d e n s a t e

Buzi gas fieM (2 wells)

Producing horizon G9
Bottom hole pressure 158.0 a t m
Flow 246.2 x 103 m 3

Estimated gas reserves: Pande field

1972 Gulf-Amoco 39.0 × 109 m3
1973 Franlub 30.0 x 109 m3
1979 Rompelrol 15.4 X 109 m3 recoverable
1981 Braspetrol 9.9 X 109 m3
G E O L O G Y , BASIN A N A L Y S I S A N D H Y D R O C A R B O N
studies, and gravity, seismic, and magnetic
studies of the 46,000 klTl2 concession. The
seismic work, although of generally poor
quantity, did result in the production of iso-
chron maps, on the basis of which the loca-
tions of the first wells were determined. More
detailed regional survey work followed the
partnership of Gulf with Amoco in 1958, and
by 1967 the Pande gas field had been found,
with five of the six wells drilled yielding gas
from sandstone horizons within the Grudja
Formation (Table 2). Gulf-Amoco faced a
reduction in their concession area, and con-
tracts were then let to Aquitaine, Sunray, and
Hunt. In 1969 Gulf began offshore seismic
work and spudded their first offshore well.
Sunray, operating in the south, had a pro-
gram in which most of the activity was off-
shore, with six wells compared to two onshore.
The offshore wells reached a basalt basement
at 1.3-3.0 km, although in some narrow
grabens the basalt was attained at 3.5-4.5
km. A much thinner sequence is recorded
here than further north where, in the paleo-
delta of the Zambezi, both Hunt and Aqui-
taine found that the sediments range from
6-9 km in thickness.
In the north, Hunt spudded Zambezi-1 and
3 which helped define a Cenozoic deltaic and
reef complex that overlies the Upper Creta-
ceous marls and argillites. Although these
wells located Lower Miocene viscous oil,
asphalt-impregnated sands, and some gas
shows, no commercially viable prospects were
discovered.
Gulf withdrew in 1970, a year during which
Aquitaine reduced its acreage. Aquitaine,
Sunray, and Amoco all withdrew in 1972, and
with Hunt withdrawing in 1974, all explora-
tion activity came to an end.
The M o z a m b i q u e government subse-
quently attempted to stimulate and renew
exploration activity in the 1980's. Newer and
more favorable petroleum legislation was
passed and a government department was set
up to coordinate activity with foreign oper-
tors. The international consulting firm, A.D.
Little, was retained to advise, and Geco and
POTENTIAL OF MOZAMBIQUE 101
Western Geophysical were engaged to shoot
offshore seismic during 1981-82. Flores was
retained in 1983 to make formal government-
sponsored presentations in an attempt to gen-
erate c o m p a n y interest. An optimistic
summary of the data was presented by Kihle
(1983). Towards the end of 1983, 17 offshore
blocks were opened to bidding, an opening
delayed until production sharing contracts on
the Rovuma onshore concession had been
signed with Shell and Esso.
The offshore concessions were awarded un-
til 1984, the first going to Standard Oil of
Indiana in October. In December, BP won
the second contract for the offshore, an area
east of Maputo, and Amoco took the area
north of Beira. The A.D. Little report showed
that these offshore blocks did not generate
much interest; closing dates for bids were
delayed several times at the request of compa-
nies. The principal scientific constraint was
the general lack of a good source-rock hori-
zon.
An adequate structural model is missing
from the data package prepared at the request
of the Mozambique government, and the
structural figure proposed can be traced back
to Flores (1973), which is reproduced by Kihle
(1983) and also presented, with only slight
modifications, in the Western Geophysical re-
port (1983).
Tables 2 and 3 chronologically summarize
the exploration history. Where there is a con-
flict in reported dates, the dates given by
Salman (1982) have been used. This is the
only report which gives information on 23 of
the wells (locations given in Fig. 1).
Source rocks
According to Kihle (1983), qualitative stud-
ies suggest that the shale horizons within the
Paleogene Cherigoma Formation and turbi-
dites and shales in the Senonian to Paleocene
Grudja Formation are the most probable
source rocks. He lists shales with the
M a z a m b a / I n h a r r i m e Formation as possible
sources. Onshore samples show an organic
TABLE 3
to
Summary of hydrocarbon exploration activity in Mozambique
Data Company Area Activity Observations Source
Phase I
1904-1907 vicinity of shallow (100 m) Only Salman mentions oil shows, Salman (1982)
gas and oil wells all other sources refer to
shows single gas seep
1927-1934 Inhaminga wells to 500 m, Short duration gas flow deep Salman (1982)
one to 2,000 m (Inhaminga-5) SECH (1982)
Phase H
1948-1956 Gulf 46,400 km 2 surface geology Reconnaissance work Kihle (1983)
concession
photogeology; Poor quality seismic, but Salman (1982)
seismic, gravity, produced isochron maps (1-2)
magnetic surveys reflecting horizons) used
as basis for drilling
(1950-1951) Inhambane, 123 structure
Inharrime wells
Moxixe areas
1958-1965 Gulf- detailed regional Reflection and analogue Kihle (1983)
Amoco survey magnetic recording, revised
isochron maps ( 2 - 3 horizons)
1966-1973 Gulf- seismic study, Main concern Grudja F m
Amoco drilled Nemo-1, potential with Domo source
Sofala-1
(1967) reduction in
concession
(1968) 35 deep wells Gas fields discovered:
drilled to this Pande: 260,000 cu m daily
date Temane: 190,000 cu m daily
Buzi: 165,000 cu m daily
1968 Sunray concession
(see Fig. 20)
Aquitaine concession reconnaissance Identified paleo-delta of
A and C seismic Zambezi, Cenozoic litho-
stratigraphical traps
Hunt concession 12,000 km seismic 2 x 2 km grid, multiple profile Salman (1982)
1969 Gulf-Amoco spudded Nemo-9 Gas show Kihle (1983) r~
©
t--,
Sunray spudded Sunray-1
1970 Aquitaine concession A began 5 onshore Nitochenga, Nhamura, SW of
2,
wells Massenga, Funhaloura, Rio
Nhiaguati; weak gas shows 2,
2,
Sunray concession D began 6 offshore, Sunray-1, 3, thick Cretaceous,
2 offshore wells reduced thickness on shelf
between Maputo and Imhambare. 2,

Basalt base 1.3-3.0 km deep

r~

Gulf-Amoco Sofala well to Insignificant gas from Domo

3,232 m sands
2-
year Hunt Zambezi-1, 3 Gas and some oil shows
O
not given 7

1972 All companies but Hunt withdrew m

v,
1974 Hunt withdrew
Q
Phase 111
1981 ENH and SECH established, new petroleum laws promugated Kihle (1983) O
N
1981/82 Geco north Mozam- seismic contract 13,018 km offshore north of Beira
bique
m
Western south Mozam- seismic contract 12,275 km offshore south of Beira
Geophysical bique

CGG three areas aeromagnetic survey 15,200 km in Rovuma Basin SECH (1982)
1983 ShelI-ESSO production sharing contract signed with ENH for Rovuma Basin
ENH, 17 offshore blocks opened to bidding; original closing date of 30 Sep
extended to 6 Dec, extended again to 31 Mar 84
1984, Oct Standard Oil first offshore contract
of Indiana
1984, Dec BP, area east of Armstrong
Maputo (1985)
Amoco area north
of Beira
Esso Rovuma Basin seismic, magnetic, 1,818 km in Rovuma Basin
gravity surveys
104 A.E.M. N A I R N ET AL.

TABLE 4
Summary of geophysical exploration activities in Mozambique

Date Company Activities

1948-1956 Gulf Gravity, magnetic, low-quality seismic surveys; produced isochrons for 1-2 reflecing
horizons

1959-1965 Gulf-Amoco Detailed regional survey

1966-1972 Gulf-Amoco Seismic study to define Grudja-Domo potential; multiple profiles of area 19°30'S to
2 l ° 3 0 ' S . Defined 2 highs (Nemo and Sofala) on single structural zone. Pande, Buzi,
Temane gas fields.

1969 Gulf rex Surveyed Maputo-Tulear (line MC-7); E - W through Islas Europa (MC-9); Mozam-
bique shelf project (MC-5, 6). Spudded first offshore well (Nemo-9)

1968-1972 Hunt Northern part of Mozambique Basin, 12,000 km seismic profiling on 2 × 2 km grid;
isochron maps of 2 reflecting horizons (in Cretaceous and Cenozoic), est. thickness 9
km.
Sunray Low-density profiles, 5 x 15 km grid, area south of 25 ° S; some anticlines and complex
faulting discovered.
Aquitaine Regional and reconnaissance lines, areas A, B, and C (part of A only in offshore);
onshore seismic grid 10 × 20 km, number of anticlinal highs located, and Zambezi
paleo-delta.
1991/1982 Geco Seismic profiling of 13,018 km from Tanzania border to 17°S: 15 krn grid, coast
perpendicular lines; 15-20 km spacing, coast parallel lines. From 17 °S to Beira: 10 km
separation coast parallel, 5 km separation coast normal lines. All out to 200 m; more
open grid out to 5,000 m. Five well tie lines. Using a 3103-in3 conventional airgun,
48-fold recording to 6 sec. Shot point interval 25 m. Processed standard sequence to 6
sec. Wave migrated. Data quality good.
Western Seismic profiling of 12,275 km area from Maputo to Beira treated in three sections: (1)
Geophysical Off and SE of Beira, lines tied to Sofala-1 and Nemo wells. Nemo well tied to Senyo-1
(Aquitaine), Zambezi-3 (Hunt). 4,500 km of lines. (2) Off and ENE of Maputo, lines
tied to all 5 Sunray wells. Lines cover concession and unexplored area of Maputo.
5,000 km of lines. (3) Along narrow continental shelf, poorly explored, only one well in
south near Inhambane, lines between areas 1 and 2 . . . . . . 500 km of lines. Using
Maxipulse energy source, 50-m shot point interval, 30-fold recording to record length
of 7 sec. Data quality good.

content dominated by gas prone, humic
material. However, marine influences become
increasingly important eastward, hence oil
prone sources become possible. Kamen-Kaye
(1983) described the shales of the Grudja
Formation as sublittoral to neritic with a
planktonic foraminiferal assemblage. He
stated, "They may have r e t a i n e d . . . a n im-
portant part of their original [organic] con-
tent," using as corroboration an unsigned re-
port on the Micaune-1 well.
Source rocks of the Grudja Formation and
younger Cenozoic beds are generally associ-
ated with the paleo-Zambezi delta. The sedi-
mentary sequence is thick, the inclined beds
favor migration up the delta and the occur-
rence of stratigraphic pinchout traps. With
burial depths of 5,000 m, the Mesozoic part
of the succession should lie within the zone of
mature rocks, the Cenozoic in the gas prone
rocks.
The shales of the D o m o Formation (Albian
to Turonian) are also regarded as potential
source rocks; they are described as euxinic,
GEOLOGY. BASIN ANALYSIS AND HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF MOZAMBIQUE
dark grey to black, marly shales ranging in
thickness from 300 to in excess of 1,500 m
and extending northward nearly 1,200 km
from the South African border. Their organic
content is rated as humic or mixed. The geo-
thermal gradient is 1.9-2.1°C/100 m and
sediments buried in the deeper parts of
grabens should be within the oil window.
These remarks concern only the Cretaceous
and Cenozoic, but there is a possibility that
marine Upper Jurassic may be encountered in
the northern Rovumu basin. Not only are
marine rocks as old as Upper Liassic encoun-
tered in Madagascar, but they are also known
in the subsurface near Dar-es-Salaam. Kent
(1965) also reported marine Lower and Mid-
dle Jurassic rocks from the Mandawa graben
close to the Mozambique b o r d e r - - t h e south-
ernmost known marine Jurassic sediments in
East Africa (Flores, 1973). Western Geo-
physical (1983) indicated one such possibility.
No consideration has been given to the Karoo
(Ecca) as a possible source rock, probably
because exploration has not extended into the
Zambezi graben. However, the occurrence in
Zimbabwe of the dark Madumbisa shales and
coal within Mozambique means that the pos-
sibility of hydrocarbon generation should not
be ruled out, although in southern Africa the
Ecca has proved to be generally disappoint-
ing. The Western Geophysical report (1983)
mentioned restricted marine Karoo, but gives
no supporting data.
Reservoir rocks
The principal reservoir rocks of the Meso-
zoic and Cenozoic are the sands; in the Sena
Formation (Fig. 3), they are largely continen-
tal, but to the south and east the lower part is
replaced by a marine, shaly, somewhat
glauconitic sandstone referred to the Maputo
Formation (Ka 1). The latter is found in the
central part of the Zambezi River delta de-
pression where it overlaps onto Lower Creta-
ceous. A second sandstone forms the middle
member of the succeeding Domo Formation
(Ka 2), and is a good target since it lies within
105
a shale sequence which is the most highly
regarded source rock. Ka 2 occurs at sub-
surface depths of 2,500 to 3,000 m.
Sandstones within the Upper Cretaceous to
Paleocene Grudja Formation (Kb 1, 2) are
the only proven reservoirs. Of nine docu-
mented, stratigraphically identifiable hori-
zons, gas has been produced out of five, the
most productive being the uppermost where it
occurs in the central part of the basin be-
tween Pande and Temane at depths of 1,100-
2,000 m. The estimates of gas reserves within
these sandstones varies according to the area
of the field considered, revisions generally
being downward (see Table 2).
Within the Oligo-Miocene the clastics of
the Zambezi delta both onshore and offshore
are possible reservoirs, although no lithologi-
cal or structural traps are reported so far. The
depths to these clastics are of order, 2,500-
4,000 m.
The only carbonate reservoirs are associ-
ated with the Eocene rocks. There are reefal
buildups at depths of 2,500-3,500 m.
Kamen-Kaye (1983) reports their potential as
low.
Drilling history
The number of deep wells drilled in small;
the total number quoted varies a little accord-
ing to the period of time considered, but even
in the most optimistic reports, the number is
less than 70. According to Kamen-Kaye
(1983), that is a surface density of less than
one per 4,000 km 2, and the density is even
lower in the offshore, with only 12 wells
drilled. Figure 1 shows the location of 57
wells (after Kihle, 1983), and the location of
23 wells for which there is partial informa-
tion. This well information is taken from Sal-
man (1982).
The failure of the offshore wells, according
to the Western Geophysical report (1983),
was due to poor site location based upon the
geophysical data then available.
It should also be mentioned that, in gen-
eral, when basalts were reached in drilling
106
these were usually regarded as Karoo and
were seldom penetrated. Present information
(from Flores, 1973) suggests that the basalts
were Cretaceous in many cases, and that there
may be a considerable thickness, 1,000 m or
more, of subvolcanic sediments.
Trapping mechanism
The Western Geophysical survey (1983)
showed the existence of a rift offshore from
Maputo which provides greater possibilities
for both sourcing and trapping mechanisms.
This offshore rift is in a region where faults
are common, with tilted fault blocks, anti-
clines, and pinchouts, which all represent
potential traps. Fault block edges provide the
possibility for reefal buildup controlling dif-
ferential compaction and sediment drape. In
the southern area, the Western Geophysical
report suggests the possibility of marine
Jurassic. Some structural highs correspond to
gravity minima, and hence may be halokinetic
structures within the Karoo, although the ex-
istence of evaporites has still to be proven.
There are other grabens known in the onshore
area of the Mozambique basin, which figure
in all structural maps, but for which other
data are absent.
The timing of the faulting activity associ-
ated with the grabens affects their potential
as traps. The offshore graben in southern
Mozambique has an Early Cretaceous period
of activity and Karoo activity of uncertain
age possibly Late Permian and Triassic in age
by analogy with Karoo elsewhere. Such
grabens could contain restricted marine sedi-
ments of Late Permian-Early Triassic age,
because marine Ecca was reported in the
Zambezi, Tunduru Depression and in the
Kidodi basin, Tanzania as well as near Natal
in South Africa.
The greatest prospect for the offshore, and
part of the onshore, appears to lie in strati-
graphic trapping mechanisms associated with
the Mesozoic and Cenozoic paleo-Zambezi
delta complex where there is a proven sedi-
mentary pile in excess of 6 km. All three
A.E.M. NAIRN ET AL.
major situations exist: traps against basement
topography, stratigraphic pinchouts, and sedi-
ments under unconformities. The sedimentary
sequence contains many possible clastic re-
servoirs, of which the Grudja and Domo
sandstone horizons are proven gas reservoirs.
The Domo shales and horizons within the
Grudja Formation are regarded as viable
source rocks. The tilting of these deltaic sands
and their sealing by the unconformably
overlying Eocene beds provides a classic
model highly productive elsewhere. Depth of
burial is such that the lower part of the pile
should lie within the oil window, although the
Oligo-Miocene clastics may only be gas prone.
The problem is lack of information.
BASIN ANALYSIS AND HYDROCARBON GEN-
ERATION OF THE SOUTH MOZAMBIQUE
GRABEN USING EXTENSIONAL MODELS OF
HEAT FLOW
In the evaluation of the hydrocarbon
potential of a frontier basin the limiting fac-
tor is the quantity and quality of available
data.
In this section we demonstrate an in-
tegrated basin analysis method using
mathematical models which may greatly en-
hance the assessment of such a data-poor
basin. The technique combines the deposi-
tional, structural and thermal histories of the
region and ultimately results in cross-sections
showing maturation potential and informa-
tion on the timing of hydrocarbon generation.
Specifically, a seismic line selected per-
pendicular to tectonic strike is backstripped
at pseudowells (cf. Swift et al., 1987), using
one-dimensional burial history computer
models (e.g. Guidish et al., 1984), and struct-
urally reconstructed in sequential chronostra-
tigraphic steps back in time.
Before the technique was applied to real
field data from the South Mozambique
Graben, the problems of backstripping wells
which penetrate faults were investigated by
means of a series of tests on synthetic exam-
ples (see Iliffe et al., 1989). The main outcome
GEOLOGY,
BASINANALYSIS
ANDHYDROCARBON
POTENTIAL
OFMOZAMBIQUE
of those tests is the need to "redrill" the
pseudowells after each chronostratigraphic
unit has been removed.
In the absence of local thermal informa-
tion, as in our example, it is possible to use
the extension models McKenzie (1978),
Royden et al. (1980) to estimate the thermal
history from "observed" subsidence curves.
Subjectivity in interpretation, and error in the
data and analyses are partially alleviated by
considering three different possible extension
histories, and by using the upper and lower
limit of each of the derived thermal histories
when applying the hydrocarbon generation
model described by Tissot (1969), Tissot and
Espitali6 (1975), and Tissot and Welte (1978).
In this way we dynamically bracket the hy-
drocarbon potential of the basin.
107
THE SOUTH MOZAMBIQUE GRABEN: A CASE
STUDY
This study of the South Mozambique basin
(see Fig. 14a) exemplifies the situation of a
speculative basin with limited data, often of
poor quality and shows how basin modelling
may improve evaluation based on the limited
resources available.
The available data for offshore South
Mozambique consisted of 800 km of seismic,
two shallow wells (Fig. 14b) and the general
literature (see part A). In the analysis of this
data we applied a one dimensional Burial
History Program (Guidish et al., 1984), a
generation model (Tissot, 1969; Tissot and
Espitalie, 1975; Tissot and Welte, 1978),
models of extension (McKenzie, 1978;

DEGREES LONGITUDE
Lu
a ,o\ \ k A'

).- /
<c
.J
\ A'r
¢,o
uJ N
uJ
"r"
I20 \ \ y i~AAOACASCAR
,,-,,
LLI
30,1 2 j O"- 30 40
a
DEGREES LONGITUDE
3~3 3~4 3~5 ~ :36

MOZAMBIQUE /
A
24 A SM°Uzt;m
I~....

23~j~O ~itl;iOkm
0 20krn
s ~
b C
Fig. 14. a. Location of South Mozambique Basin. b. Approximate location of seismic survey, and line A-A' used in
this study. Location and structural trends which cut Lower Cretaceous strata in the South Mozambique Graben.
108 A.E.M. NAIRN ETAL.

Royden et al, 1980), and some basic geologi-

cal knowledge.

Geologic setting of the graben

Initial interpretation of the data revealed a

"V"-shaped rift basin trending N - S to
N N W - S S E (Fig. 14c). The eastern border
fault trends N N W - S S E , whereas the western
border fault is oriented more N-S. The
seismic data exhibit tilted fault blocks di-
pping to the east on westward verging faults.
The tectonic setting of offshore Mozam-
bique is the subject of much debate (cf.
Segoufin, 1978; Rabinowitz et al., 1983;
Mougenot et al., 1986a, b; Martin and
Hartnady, 1986; Coffin and Rabinowitz,
1987). Darracott (1974) recognized that the
area lies between the continental crust of
Mozambique and the oceanic crust of the
M o z a m b i q u e C h a n n e l which separates
Madagascar from the African continent. The
general consensus is that Madagascar has been
transported southwards along a N-S-trending
transform zone (Coffin and Rabinowitz, 1987)
(Fig. 15). This movement has been dated on
the basis of magnetic anomalies as ranging
from 150 to 110 Ma (Segoufin, 1978) or 160
to 125 Ma (Rabinowtiz et al. 1983). Initial
rifting began as early as Permo-Triassic and
preceded the major break-up of Gondwana in
Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous times.
When describing the general problem of
sedimentation for southern Mozambique it is
useful to refer to the seismic character of the
chronostratigraphic units used in this study.
This information is largely taken from
Lafourcade (1984). The stratigraphic se-
quence used in this study is shown in Fig. 16.
The Karoo unit may be present in the
seismic profile (Fig. 16), making up part of
seismic package 6. The reflectors in this
package are structurally disturbed and strati-
graphically discontinuous with wedges of
sediments stacked against fault blocks, char-
acterizing them as synrift deposits. The age of
the Karoo unit is speculative since it has
never been penetrated offshore, Kamen-Kaye
kU
I--
tu
ul
eT-
tl,l
r~
DEGREES LONGITUDE
Fig. 15. M a i n s t r u c t u r a l t r e n d s in t h e M o z a m b i q u e
R e g i o n , s h o w i n g t r a n s c u r r e n t f a u l t s in t h e a r e a r e l a t e d
to t h e s o u t h w a r d e m p l a c e m e n t o f M a d a g a s c a r .
(1978) described a Triassic fossil from onshore
Mozambique and Forster (1975) reports a
Late Triassic to Late Jurassic radiometric age
in this region. The occurrence of marine
Jurassic overlying evaporites in the Mandawa
graben in Tanzania to the north (Kent et al.,
1971) suggests that rifts in offshore Mozam-
bique may also contain marine Jurassic de-
posits.
Recent geophysical surveys have suggested
that a second phase of rifting prior to the
break-up of Gondwana in this part of Africa
occurred from Late Triassic to Early Jurassic
times (Mougenot et al., 1986a, b). Accord-
ingly, seismic package 6 is taken to be 195
million years old at its base and 140 million
years old at its top.
GEOLOGY, BASIN ANALYSIS AND HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF MOZAMBIQUE 109

Following deposition of seismic package 6, sands and shales of the Maputo Formation
a marine transgression beginning in Early (Flores, 1973). This implies to the absence of
Cretaceous times (Albian?) is recorded by the most of the Early Cretaceous. Reflectors in

12 I1 10 9 8 7 8 5 4 3 2 1

~ ~ ~ . I : _-_:t.- - -I-- J-- -! :----:'U:. '-=-r:-:~:- - , "

. . . .

(a)

WELL 4
TWO-WAY LITHO.
TRAVEL DEPTH AGE FORMATION
TIME ( rn ) (Mya)
(sec)

-- 0

MIOCENE DELTAICS

~22.5
CHERINYOMA
--55
UPPER OCMO SHALES/
GRUDJA
~76

DOMO
m 96

MAPUTO

~140

JURASSIC KAROO?
~195

(hi

Fig. 16. a. Interpreted seismic section A-A', trending east-west showing "flower" structures at depth with more
"domino" style faulting higher in the section, b. Stratigraphy and time-depth conversion of well 4.
110
seismic package 5 are discontinuous and
structurally disturbed.
The Maputo Formation is overlain by the
Lower Domo Shales Formation from Ceno-
manian to Turonian age. There is a bright
doublet visible at the top and bottom of the
corresponding seismic package 4, the middle
being largely seismically transparent. Where
visible, reflectors are discontinuous. The
doublet at the top may be the mid-Turonian
Domo sands.
The Domo sands doublet is truncated by
an Upper Cretaceous unconformity which is
overlain by the clayey silts, sands, sandy
limestones and marls of the Upper Domo
Formation or Grudja Formation, the latter
terminology depends on locality. This unit
(seismic package 3) has parallel, horizontal,
continuous reflectors which may indicate a
basinal type depositional setting (Flores,
1973). It is apparent from the seismic section
in Figure 16 that this unit was either very
thin, eroded or not deposited on the flanks of
the rift.
Above the Grudja Formation lies the
oolitic, algal limestones, marls and sands of
the Eocene-age platform and ramp sequence
of the Cheringoma Formation (seismic
package 2). The ramp, visible on the north-
east side of the seismic section in figure 15
contains slump structures. The reflectors are
slightly inclined, discontinuous, and non-
parallel on the ramp, and faint or absent in
the basinal areas.
Overlying these sediments are the deltaic
sediments of seismic package 1 of Miocene to
Recent age. Reflectors are gently dipping,
thin and parallel.
Seismic interpretation and time / depth conver-
sion
The first step in the analysis of this basin
was the initial seismic interpretation. This
was based on the recognition of six seismic
packages rather than following one or two
reflectors regionally, which proved impossible
in the rift itself.
A.E.M. N A I RN ET AL.
Basic isopach maps were produced and
faults correlated to determine structural
trends (Fig. 14c). A seismic section per-
pendicular to tectonic strike (A-A', Fig. 14c)
was then selected. This seismic profile was
converted to a true depth section using pseu-
dowells 1 to 12 (Fig. 16). The pseudowells
were located at shot points where interval
velocities had been derived from seismic times
and stacking velocities. The interval velocities
were then used to calculate the thickness of
each layer. The accuracy of these thickness
estimates depends on the accuracy of the
velocities, which were unavailable.
After obtaining a "true" section (Fig. 17a)
the lengths of each pick were compared and
the actual amount of extension as a ratio of
the total extension was calculated for each
time line, which may be converted into an
extension rate diagram (Fig. 18a). Extension
rate is calculated by dividing the length dif-
ference between the top and bottom of the
unit by their age differences.
The structural interpretation was con-
strained by bed length balancing an imagin-
ary reflector below and parallel to the deepest
reflector package a method described in
Dahlstrom (1969). The cross-section is now
ready for backstripping and reconstruction.
Backstripping and reconstruction
The inputs to the Guidish et al. (1984) 1-D
isostatic burial history program in this study
are: depths to formation tops, absolute ages
at these tops, layer lithologies, paleobathyme-
try of each layer, density of rock matrix and
porosity/depth relationships for various lith-
ologies.
Several assumptions are needed to develop
the analysis. The lithology of the lowest layer
(package 6) is presumed to be a synrift se-
quence of Jurassic sands.
Owing to the lack of downhole sonic and
density information, the lithological poros-
i t y / d e p t h functions were defaulted to those
available in Sclater and Christie (1980). Con-
sidering layers of thickness 1000 m or more to
 •e ~ ~61
le uo!13as-sso.~D "~ " e ~ 0~1 le uo!13as-sso.to "j " e ~ 96 le uo!loos-sso.~ D "~ " e ~ 9L le uo!laas-ssoaD 'p " e ~ ~ 'uo~l!sodop
auz:::,o] ol .~oud lsn.f UOI1OgS-SSOa~ "0 "S~u.l[ OLHI.I JO q l ~ u a I gep-luzs~a d "q "uot.loos pol.ZaAUOO-qlda o 'e %I "~!d

| I -- I I
5

VA~c~6t

E ~ ~ g £ ~ 6 0t tt Zt

c t, ~ 9 L G 6 O~ tl ~t

~A~ 96

VAI~ 9Z

VAIN ~

Og~V'~

000, ' 3N?]O~?

I
I
t ~ g ~ g 1 9 6 OL LL ~t

[[[ ~)I~P~VZO~ ,:]0 l ¥ 1 £ N 3 ± O d NO~VDO~(]2~H ONV SISAIVNV b~ISV~ 'AE)OqO~O

112 A.E.M. NAIRN ET AL.

AGE (Mya)
be monolithologic is obviously in error; in 150 100 50

general however, such a working hypothesis

provides an evaluation in keeping with the CU
Z;
resolution of the bulk of the data. The model I
~J
10- ;-10
,t / / ~-,t.
<
is more sensitive to error in the estimation of
absolute ages and present day heat flow. These
effects will be discussed below.
a~
0 20- 4 /
/
-20

Paleobathymetry estimation is again mainly 5a.

CHANGE OF DEPTH TO DETACHMENT
based on the geologic interpretation and liter- ~ 3ol ~30

ature.
The backstripping program was applied to
twelve pseudowells (wells 1 to 12 in Fig. 17a). AGE (M'¢ a)
150 10{3 53
After removal of the first seismically defined
unit the cross-section was redrawn (Fig. 17b).
Since no faulting was evident after 55 Ma no
10- -10
rebalancing was necessary after Package 1
was removed.
When the second seismic package was ~., 2 0 - .20

backstripped, (76 Ma to 55 Ma) the throw on

~J
some faults had to be adjusted (Fig. 17c). The ,J 30~ r-SO
removal of throw on these faults slightly con-
tracted the section such that those wells that
404 ~-40
crossed a fault had to be "redrilled". This
process of backstripping, restoring, rebalanc-
ing, redrawing, and redrilling was repeated 504 -50
EXTENSION RATE
until the top of the " K a r o o " reflector ap-
peared as a horizontal line at the earth's
surface.
The depth to detachment and length of s

uppermost bed was then analyzed for each ~3- J

it..."'...
~
•
cross-section (Figs. 17a-f) using the balanc- , • -- ....... T- 500"C
o 2- e . ""-...
ing formulae in Gibbs (1983). The final I,i. s.,

lengths used in the depth to detachment . . . . . . . . . -:.'.:.-• '" ".................. T- 400°C

............ ...""

calculations were between the border faults in

the present-day true section, (see Fig. 17 for 150 t I
1O0 50 0I
an example) i.e. within the zone of deforma- ~ime (blya)
tion. The areas were measured using a dig- c

itizer and an area calculating computer pro-
gram.
Results and discussion of structural and deposi-
tional reconstructions
Fig. 18. a. D i a g r a m to show the change in extension rate
f o r each b a c k s t r i p p i n g time p e r i o d ( der i ved f r o m length
o f h o r i z o n s - - s e e text), b. V a r i a t i o n o f the d e p t h to
d e t a c h m e n t for each backstripping time period, c. Vari-
ation of heat flow with time calculated from detach-
m e n t depths.

When considering the variation of exten-
sion rate with time it was found that there
was a slow acceleration of extension from 195
M a to 96 Ma, the peak rifting being between
96 and 76 Ma (Fig. 18a). It was also observed
that the depth to detachment seems to have
shallowed from 195 Ma up to the period
between 96 and 76 Ma and dropped gently
ever since (Fig. 18b). It is significant that, the
accumulation rate, subsidence rate and rate
GEOLOGY. BASIN ANALYSIS A N D H Y D R O C A R B O N P O T E N T I A L OF M O Z A M B I Q U E
of extension, show events of high accumula-
tion, rapid subsidence, and quickest extension
nearly coincident at 96 to 76 Ma, though this
observation is dependent on the interpreta-
tional assumptions. The question now arises
as to the tectonic implications of such an
event.
The slow extension rates from 195 to 96
Ma are surprizing when studying the cross-
sections, because faults were definitely active
at that time. The occurrence of flower struc-
tures along the rift, shown here in Figure 15
and by DeBuyl and Flores (1986) in their
figure 15; the resemblance the "V"-shaped
graben has to shear zone (Tchalenko, 1970)
and wrench fault basin settings (Harding,
1974); and the geologic data presented by
Martin and Hartnady (1986) are suggestive of
early strike-slip faulting manifestation of the
N - S separation of the African and Antarctic
plates (East Gondwana) (Simpson et al., 1979;
Martin and Hartnady, 1986). Strain was
therefore out of the plane of the E - W cross-
sections drawn here.
During Late Cretaceous times the rift was
extending more actively. The blocks were
tilted in a systematic "domino" fashion on
faults which often appear to sole out in the
Domo shales just above basement rooted fault
blocks. This event broadly coincides with the
onset of rifting between Madagascar and
Antarctic (Segoufin and Patriat, 1980) follow-
ing the Barremian docking of Madagascar;
the initial separation of Antarctica and
Australia (Veevers, 1986); and the postulated
change in poles of rotation of South America
relative to Africa (Rabinowitz and LaBreque,
1979; Martin et al., 1982). It is thus apparent
that a major plate reorganization occurred in
the region at this time. Mougenot et al. (1986a,
b) working independently further north, also
concluded that the region underwent an ini-
tial period of strike slip faulting followed by a
Late Cretaceous phase of extension and
volcanism. Such a two-phase tectonic history
was first proposed by Flores (1970).
The fastest extension rate measured in the
basin, some 50 m per million years (5 cm per
1] 3
1000 years) is slow when compared to spread-
ing rates of between 1 and 17 cm per year for
present-day opening oceans. This basin there-
fore does not appear to have been very active,
and an extensional model to describe the heat
flow and subsidence history must be applied
with some caution.
Thermal history
Having assessed the structural and burial
histories of the graben from the seismic line,
some approximation to the thermal history of
the basin must be made in order to apply
hydrocarbon generation models in the area to
complete the basin analysis. In regions with
data that include downhole measurements of
thermal indicators, it is possible to invert the
information to obtain estimates of paleo-heat
flux (Lerche et al., 1984). In lieu of any
thermal information, [the nearest heat flow
values of 1.2 and 1.29 H F U come from the
Mozambique Channel (Anderson et al., 1977)]
the heat flow history of the South Mozam-
bique graben is estimated from the exten-
sional models of McKenzie (1978) and
Royden et al. (1980).
The geologic observations of several dikes
or sills in the region, suggesting igneous activ-
ity, favors the use of the Royden dike intru-
sion model. The McKenzie model does not
involve any intrusive effects and is therefore
probably not appropriate. However, in order
to bracket the dynamic range of possible ther-
mal histories both the Royden and McKenzie
models were used.
Another constraint to consider in refining
an extension model, is the heat flow history
derived from depth to detachment calcula-
tions. If the extensional detachment is as-
sumed to represent the brittle/ductile mid-
crustal phase boundary of greenschist to
amphibolite metamorphic facies, then mea-
sured fluctuations in the depth to detachment
can be used to calculate heat flow history
using the equation:
Q / K = Gtz
114 A.E.M. NAIRN ET AL

where Q = heat flux at surface, K = thermal

conductivity, Gtz = geothermal gradient. The
thermal conductivity was assumed to be 5m PHASE If

cal cm -1 C -] s -1, and the temperature at

which the phase change occurs to lie between C3

400 and 500 o C. Knowing the depth to this

temperature (i.e. to the detachment) heat flow
is easily calculated. The variation of paleoheat 195 140 109 96 75 55 55 22.5 0
flux essentially matches the shape of the de- TIME (Mya)

a
pth to detachment e.g. the shallowest depth to
detachment of 7 km yields the highest heat 3

flow value of between 2.8 and 3.6 heat flux

units (HFU) (Fig. 18). These calculations also
imply a present day heat flow value of around
1.6 to 2.1 HFU for this region, which is
higher than observed in the Mozambique
Channel (Anderson et al., 1977).
The extensional models (McKenzie, 1978;
Royden et al., 1980) essentially predict the
heatflow at a particular time after rifting of a
basin, given certain parameters of that basin.
Both models relate basement subsidence
(tectonic subsidence) to the amount of exten-
sion and the heat flow. It is therefore possible
to take the basement subsidence curves, which
are output from the one-dimensional burial
history computer model (Fig. 19a), for each
of the pseudowells, and find the best-fit pre-
dicted basement subsidence curve of the
model which corresponds to a specific exten-
sion factor (Fig. 19b). Inspection of the base-
ment subsidence curves revealed two phases
of subsidence which correspond to the previ-
ously discussed extensional phases.
In practice, the fitting of the observed to
predicted basement subsidence curves has a
degree of subjectivity. In order to provide
some idea of minimum and maximum error
(Fig. 19b) the fit was bracketed. For each
well, and for each of the two models, there
was an upper and lower limit of the possible
extension factors. Each of these upper and
lower extension factors was then used in the
paleoheat flux equation of the model under
consideration.
Of the two subsidence/extension events
(Fig. 19a) shown by the basement subsidence
histories, only the second has any direct sup-
-.6
HASE I
,~ ~LI I I I ~I I ,~"~'~.,.
I i PHASE
(,9
195 140 109 96 76 65 55 22.5 0
TIME ( M y a )
b
Fig. 19. a. An observedbasement subsidencecurve from
well 6 shows two subsidence events, b. Method of
determiningthe range of extension factors from inspect-
ion of best fit of the observed curves to those predicted
by the extensional models.
porting field evidence. Yet, in order to
accommodate all possible variations, three
general heat flow histories were considered
(Fig. 20): (1) a single thermal heat pulse event
at the original rifting (195 Ma); (2) a constant
heat flux of 1 H F U until 96 Ma at which time
there was instantaneous rifting and associated
thermal event; (3) an initial thermal event at
195 Ma followed by a later 96 Ma thermal
event (instantaneous rifting). Such episodic
rifting and subsidence has also been reported
from the South China Sea by Ru and Pigott
(1986).
Armed with these three possible cases and
a range of extension factors for each of the
events, a generation model (Tissot, 1969; Tis-
sot and Espitali& 1975; Tisssot and Welte,
1978) was applied to each well, for each case.
The heat flow history curve, in the form of
the equation;
O( t ) = Qo exp(flt)
GEOLOGY, BASIN ANALYSIS AND HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF MOZAMBIQUE 115

3-
served basement subsidence curves for the
Q
first event. The m a x i m u m heat flow of the
2-
CASE 1 second event can be pinned by backtracking
(HFU)
the equation from the present day to 96 Ma
I
with a known fl as shown below:

95 96
TIME (Mya)
0 QR2=Qoexp[fl(Tpd-- TR2)]
a
3
Q
2
(HFU)
i Old Q
95 96 0
b
3-
Q By applying the generation model to all the
2-
(HFU)
1-
195 9~6
C of kerogen for each layer at each well site.
Fig. 20. Three case histories: (a) an initial rifting and
thermal cooling at 195 Ma; (b) a single pulse of rifting
and heating at 96 Ma; (c) two rifting and thermal events
at 195 Ma and at 96 Ma.
where fl is a variable which determines the
slope and curvature of the fine, and Q0 is the
present day heat flux, was input into a 1-D
fluid flow computer model (Cao, 1985). The
extension factors taken from the extensional
models were used to formulate a fl for the
heat flow behavior with time in the model.
For the first two cases this technique posed
no problems, as long as the present-day heat
flow was known or assumed. A conservative
estimate of 1.0 H F U was used for the pre-
sent-day heat flux, somewhat lower than the
nearest measurements in the Mozambique
Channel (Anderson et al., 1977).
In the third case of two thermal events, it
was necessary to calculate what the m a x i m u m
heat flux would be at the inception of the
second rifting, given the fl-value taken from
the extension factors predicted from the ob-
where
QR2 = m a x i m u m heat flow at the second rift-
ing event,
Q0 = present-day heat flow (1.0 HFU),
Tpd = time since initial rifting till present
day,
TR2 = time since initial rifting till second
rifting event.
strata we can ascertain which layers lie within
the oil window. Those layers may then be
studied more closely for their actual source
potential. The generation model predicts how
0
m a n y milligrams of oil are produced per gram
This value was then plotted in the center of
the formation for each well and contoured to
give maturation potential cross-sections (see
Figs. 21 to 22).
Such maturation potential sections were
generated for each of the three cases of heat
flow, and for the upper and lower limits of
each extension factor for both the McKenzie
and R o y d e n models of extension. In this way
all the possible variations are taken into
account and some degree of confidence may
be placed on the results.
If there was only one rifting event at 195
Ma Royden's model predicts that the basin is
extremely mature (Fig. 21a and b) (and hence
oil prone if a source rock exists!). On the
other hand if there was only one thermal
event of minimal magnitude at 96 Ma Mc-
Kenzie's model suggests that most of the basin
is undermature, although still with some
potential in the east near wells 4 and 5 (Fig.
22c and d).
The results of the two rifting event case
suggests that the later smaller heating event at
96 Ma has more effect on maturation of the
116 A.E.M. NAIRN ET AL.

sediment than the greater magnitude, but ments had either not yet been deposited or
earlier, rifting event (see Fig. 23a-d). During were still at a relatively cool temperature near
the initial thermal (volcanic) event the sedi- the surface. During the later event the same

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

300
DEPTH
OOO
(meters)
OOO

II@t I f f l | 01|/
m Wet O g e ~

NO V E R T I C A L EXAGGERATION

b / l"

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
|
M,OClENE j PLIOC~NE-RE~ENT
' I - - - - " 1 I- EOC.ENE I 000
|
~--'----- -~"" ~ CAMPANIAN ~ DEPTH
I ~-..... UPPER ~ "/""7"--~ " , , I . ~"-~ ~ 2000
- I~11~.U1LOIlIIL'-- w " ' ;. . . . ---
~ , ~ . - ~ u ~ H r , . P,llllPllll~ll'llll~JHIl~f!l~~-~':.'.".~
~'~.UIIIliIlt)JIJJlT~H444JJJJ.U C R E T A C E O U S
• .~~'~'UIUiIITT '"'~,J,~' " ,.,~~~.~. ,~\~.~cj~LU~?~I
,. ' 3 o o o
\"" " ~ ' ~ " ':..."~v.,~ ,,~, . :c: /,J ~ • , 7- rf-_-'.'-,i-~.~ ~ . ; f x\'~ ~,,,io . . . . ~,/
\ I -/ /7-"--i ~ :'~ IX.~tssi¢/_ -/=-~! "4, ~,.,...,ol..
-- " "" -,. = D 2km

NO V E R T I C A L EXAGGERATION

JJltlIIIIIrlIINII1111IFfr]]]
//"
d
Fig. 21. a. Royden model lower limit case l. b. R o y d e n model upper limit case~ 1. c. M c K e n z i e model lower limit case
1. d. Mckenzie model upper limit case 1.
GEOLOGY, BASIN ANALYSIS AND HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF MOZAMBIQUE ] 17

sediments were buried to a greater depth and case using well 5 (Fig. 24 also suggests that
so experienced higher temperatures. the second thermal event is more important
The timing of generation shown for each for maturation and hydrocarbon generation

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
~t i
II tI i ,,,OCiENE iI
I .
/~ I,'~,OC~NE-RE~EN'
I ~
[
EOCENE ]- 1000
[ ICAMPAINIAN I I --~ "-"~-.~ DEPTH
7"~ ~ ~' I i 2000
~ R , 7111 17i,'--71i " ~ ~ (meters)
~~,;.o~.u~ll Ii~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 3000
- - -. , . ~ " . .~, i"~lllii~ili'~i 0111

/" // / /a /KA"°~"!l'r:>°°
NO VERTICAL EXAGGERATION

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

~ ~ 1000
---------L~IN'AN ~-- II ~_.._.~ OE~T.
- - - - - - - ~ ~ i _ ~ _ / - ~ '' , , , - o ~ ' , , . ~ ~ I 2ooo
[I ooo
• ~ ~ l l l l l , ~ , ,
• "-i . . . . . - so ~ 25

" ~ 7~,,~f-~ / ~ °....... o'"

c
NO VERTICAL EXAGGERATION
i! ,:
1 •
l
| '

=-- __~ ~'~5

...... ~ , ,, ,,~
~ L.--z_ "50

\ ,/ /'; . ":t
d

Fig. 22. a. Royden model lower limit case 2. b. R o y d e n model u p p e r limit case 2. c. M c K e n z i e model lower limit case
2. d. M c K e n z i e model upper limit case 2.
] 18 A . E . M . N A 1 R N E T AL.

(Fig. 24b and c) of this basin because the raising of the brittle/ductile boundary and
later generation improves facilitation of seal- documented lava flows in the region (DeBuyl
ing and trapping conditions. It is therefore and Flores, 1984).
significant that this event coincides with a The key is not how high the heat flow was
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

1000
DEPTH
2000
( meters)
3000
25

ram Wero~n

NO V E R T I C A L EXAGGERATION

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

~ ~ E O C E N E 1000
DEPTH
2000
LOWER (meters)
CRETACEOUS ~ I ~ '"""~-""'-'"" 3000

// / / c /KAROO'/ I
NO VERTICAL EXAGGERATION

|
'i
~' 25
% .
"' | • P5

/
d
Fig. 23. a. Royden model lower limit case 3. b. Royden model upper limit case 3. c. M c K e n z i e model lower limit case
3. d. M c K e n z i e model upper limit case 3.
GEOLOGY. BASIN ANALYSIS A N D H Y D R O C A R B O N P O T E N T I A L OF M O Z A M B I Q U E 119

at any time, but rather how hot the sediments
became and how long they were hot. Thus the
burial history is an important controlling fac-
tor in this basin.
Basin prognisis
To evaluate a basin for hydrocarbon poten-
tial we must answer five questions.
(1) Does the basin possess potential trap-
ping structures? In the case of Mozambique
the answer is strongly affirmative. This
block-faulted type of structural regime has
been exploited successfully for hydrocarbons
in many areas such as the North Sea, Sirte
basin, and Gulf of Suez (Harding, 1984).
(2) Does the basin possess reservoirs? Most
likely the synrift seismic package 6 may pro-
vide reservoir quality sands and gravels in the
form of fans at the sides of blocks. Kihle
(1983) suggests reservoirs may be also present
in the Maputo, Domo sands, Grudja sands
and Cheringoma limestones.
(3) Are sealing conditions present? The
Lower Cretaceous and certainly the Upper
Cretaceous shales are potential seals. In most

4-

A B
3- 3

Q Q CASE II

2- 2

HFU
HFU

r i i
195 150 100 5'0 195 150 100 50 0
TIME ( M y a ) TIME (Mya)
a ,3

OIL GENERATION
15- 15 (milligrams oil/gram kerogen)

OIL GENERATION

(rn=lligrams oil/gram kerogen) 10

10-

rag/gin

5-

r i
195 150 100 50 o 195 150 100 50 0
TIME (Mya) TIME ( M y a )
b b

Fig. 24. a. Oil generation rate of the R o y d e n upper limit case 1 well 5 for unit 6. b. Oil generation rate of the R o y d e n
upper limit case 2 well 5 for unit 6. c. Oil generation rate of the Royden upper limit case 3 well 5 for unit 6.
120 A.E.M. NAIRN ET AL.

real situation, we predict that hydrocarbons

C have been produced from Lower Cretaceous
or Jurassic source rocks.
3 The advantage of the technique described
above is in the assimilation of all aspects of
Q CASE III
the basin to tie down the relative timing of
structural, depositional and thermal events. It
HFU 2 is important to determine if maturation of
source rocks occurred before or after deposi-
tion of a sealing layer, or if traps were formed
and sealed before maturation. The South
Mozambique graben possesses potential
~95 ~50 10O 5O 0 source rocks most likely maturing after seal-
TIME (Mya)
ing rock (U. Cretaceous shales) and traps are
a
in place (Fig. 24b, c).
OIL GENERATION The biggest problem encountered by the
15 (mdligram$ od/grsm kerogen}
exploration geologist faced with a potentially
oil-prone region such as the South Mozam-
bique graben is potential recovery. The poros-
!0 ity at depths of between 3000 and 4000 m is
mg/gm
not too promising unless overpressured con-
-/A v/
F/A
//A
I//
r/~ ditions are experienced. Up-dip stratigraphic
traps may be more prolific.
The questions which cannot be answered
are those of hydrocarbon migration and accu-
mulation, although we can show that genera-
i
tion occurred mostly around the time of de-
195 150 100 50 0
position of the Upper Cretaceous shale and
TIME (Mya)
generally after faults had become inactive.
b
Perhaps the migration potential could be as-
Fig. 24 (continued).
sessed using a 2D fluid flow/compaction
model such as that of Nakayama (1987), but
cases the timing of generation from the lower- the lack of more refined data makes such an
most potential sources is during and after the endeavor of less value at the present stage of
deposition of these upper shales units (Fig. understanding of the South Mozambique
24b, c). graben. If further work is undertaken, it would
(4) Is there a source rock? This is a ques- be better to determine source rock potential
tion which may only be answered definitively and procure a reliable present-day heat flow
with a well. However, the fact that copious reading in the region.
shales are present (of both terrigenous and
marine provenance) enhances the possibility
CONCLUSIONS
of a source quality organic shale being pre-
sent. Flores (1973) refers to the lower D o m o
shales as being "euxinic" in nature, which The conclusions of this study are separated
would increase source potential. into three categories. First, the structural and
(5) Has the source rock adequately ma- thermal conclusions are presented, followed
tured? Based on the limits of these analyses, by maturation potential and, finally, predict-
which should more than adequately cover the ions of hydrocarbon potential.
GEOLOGY, BASIN ANALYSIS A N D HYDROCARBON POTENTI AL OF M O Z A M B I Q U E
Tectonic and thermal implications
(1) The structural history of the South
Mozambique graben shows two rifting events
recognizable on the seismic reflection profiles.
The first event is of strike/slip nature, possi-
bly sympathetic to the emplacement of
Madagascar. The second event is a straight
extension manifested on the seismic section
as a sequence of "domino" type fault blocks
in the Cretaceous section.
This type of structural history has recently
been reported from the area just to the north
by Mougenot et al. (1986a, b).
(2) Subsidence history also indicates two
periods of extension.
(3) Extension rates estimated from varia-
tion in strata lengths show an acceleration of
extension at about 96 Ma.
(4) Area balancing and depth to detach-
ment calculations for each sequential palins-
pastic reconstruction also indicate the depth
to detachment was shallowest at 96 Ma. This
may well be a tectonic/thermal event, possi-
bly related to a shift in stress regime caused
by the opening of the South Atlantic at this
time.
Maturation potential
(1) Basement subsidence curves were cou-
pled to extensional models of Royden and
McKenzie to calculate the heat flow history
of the region.
(2) Two subsidence events required the use
of three different heat flow histories in order
to accommodate all possible variations with
upper and lower limits.
(3) Royden's model turns out to be more
favorable from the maturation standpoint,
and geologically more appropriate in view of
the abundance of sills and dikes of Creta-
ceous age reported in the region.
(4) A source rock which can reach matur-
ity for hydrocarbons likely lies somewhere
within the Lower Cretaceous or Jurassic
strata. The probability of such a source rock
121
being present is enhanced by the high
marine/terrigenous shale depositional setting
envisaged for these strata.
Hydrocarbon potential
(1) Structural and stratigraphic traps are
present due to the extensive faulting.
(2) Reservoirs may be present in the syn-
rift sands or Cretaceous rocks.
(3) The Upper Cretaceous shales suffice as
an effective seal.
(4) A source is unproven but likely, and
most probably lies in or below the Lower
Cretaceous unit. Stratigraphic (well) data
would help considerably here.
(5) Regardless of the model used or heat
flow history configuration, the basin is ex-
pected to have mature hydrocarbons in the
eastern part at depths of 3000 to 4000 m.
(6) The ideal situation of: relative timing
of source deposition followed by faulting, then
seal deposition followed by maturation of the
source, seems to be the case in the South
Mozambique graben.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The geological portion of this paper was
based upon a review of the geology of
Mozambique which had been commissioned
by the World Bank for its internal purposes.
The views expressed, however, are those of
the authors alone. Financial support was pro-
vided by members of the USC Basin Model-
ing Group's Industrial Association. We would
like to thank Western Geophysical Company
of America for their generous help, and for
providing the data for this study. We would
also like to thank all the students of the
modeling group for their positive ideas and
logistical help with computing, and Ric Wil-
liams for help with the computer area calcula-
tions. Many thanks go to Donna Black for
typing the text and to Elaine Hadaddin, Ann
Watkins, Yanqing Mo, and Mike Garbee for
drafting.
122
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