Animal Welfare, Vol10, Education For Animal Welfare (VetBooks - Ir)

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Animal Welfare
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Series Editor
Professor Clive Phillips
Foundation Chair of Animal Welfare
Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics
School of Veterinary Science
University of Queensland
Gatton 4343, QLD
Australia
For further volumes:

http://www.springer.com/series/5675
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Edward N. Eadie
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Education for Animal

Welfare
Edward N. Eadie
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Unit 1
Tod Street 3
5045 Glenelg North
Australia
teadie@live.com.au
ISSN 1572-7408
ISBN 978-3-642-16813-0
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-16814-7
Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York
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Animal Welfare Series Preface
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Animal welfare is attracting increasing interest worldwide, especially in developed

countries where the knowledge and resources are available to (at least potentially)
provide better management systems for farm animals, as well as companion, zoo
and laboratory animals. The key requirements for adequate food, water, a suitable
environment, companionship and health are important for animals kept for all of
these purposes.
There has been increased attention given to farm animal welfare in the West in
recent years. This derives largely from the fact that the relentless pursuit of financial
reward and efficiency, to satisfy market demands, has led to the development
of intensive animal production systems that challenge the conscience of many
consumers in those countries.
In developing countries, human survival is still a daily uncertainty, so that
provision for animal welfare has to be balanced against human welfare. Animal
welfare is usually a priority only if it supports the output of the animal, be it food,
work, clothing, sport or companionship. In principle, the welfare needs of both
humans and animals can be provided for, in both developing and developed
countries, if resources are properly husbanded. In reality, however, the inequitable
division of the world’s riches creates physical and psychological poverty for
humans and animals alike in many parts of the world. Livestock are the world’s
biggest land users (FAO 2002) and the farmed animal population is increasing
rapidly to meet the needs of an expanding human population. This results in a
tendency to allocate fewer resources to each animal and to value individual animals
less, for example, in the case of farmed poultry where flocks of over 20,000 birds
are not uncommon. In these circumstances, the importance of each individual’s
welfare is diminished.
Increased attention to welfare issues is just as evident for companion, laboratory,
wild and zoo animals. Of increasing importance is the ethical management of
breeding programmes, since genetic manipulation is more feasible, but there is less
public tolerance of the deliberate breeding of animals for improved productivity if it
comes at the expense of animal welfare. However, the quest for producing novel
v
vi Animal Welfare Series Preface
genotypes has fascinated breeders for centuries. Dog and cat breeders have produced
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a variety of extreme forms with adverse effects on their welfare, but nowadays the
quest by breeders is most avidly pursued in the laboratory, where the mouse is
genetically manipulated with equally profound effects.
The intimate connection between animals and humans that was once so essential
for good animal welfare is rare nowadays, having been superseded by technologi-
cally efficient production systems where animals on farms and in laboratories are
tended by increasingly few humans in the drive to enhance labour efficiency. With
today’s busy lifestyle, companion animals too may suffer from reduced contact
with humans, although their value in providing companionship, particularly for
certain groups such as the elderly, is increasingly recognised. Consumers also rarely
have any contact with the animals that produce their food.
In this estranged, efficient world, people struggle to find the moral imperatives to
determine the level of welfare that they should afford to animals within their
charge. Some, in particular, many companion animal owners, aim for what they
believe to be the highest levels of welfare provision, while others, deliberately or
through ignorance, keep animals in impoverished conditions where their health and
well-being can be extremely poor. Today’s multiplicity of moral codes for animal
care and use are derived from a broad range of cultural influences, including media
reports of animal abuse, guidelines on ethical consumption and campaigning and
lobbying groups.
This series has been designed to help contribute towards a culture of respect
for animals and their welfare by producing academic texts addressing how best
to provide for the welfare of the animal species that are managed and cared for
by humans. The species focused books produced so far have not been detailed
blueprints for the management of each species, rather they have described and
considered the major welfare concerns, often in relation to the wild progenitors of
the managed animals. Welfare has been considered in relation to animals’ needs,
concentrating on nutrition, behaviour, reproduction and the physical and social
environment. Economic effects of animal welfare provision were also considered
where relevant, as were key areas where further research is required.
In this volume, we depart from the previous trend of addressing one species or a
group of species to consider one of the most important influences on how we treat
animals. Education in animal welfare is generally acknowledged to play a leading
role in the development of peoples’ attitudes, which in turn often has a far greater
effect on the animal’s experiences than any amount of scientific research addressing
the improvement of the environment for animals. Dr Ted Eadie has had a wealth of
experience in industry but has recently devoted his exceptional talents to reducing
animal suffering, focusing on the role of law and education. His first book, Animal
Suffering and the Law (2009), gave us a broad viewpoint on how animal welfare
law often fails to provide that broad framework against which we can judge the
acceptability of people’s actions. In this book, Ted turns his attention to education
and animal welfare, finding that major improvements can be achieved if people are
educated to treat animals with respect, care and generosity.
Animal Welfare Series Preface vii
With the growing pace of knowledge in this new area of research, it is hoped that
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this series will provide a timely and much-needed set of texts for researchers,
lecturers, practitioners and students. My thanks are particularly due to the publishers
for their support, and to the authors and editors for their hard work in producing the
texts on time and in good order.
Clive Phillips
Series Editor
Professor of Animal Welfare and Director
Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics
School of Veterinary Science
University of Queensland
Brisbane, QLD
Australia
References
Eadie E (2009) Animal suffering and the law: national, regional and international.
Seaview Press, West Lakes
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (2002) http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/
index_en.htm
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Acknowledgements
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The author wishes to thank the many people who have contributed in various ways
towards the production of this book. They include, among others, Dr James
Mackenzie of the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of
Sydney in association with which the research for this book was undertaken; Mrs
Jillian Stevens of Adelaide for her dedication with the word processing; and
Professor Clive Phillips, Director of the Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics in
the School of Veterinary Science at the University of Queensland and Editor of the
Springer Animal Welfare Series, for his encouragement and support in relation to
the publication of the book. Grateful appreciation is expressed also to many people
in Australia and overseas for their helpfulness and generosity in providing material
relevant to the research project or for their interest in the project generally.
ix
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Contents
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1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Educational Themes Related to Reduction in Animal Suffering . . . . . . . 3

2.1 Animal Suffering and Sentience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Speciesism and Need for Attitudinal Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Animal Protection Legislation and Its Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Enforcement of Animal Protection Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Achievement of Legislative and Other Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6 Training of Professionals, Carers, and Users Involved with Animals . . 24
2.7 Scope for Science to Contribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.8 Regional and International Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 Educational Contexts Involved in Reduction in Animal Suffering . . . . . 37

3.1 Primary and Secondary School Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Higher Education and Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Vocational and Industry Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 Animal Protection Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5 Other Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.1 Government Administration and Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.2 Parliamentary Legislation and Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5.3 Public Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5.4 Parental and Preschool Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.5.5 Community Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5.6 Professional Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.5.7 Informative Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.5.8 Personal Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.5.9 Self-enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
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Abbreviations
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AAWS Australian Animal Welfare Strategy

ABC Australian Broadcasting Corporation
ACT Australian Capital Territory
AFISC Agri-Food Industry Skills Council
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
ALDF Animal Legal Defence Fund
ANU Australian National University
ANZCCART Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals
in Research and Teaching
ARLAN Animal Rights Legal Advocacy Network
ASPCA American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
AVA Australian Veterinary Association
BVA British Veterinary Association
CAWE Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora
CIWF Compassion in World Farming
DECS Department of Education and Children’s Services
DEST Department of Education, Science and Technology
DET Department of Education and Training
EC European Community
ECVAM European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods
EMU Education Mobile Unit
EU European Union
Eurogroup Eurogroup for Animal Welfare, now Eurogroup for Animals
FRAME Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments
HSA Humane Slaughter Association
HSI Humane Society International
IFAW International Fund for Animal Welfare
IHL International Humanitarian Law
xiii
xiv Abbreviations
IN AWE International Animal Welfare Education

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Live Corp Australian Livestock Export Corporation Limited

NCVER National Centre for Vocational Education Research
NGO Non-government Organisation
NSW New South Wales
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
OIE World Organisation for Animal Health
PCRM Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine
PETA People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals
RNZSPCA Royal New Zealand Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals
RSPCA Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
RTO Registered Training Organisation
SAFE Save Animals from Exploitation
SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
SPCA Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
TAFE Technical and Further Education
TOZ Polish National Animal Welfare Organisation
UFAW Universities Federation for Animal Welfare
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
US United States
USC United States Congress
VET Vocational Education and Training
WHO World Health Organisation
WSPA World Society for the Protection of Animals
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Chapter 1
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Introduction
There are many ways by which animal welfare can be improved and animal
suffering reduced, such as by means of legislative enactment, scientific research,
or better stockmanship. Education has an important role to play in each component
of this package of means, and in this book, education is regarded in the broad sense
of creating awareness and facilitating change. In relation to each component of the
package, education can contribute to enhancing the welfare of individual animals,
which is important, as well as result in better animal welfare generally. The book
comprises two separate, but inter-related, components. First, a number of specific
themes in relation to which education can play an important role in reducing animal
suffering are considered, and subsequently a number of different though often inter-
related contexts in which the educational themes can be addressed to reduce animal
suffering are examined.
The study is concerned primarily with the problem of animal suffering in
situations where humans have direct control over animals or interfere directly
with them. Such situations embrace companion animals such as cats and dogs,
farmed animals such as pigs and poultry (a huge number of which are housed in the
so-called factory farming facilities), experimental animals such as those used in
scientific investigation or product testing, and animals involved in entertainment
and sport such as zoo animals and race horses. Other situations in which humans
have a direct impact on animals include the hunting of wildlife such as ducks,
whales, and bears for killing or capture and the so-called pest control activities in
which animals such as rabbits and rodents are exterminated because they are
perceived of as being a threat to human resources as in agricultural production or
as potential spreaders of disease. In addition, animals suffer indirectly from the
actions of humans as in the clearing of forest that results in the habitat destruction of
animals such as the great apes and birds, and in pollution of the sea by plastics and
other debris that leads to ingestion or entanglement by marine animals such as seals
and dolphins. Such indirect suffering by animals is considered also, particularly in
the context of international conservation and environmental conventions, although
it needs to be remembered that ultimately it is the suffering of individual animals
that is at stake.
The large breadth of the present study is such that it is not possible to cover every
conceivable issue, and those that are considered cannot be examined in the same
E. Eadie, Education for Animal Welfare, Animal Welfare 10, 1

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-16814-7_1, # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011
2 1 Introduction
depth as would be the case in a more specialised work. However, it is hoped the
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book provides a broad appreciation of the enormous scope for education in improv-
ing animal protection. Moreover, the nature of the study is such that not only
academic works but also various other authoritative sources are cited in the book.
In each case, the criteria for using a particular source are its relevance and
credibility.
In terms of structure, the book comprises two major substantive chapters that
deal with educational themes (Chap. 2) and educational contexts (Chap. 3), respec-
tively, and each of these two chapters contains a number of separate sections that
together embrace a wide range of educational themes and contexts. The educational
contexts relate to the educational themes in that they constitute the vehicles through
which the various themes relevant to reducing animal suffering inflicted by humans
are put into practice. In many cases, the different contexts operate in conjunction
with one another to produce an integrated approach to addressing the various
themes that each has a bearing on improving animal protection.
The educational themes examined in Chap. 2 cover consideration of the
suffering and sentience of animals that comprise both moral and scientific aspects;
discrimination against animals by humans known as speciesism, and the need for
attitudinal change by humans regarding the way animals are treated; the role of
legislation in providing protection to animals as well as serious limitations in its use
in relation to particular animal categories and activities; the enforcement of general
animal protection legislation; the process of achieving legislative and other reforms
to improve animal protection; the provision of appropriate training for profes-
sionals, carers, and users involved with animals; the scope for science to contribute
to improved animal protection; and finally the consideration of animal protection as
a regional and international issue.
In Chap. 3, various educational contexts for addressing the educational themes
are considered, and these comprise the primary and secondary school systems that
play a major role in the general education as well as moral development of young
people; the contribution of higher education and research that includes the provi-
sion of a scientific basis for improved animal protection as well as the development
of alternatives to animal use; the contribution of vocational and industry training as
a basis for improving animal care; and the role of animal protection organisations
that are so important in exposing animal suffering, lobbying government for
improved protection, and in some cases actual law enforcement activity. Other
educational contexts include the contribution of government administration and
agencies in matters of education and law reform; the use of parliamentary legisla-
tion and regulation as an educational source in achieving improved animal protec-
tion; the importance of public media in publicising animal suffering, putting
pressure on government, and influencing consumer behaviour; parental and pre-
school education; community education; professional associations; informative
advertising; personal interactions; and self-enlightenment.
Chapter 2
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Educational Themes Related to Reduction

in Animal Suffering
This chapter examines a number of separate though related themes that are relevant
to the role of education in improving the protection of animals against suffering
inflicted by humans. Indeed, education is tremendously important in communicating
an appreciation of these themes and in stimulating actions to create a better life
for animals.
2.1 Animal Suffering and Sentience
In the Hindu religion, there is concern for animal suffering, and in Buddhism
universal compassion extends to animals as well as to humans (Singer 1985,
p. 2). By contrast, in Western countries the attitude of humans to animals has
tended to be different and had its foundation in the philosophical thought of Ancient
Greece and the Judeo-Christian tradition, with the influence of Greek philosopher
Aristotle having a dominant effect on later developments. This is despite encour-
agement for respect in the treatment of animals by the philosopher and mathemati-
cian Pythagoras (Singer 1990, pp. 186–189). The view of Aristotle that there was a
natural hierarchy in which those beings with a lower reasoning ability existed for
the benefit of those with higher reasoning ability was compounded in the West by
the religious tradition expounded in the Bible in the Book of Genesis. Indeed, in the
account of man’s creation described in Genesis 1:24–28, it is asserted by God that
man shall:
. . . have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every other
living thing that moveth upon the earth.
Moreover, the dominion of man over animals was elaborated further subsequent to
the flood with the pronouncement by God in Genesis 9:2–3 when blessing Noah and
his sons:
And the fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, and upon
every fowl of the air, upon all that moveth upon the earth, and upon all the fishes of the sea:
into your hands they are delivered.

4 2 Educational Themes Related to Reduction in Animal Suffering
Every moving thing that liveth shall be meat for you; even as the green herb have I given
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you all things.
Furthermore, it is observed by Singer (1990, p. 11) that there is a complete absence

in the New Testament of any injunction against cruelty to animals, and there is no
recommendation for their interests to be considered. Nevertheless, the traditional
attitude to animals was questioned by an enlightened twelfth to thirteenth century
Christian thinker Saint Francis of Assisi, who was reputed for gaining the confi-
dence and affection of animals (Budd 1988, p. 11), and he envisaged all creatures as
mirrors of the creator (Armstrong and Botzler 2003, p. 3). However, the influence of
Aristotle and similar thinkers together with the Bible continued to hold sway,
although morally desirable lessons taught in the Bible, while not directed towards
animals, might have had a “trickle-down” effect for their benefit.
An important breakthrough in Western philosophical thought was made a little
over two centuries ago when the British philosopher Jeremy Bentham in 1780
published his book Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation in
which he identified suffering as the critical factor in determining the relationship of
humans to animals when he stated (Singer 1990, p. 7):
The day may come when the rest of the animal creation may acquire rights which never
could have been withholden from them but for the hand of tyranny. . .. The question is not
Can they reason? nor Can they talk? but, Can they suffer?
Moreover, the capacity to suffer or experience enjoyment is adopted by the eminent

contemporary philosopher Peter Singer as the defining characteristic in the rela-
tionship between humans and animals in his influential book Animal Liberation
(Singer 1975, 1990) first published in 1975 and updated in 1990. In this book,
animal suffering is regarded as the fundamental moral basis for animals needing
protection from the actions of humans.
It should be mentioned that in recent years Christian theologian and animal
ethicist Andrew Linzey of the Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics observed contra-
dictions in the Book of Genesis, and from his interpretation of Genesis and other
books in the Bible concluded that it is not necessary for humans to kill animals and
that a life of vegetarianism is closer to the biblical ideal of peace (Armstrong and
Botzler 2003, pp. 227–234). Indeed, the practice of vegetarianism provides an
important means of reducing the aggregate amount of suffering that would other-
wise be experienced by individual animals during their lifetime as well as at
slaughter. However, it needs to be recognised that there is a distinction between
the issue of terminating life and that of suffering during slaughter, the latter of
which is relevant in the present work. Moreover, even though both killing and
suffering can be regarded as morally wrong, killing accompanied by suffering is
morally worse than painless killing. Furthermore, where animals are consumed by
humans as a source of food, the prevention of suffering during their capture,
rearing, transport, and slaughter needs to be properly addressed (Eadie 2009, p. 2).
A major advance in scientific knowledge regarding the relationship between
humans and animals was heralded with the publication by Charles Darwin in 1859
of The Origin of Species in which Darwin observed that the work would illuminate
2.1 Animal Suffering and Sentience 5
“the origin of man and his history” (Singer 1990, pp. 205–207). Subsequently, after
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his theory of evolution had gained wider acceptance, Darwin in 1871 published
The Descent of Man in which he was more explicit regarding the implications of the
theory of evolution on humans. By the present time, the findings of science have
discredited entirely the long-held view dating back to Aristotle that animals did not
have either mind or reason, and there is now much scientific evidence that many
types of animal experience suffering as well as emotions (Armstrong and Botzler
2003, pp. 79–105). Nevertheless, it is observed by Charles Birch, former Challis
Professor of Biology in the University of Sydney, in Living with the Animals: The
Community of God’s Creatures (Parkes 2000, pp. 28–29) that the expanding body
of scientific knowledge showing the similarity between humans and animals has not
resulted in general compassion regarding the way many animals are treated by
humans as evidenced by animal experimentation, factory farming, and live exports.
This slow change in the tyranny of man over animals is attributed by Singer (1990,
p. 212) to past moral attitudes being too deeply embedded in human thought and
practices to be dislodged by a change in knowledge regarding our similarity with
animals. Progress has probably been retarded also by some scepticism in the
community regarding the validity of evolution as seen in the vigorous debate
between those expounding the opposing views of evolution and creation as the
basis of life. Moreover, this slowness of change has been accentuated by the
existence of powerful vested economic interests coupled with a general lack of
transparency about the terrible living conditions and treatment to which many
animals are subjected. Fortunately, there is growing awareness of such practices,
but there is a long way to go. In this, education can make a valuable contribution.
In Britain in 1821 Richard Martin, Member for Galway in the House of Com-
mons, was successful in persuading parliament to enact legislation making it an
offence to wantonly mistreat farm animals or beasts of burden, even though the
legislation was couched in terms of protecting the property of an owner rather than
the welfare of an animal, and this legislation became the first national law against
cruelty to animals (Singer 1985, pp. 204–205; Budd 1988, pp. 11–12). More such
protection legislation was enacted subsequently in Britain and other countries
including Australia. In Britain, the existing legislation was consolidated in the
Protection of Animals Act 1911, and suffering was given a wider meaning to
include, for instance, the commission of cruelty by infuriating or terrifying an
animal (Radford 1999, pp. 703–704). However, in the 1925 case of Barnard v
Evans, Justice Shearman in the King’s Bench Division of the High Court succinctly
described cruelty as “causing unnecessary suffering”. The qualification “unnecessary”
placed serious limitations on the effectiveness of the animal protection legislation
and implied that animals could be subjected to suffering that was not legally
regarded as cruelty. Such suffering might be described as cruel in the general
sense of that word, and the suffering of an animal is not lessened by the cruelty
being regarded as necessary from a human point of view. Although the legislation
did provide some protection to animals, its protection was far from comprehensive.
Even though the legislation was useful in giving protection to animals against
gratuitous acts of cruelty in the traditional sense, its limitations became more evident
with the enormous growth since the Second World War in both industrial agricul-
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ture and biomedical research that cause animal suffering, but are not motivated by
animal cruelty (Rollin 2003, p. xiii). Previously, animals generally had been well
treated and needed protection only from deviant acts of cruelty. The publication of
her celebrated book Animal Machines by Ruth Harrison in 1964 (Ryder 1989, p. 1,
1998, p. 30) raised awareness of the terrible situation of animals under modern
factory farming conditions, and this led to the setting up by the British Government
of an enquiry by the specially appointed Brambell Committee (Singer 1990,
pp. 141–142) to investigate the welfare of animals kept under intensive livestock
husbandry systems, and its report released in 1965 stated that in principle an animal
should not be subjected to a degree of confinement that necessarily frustrates most
of the major activities that make up its natural behaviour. Moreover, the report
stated that an animal should at least have sufficient freedom of movement to be able
without difficulty to turn around, groom itself, get up, lie down, and stretch its
limbs. These five minimum requirements specified in the Brambell report are
known as the “five basic freedoms”. Subsequently, the British Parliament enacted
the Agriculture (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1968 (RSPCA UK 1999, pp. 43, 48)
to improve the protection of farm animals, and that act has been amended from time
to time since its original adoption.
The general concept of animal freedoms has been expanded and elaborated
further subsequent to the Brambell report, and the freedoms are expressed in
various though similar forms. For instance, RSPCA Australia (2008, p. 6) specifies
the following five freedoms for animals:
1. Freedom from hunger and thirst: by ready access to fresh water and a diet to
maintain full health and vigour
2. Freedom from discomfort: by providing an appropriate environment including
shelter and a comfortable resting area
3. Freedom from pain, injury, or disease: by prevention through rapid diagnosis
and treatment
4. Freedom to express normal behaviour: by providing sufficient space, proper
facilities, and company of the animal’s own kind
5. Freedom from fear and distress: by ensuring conditions and treatment which
avoid mental suffering
The enunciation of such freedoms provides a valuable educational basis for the way
animals should be treated by humans, and the freedoms can be used also as a
yardstick against which the legal protection of animals can be measured. It is
suggested by the present author that breach of any of the five freedoms should be
regarded as the infliction of suffering on an animal and that where there is any doubt
an animal should be given the benefit of such doubt.
The capacity of animals to experience pain, emotions, and consciousness, as
well as methods for studying these, are described in various readings in Armstrong
and Botzler (2003, pp. 65–105). There is some scientific controversy regarding
what species of animals experience suffering, but Gary Varner (Armstrong and
Botzler (2003, pp. 92–93)) concludes from a review of the literature that all
2.1 Animal Suffering and Sentience 7
vertebrates including fish probably experience pain and that certain invertebrates
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also such as octopus and squid may experience pain. Furthermore, Marian Dawkins
(Armstrong and Botzler 2003, pp. 94–99) concludes that many animals experience
conscious awareness of pain and pleasure similar to humans, while acknowledging
that consciousness is an elusive concept. According to Singer (1990, pp. 173–174)
and Rosser (2003, p. 26), some crustaceans such as crayfish and crabs also experience
pain. Regarding the scientific basis for assessing suffering in animals, Dawkins (1985,
pp. 27–40) suggests suffering is a kind of subjective experience having the two
characteristics of being unpleasant and extreme, and she asserts it is necessary to
examine indirect evidence from various sources to provide a reasonably coherent case
that an animal is suffering. She specifies the three primary sources of such evidence
as physical health, physiological signs, and behaviour. Regarding such evidence,
Bernard Rollin (Armstrong and Botzler 2003, pp. 67–74) considers it desirable for
the scientific community to be more receptive to anecdotal evidence and anthropo-
morphic interpretation as being important in appreciating animal capacities.
There appears to be growing community awareness of animal suffering, and
this is reflected in some political recognition of animals as sentient beings. First,
within the European Union, under the Protocol on the Welfare and Protection of
Animals that is annexed to the 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam (Camm and Bowles
2000, pp. 200–205) and forms an integral part of that treaty, animals are referred
to in EC law for the first time as sentient beings. Moreover, both the Community
and Member States are required to have full regard for animal welfare in the
formulation and implementation of policy in relation to agriculture, transport,
internal market, and research. Secondly, in 2003 an Intergovernmental Confer-
ence on Animal Welfare attended by government delegations from 19 countries as
well as by observers from the European Commission and the USA was hosted
in Manila by the Government of the Philippines. The agreed outcome of the
conference was A Proposal for a Declaration on Animal Welfare (World Society
for the Protection of Animals 2005a, pp. 3–4). This document in its preamble
recognises that “animals are living, sentient beings and therefore deserve due
consideration and respect”, and one principle of the proposed declaration states
that “all appropriate steps shall be taken by nations to prevent cruelty to animals
and to reduce their suffering”. This Manila agreement constitutes a significant
step towards the eventual achievement of a Declaration on Animal Welfare by
the United Nations. Thirdly, in Australia in 2005 the Australian Animal Welfare
Strategy was launched (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry 2005).
The strategy was developed “to provide the national and international commu-
nities with an appreciation of animal welfare arrangements in Australia and to
outline directions for future improvements in the welfare of animals”. Recogni-
tion of the characteristic of suffering is embodied in the concept of sentience and
in the Australian Animal Welfare Strategy (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Forestry 2005, p. 7):
A sentient animal is one that has the capacity to have feelings and to experience suffering
and pleasure. Sentience implies a level of conscious awareness.
Thus, it is seen there is developing political awareness of animal suffering and

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sentience at national, regional, and international levels, and such developments

should lead to improved animal protection law as well as serve as educational
vehicles for increasing awareness of the existence of animal suffering and sen-
tience. Moreover, they raise the status of animal protection as an issue to be
considered. In this regard, the sentience of a particular animal type will depend
on its capacity to have feelings as well as experience suffering and pleasure.
A study of the attitudes on animal sentience and the use of animals in society was
made by Phillips and McCulloch (2005, pp. 17–24) based on a questionnaire
completed by a multinational group of well-educated students studying at a number
of leading British universities and advanced English language schools. In the study,
it was found that across nationalities there was a variation in the attribution of
sentience to different species among which in descending order of attribution of
sentience were monkey, dog, newborn human baby, fox, pig, chicken, rat, and fish,
even though among nationalities there was some variation in attribution of sen-
tience to the various species. For instance, students from Southeast Asia attributed
high levels of sentience to pigs and chickens, and Chinese students attributed
particularly high levels of sentience to rats and fish. It was also found in the study
that cruelty to animals on farms was less likely to be condoned by European
students, as well as to some extent those from the USA, than it was by students
from Asian countries. Moreover, European students were more concerned than
those from Asia about animal suffering during life. This illustrates the importance
of increasing global recognition of animals as sentient beings and demonstrates the
need for greater appreciation of the sentience of all species capable of suffering.
Indeed, there may not be a direct correlation between attribution of sentience to a
particular species and its physiology that determines its capacity to suffer. Thus, it
is more important to know the actual sentience and capacity to suffer of the various
types of animal that are farmed or used in experimentation. For instance, an ape has
greater sentience than a fly. Education can play a major role in changing attitudes so
that the sentience of all creatures capable of suffering is properly understood, and in
all countries there is scope for improvement in this regard.
2.2 Speciesism and Need for Attitudinal Change
The word speciesism was coined in 1970 by British psychologist Richard Ryder
(1998, p. 238) to describe discrimination by humans against animals, and it is
adopted by Peter Singer in Animal Liberation (Singer 1975, 1990). In the Oxford
English Dictionary (Brown 1993, p. 2972), speciesism is defined as:
Discrimination against or exploitation of certain animal species by humans, based on an
assumption of human superiority
This dictionary definition is not fully explicit. Indeed, speciesism occurs when
humans inflict suffering on or treat a sentient animal in any way they choose,
2.2 Speciesism and Need for Attitudinal Change 9
merely because it is an animal and not a human. Moreover, the killing of animals by
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humans is allowed, whereas the killing of (innocent) humans by humans is not

permissible. Richard Ryder, who created the word, discusses speciesism in detail in
the final chapter of his book Animal Revolution – Changing Attitudes Towards
Speciesism, and he concludes (Ryder 1989, p. 336):
People who are cruel to nonhumans are not all wicked; most are just unthinking. Those of
us who seek change must not resort to hatred or violence, but press on with our campaigns
to educate and legislate. We want people to open their eyes and to see other animals as they
really are – our kindred and our potential friends with whom we share a brief period of
consciousness upon this planet.
In the present study, the role of education coupled with legislation is regarded as
fundamental key in the elimination of speciesism, and in consequence, a reduction
in the suffering inflicted by humans on animals.
Speciesism is analogous to racism and sexism in which discrimination is based
solely on the criterion of race and gender, respectively. It is now increasingly
appreciated that such discrimination in relation to suffering is neither justified nor
acceptable, although the killing of animals continues. This selectively improved
situation has been achieved by changes in culture and attitude, and it has been
assisted and reinforced by legal provisions making such discrimination unlawful.
Moreover, the need to eliminate racial and sexual discrimination is now recognised
at a global level as reflected in international conventions of the United Nations,
namely the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination 1965 and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women 1979 (United Nations 1984, pp. iv. 4, iv. 6).
In the case of animals, progress is being made towards the adoption by the United
Nations of a Declaration on Animal Welfare as seen in the Manila agreement
(World Society for the Protection of Animals 2005a, pp. 3–4). Such a declaration
would be similar to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 (United
Nations 1984, p. iv. 1). Indeed, it has been suggested (Eadie 2009, p. 219) that it
could be regarded as international speciesism for the global community to enter
into international agreements to protect humans from suffering but to disregard the
suffering of animals. Moreover, in each case, the protection against suffering is
based on morality.
The moral indefensibility of speciesism is demonstrated clearly by Peter Singer
(1975, 1990) in his classic work Animal Liberation, and in that work Singer
describes in disturbing detail the terrible suffering inflicted by humans on animals
as tools for research in the laboratory and as victims in factory farming operations.
Singer acknowledges that many other categories of animal also are subjected to
suffering arising from speciesist attitudes but concentrates his in-depth exposure of
human-inflicted animal suffering to experimental and farm animals because of the
enormous number of animals involved in these two activities. In the case of
experimental animals. Singer (1990, pp. 25–94) describes the suffering inflicted
on animals in laboratories operated by defence, industry, and university
organisations, and in the case of farm animals, Singer (1990, pp. 95–157) examines
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the suffering inflicted on broiler chickens and layer hens, pigs, veal calves, dairy
cows, and beef cattle as well as during the transportation and slaughter of farm
animals.
Since its first publication in 1975 Animal Liberation has been extremely influ-
ential in exposing the terrible ways many animals are treated by humans in
experimental and farming situations, and it has been an important catalyst con-
tributing to the bringing about of significant improvements in the treatment of
animals including the banning of certain practices and the achievement of incre-
mental legislative reform. Indeed, Rollin (2003, pp. xi–xiii) outlines a number of
advances, particularly in Europe, that have taken place over the last 30 years or so
to improve the legal protection of animals, and on his retirement as Director of
Eurogroup in 2003, Dr David Wilkins observed (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare
2004a, p. 17):
In 1992 I doubt whether even the most optimistic of our supporters would have believed
that within ten years, legislation would be passed to spell the end of veal crates, the battery
cage and the sow stall, an end to animal testing for cosmetics would be in sight, and a
protocol on animal welfare would be written into the EC Treaty.
This indicates that the attitude of humans towards animals is changing for the
better, and this change is being reflected in legislation. Moreover, in Animal
Liberation Singer (1990, pp. 159–183) provides powerful arguments for humans
becoming vegetarian to achieve a reduction in animal suffering as well as increase
world food production at lower environmental cost. Indeed, vegetarianism is one
important way of overcoming animal suffering arising from speciesism, and there
is evidence that the practice of both vegetarianism and veganism is growing
significantly as well as of these being more widely recognised and accepted in
society. The changing attitudes of humans in relation to ethical eating are
described in a book by Peter Singer and Jim Mason entitled The Ethics of What
We Eat (Singer and Mason 2006) that provides case studies of the traditional
American diet, of conscientious omnivores who take animal welfare as well as
other ethical and health issues into consideration in their eating, and of the vegan
diet that excludes entirely the consumption of animal products. Also on the matter
of food consumption, Eurogroup recently produced an informative report entitled
Responsible Retailing (Eurogroup for Animals 2008) that makes animal welfare
the focus in the food production supply chain. The report is educational in that it
provides information on the relevant EU legislation and gives examples of good
practice.
Even though there has been significant change in the attitudes of many humans
towards food animals over recent years as well as a consequent reduction in animal
suffering, there is much that remains to be done. This applies even in the European
Union that has been particularly progressive in the improved treatment of animals.
Indeed, many remaining concerns in the EU have been identified by Eurogroup
(Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2004b), and these relate to various animal cate-
gories and activities. Moreover, in Australia recent reports by Voiceless entitled
2.2 Speciesism and Need for Attitudinal Change 11
From Paddocks to Prisons (Sherman et al. 2005) and From Nest to Nuggett (Sharman
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and Kossew 2008) that deal with pigs in New South Wales and Australia’s meat
chicken industry, respectively, highlight the terrible conditions under which these
animals continue to be intensively farmed and demonstrate the need for legislative
reform to improve the conditions under which these animals are kept.
In relation to experimental animals, the British scientists Russell and Burch in
1959 advocated the so-called 3Rs for lessening the suffering experienced by such
animals (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2004b, pp. 91–93). These comprise pro-
cedures that replace the use of animals in experiments (replacement), reduce the
number of animals involved (refinement), and lessen the pain or distress suffered by
such animals (reduction). These 3Rs are now widely accepted and provide the basis
of important provisions of EC legislation covering the protection of laboratory
animals. In Australia, the Australian Code of Practice for the Care and Use of
Animals for Scientific Purposes (Commonwealth of Australia 2003) specifies that
consideration of the 3Rs be given in the conduct of scientific research and teaching
activities involving animals, and under the Queensland Animal Care and Protection
Act 2001 (reprint no. 2A 2003), for instance, compliance with the code is made
mandatory in Chap. 4 of that act entitled: Using Animals for Scientific Purposes. It
should be mentioned that the code is an Australian Commonwealth instrument
whereas under The Constitution (Castles 1986, pp. 8–27; Dwyer 2000, pp. 3–4)
animal protection in Australia comes within the jurisdiction of the individual states
and territories. A serious question arises as to how effective in practice are the
relevant legislative provisions in genuinely addressing the 3Rs, and whether real
efforts are being made to properly consider them and find alternatives to animal use.
Moreover, research conducted by Siobhan O’Sullivan (2006, pp. 1–15) on trans-
parency and animal research regulation in Australia suggested the absence of an
adequate system of transparency, and that any enhanced transparency was likely to
come only as a result of change in public policy. Such change would result in a
better informed public and help ensure the effectiveness of any regulation designed
to reduce the suffering of experimental animals. In the opinion of Malcolm Caul-
field (2008, pp. 158–159), many laboratory animals are made to suffer by biological
scientists motivated more by job security than good science. Greater transparency
would enable such concerns to be properly addressed, and where appropriate, lead
to attitudinal change. Moreover, the teaching of animal ethics to carers and experi-
menters working with animals, as well as to the members of animal ethics commit-
tees that oversee animal research, should contribute to an improvement in attitudes
towards the animals involved.
It is not only in intensive farming and animal experimentation that animals are
subjected to suffering by the actions of humans. Examples of such suffering in other
situations include:
The killing of chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans (the great apes) for the
capture of their babies for the illegal international market
The slaughter of whales by harpooning for the alleged purpose of scientific
research
The confinement of Asiatic black bears in small cages for the extraction of their
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bile
The cruel training and keeping of dancing bears for human entertainment
The shot gun wounding and killing of wild ducks for sport
The cruel practice of bull fighting as entertainment
The holding of dangerous jump races in which horses are frequently injured and
killed
The slaughter of stray dogs by beating to death or electrocution
The chopping off legs of living frogs to satisfy a growing consumption of frog
legs as food
The indiscriminate wounding and killing of bats by shot gun to control their
numbers
The poisoning of foxes using 1080 baits that cause agonising death
The cruel use of glue boards to catch mice
The holding of pigeon shoots for recreational entertainment
The painful killing of crustaceans such as crayfish and lobster by putting them
into boiling water
The bludgeoning to death of seal pups for their fur
These practices as well as those in laboratory and farming operations illustrate the
enormous diversity of the suffering inflicted by humans on animals. They demon-
strate a great need for change in human attitudes towards animals. It is suggested by
the author that to be properly effective change has to be made both in the general
attitude of humans to animals and in relation to specific types of action by humans
that cause suffering to animals. Fortunately, there is some evidence that attitudes
are changing as seen in legislation to improve farm animal welfare in Europe, and in
relation to specific activities such as the banning in Britain in 2004 of the hunting of
foxes using hounds and the banning in Australia in 2004 of the tail docking of dogs
for cosmetic purposes. However, the continued existence of many practices involv-
ing suffering inflicted on animals shows that much needs to be done to enlighten
human attitudes. In her book Shark’s Fin and Sichuan Pepper – A Sweet-Sour
Memoir of Eating in China chef and food writer Fuchsia Dunlop (2008, p. 49)
describes terrible acts involving suffering to which food animals in China are
subjected at the time of their slaughter or more correctly their cooking and eating.
The question is raised by Dunlop as to whether such disregard in China for animal
suffering and sentience might originate from the Chinese word for animal, namely
dong wu, that means “moving thing”, so that an animal is not thought of as a living
creature. However, even though this linguistic factor might have some influence on
the attitude of Chinese towards animals, it is unlikely to explain fully the lack of
caring in relation to animal suffering found in China.
Much of the speciesist behaviour of humans towards animals that causes enor-
mous suffering is not motivated by cruelty in the traditional sense, but rather
because humans are unthinking, ignorant, blindly following established practices,
self-deluded, or motivated by financial gain. Education can play an important role
in making people more aware of animal suffering and sentience, open their eyes,
2.3 Animal Protection Legislation and Its Limitations 13
become better informed through greater transparency as to what is actually hap-

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pening, cease to act in a certain way merely because it has been done in the past, and
recognise that ethically a price cannot be put on suffering. There is need also to
dispel the misguided perception among some people (Ryder 1989, pp. 319–323)
that it is strong to be macho or weak to be squeamish about animal suffering.
Moreover, Jeffrey Sachs (2005, pp. 367–368) observed in relation to ending world
poverty that there has to be a personal commitment by individuals. Similarly, the
elimination of animal suffering inflicted by humans requires the making of a
personal commitment. Indeed, political and other change is brought about by the
calculus of individual actions. Moreover, those motivated by economic gain could
well take cognisance of the caring revolution described by Riane Eisler (2007,
pp. 213–235) in her book The Real Wealth of Nations – Creating a Caring Economics.
It is suggested by the present author, even though perhaps simplistic, that individual
commitments to improve the lives of animals could be significantly enhanced if we
became more conscious of the existence of the animals that share the world with us
and think more about the effect on animals of each of our actions including those
as consumers. However, there needs to be transparency for this to be properly
achieved, and in this education has a valuable contribution to make. Furthermore,
any individual commitment could be made stronger by thinking more about the
deep empathy that can exist between humans and animals and by observing as well
as relating to the behaviour and lives of the animals around us such as the birds that
share the world with us. Over recent years, there appears to have been a greater
interest in animals including of their suffering inflicted by humans, despite less
contact with them due to urbanisation, but as morality dictates much needs to be
done to change human attitudes more generally and bring about improvement in the
lives of many animals in a diversity of situations. It is observed by Don Broom
(2001, p. 25) and Jane Goodall (2003, pp. 229–251) that future change to improve
the lives of animals can be facilitated by working with young people as they are
especially receptive to change, and in this the role of education is particularly
relevant as a means for achieving change regarding the attitude of humans towards
animals.
2.3 Animal Protection Legislation and Its Limitations
Over the last two centuries, there has been substantial change in the approach of the
law towards animal protection. Throughout Europe from the Middle Ages up to the
nineteenth century, animal trials took place (Evans 1906). For instance, a pig was
convicted and cruelly executed for murder, and sparrows were prosecuted for
chattering in church. In general, no provision was made by the law to deal with
the behaviour of humans towards animals no matter how cruel that was, although
there were exceptions to this such as the early laws protecting animals that were
approved in America by the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1641 (Armstrong and
Botzler 2003, p. 6). However, the first national legislation protecting animals was
the British Act of 1821 introduced into the House of Commons by Richard Martin
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to protect the wanton mistreatment of farm animals and beasts of burden referred to
earlier. This act and other legislation passed subsequently in Britain and other
countries such as Australia required the commission of an act of cruelty on an
animal before legal action could be taken. Eventually, the desirability of preventing
such suffering became recognised, and this led to legislation imposing a duty of
care to prevent such suffering. In essence, a duty of care involves the anticipation of
animal suffering occurring, and acting to avoid such suffering. However, the formal
legal definition of duty of care imposed in any particular statute is as it is defined in
that statute.
In Britain, a duty of care in relation to farm animals was introduced into the
Agriculture (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1968, and now a similar duty of care is
imposed in the recently enacted Animal Welfare Act 2006 that applies to non-
farmed captive animals in England and Wales. Similarly, in Australia a duty of care
to protect animals is applied in Tasmania in the Animal Welfare Act 1993 and in
Queensland in the Animal Care and Protection Act 2001. Moreover, even though
not described as a duty of care, under the South Australian Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals Act 1985 (reprint no. 2, 2000) the offence of ill treating an animal was
committed by an owner failing to provide appropriate and adequate food, water,
shelter, or exercise. This is similar to some of the requirements specified as
breaching a duty of care under the Queensland Animal Care and Protection Act
2001. Thus, it is necessary to examine the specific provisions in any particular
animal protection legislation to ascertain where in practice a duty of care is
required, whether or not it is described as such.
There has been substantial progress in some jurisdictions as in Britain, Australia,
and the USA, as well as in the European Union, in the passage of legislation
designed to protect animals. By contrast, in some other parts of the world such
legislation is absent or has only recently been introduced. For instance, following
the SARS epidemic and prior to the 2008 Olympic Games, the Beijing municipal
government planned to introduce the first ever animal protection legislation in
China (Jing 2004; TerraDaily 2004). However, Beijing is only one city in China,
and what is needed is Chinese national legislation dealing with animal protection.
Such legislation does not exist at present despite acts of cruelty taking place
(O’Regan 2009, pp. 1–2). Moreover, prior to joining the European Union in 2004
and 2007, some of the newly admitted countries such as Latvia and Bulgaria had
only recently passed their first animal protection legislation (Eurogroup for Animal
Welfare and RSPCA International 2001, pp. 44–47).
In jurisdictions where animal protection legislation does exist, the legislation
frequently contains both general provisions such as the offence of cruelty under
the Western Australian Animal Welfare Act 2002 or the breach of a duty of care
under the Queensland Animal Care and Protection Act 2001, and specific provi-
sions such as prohibitions against certain activities such as organised dog fight-
ing, cock fighting, and the blooding of greyhounds under the Queensland Animal
Care and Protection Act 2001 or the use of electrical devices for controlling
animals in contravention of the regulations under the South Australian Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals Act 1985 (reprint no. 2, 2000) that on recent reform became
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the Animal Welfare Act 1985. Moreover, there is often legislation dealing with
particular categories of animals such as in Britain the Wildlife and Countryside
Act 1981 designed to protect certain wild species and prohibit certain methods of
trapping and killing, in the USA the Marine Mammal Protection Act (16 USC
1361-1407), and in Australia the South Australian National Parks and Wildlife
Act 1972 that deals with wildlife protection. In Australia, under The Constitution
(Dwyer 2000, pp. 3–4), legislative power in relation to animal protection rests
with the states and territories, so that each of these has its own separate animal
protection legislation. However, under The Constitution, power is granted to the
Commonwealth in relation to trade and commerce with other countries, so that
conduct of the live animal export trade comes under Commonwealth legislation,
in particular the Export Control Act 1982, the Australian Meat and Livestock
Industry Act 1997, and the Navigation Act 1912 (Keniry et al. 2003, pp. 21–23,
60). Thus, the legislative landscape in relation to animal protection can be quite
complicated.
The existence of extensive animal protection legislation in many developed
countries suggests that animals in these countries are well protected from suffering.
However, a closer examination of the legislative provisions shows that this is not
the case. This is because certain categories of animal, most notably farm animals,
experimental animals, and pest animals whose numbers in each case are large, are
exempt from the general provisions in animal protection legislation. Moreover,
some categories of animals capable of suffering are excluded entirely from protec-
tion because they are not included in the definition of animal specified in the
legislation, and effectiveness of the legislation in providing proper protection for
animals that are included in the definition is frequently reduced by use in the
legislation of qualifying terms such as unnecessary in relation to suffering.
In some jurisdictions, as in Australia, farm animals are not covered by the
general provisions in prevention of cruelty or animal welfare legislation, although
they are protected to some extent by codes of practice. The Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO 2008) has published a
series of Model Codes of Practice for the Welfare of Animals for use by the states
and territories in developing their own codes. These model codes cover a range of
animals including cattle, poultry, pigs, and sheep, land transport of cattle, horses,
pigs, and poultry, and animals at saleyards and slaughtering establishments. Gener-
ally, breach of a code does not constitute an offence per se, but rather can be used as
evidence that an offence has been committed and conversely compliance with a
code can be used as evidence in defence to a charge of cruelty. The South
Australian Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1985 (reprint no. 2, 2000) specified
that nothing in the act renders unlawful anything done in accordance with a
prescribed code of practice, and that act contained a schedule listing 20 codes of
practice covering a range of specified animals including cattle, pigs, and poultry as
well as activities such as the transport and slaughter of animals. In the case of the
Western Australian Animal Welfare Act 2002, there are 23 codes listed in a schedule
to the regulations made under that act. Codes of practice contain minimum
standards approved by an Animal Welfare Advisory Committee, and these stan-

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dards are generally lower than those that would satisfy general provisions in animal
protection legislation.
Indeed, the codes are a compromise between animal welfare and animal industry
interests. They frequently contain inconsistencies, allow for painful mutilations on
animals without anaesthetic, and their existence enables both industry and govern-
ment to claim that animal welfare interests are being properly addressed (Oogjes
1997, pp. 23–25). The reality is that if a pet bird or a dog was kept under conditions
allowed under certain codes of practice covering poultry and pigs, the owner of the
pet would be liable to prosecution. Both Dr Hugh Wirth of RSPCA Australia and
Glenys Oogjes of Animals Australia (Das 2004, p. 5) were severely critical of the
codes of practice covering farm animals in Australia. A Review of the Australian
Model Codes of Practice for the Welfare of Animals was made for the Australian
Government by veterinary surgeon Dr Geoff Neumann. He proposed (Neumann
2005, pp. 53–54) that the codes be replaced by standards approved by the Primary
Industries Ministerial Council (PIMC) for adoption by the states and territories and
then incorporated into legislation without amendment. Neumann recommended
also the formulation of new national guidelines for animal welfare reflecting best
practice for inclusion in accreditation and quality assurance programs. Dr Wirth
saw the Neumann recommendations as heralding “great change” (Wirth 2005).
However, it is not yet known how effective any such changes will be in reducing or
eliminating farm animal suffering, and a great deal will depend on the content of
any standards actually adopted.
In New Zealand under the Animal Welfare Act 1999, the National Animal
Welfare Advisory Committee (NAWAC) is required when considering draft
codes of practice to have regard for good practice, scientific knowledge, and
available technology (National Animal Welfare Advisory Committee 2003, p. 4).
Nevertheless, the early experience of code development in New Zealand under
the new act, particularly in relation to broiler chickens and pigs, has been strongly
criticised by both Save Animals from Exploitation (SAFE) and the Animal
Rights Legal Advocacy Network (ARLAN) (Terry 2002, p. 17; Animal Rights
Legal Advocacy 2001, pp. 1–15). Furthermore, in the USA concern has been
expressed by Sunstein (2002, p. 11) regarding the exemption of farm animals
from anticruelty laws. Thus, in various jurisdictions, farm animals are treated in
legislation less favourably than animals that are covered by general animal protec-
tion legislation.
It has been seen earlier that there are separate legislative provisions covering
experimental animals. Indeed, in Australia in New South Wales the supply of
animals for research and the use of animals in research are subject to a separate
Animal Research Act 1985, and conduct of activities satisfying the requirements of
that act provides a defence to an offence under the NSW Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals Act 1979. In the other states of Australia, experimental animals are covered
by a separate part or chapter of the general animal protection legislation. Even
though some legislative protection is provided for experimental animals, their
protection is far less than would be required under general animal protection
provisions. Moreover, the extent of their suffering will depend to a considerable

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extent on the attitude and compassion of those involved in experimentation using

animals. In the case of the USA, concern has been voiced by Sunstein (2002, p. 11)
about the exemption of experimental animals from the anticruelty laws, and
according to Francione (1995, p. 233) the federal Animal Welfare Act that covers
some, but not all, experimental animals is not effectively enforced.
Pest animals are another category of animal exempted from the provisions of
general animal protection legislation. For instance, under the Western Australian
Animal Welfare Act 2002 a defence to the offence of cruelty is provided in the case
of killing a prescribed pest, and under the South Australian Animal and Plant
Control (Agricultural Protection and Other Purposes) Act 1986 (reprint no. 2,
1997) the destruction of prescribed pest animals is mandated while the issue of
their suffering is not addressed. It needs to be remembered that even though pest
animals might be regarded as a threat to humans, they are sentient beings capable of
suffering. They include, among others, foxes, rabbits, and rodents (Jones 2003,
p. 13), and their pronounced suffering during extermination emphasises the need for
developing alternatives to reduce or eliminate such suffering. In 2003, RSPCA
Australia conducted a scientific seminar in Canberra entitled Solutions for Humane
Vertebrate Pest Control (RSPCA Australia 2003).
Animals used in entertainment and sport are another category of animal not
adequately protected by legislation. Indeed, race horses are whipped to improve
performance, and in jump events horses are frequently injured during falls and have
to be “put down” (Oogjes 2002, p. 10). Fortunately, in each of the states of Australia
except Victoria and South Australia, jump racing has now been banned. During
hunting for sport, animals become the victims of indiscriminate shooting as in the
case of wild ducks, and ducks lucky enough to escape are subjected to significant
fright (Bossence 1999, p. 16). Such activity is allowed, for instance, by the South
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 under which an open season for
the hunting of a protected animal may be declared (Trone 2004, p. 63).
Another factor limiting the scope of protection from suffering provided by
cruelty prevention or animal welfare legislation arises from the definition of animal
in the legislation. For instance, in the South Australian Animal Welfare Act 1985,
the word animal is defined as any species of vertebrate except human beings and
fish. Thus, fish are not covered by the legislation even though they experience pain
(Singer 1990, p. 172; Pope 1997, pp. 14–16). Also exempt are crustaceans that
experience suffering during transport and killing, particularly so when killed by
being put into boiling water (Singer 1990, pp. 173–174; Rosser 2003, p. 26).
Where animals are slaughtered for meat, conflict can arise between religious
practice and humane killing (Singer 1990, pp. 152–156), and legislative exemptions
have been made in various jurisdictions including Britain, the USA, and Australia to
provide for Jewish and Moslem rituals allegedly requiring animals to be fully conscious
when slaughtered. The issue of ritual slaughter was considered in some detail in the
1992 New South Wales Ministerial Review of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act
1979 (NSW Agriculture 1992, pp. 47–49), and the review team that was chaired by
Professor John Egerton, Professor of Animal Health in the University of Sydney,
concluded that slaughtering a conscious animal for meat should constitute an offence of
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cruelty. Mention should be made here that for many years it has been agreed by the
Moslem community in Australia that halal killing using pre-slaughter head stunning is
in accordance with the Quran (Wirth 2005), and this could perhaps provide a precedent
for ritual slaughter in other Moslem communities so as to reduce animal suffering.
A general problem limiting the effectiveness of animal protection legislation is
the use in such legislation of the word “unnecessary” in relation to pain or suffering.
Indeed, the concept of “unnecessary suffering” is regarded by Mike Radford (1999)
as the cornerstone of animal protection legislation, and it has been discussed
previously in the present work. According to Gary Francione (1995, pp. 4–5,
13–15), the word “unnecessary” in animal protection legislation is interpreted on
the basis that animals have the status of property, and as legally interpreted the
concept is prejudicial to animal interests.
It is seen that there are a great many limitations in the protection to animals
provided by the so-called prevention of cruelty or animal welfare legislation and
that the main beneficiaries appear to be companion animals. Moreover, there is
probably a perception in the community that the existence of such legislation
provides protection to animals in most circumstances, whereas in reality it seems
that animal welfare considerations are either compromised or disregarded when
economic or other human interest factors are involved. Indeed, it is necessary to
examine very carefully the contents of any protection legislation to ascertain the
extent to which in practice it provides proper protection to animals.
It should be observed that animal protection legislation as such is not speciesist,
although there are many provisions in existing legislation that reflect speciesism. In
theory, there is no reason why animal protection legislation should not consist
entirely of prohibitions, and in any event greater use of them could be made in such
legislation to provide enhanced legal protection to animals.
There is an important role for education in making the community aware of both the
contents of and limitations in animal protection legislation. Indeed, without an appre-
ciation of the contents of existing legislation, there is no proper basis for the achieve-
ment of legislative reform to improve the lives of animals. Moreover, it is desirable for
a watching brief to be kept of legislative developments relating to improved animal
protection enacted in other jurisdictions so that any progressive provisions that are
introduced can be adopted more generally so as to provide better protection for animals
on as wide a geographical basis as possible. Furthermore, greater transparency and
increased awareness through education have an important contribution to make in the
achievement of improved animal protection through legislation.
2.4 Enforcement of Animal Protection Legislation
Even though legislation has educational value in providing information on what is

required by the law, it needs to be enforced to make it properly effective. In the
USA, there are detailed state and federal laws dealing with animal protection, but
2.4 Enforcement of Animal Protection Legislation 19
according to Sunstein (1999, pp. 1–11) the legislation is frequently ineffective due
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to weak and sporadic enforcement. He attributes this to the lack of standing for
animals that prevents people from being able to bring successful legal actions on
their behalf and to the granting of a monopoly on enforcement to public officials. In
contrast to enforcement in the USA by public officials only, in other jurisdictions
such as in Britain and Australia, there is a long-established practice under which
enforcement rights in relation to animal protection are granted by law to RSPCAs
that are private charitable organisations.
In a British Royal Commission research study, it was observed by Lidstone et al.
(1980, pp. 92–93) that the RSPCA had a role of investigation and prosecution
comparable with many public agencies, and in doing so, it was able to draw on
specialised knowledge lacking in agencies such as the civil police. Moreover, they
observed that this independent right of prosecution was regarded by the RSPCA as
an extremely important safeguard against ignorance or inertia of public authorities.
This sentiment is similar to the view expressed by Sunstein (2002, p. 11) that the
granting in the USA of a monopoly on enforcement to public officials provides a
basis for continued illegality. In Australia, the role of the RSPCA in prosecuting
animal cruelty was examined in the New South Wales Ministerial Review of the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979 and Regulations, and the conclusion was
reached (Egerton 1992, pp. ii–iii) that despite the review team being concerned
about public criticism of the role and operational procedures of the RSPCA in
enforcing legislation, especially in rural areas, there was no convincing evidence
that the RSPCA operated in a manner other than allowed by law. Indeed, the review
team concluded that, with some improvements in accountability, no change was
required in relation to the organisations that already had enforcement powers under
the act. Moreover, the role of the RSPCA and Animal Welfare League was regarded
as important and should be retained. In Victoria, under the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals Act 1986, four categories of persons can be authorised as inspectors to
conduct enforcement activities, namely, any member of the police force, approved
stock inspectors, approved local council inspectors, and approved officers of the
RSPCA. Nevertheless, according to Dr Hugh Wirth, then President of RSPCA
Victoria, most prosecutions were left to the RSPCA and the police tended to refer
animal cruelty matters to it (Das 2004, pp. 4–5).
In a Four Corners documentary program on ABC Television (Fullerton 2004),
the resolve of RSPCAs in Australia in prosecuting animal cruelty at intensive
farming operations and in the live export trade was questioned, in particular in
relation to layer hens in New South Wales, pigs in South Australia, and live sheep
exports in Western Australia. Regarding issues raised in the program, the present
author suggests (Eadie 2009, pp. 102–103) that if RSPCAs are given responsibility
under law to conduct investigations and prosecutions, then they should be provided
by government with adequate funding to employ a sufficient number of inspectors
to do so effectively; any decision making by an RSPCA should not be conducted by
anyone having a vested interest in an industry or farming practice being investi-
gated; prosecutorial activities of the RSPCA should not be subjected to any intimi-
dation by actual or veiled threat by government to withhold funding; any inability
of an RSPCA to prosecute animal suffering because of inadequacy in the law or a

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code of practice should be seen as a law reform issue; and any decision by an
RSPCA as to whether or not to prosecute in a particular situation should have regard
to all available legal opinions and advantage taken where appropriate of pro bono
legal services provided by lawyers willing to assist in prosecutions. During the Four
Corners program, Dr Hugh Wirth observed that Labour Parties generally favour
abolition of non-public prosecutions of all kinds but warned any government to
look hard before adopting any such policy in relation to animal protection.
In any event, the present author regards the welfare of animals and reduction in
their suffering as paramount and that any means that can contribute to ensuring
their protection should be retained or adopted. Moreover, there needs to be com-
plete transparency in relation to the enforcement of animal protection law as
recognised by Mike Radford (2001, p. 392), and in this, education has a significant
role to play. It is important also that people observe and report acts of animal cruelty
or ill treatment and that members of the public speak out loudly and clearly about
animal suffering wherever it takes place.
2.5 Achievement of Legislative and Other Reform
Improvements in animal protection can be achieved both by legislative reform and

by direct action. In the case of legislative reform, changes in the law to improve the
lives of animals can comprise major revisions of existing animal protection statutes
as well as in some jurisdictions the introduction for the first time of such a statute, or
it can involve specific amendments to existing legislation to address a particular
situation. In each case, the impetus for improvements in the law to provide better
protection for animals frequently arises from lobbying of government by animal
protection organisations or individual activists, as well as from the influence of
public opinion galvanised by the media. Such legislative change generally follows
an enquiry into its desirability made by an animal welfare advisory committee or a
specialised review.
In the case of the relatively new animal welfare legislation in Western Australia,
a public discussion paper setting out proposals for inclusion in revised animal
welfare legislation was prepared by the Animal Welfare Advisory Committee of
the State Government and released in 1994 to seek public submissions in response
to the proposals (Animal Welfare Advisory Committee 1994). During 1998, a
Green Bill for a new animal welfare statute to replace the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals Act 1920 was released by the Minister for Local Government (Omodei
1998), and submissions sought regarding proposals in the bill. The final outcome
was enactment of the Animal Welfare Act 2002 to replace the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals Act 1920. In Britain, a Draft Animal Welfare Bill intended to apply to
non-farmed captive animals in England and Wales and replace the Protection of
Animals Act 1911 together with numerous other statutes was launched in 2004
(Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs 2004) following a process of
2.5 Achievement of Legislative and Other Reform 21
public consultation that commenced in 2002 and included meetings with key
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stakeholders to discuss proposals during the consultation process. This was fol-
lowed by pre-legislative scrutiny of the 2004 Draft Bill by the House of Commons
Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs Select Committee, and provision was made
for the public to contribute views and comments to that committee. Subsequently,
in 2006 an Animal Welfare Bill completed its passage through parliament, received
royal assent, and became the Animal Welfare Act 2006 (Department for Environ-
ment, Food and Rural Affairs 2006).
As well as the achievement of improved animal protection through major
revisions to existing legislation, the passage of specific legislative provisions can
provide enhanced protection, such as that achieved by the banning in New South
Wales in 1996 of the use of tethers on pigs and in Queensland in 1999 the ending of
face branding of cattle (Stoner 2000, p. 11). Other more recent specific legislative
changes include the abolition in Australia in 2004 of the cosmetic tail docking of
dogs and in Britain in 2004 the banning of fox hunting with hounds.
Mention should be made that the existence of carefully formulated policies and
position papers, such as those of RSPCA Australia (2004) that deal with a range of
different animal categories and practices, provide a valuable basis for law reform to
improve the lives of animals. Such policy documents also have an important
educational role, although it needs to be remembered that there is a difference
between policy and law. For instance, Dr Hugh Wirth observed (Das 2004, p. 5) that
the RSPCA Australia policy-determining political arm of the organisation advo-
cates banning the keeping of egg-producing hens in cages, whereas RSPCA inspec-
tors in the various states are constrained by the law that allows the use of battery
cages for laying hens and can prosecute only when the law is breached.
In his book Political Animals, Dr Robert Garner examined animal protection
politics in Britain and the USA (Garner 1998), and he concluded (p. 235) that,
above all, his research revealed that public pressure has led to reform. Indeed, on
various occasions, it was only after public concern materialised that legislative
change to improve the treatment of animals took place, and frequently this was in
response to wide publicity of a specific situation showing the need for reform.
Moreover, Garner observes at the conclusion of his book (Garner 1998, p. 237) with
some optimism that both the British and American political systems are reasonably
responsive to change and that the task facing the animal protection movement in
both countries is to mobilise in any way possible a sufficiently large constituency to
achieve further improvements in the lives of animals. This should give encourage-
ment regarding the potential of people power in a democracy to bring about legal
reform to reduce or eliminate human-inflicted suffering on animals.
The animal movement has been divided between two extremes, comprising
those who seek a complete abolition in the use of animals by humans and those
who aim to improve the welfare of animals by legislative change (Jasper and Nelkin
1992, p. 178). However, as observed by Garner (1998, pp. 83, 92) the reality is that
most national animal rights organisations advocating abolition in fact adopt strate-
gies supporting non-abolitionist animal welfarist reforms as a means towards
achieving their ultimate abolitionist goal. Moreover, prominent animal rights
advocates Tom Regan and Gary Francione recognise (Armstrong and Botzler 2003,
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p. 567; Francione 1995, pp. 260–261) that legislative prohibitions provide a means
of achieving incremental improvements in animal protection. This demonstrates the
scope for animal organisations with different goals to work together.
It is suggested by Jasper and Nelkin (1992, p. 176) that if a solution is possible to
any rancorous conflict, it will require good faith from both sides to ensure dialogue
and compromise that is basic to a democratic process. Indeed, such dialogue and
compromise should provide the cement for animal protection organisations to work
together cooperatively for the benefit of animals and to exert influence on politi-
cians as makers of the law to reduce animal suffering. The approach of David
DeGrazia (1999, pp. 23–34; Armstrong and Botzler 2003, pp. 252–261) in relation
to experimental animals provides some inspiration for such cooperation. DeGrazia
compares the perspectives of those supporting and those opposing the use of
animals in research, and he identifies a number of principles on which the two
perspectives can agree and potentially can be built upon. The present author adopts
a pragmatic approach and contends that everything possible should be done to
improve the lives of animals and reduce their suffering by whatever means this can
be achieved realistically. Moreover, we should all work together harmoniously and
constructively to achieve this aim whatever our ultimate goal rather than pursue a
pipe dream of all or nothing.
In addition to the making of improvements in animal protection by means of
legislation, reform can result also from other actions. An inspirational account of
impressive outcomes that resulted directly from campaigning against unacceptable
activities regarding the treatment of animals by humans is contained in the biogra-
phy of Henry Spira by Peter Singer entitled Ethics into Action – Henry Spira and
the Animal Rights Movement (Singer 1998). Spira attended an evening adult
education course at New York University conducted by Peter Singer in 1974
prior to the publication of his book Animal Liberation but based on the contents
of that book. The need for reform was evident from the course, and Spira was keen
to do something about it. At the time he was in his mid-forties and had worked both
as a seafarer with a maritime union involvement and as a school teacher. For the
next 23 years from 1975 to 1998 Spira, working in collaboration with other
organisations and individuals, achieved enormous reforms for both experimental
animals and farm animals by means other than legislative change or legal action.
However, the reforms brought about by Spira involved much more than merely
making people aware of animal abuses. Indeed, he encountered opposition from
animal experimenters with vested career interests, corporate executives more
concerned with company profitability and image than with animal abuse, and
government officials so complacent that they had not even given a thought to
animal suffering.
Among the achievements of Henry Spira in relation to experimental animals
(Singer 1998, pp. 45–139) were (a) the ending of publicly funded research at the
American Museum of Natural History in New York on the sexual aberrations of
male cats whose brains had been surgically mutilated; (b) the initiation of research
by major corporations including Revlon and Avon to find alternatives to the cruel
2.5 Achievement of Legislative and Other Reform 23
eye blinding Draize test applied without anaesthetic to the eyes of rabbits to test
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cosmetics for use by humans, as well as taking action to get government to accept
such alternatives; and (c) a huge decrease in the use by Proctor & Gamble as well as
other corporations of the flawed and cruel LD50 test for product safety based on the
lethal dose of ingested substance required to kill half the animals in a test group, as
well as changing general corporate culture in relation to product testing. Indeed, by
1990, 11 of the largest cosmetic firms in America had ceased entirely product
testing on animals. Even though these reforms were achieved other than through
changes in legislation, they provided the catalyst for subsequent legislative changes
in various jurisdictions around the world. For instance, in South Australia Regula-
tions under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1985 (no. 10 of 2,000) forbid,
though with exceptions, the use of practices on animals that correspond to the
Draize and LD50 tests without actually mentioning them by name.
From 1985, Spira became involved in farm animal reform (Singer 1998,
pp. 141–182), and his achievements included: (a) abolition of the practice of
shackling and hoisting cattle in American slaughterhouses prior to Jewish and
Moslem ritual slaughter, and its replacement by an upright restraining device; (b)
removal of the requirement by the US Department of Agriculture that Mexican
cattle imported into the USA be subjected to hot iron face branding for identifica-
tion purposes; and (c) making progress towards getting McDonalds to adopt and
enforce a policy requiring the humane treatment of animals reared by its suppliers.
The principles involved in the successful campaigns of Henry Spira for reducing
animal suffering are analysed by Singer (1998, pp. 184–192), and he lists ten useful
points of advice to assist future campaigners in the achievement of reform in animal
protection by means other than legislative change. Both the experience of Henry
Spira and the advice of Peter Singer provide practical educational guidance to those
involved in campaigning to produce a better life for animals, and successful out-
comes from such campaigns can provide the catalyst for subsequent legislative
changes to ensure better protection for animals in the future.
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) founded in the USA in
1980 by Ingrid Newkirk and Alex Pacheco (Ryder 1998, p. 38) is an animal
protection organisation whose primary aim is to achieve reform by direct means
rather than work for legislative change. Some appreciation of its mode of operations
is provided in the autobiography of Dan Mathews, Vice President of PETA, entitled
Committed (Mathews 2007). Mathews is of the view that campaigning has to be
entertaining and fun in order to bring animal protection reform issues to people,
particularly those people not influenced by traditional campaigns that basically
expose the facts. Indeed, PETA uses both sensational methods and public celeb-
rities to draw community attention to the plight of animals in various situations. An
example of successful campaigning by PETA described in detail by Mathews
(2007, pp. 119–141) is achievement of the ending by leading New York fashion
designer Calvin Klein of the use of fur in his designs. It was only after a widely
publicised sensational raid on his office in New York and persistence by Mathews
that Calvin Klein agreed to view in the presence of Mathews a 4-min video showing
the shocking cruelty to which fur animals were subjected during their capture and
killing. Immediately after watching the video, Calvin Klein declared he would stop
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using fur. This shows how the opening of a closed mind can bring out compassion
following the facing of reality. Indeed, transparency coupled with education has a
powerful role to play, even where vested interests are involved. Subsequently,
Klein and Mathews became good friends and shared various activities together.
There are other ways also of achieving reform to reduce animal suffering without
the need for legislative change. According to Peter Singer (1990, p. 159), in relation
to farm animals, a supremely important thing that can be done is to stop eating
animals. Indeed, a decision to become vegetarian or vegan is a very direct means of
reducing the extent of suffering experienced by farm animals, particularly those in
factory farming situations. Another means of bringing about reform is to avoid
purchasing products such as cosmetics that have been tested on animals. This
requires transparency and, to assist in this, lists of accredited suppliers producing
products made without subjecting animals to cruelty are published by organisations
such as Choose Cruelty Free (2008) based in Australia. Moreover, there is growing
awareness of the cruelty involved in producing eggs from hens kept in battery cages,
and in the UK McDonalds now obtains its eggs from suppliers that deal only in free-
range eggs (Sherman et al. 2005, p. 7). More recently, in response to the RSPCA
Australia Choose Wisely campaign (RSPCA South Australia 2009, p. 6; Innes 2009,
p. 15), the Hilton Hotel in Adelaide converted to using only free-range eggs.
However, the growing consumer awareness of animal protection issues has
resulted in some suppliers of animal-derived products resorting to deceptive or
meaningless advertising on packaging (Carrick 2009) to give an impression to con-
sumers that their products are produced under conditions favourable for animals when
in reality this is not the case. This demonstrates further the need for proper transpar-
ency and the appropriate education of consumers. This could be facilitated by manda-
tory and enforced effective product labelling as advocated in a report by Voiceless
entitled From Label to Liable: Scams, Scandals and Secrecy (Sharman 2007).
It is seen that there are various ways involving both legislative change and other
means by which reforms in animal protection can be achieved. Indeed, every possible
avenue for bringing about reform to improve the lives of animals should be used.
Each person seeking to contribute to reform should choose the approach or means
that is suitable and attractive to him or her. Indeed, it is the cumulative effect of the
various efforts made in a range of different situations that will result in widespread
change to reduce or eliminate the terrible suffering to which many animals are
subjected. Education can make people aware of how this can be achieved.
2.6 Training of Professionals, Carers, and Users Involved

with Animals
There is wide scope for education to contribute to the proper training of profes-
sionals, carers, and users whose working lives involve interaction with animals, so
as to provide a better life for the animals for which they are responsible. Such
2.6 Training of Professionals, Carers, and Users Involved with Animals 25
persons include, among others, owners of companion animals, farm workers,

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experimental animal carers and users, animal transporters, slaughterhouse workers,

and veterinary surgeons.
It is observed by Mike Radford (2001, p. 307) that a major factor influencing
the treatment of domestic and captive animals is the attitude of those responsible
for them. Indeed, the most important factor determining the welfare of animals is
the standard of knowledge, conscientiousness, and sympathetic care that com-
prises good stockmanship, and even a system that is welfare friendly can fail if it
is not combined with competent stockmanship and sound management. In rela-
tion to professional proficiency, it is shown by Radford (2001, pp. 307–315) that
in the UK there is wide variation in the degree of sophistication in the extent of
public control over activities involving animals and those responsible for them,
ranging from detailed and complex regulation of the use of animals in scientific
procedures to no formal licensing or certification for farming activities, markets,
or circuses. Such variations probably exist also in other jurisdictions. Radford
(2001, p. 316) concludes that the practical and symbolic influence of licensing,
certification, and registration in respect of both establishments and personnel
involved with animals must not be underestimated, and they provide a restriction
on the traditional right of an owner to treat an animal as property in any way
he or she sees fit. Education has an important role to contribute in making
effective any such regulation of the way in which humans treat animals under
their control.
In relation to companion animals, educational training of pet owners is provided
by a range of agencies including government departments and statutory authorities,
animal protection organisations, and local councils. For instance, the Dog and Cat
Management Board (2008) of the South Australian Government produces a bro-
chure Golden Rules for Dog Owners, RSPCA Queensland (2007, p. 24) operates an
educational bus EMU that tours the state, and the City of Charles Sturt (2008) in
South Australia produces an information sheet Caring for Your Cat – Be Responsible
and Make A Difference! Regarding cats, education can assist also in making their
owners aware of the problem of predation by cats on birds (Gibbons et al. 2007,
pp. 31, 44) and other wildlife, and of precautions to take such as fitting a cat with a
bell or sonic device to warn potential prey and reduce kills. Many pet owners are
young people so education regarding companion animals has a particularly impor-
tant part to play in the development of a caring attitude towards animals.
The celebrated medical practitioner and humanitarian Dr Albert Schweitzer
observed of humans (World Society for the Protection of Animals 2004, p. 5) that
“until he extends his circle of compassion to all living things, man will not himself
find peace”, and in the view of Phil Brooke (2007, p. 2), Welfare and Education
Development Manager of Compassion in World Farming (CIWF), “the central
purpose of humane education is to widen the circle of compassion”. A recent
report entitled Stop-Look-Listen: Recognising the Sentience of Farm Animals was
produced by Dr Jacky Turner (2006) for CIWF, and this provides an informative
educational account of farm animal sentience and welfare. Indeed, the report
demonstrates clearly the important needs of animals and shows the suffering to
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which many farm animals of various types are subjected. Another valuable
resource on general animal welfare as well as on the welfare of specific types
of animal, namely dogs, cats, horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and laboratory animals,
is the Springer Animal Welfare Series of books by various authors (Phillips 2009,
p. ii). The editor of this series is Professor Clive Phillips, Director of the Centre for
Animal Welfare and Ethics (CAWE) in the School of Veterinary Science at the
University of Queensland, and in relation to the series he observes (Phillips 2008,
p. 1):
It is hoped that these books will provide inspiration to all those people who are working
tirelessly to improve animal welfare with little thanks or praise. . . . Working for animals, as
opposed to with animals, requires courage and the people involved often face criticisms from
those who seek to get the maximum from their animals for the smallest input. Some whose
livelihoods depend on using animals are averse to any change that will affect the short-term
profitability of their enterprise, although by improving animal welfare they are guaranteeing
their future markets and the ethical acceptability of their business in the long-term.
Such educational materials can contribute greatly to improving the training and
attitudes of farm animal operators and carers. Moreover, positive educational
perspectives for improving the welfare of laying hens and pig production are
contained in two comprehensive reports of Compassion in World Farming
(CIWF), namely Practical Alternatives to Battery Cages for Laying Hens: Case
Studies from Across the European Union (Arey 2004) and Animal Welfare Aspects
of Good Agricultural Practice: Pig Production (Arey and Brooke 2006). It is hoped
these reports provide a window to the future for layer hens and pig farming and
contribute to a much needed enlargement of the circle of compassion.
In relation to experimental animals, a great deal of educational information is
contained, for instance, in the Australian Code of Practice for the Care and Use of
Animals for Scientific Purposes (Australian Government 2004). This code includes
general principles for the care and use of experimental animals, institutional
responsibilities and animal ethics committees, responsibilities of investigators and
teachers, acquisition and care of animals, wildlife studies, and the use of animals in
teaching, as well as extensive references to sources of information on a range of
relevant matters including legislation and codes of practice, policies and guidelines,
animal welfare and ethics, and alternatives to the use of animals. The question
arises, however, as to what extent in practice is such information properly accessed,
considered, and implemented by carers and users of experimental and teaching
animals so as to improve the lives and reduce the suffering of the animals for which
they are responsible. Indeed, it is seen in the Australian Animal Welfare Strategy
Education and Training Working Group (2008, p. 4) Stocktake in relation to
animals used in research and teaching that there is scope for improvement in the
application of humane practices, the training of animal care staff, the implementa-
tion of legislation, the training of Animal Ethics Committee members, the wider use
of teaching animal welfare and animal ethics to university students, and the
monitoring of animal use for teaching purposes in schools and tertiary institutions.
These insights suggest that much needs to be done to improve the situation of
2.6 Training of Professionals, Carers, and Users Involved with Animals 27
animals used in research and teaching if they are used for these purposes and that
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better education of carers and users can contribute in this regard.

Animal transport is another area where there is serious need not only for greater
regulation, but also for improved training of transport operators and animal trans-
porters. This was evidenced in a graphic video Journeys of Shame and in a report
Summary of Suffering II on long-distance animal transport in Europe (Eurogroup
for Animal Welfare 2003, p. 8) that showed animal suffering caused by neglect, bad
handling, and disregard for European rules by both transporters and Member States
of the European Union. More recently, the Handle with Care campaign conducted
by a coalition of animal protection organisations led by the World Society for the
Protection of Animals (WSPA) produced a report Beyond Cruelty. Beyond Reason.
Long Distance Transport and Welfare of Farm Animals (Handle with Care Coalition,
World Society for the Protection of Animals 2008) that demonstrated the existence
of widespread animal cruelty globally associated with long-distance transport.
A more detailed account of animal suffering during long-distance transport is
contained in Appleby et al. (2008). Education could contribute to a reduction in
the extent of such suffering through the provision of animal welfare training for
those involved in long-distance animal transport. However, much of the problem
lies in the very existence of long-distance animal transport. Education could play a
valuable role in this also by demonstrating the desirability of slaughtering animals
close to where they are reared. This would reduce animal suffering during transport,
the potential spread of disease among both animals and humans, costly and ineffec-
tive enforcement of transport regulations, and reduction in meat quality arising
from animal stress during transport (Handle with Care Coalition, World Society for
the Protection of Animals 2008). Indeed, there are good reasons that include animal
welfare for replacing long-distance live animal transport by the transport of meat.
In their book Animals Make Us Human: Creating the Best Life for Animals,
Temple Grandin and Catherine Johnson (2009) stress the importance of hiring and
training good people to work with livestock. Managers need to be strong and caring,
sadistic or bullying employees should be dismissed, constant training and retraining
is required, and auditing from outside is desirable. This is especially so in slaughter-
houses where animals should not spend the end of their lives in terror. Even though
animal killing involves speciesism and can be regarded as morally wrong, the
reality is that it is going to continue to take place for some time at least. Moreover,
it is often accompanied by animal suffering, so that education has an important
role to play in reducing or eliminating such suffering during slaughter. In relation
to animal slaughter, it is observed by Grandin (Armstrong and Botzler 2003,
pp. 187–189) that promotion of better stockmanship is essential to improving
animal welfare. Moreover, attitudes can be changed, and such change can improve
both animal welfare and productivity. However, to maintain such progress, the
handling and stunning of animals at slaughter needs to be constantly audited,
measured, and managed to avoid reversion to rough handling. Education can play
an important role in achieving this. Moreover, the fast food companies can and do
have an important contribution to make by requiring their meat suppliers to
maintain high animal welfare standards.
In the case of free-living wildlife, there are no carers as such. However, humans
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who impact on wildlife animals have a moral duty of care towards them, and this
duty should be borne in mind by those whose activities affect them. Such activities
include the use of anticoagulant rodenticides, the poisoning of wildfowl by the
ingestion of lead shot, contamination of sea birds by oil, the consequences of
shooting, injuries caused by road traffic, and predation by domestic cats (Sainsbury
et al. 1995, pp. 183–206). These activities have severe adverse effects on the
welfare of large numbers of animals. However, as shown by Sainsbury et al.
(1995), practical approaches can be adopted to reduce or prevent some of these
wildlife problems, and they suggest that consideration should always be given in
environmental impact assessments to the consequences on the welfare of wildlife of
any new developments or technologies prior to their introduction. In this the
appropriate education of those involved can play an important role.
Finally, some observations are made regarding the education and training of
veterinary surgeons, who are responsible for the care of a wide range of animal
types in a variety of different situations. In the UK, the Royal College of Veterinary
Surgeons (RCVS) Oath reads (Phillips 2007):
I promise above all that I will pursue the work of my profession with uprightness of conduct
and that my constant endeavour will be to ensure the welfare of the animals committed to
my care.
Moreover, Clive Phillips (2007) asserts that in veterinary education more than just
science is needed. However, in some veterinary medicine courses, little animal
welfare is taught due to time constraints, or animal welfare is regarded as an
optional rather than a core subject. Fortunately, this situation is changing. In
Britain, Donald Broom has since 1986 been the Colleen MacLeod Professor of
Animal Welfare in the Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine at Cambridge
(Broom 2001). More recently, in Australia at the University of Queensland, Clive
Phillips was appointed the first Professor of Animal Welfare and Director of the
Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics (CAWE) in the School of Veterinary
Science, and at Sydney University the appreciation of issues in animal welfare
and ethics is included among the stated professional practice outcomes in the
veterinary science course (Phillips 2007).
A significant development relating to the teaching of animal welfare in veteri-
nary courses around the world was the launch in 2003 by the World Society for
the Protection of Animals (WSPA) and the University of Bristol School of Veteri-
nary Science (de Boo and Knight 2005, pp. 451–453) of Concepts in Animal
Welfare that comprises a syllabus in Animal Welfare Science and Ethics for
Veterinary Schools. This comprehensive syllabus contains 7 core subjects as well
as 23 elective modules that cover a wide range of animal welfare issues and animal
categories. The syllabus can be adapted for use in any veterinary curriculum, and
WSPA offers training and workshops in developing countries as well as assistance
with implementing the syllabus. Indeed, the syllabus has the potential to contribute
enormously to the inclusion of animal welfare teaching as an important part of
veterinary education.
2.7 Scope for Science to Contribute 29
Over the last decade or so there have been moves to reduce the invasive use
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of live animals in veterinary education. In May 2000, two fourth-year veterinary

students, Andrew Knight of Murdoch University in Western Australia and Lucy
Fish of Sydney University in New South Wales, were presented by the World
League for Animal Protection with an award at Parliament House, Sydney, for
promotion of compassion for animals (Animals Today 2000, p. 7). These two
students conducted successful campaigns to allow the conscientious objection by
students to using live animals in experiments as part of their veterinary courses, and
they promoted the use of non-animal alternatives. At the University of Sydney
veterinary school, live animals are now used only for non-invasive teaching and
demonstration as in clinical studies, animal handling, and examination (Phillips
2007), and all basic veterinary surgery training is done on cadavers. Moreover, it is
anticipated that at Glasgow University in Scotland the use of live animals in
veterinary training may be reduced with the increase in innovative alternatives.
Thus, important developments are taking place both in the teaching and in the
practice of animal welfare in veterinary education. Furthermore, it is seen that there
is considerable scope also for the use of animal welfare education in a wide variety
of situations involving animals.
2.7 Scope for Science to Contribute
Science can contribute to improvement in animal protection in a variety of ways.

For instance, it shows the biological similarity between humans and animals and
hence the capacity of animals to suffer, it provides credible evidence relating to
animal needs and appropriate care, it helps find alternatives to animal use in a
variety of situations, and it establishes health risks to humans associated with eating
meat as well as the health advantages to humans that result from adopting a
vegetarian diet and in doing so reduces the extent of animal suffering. Moreover,
the establishment of animal welfare as a scientific discipline and the use of scientific
evidence to support claims has been described by Broom (2001, p. 25) as the most
important general achievement for animals during the latter years of the twentieth
century.
In his book The Origin of Species published in 1859, Charles Darwin enunciated
his theory of evolution by means of mutability, transmutation, and natural selection
that is regarded by Radford (2001, p. 89) as the most profound and far-reaching
development during the nineteenth century in our understanding of the world and
the position of humans within it. Furthermore, Radford (2001, p. 118) emphasises
the importance of using science and ethics as the proper basis for legislation
designed to provide better protection for animals. Indeed, the emergence of animal
welfare as a discrete discipline is primarily a scientific notion (Radford 2001,
pp. 261–262) in contrast to the traditional concept of animal cruelty that was based
on a long-established legal test. Moreover, Ryder (1998, p. 89) suggests that the
establishment of the science of animal welfare in Western universities may prove to

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be one of the most enduring achievements of the animal movement and that there is
a growing fusion of hard-headed science with tender-minded compassion that
should result in reduced animal suffering.
An early example of the role of science in examining animal welfare issues was
the investigation and reporting in 1965 in Britain by the Brambell Committee
(Singer 1990, p. 142) on the keeping of animals under intensive livestock farming
systems. Subsequently, scientific studies have contributed to changes in both
legislation and practice to improve animal welfare (Broom 2001, p. 25), and he
cites banning the use of crates for veal calves that followed rigorous scientific
research. Other important research findings referred to by Broom are the weaken-
ing of bones of hens kept in battery cages due to lack of exercise and severe
adverse effects on the welfare of sows resulting from the confinement of pigs
by means of stalls and tethers. These findings also have resulted in legislative
change. By contrast, science has contributed to the development of genetically
engineered pigs and poultry that are unable to stand up without suffering.
It is important that awareness of scientific findings impinging on animal welfare
is propagated by education so they become widely known. This can be achieved
through conferences and other means. For instance, at the Australian and New
Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching
(ANZCCART) Conference on Farm Animals in Research held in Adelaide in
2000, a comprehensive review of the effects of housing on the behaviour and
physiology of pigs and poultry was presented by Barnett and Glatz (2001,
pp. 45–55). In 2004, a report on links between animal health and animal welfare
in the context of transport was produced by Eurogroup in collaboration with
RSPCA (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare and RSPCA 2004). This report was
based on a detailed study by scientists at the Cambridge University Animal
Welfare Information Centre, and it showed, among other things, the severe stress
from handling experienced by range-reared beef cattle during transport and the
significant adverse effect on pig welfare that results from rough handling or the
use of harmful handling devices during transport. Moreover, pigs have a very low
thermoregulatory ability so that death during transport can result from exposure to
heat. Science has been used also by the World Society for the Protection of
Animals (WSPA) to develop a bear detection kit (World Society for the Protection
of Animals 2008) for use by CITES enforcement officers to identify bear parts and
derivatives in traditional medicine products traded internationally in contraven-
tion of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES).
A strategic review undertaken in 1997 by the Universities Federation for Animal
Welfare (UFAW) identified as priorities (Kirkwood 2007):
Encouragement and support of high-quality research likely to lead to substantial

advances in animal welfare
Promotion of education about animal welfare, particularly at the tertiary (univer
sity and college) level
2.7 Scope for Science to Contribute 31
Promotion of animal welfare by provision of advice, dissemination of informa

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tion, development of guidelines and legislation, and organisation of meetings

and workshops
The motto of UFAW is Science in the Service of Animal Welfare, and in 2003
UFAW published a book entitled Environmental Enrichment for Captive Animals
(Young 2003) that was the first in the UFAW/Blackwell Animal Welfare Series.
Another useful series of books on animal welfare that covers specific animal types
as well as animal welfare generally is the Springer Animal Welfare Series edited by
Professor Clive Phillips of the Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics (CAWE) at
the University of Queensland (Phillips 2009, p. ii). Such publications make an
important contribution to animal welfare education and help disseminate knowl-
edge of scientific findings relevant to improving animal protection.
Another way in which science can make a major contribution to improved
animal welfare and reduction in animal suffering is its application in finding
alternatives to animal use. Following a 1986 Directive of the European Union (EU)
on the protection of animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes, the
European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) was estab-
lished in 1993 as a unit of the Environment Institute of the Commission of the
European Union based in Italy (Hughes 1995, pp. 14, 15, 32). Professor Michael
Balls was appointed inaugural head of ECVAM with the task of promoting world-
wide the use of alternatives to animals in research as well as conducting research
using non-animal methods. Indeed, since then ECVAM has been responsible for
important advances involving alternatives to animal use, and its work is being
increasingly recognised internationally (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2004b,
pp. 91–93). However, for the work of ECVAM to be fully effective, it is essential
that the European Commission and Member States act expeditiously to implement
the adoption of alternative testing strategies developed by ECVAM. Moreover, the
Commission needs to achieve international acceptance of alternative methods
validated by the European Community, and this involves ensuring that the alter-
natives are included in OECD test guidelines that are recognised globally. Further-
more, use can be made of cooperative international agreements with countries
outside the EU to get new alternatives accepted. In Britain, the Fund for the
Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments (FRAME) is very active in the
development of alternatives to laboratory animals, and a journal Alternatives to
Laboratory Animals (ATLA) edited at FRAME by Professor Michael Balls in
conjunction with an international editorial board provides a valuable educational
resource on alternatives (Balls 2007). The Physicians Committee for Responsible
Medicine (PCRM) founded in the USA by Neal Barnard MD (Animals Today
1995b, pp. 10–13) is involved also in promoting the use of alternatives to animals in
both education and research.
In New Zealand, the National Animal Ethics Advisory Committee (NAEAC) in
2003 instituted an award to recognise implementation in New Zealand of the 3Rs,
namely reduction, refinement, and replacement, (National Animal Ethics Advisory
Committee 2004, p. 18), and the inaugural prize was awarded to Associate
Professor Alex Davies of the Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical

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Sciences at Massey University for using computer technology as an alternative to

animal use in teaching. Davies developed around 40 virtual teaching tools covering
a range of animals for use in anatomical instruction to veterinary students. In
Britain at Oxford University physiologist Professor Denis Noble CBE FRS deve-
loped a computerised model of the human heart (Noble 2004), and this enabled a
reduction in the number of animals used in research. It is important that the
development of alternatives to animal use is seen as a highly respected and
worthwhile field of research that results in the avoidance of animal suffering.
Other types of scientific research projects leading to a reduction in animal
suffering include, for instance, research by Ian McDonald at the Centre for Animal
Welfare and Ethics (CAWE) in the School of Veterinary Science at the University of
Queensland (McDonald 2008) on the use of immuno-contraception as a means of
non-lethal control of over abundant kangaroo populations in urban areas and to
assist in this research McDonald was awarded the 2008 Alan White Scholarship for
Animal Welfare by RSPCA Australia (CAWE 2008). Recently, in Nepal Dr Andrew
McLean tested scientifically based horse training methods on the training of
elephants using positive and negative reinforcement techniques (Newby 2009). In
a few days McLean successfully trained elephants without the infliction of suffering,
whereas the traditional method used took around 6 weeks of harsh training to
achieve similar results. These examples illustrate the diverse contribution science
is able to make in finding alternatives that reduce animal suffering and indicate the
desirability of applying thought and effort to the search for alternative means in a
wide range of situations involving animals so as to improve their protection.
Finally, science can contribute to showing the advantages to humans of adopting
a vegetarian diet. This involves both health and environmental issues as well as a
reduction in animal suffering (Singer 1990, pp. 159–183). According to Neal
Barnard MD (Animals Today 1995b, p. 11), there is an abundance of scientific
research evidence that a vegetarian diet can reverse existing heart disease, lower
cholesterol levels, and help prevent many forms of cancer. Indeed, US Government
statistics reveal that 30–60% of cancers are attributable to dietary factors, particu-
larly the eating of meat. Moreover, it is observed by Russell (2008, p. 16) that a
recent detailed assessment of scientific research made by the World Cancer
Research Fund showed that red meat causes bowel cancer, and the Victorian Cancer
Council has estimated that in Australia around six thousand people a year are
diagnosed with cancer resulting directly from eating more than one serve of red
meat a week. A consequence of eating less meat would be a reduction in animal
suffering, even though utilitarian philosophy might argue that the reduced suffering
resulting from fewer animals needs to be weighed against the happiness these
animals might otherwise have experienced (Singer 1990, pp. 227–230).
It is seen there are many different ways in which science can make a major
contribution to improving animal protection and reducing animal suffering. More-
over, education can increase awareness of the scope for this as well as assist
in fostering appropriate attitudes so that alternatives to animal use are both sought
and used.
2.8 Regional and International Protection 33
2.8 Regional and International Protection

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Animals know no man-made geographical boundaries, and their suffering is uni-

versal. It is important that through education and other means every effort possible
is made both within individual countries and from outside to reduce the suffering of
animals and improve their lives all over the world.
On a regional basis, substantial improvements in animal protection have been
achieved within the European Union. This has been assisted by a series of conven-
tions on animal protection and conservation adopted by the Council of Europe
(RSPCA UK 1999, p. 4; Eurogroup for Animal Welfare and RSPCA International
2001, p. 15) that deal with farm animals, experimental animals, animal slaughter,
and international animal transport as well as wildlife and natural habitats. Under the
principle of subsidiarity (Steiner et al. 2003, pp. 48–49; RSPCA UK 1999, p. 6)
laws covering the welfare of farm animals, animals in research, and the protection
of wildlife are made at European Community level for reasons of harmonisation,
whereas laws covering general cruelty and companion animals are the responsibi-
lity of individual states. In the European Union, a great deal has been achieved
regarding progressive reforms in the protection of animals including farm animals
as described earlier. Moreover, since the 1957 Treaty of Rome that established the
European Union (formerly the European Economic Community), the number of
Member States of the EU has grown progressively from the original 6 states in 1957
to 27 states by 2007 so that the geographical jurisdiction and number of animals
covered by European Community law have increased enormously. It should be
mentioned that prior to being admitted as a new Member State of the European
Union, a candidate country is required to adopt the acquis communautare of EC law
that includes the legal provisions applying to animal protection (Eurogroup for
Animal Welfare and RSPCA International 2001). This has involved a major role for
education, particularly that conducted by Eurogroup and by RSPCA International,
and such education will continue to be needed as the European Union expands
further in the future.
An important advance in animal protection in the EC was the adoption in 1997 of
the Treaty of Amsterdam Protocol on the Welfare and Protection of Animals
(Camm and Bowles 2000) discussed earlier. This protocol is annexed to the Treaty
of Amsterdam so forms an integral part of the EC Treaty. It is possible that in the
future other regional groupings of countries will contribute also to improving
regional protection of animals in their regions. In any event, the progressive
legislative developments in animal protection in the European Union can be used
as an educational guide for developing better animal protection law in other
national jurisdictions and in provincial jurisdictions as in the states of Australia.
Indeed, the European Union offers many valuable lessons for enhancing animal
protection around the world, and in this education can play a substantial role.
There is as yet no general international convention covering the welfare of
animals. However, some progress towards a Declaration on Animal Welfare was
achieved by the 2003 Manila Agreement described previously. Subsequent to that
agreement, the willingness of five countries from different geographical regions,

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namely Costa Rica, Kenya, India, Republic of the Philippines, and the Czech
Republic, was secured for them to act as a Steering Committee to build broad
intergovernmental agreement on a draft Declaration on Animal Welfare for even-
tual submission to the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the United
Nations (World Society for the Protection of Animals 2005a, b). In November
2005, the Government of Costa Rica in cooperation with international animal
welfare organisations including the World Society for the Protection of Animals
(WSPA), Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA),
Humane Society International (HSI), and Compassion in World Farming (CIWF)
hosted the first meeting of the Steering Committee. It was decided the committee
was to circulate the Proposal for a Declaration on Animal Welfare adopted at the
Manila conference to all governments around the world, and its member countries
attempt to develop support for the declaration in their own regions. Moreover, the
coalition of animal protection organisations was to provide technical, logistical, and
lobbying support to the governments on the Steering Committee (World Society for
the Protection of Animals 2006) and represent the public face of the government led
initiative to persuade the United Nations to adopt a Universal Declaration on
Animal Welfare that would be analogous to the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights 1948. Such a declaration is not legally binding, as distinct from a treaty that
would be the next step, but they do have a very important educational and
persuasive value. Indeed, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights remained
the most widely cited human rights instrument (Steiner and Alston 2000,
pp. 138–139).
Even though there is no specific international agreement on animal welfare,
some existing international conventions on conservation and the environment do
provide indirect protection to animals against suffering. For instance, the Conven-
tion on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES) (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2004b, pp. 48–49) does prevent many
individual animals from suffering during capture or transport, and the Convention
on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter
(London Convention) and the International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships 1973 coupled with the 1978 Protocol (MARPOL 73/78) as
well as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (LOSC) that
imposes an obligation on states to prevent, reduce, and control land-based marine
pollution (Heathcote 2003a, p. 9, 2003b, p. 1; Hassan 2002, p. 81; Eadie 2001, p. 7)
do reduce the extent of suffering by sea animals resulting from either the ingestion
of or entanglement with marine debris or being coated by oil. However, such
conventions are not fully effective as evidenced, for instance, by the smuggling
of baby orangutans from Indonesia in contravention of CITES (Smits 2004, p. 1),
and the huge number of marine animals that do suffer from the existence of marine
debris and oil pollution (Maritime Studies 2005, pp. 31–33). The various reasons
for such international conventions not being fully effective are outlined by Eadie
(2009, pp. 191–192). Nevertheless, animals are probably much better protected
than they would be in the absence of such international agreements. Moreover, the
2.8 Regional and International Protection 35
agreements have an important educational role both in their negotiation and in their
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existence.
Animals are provided some indirect protection also by International Humanitarian
Law (IHL) provisions designed to protect the civilian population from hostilities
because animals and the civilian population are frequently found in the same general
location. Such indirect protection of animals is provided, for instance, by the Regula-
tions on Land Warfare (Kalshoven and Zegveld 2001, pp. 21–23) that originated from
the Hague Conference of 1899, and contained a basic rule prohibiting the bombard-
ment of undefended towns, villages, dwellings, and buildings. More recently, under
the two 1977 Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, dealing with
the protection of victims of international and non-international armed conflicts,
respectively, provision is made for the protection of works and installations containing
dangerous forces, namely dams, dykes, and nuclear electrical generating stations, and
in practice, this prohibition protects animals as well as humans. Another example of
indirect protection to animals is provided by the 1997 Convention on the Prohibition
of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and on their
Destruction (Ottawa Convention). This convention banning anti-personnel mines,
commonly known as land mines (Kalshoven and Zegveld 2001, pp. 168–169),
provides protection not only to humans, but also to animals such as elephants that
fall victim to them and are severely injured.
In 2003, an important decision was made by the World Organisation for Animal
Health (OIE) to embark, with multinational support, on preparing international
standards and guidelines on animal welfare (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2004a,
p. 7), and initially working groups were established to examine guidelines for land
transport, sea transport, slaughter, and disease control emergency killing. Early in
2004 OIE held a Global Conference on Animal Welfare (Eurogroup for Animal
Welfare 2005, p. 9), and to coincide with that conference Eurogroup published a
report showing the links between animal health and animal welfare in the context of
animal transport. Scientifically based animal welfare standards are being developed
by OIE (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry 2005, pp. 33–34), and
these are to be consistent with agreed OIE Guiding Principles on Animal Welfare.
These guiding principles, among others, include the acceptance that:
There is a critical relationship between animal health and animal welfare.
The internationally recognised “five freedoms” provide valuable guidance in
animal welfare.
The internationally recognised “three Rs” provide valuable guidance for the use
of animals in science.
At the World Health Organisation (WHO) Global Forum for Health Research
held in Mexico City in November 2004, the World Society for the Protection of
Animals (WSPA) presented a report entitled Industrial Animal Agriculture – The
Next Global Health Crisis? that expressed grave concerns regarding the effects on
human health of the growth in industrial animal farming, particularly in developing
countries (World Society for the Protection of Animals 2005c, p. 12). Ironically, the
2009 swine flu pandemic originated in Mexico. Recently, WSPA produced a report
Industrial Animal Agriculture – Part of the Poverty Problem (Cox 2007) showing
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that rapidly growing industrial animal agriculture in developing countries in Latin

America, Asia, and Africa is not only bad for animal welfare, but bad for the poor in
those countries. Indeed, the report calls for international development agencies and
NGOs to address the problem of industrial animal agriculture as a fundamental part
of poverty alleviation. These concerns need to be borne in mind by OIE in
developing animal welfare standards as well does its commitment to the “five
freedoms”.
The major international animal protection organisations campaign against the
suffering of various types of animals in countries where they are abused or
neglected. For instance, the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA)
campaigns against issues such as wildlife poaching in Kenya, street dogs in
Indonesia, and bear farming for bile in China, Vietnam, and Korea (World Society
for the Protection of Animals 2005c, pp. 4, 18–20, 24–26, 28–29). The present
author suggests it might be useful to compile country reports covering the whole
world similar to those published by Amnesty International in relation to human
rights (Amnesty International 2008) that could highlight the more serious types of
animal suffering and abuse that occur in each country as well as record positive
developments that take place. Such reports could be used as an educational resource
for campaigning for reform both within an individual country and from outside the
country concerned. It has been observed by Keith Suter (2007, pp. 213–227) that in
relation to human rights the world is entering a new era of global accountability to
replace the long-held notion of national sovereignty, and in the view of the present
author it would be desirable for such global accountability to extend to the treat-
ment of animals by humans around the world.
Chapter 3
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Educational Contexts Involved in Reduction

in Animal Suffering
In this chapter, consideration is given to a number of different though interrelated

contexts that facilitate the contribution of education in improving the protection of
animals against suffering inflicted by humans. These educational contexts provide
the avenues for addressing the various educational themes discussed in the previous
chapter.
3.1 Primary and Secondary School Systems
The school system provides enormous opportunities for the education of young
people in caring attitudes of kindness, empathy, and respect towards animals as
sentient beings capable of suffering. Indeed, Professor Don Broom of Cambridge
regards younger people on average as having greater concern about moral issues
related to animals and the environment than older people (Broom 2001, p. 25), and
Dr Jane Goodall sees it as important that young people globally are encouraged,
motivated, and inspired to understand why it is vital to save natural resources and
have respect for life (Goodall 2003, pp. 271–272). Frequently, school curricula
provide the opportunity for addressing animal issues and respect for animals
without specifying that they must be covered, and these issues have to compete
for limited time with a great many other issues that confront modern society. For
these reasons, it is important for educators to be fully aware of animal issues and for
teachers to find scope to incorporate respect for animals in their educational
programs. In order to facilitate this, it is highly desirable that a proper consideration
of animal issues be included in teacher training education and professional
development.
Humane education is defined by World Animal Net (2008a) as:
A process that encourages an understanding of the need for compassion and respect for
people, animals and the environment and recognises the interdependence of all living
things.
In view of its long-term effectiveness, World Animal Net regards formal hum-
ane education in schools as particularly important as it provides the means for

38 3 Educational Contexts Involved in Reduction in Animal Suffering
developing caring attitudes among the next generation of citizens. The ideal of
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formal education in schools should not be to indoctrinate, but rather to encourage

consideration of issues such as (World Animal Net 2008b):
Thinking about others (including animals) and their needs, feelings, and suffering
Thinking about the effects of your actions
Thinking about the world and your place within it
Indeed, the incorporation of humane education in the formal education of children
is fundamental to a long-term strategy of alleviating animal suffering on a global
scale.
In Australia, a debate about the role of values in education led to the development
and publication by the Australian Government in 2004 of a National Framework for
Values Education in Australian Schools, and this is based around the following nine
broad value descriptors (Macgregor 2007, p. 3):
Care and compassion
Doing your best
Fair go
Freedom
Honesty and trustworthiness
Integrity
Respect
Responsibility
Tolerance and inclusion
According to Macgregor, learning and development has various facets that can be
set out in a hierarchy of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, aspirations, and
behaviours, and that at each successive level there is increasing importance of “a
shared understanding and close positive working relationship between families,
schools, and the wider community”. In the view of Macgregor, the more extensive
and interactive the family–school–community discussion of values, the more likely
the process will result in differentiation between real shared community values and
propaganda as well as between core values and irrational prejudice. Indeed, the
inclusion of humane education within the framework of values education in
Australia should have the potential not only to engender a compassionate ethic
towards animals among young people but also to extend such values within the
wider community so as to reduce animal suffering and improve the lives of
animals.
An inspiring account of learning compassion in primary school was presented by
Carmel Loane (2007), year 6 teacher at Holland Park State School in Queensland, at
the CIWF-Griffith University Humane Education Conference held in Brisbane in
2007. Loane defined compassion as “a deep awareness of the suffering of another,
coupled with the wish to relieve it”, and she actively involved her pupils, their
parents, and the community in campaigns against battery cages for hens and stalls
for breeding sows. This demonstrated how primary students can become passion-
ately involved in an effective way not only in the development of their own attitudes
3.1 Primary and Secondary School Systems 39
in relation to compassion, but used their compassion in a practical way to influence

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the wider community so as to reduce the suffering of animals.

For use in secondary school education, Cath Liang of Compassion in World
Farming (CIWF) based in the UK published a stimulating book entitled Compas-
sionate Farming – Information and Activities for Secondary Schools (Stiles 1999,
p. 31). The book presented without emotion the facts of animal suffering resulting
from human activities such as intensive farming, medical research, and recreational
hunting, and challenged secondary school students to weigh the ethical issues
against economic and political reality. The book described existing practices,
offered alternatives, and asked questions so that students could think through the
issues, develop their own ethical framework, and exert their own influence as
individuals and consumers. The approach adopted in the book of providing accurate
information and stimulating critical thought and debate provides a particularly
suitable means for enhancing real compassion for animals as part of values educa-
tion among secondary school students, and the material it contains (with appropri-
ate updates) could be incorporated into the curriculum for a variety of subjects in
many countries.
Within the Australian education system, except in relation to the matter of
keeping and using animals in schools that is discussed later in this section, there
is considerable flexibility regarding the extent to which animal issues are included
as part of prescribed school curricula. For instance, in Tasmania (Bartlett 2008) the
issue of animal protection could be included most relevantly within the responsible
citizenship strand of the subject Society and History and within the living things
substrand of the human endeavour strand of the subject Science. However, Bartlett
observes that teachers could adequately cover these strands without specifically
addressing the issue of improving the protection of animals against suffering
inflicted by humans. This highlights the desirability of teachers being conscious
of the issue of animal suffering and for it to be incorporated where possible in the
teaching program. Indeed, the Department of Education in Tasmania has produced
Pets – A Matter of Care as a unit of work for preparatory students and What Value
Wildlife? as a unit of work for secondary students (Bartlett 2008), but teachers may
or may not choose to use these units. Again, much depends on the attitude of
particular teachers to animal protection issues. On a positive note, it is encouraging
to observe (Bartlett 2008) that some Tasmanian schools are using materials pro-
duced by the RSPCA.
In the case of the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), the Department of
Education and Training recently implemented a new curriculum framework for
ACT schools (Barr 2008), and this includes mandatory learning for all students
from preschool to year 10 about acting with integrity and having regard for others
including animals. Based on the new curriculum framework, schools in the ACT
design their own curriculum, and in order to assist children to learn about caring for
animals some schools have accessed programs provided by the RSPCA and other
animal organisations. Moreover, in 2007, the ACT Department of Education and
Training (Barr 2008) collaborated with the RSPCA to develop and trial educational
programs on animal welfare and responsible pet ownership in ACT schools. This
initiative in the ACT is encouraging for an expanded role of school education in

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animal protection. Nevertheless, while the new curriculum framework in the ACT
specifies integrity and regard for others as essential learning for all students, which
is to be commended, there is flexibility as to how teachers organise that essential
learning (Australian Capital Territory Education and Training 2008), and it is hoped
they include appropriate compassion towards animals in their teaching programs.
In addition to the general and important role of schools in teaching respect
and compassion towards animals, some specialised schools have a further more
specific responsibility of educating secondary students in agricultural practices. For
instance, at the Narrogin Agricultural College in Western Australia (Kepert 2007),
secondary students are taught agriculture in a farm environment. Students graduat-
ing from Narrogin satisfy two separate educational systems, namely, the Western
Australian Certificate of Education (WACE) and Certificate ll in Agriculture, and at
the college students not only learn about ethical animal production but are intri-
cately involved in farming with the aim of improving outcomes for both animal
producers and animals themselves. Moreover, teaching at Narrogin incorporates the
National Framework for Values Education, and the ethical treatment of animals is
considered in every aspect of the training (Kepert 2007). Narrogin is a registered
training organisation (RTO) within the Vocational Education and Training (VET)
Sector. The college occupies more than four thousand acres of land and farms
significant numbers of sheep, cattle (including dairy cows), horses, and poultry.
As observed earlier, some teachers find it useful in teaching respect and compas-
sion for animals to draw on resources provided by various animal organisations,
particularly the RSPCAs. It is important that any such information provided to
schools is accurate and credible, whether supplied by an animal protection organisa-
tion or by an animal industry body. In Britain, RSPCA educators work each year with
hundreds of thousands of students in thousands of schools (RSPCA UK 2003, p. 26),
and a then recently introduced citizenship curriculum provided a good opportunity
for the RSPCA to teach about animal welfare issues, respect for animals, and animal
products. Some of the RSPCAs in Australia also are actively involved in school
education. For instance, in Victoria RSPCA Education (RSPCA Victoria 2008)
conducts hands-on learning programs at its education centre in Burwood that bring
students and animals together in enjoyable experiences that satisfy curriculum
requirements and develop responsible and caring behaviour towards animals. The
programs cater for students of all ages, and students are engaged in activities
designed to address formal educational requirements. Both primary and secondary
school education levels are covered. In Queensland, the RSPCA offers a range of
humane education curriculum-linked programs at schools (RSPCA Queensland
2008), and it also operates an education mobile unit (EMU) that provides a “class-
room on wheels” equipped with modern multi-media technology and interactive
animal welfare education. EMU is available to visit schools, and it educates children
to show empathy towards all creatures including humans.
Voiceless based in Sydney, New South Wales, is another charitable animal
protection organisation in Australia that has links with schools through its Animal
Club (Wood 2007; Voiceless 2008). One of the fundamental aims of Animal Club is
3.1 Primary and Secondary School Systems 41
the creation of a culture of empathy and caring towards animals, but it also provides
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a means of educating young people about ways in which animals in Australia are
subjected to suffering. More than a thousand students are involved in Animal Club
activities, and in addition to this many other teachers and students access the
Animal Club website as a reference source for humane education materials and
ideas. In New Zealand, humane education is linked to key elements of the school
curriculum, particularly in relation to values and key competencies (Kriek 2007).
An educational program entitled Animals and Us was developed recently in New
Zealand by Save Animals from Exploitation (SAFE) to assist teachers and students
in considering important curriculum principles in the context of the relationship
between humans and animals. The program that was released in April 2007
complements the New Zealand secondary school curriculum and supports essential
values learning outcomes (Kriek 2007). It has been embraced and welcomed by
New Zealand teachers and educators.
In addition to national and provincial animal protection organisations providing
local educational support to the school system, there are some international orga-
nisations that have educational operations related to animals in a number of
countries. The World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) has its
International Animal Welfare Education (IN AWE) program that addresses animal
mistreatment by improving human understanding of and attitudes towards animals
(IN AWE 2008). In the view of WSPA, animal welfare education is so important
that it warrants a place in official school curricula. The IN AWE program is
intended for children in the 5–16 age range and involves school children, teachers,
teacher trainers, and curriculum developers. In the program, WSPA works with
government, teachers, and WSPA member societies to get animal welfare education
embedded into the school curriculum and has done so in several countries in Africa,
Asia, and Latin America. Another global educational initiative designed to engen-
der respect for the environment, animals, and local community among young
people is Roots and Shoots established in 1991 as a program of the Jane Goodall
Institute (Goodall 2003, pp. 229–251; Roots and Shoots 2008). The motto of Roots
and Shoots is The Power of Youth is Global, and the program comprises groups of
young people from kindergarten to university involved in hands-on projects of
various kinds including some relating to care and concern for animals. The inten-
tion of the program is to encourage, motivate, and inspire young people so they
understand the importance of saving natural resources and having respect for life
(Goodall 2003, pp. 171–172). At 2006, Roots and Shoots comprised in excess of
7,500 groups operating in more than 90 countries (Dainty 2006, p. 92). Both IN
AWE and Roots and Shoots recognise that animal suffering is universal, and they
are attempting to tackle the problem on a global basis by educating young people to
have a compassionate attitude towards animals.
Another important issue is the care and use of animals on school premises. In
relation to the use of animals in the classroom for educational purposes, Jonathan
Balcombe makes 28 recommendations (Armstrong and Botzler 2003, pp. 293–295).
These recommendations are intended to reduce the number of animals used, the
range of activities that involve animals, and the suffering experienced by individual
animals. In Australia, the use of animals in schools is subject to considerable

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control. For instance, in Tasmanian schools teachers must follow Guidelines for
the Care and Use of Animals in Tasmanian Schools (Bartlett 2008). These guide-
lines provide teachers with a general reference on appropriate care and use of
animals in schools as well as create awareness of procedures and responsibilities
associated with animal care as required under the Animal Welfare Act 1993. The
guidelines comprise two parts that cover both the general care and use of animals in
schools, and management information on a wide range of specific animal species
(Department of Education, Community and Cultural Development, Tasmania
1996). In South Australia, all Department of Education and Children’s Services
(DECS) schools, preschools, and childcare centres must have approval from the
DECS Animal Ethics Committee to keep animals on site (Robinson 2008), and the
DECS is guided by:
Code of Practice for the Use and Care of Animals in Schools and Early Child
hood Settings
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1985
Australian Code of Practice for the Care and Use of Animals for Scientific
Purposes (7th edition)
The Code of Practice for the Use and Care of Animals in Schools and Early
Childhood Settings (Department of Education and Children’s Services, South
Australia 2007) covers a wide variety of matters that include (among others):
The Animal Ethics Committee (AEC)
Teaching procedures
Health and care of animals
Experiments, dissections, and euthanasia studies using animals
Alternatives to the use of living animals
Regarding the Australian Code of Practice, the comments made in the previous
chapter in relation to that code apply also to its use in schools. In the case of New
South Wales, the Department of Education and Training (DET) strongly supports
(Shadwick 2008) the ethical treatment of animals and provides advice to schools in
its Animal Welfare Policy – Schools. That policy requires that “wherever and
whenever animals are encountered in school activities, DET teachers are responsi-
ble for assisting students to develop a respect for animals and to understand issues
involved in the use of animals”. Moreover, schools have to comply with a range of
NSW legislation including the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979 and the
Animal Research Act 1985.
Finally, mention should be made that there is substantial anecdotal evidence of a
connection between animal cruelty and violent behaviour against humans (World
Animal Net 2008c). Moreover, a number of psychological studies show links
between childhood cruelty to animals and later criminality including child abuse.
Indeed, in Australia some of the most serious criminal offenders, including Martin
Bryant (the mass murderer at Port Arthur) and John Travers (involved in the
killing of Anita Cobby), had histories of cruelty to animals (Sharman 2002, p. 2).
3.2 Higher Education and Research 43
Moreover, Wilson and Norris (2002, p. 8) concluded that the predictive capacity of
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animal abuse by children and adolescents as an indicator of later adult violence may
have been underestimated and in consequence underreported. Humane education in
schools has the potential as suggested by Signal (2007) to break the cycle of
violence, and in doing so reduce both the suffering inflicted by humans on animals
and interpersonal violence between humans. Furthermore, humane education in
schools should contribute to greater respect and compassion towards animals in
general, and in consequence, make their world a better place.
3.2 Higher Education and Research
Universities involved in higher education and research can make valuable contri-
butions to improve the protection of animals against human-inflicted suffering
through both their teaching and research activities. Some academic philosophers
as well as a few scientists were responsible for providing a moral basis for the
modern animal movement, and they addressed their ideas to the general public as
well as to other academics (Rollin 2003, p. xiii). Prominent among the philosophers
were Peter Singer, Tom Regan, Mary Midgley, and Bernard Rollin, while the
scientists included Marc Bekoff and Jane Goodall. In the early 1970s, three
philosophy graduate students at Oxford University, namely Stanley Godlovitch,
Roslind Godlovitch, and John Harris, edited a book Animals, Men and Morals that
was reviewed in 1973 by Peter Singer in the New York Review of Books (Singer
1973, 2006) under the title Animal Liberation. Subsequently, in 1975 Peter Singer
published his own celebrated book Animal Liberation – Towards an End to Man’s
Inhumanity to Animals (Singer 1975) that has provided a very powerful catalyst for
the momentum developed by the modern animal movement. Moreover, according
to Jasper and Nelkin (1992, pp. 90–91), Peter Singer in his 1971 Oxford thesis that
was published as Democracy and Disobedience urged philosophers to stop con-
centrating on abstract word games, but instead to take a stance on moral issues.
Subsequently, the teaching of moral philosophy, and animal issues in particular, has
become common in undergraduate philosophy courses in many countries (Singer
1990, pp. 241–242). Such teaching has had an important educational influence and
provided the moral underpinning for actions to improve animal protection.
On the scientific side, Marian Stamp Dawkins, now Professor of Animal Beha-
viour at Oxford, in 1980 published Animal Suffering: The Science of Animal
Welfare. In 1986 Don Broom was appointed Colleen MacLeod Professor of Animal
Welfare at the University of Cambridge (Broom 2001), and he became the first
person in the world to occupy such a chair. Subsequently, chairs in Animal Welfare
were created in Canada, New Zealand, and Denmark (Ryder 1998, p. 55), while
in Australia Clive Phillips in 2003 was appointed Professor of Animal Welfare
within the School of Veterinary Science at the University of Queensland. Accord-
ing to Phillips (2009, p. 129), knowledge of animal welfare properly disseminated
to those directly involved in the management of animals can contribute to rapid
improvements in animal welfare. Although potentially such knowledge can be

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taught in school, university, and adult education courses, the emphasis to date has
been on university education where animal welfare is included in veterinary
science, animal science, and agriculture courses. Indeed, the teaching of correct
attitudes towards animals is a vital part of veterinary education (Phillips 2009,
p. 133), and the same can be said for the education of any person whose work will
involve animals. It is important also for carers of university animals and any
scientists conducting animal experimentation to be properly educated in animal
welfare issues. There is scope for the teaching of animal welfare in universities to
become more widespread, both in veterinary science and other courses related to
animals, and in this regard the Concepts in Animal Welfare syllabus developed by
the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) in conjunction with
Bristol University in England (de Boo and Knight 2005, pp. 451–453) for use in
veterinary science education around the world is making a valuable contribution
towards improving the lives of animals.
During the last 10 years or so, there has been an enormous growth in the teaching
of animal law in university courses (Sankoff 2008), particularly in the USA, and a
similar trend is developing in other parts of the world. According to Sankoff (2008,
p. 124), the number of universities teaching animal law in the USA increased from 3
in 1995 to 75 in 2007, while in other countries the number increased from 3 in 1995
to 19 in 2007. The 75 universities in the USA teaching animal law in 2007 greatly
exceeded the number of universities in the rest of the world that taught animal law,
namely five universities in Canada, four in the UK, three in Australia, two in both
Israel and New Zealand, and one in each of Austria, The Netherlands, and Switzer-
land (Sankoff 2008, p. 116). Such courses create increased awareness of animal
issues among law students and introduce them to an area of the law about which they
might otherwise have little familiarity. Moreover, a knowledge of existing animal
law provides a firm basis on which reform in animal protection law can be based.
It is observed by Steven White (2007, p. 9), lecturer in animal law at the Griffith
University Law School in Queensland, that a commonly encountered response from
students during or on completion of the animal law course is that they were
previously unaware of the way the law protects the interests of animals selectively
and differently according to their category, namely, whether they are companion
animals, research animals, farmed animals, and so on. This suggests that there is a
general ignorance in the community regarding the extent of the protection provided
by the law to different categories of animal and emphasises the need for education
to contribute in any way it can to dispel this misconception of the reality. Moreover,
the leniency in sentencing by judicial officers in relation to offences against animals
(Sharman 2002, pp. 1–2) indicates there is scope for the judiciary to be better
educated in issues of animal welfare and ethics, and such matters could possibly be
included usefully in the teaching activities of the Judicial College in Canberra that
forms part of the College of Law at the Australian National University (ANU). This
could perhaps be facilitated by the introduction in 2009 of an animal law course at
ANU. It is pleasing to observe that at the Australasian Law Reform Agencies
Conference held in Sydney in 2006, attended by more than 100 institutional law
3.2 Higher Education and Research 45
reformers from 32 law reform agencies in 25 British Commonwealth countries, the

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matter of animal welfare and animal rights was identified (Weisbrot 2008, p. 2) as
one of the “over the horizon issues” that would occupy them in coming decades,
and speakers referred to these animal issues as perhaps “the next great social justice
movement”. According to the present author, this movement is already well
underway but has a long way to go. In this, university legal and other education
can continue to make a valuable contribution.
Another area where university teaching can contribute to increased awareness of
animal issues, create greater compassion towards animals, and reduce animal
suffering is in school teacher education and professional development. In these,
values education can be incorporated into teacher training and development, and
teachers can be taught how to run a values-based education program (Mergler
2007). Moreover, the Australian Government now requires schools to be concerned
with values education, and it is desirable for such education to be included in every
aspect of teacher education so it becomes a fundamental part of good teaching. It is
regarded as important by Gail Tulloch (Griffith University 2007, p. 6) for teachers
to be provided “with the knowledge, methods, and vision required to help young
people acquire the skills to enable them to develop a culture of caring and compas-
sion for non-human animals and the environment”.
In the teaching of English literature courses at university, it would be desirable to
include the reading of fictional novels such as The Lives of Animals and Elizabeth
Costello written by Nobel prize winning author John Coetzee (1999, 2003), who
was born in South Africa and now lives in Adelaide, Australia, where he teaches at
the University of Adelaide. The writings of Coetzee could be used to raise aware-
ness of the issue of animal suffering. Animal protection matters could be included
usefully also in journalism courses, particularly as animals feature regularly and
prominently in the media, which is good for providing animal issues with a high
community profile on which improvements in their lives can be built through
influence on politicians as well as on those involved directly with animals.
The research activities at universities can play an important role also in improv-
ing animal protection and reducing animal suffering. Although animal suffering is
experienced by many animals in university research, this is controlled in theory at
least by the Australian Code of Practice for the Care and Use of Animals for
Scientific Purposes (Commonwealth of Australia 2003). However, it is very impor-
tant that the educational value of this code is properly understood and put into
practice and that those involved in research involving animals are educated in
animal welfare and know the appropriate way to treat animals if such research is
to be conducted.
On a more positive note for animals, scientific research in universities can make a
direct and valuable contribution to understanding animal behaviour and animal
welfare. Indeed, in the view of Don Broom (2001, p. 25), the establishment of
animal welfare as a scientific discipline, as well as the use of scientific evidence in
support of claims, is the most important general achievement for animals during the
latter part of the twentieth century. It has led to changes in both legislation and
practice to improve animal protection. For instance, the banning in some
jurisdictions of veal crates for calves followed rigorous scientific research, and other
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important research findings included knowledge of the weakening of the bones of

hens kept in battery cages caused by lack of exercise, and adverse effects on sow
welfare due to confining pigs by means of stalls and tethers. Each of these findings
has had a positive impact on legislative change. According to Broom (2001, pp.
24–25), there is no point in doing scientific research on animal welfare unless the
results are made available to aid the world outside academia, and his group at
Cambridge only takes on research projects for which the results can be published.
Scientists should be open and honest people, who present accurately the results of
their research findings. Nevertheless, care needs to be taken to avoid false or
misleading messages from a small minority of scientists prepared to subordinate,
wittingly or unwittingly, their professional integrity to the vested interests of those
sponsoring their research.
Another way in which university research can make an important contribution to
animal protection is in the discovery of alternative methods to animal use. More-
over, it is important to engender an attitude among scientists and others that such
research is a truly respectable and worthwhile pursuit. Examples of research related
to finding alternatives to the use of animals or to reducing animal suffering include
the development of computer models for human organs such as the heart (Noble
2004), the creation of virtual teaching aids for anatomical instruction (National
Animal Ethics Advisory Committee 2004, p. 18), and the use of immunocontracep-
tion for animal population control (McDonald 2008). The practice of mulesing
lambs to prevent flystrike in sheep is frequently seen as the lesser of two evils, but
surely a preferable approach would be to avoid both evils by finding an alternative
to mulesing that eliminates the animal suffering associated with it as well as
preventing flystrike. Such research provides a worthwhile challenge for university
scientists. Indeed, there are a great many such challenges for possible university
research that could result in reduced animal suffering experienced by farm animals,
experimental animals, and so-called pest animals. Moreover, it is seen that uni-
versities can play many important roles through both their teaching and research
activities to reduce animal suffering and help create a better world for animals.
3.3 Vocational and Industry Training
Appropriate education and training that includes good stockmanship is particularly

important for the initial training as well as the ongoing development of people
working directly with animals. In Australia, this is provided to a large extent by the
Vocational Education and Training (VET) Sector that operates throughout
Australia.
In the VET Sector, there are six Training Packages in which animal welfare
issues have relevance (Australian Animal Welfare Strategy Education and Training
Working Group 2008, pp. 7–9). These are:
3.3 Vocational and Industry Training 47
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MTM Australian Meat Industry

RGR Racing Industry
RTD Conservation and Land Management
RTE Rural Production
RUV Veterinary Nursing
SFI Seafood Industry
The Agri-Food Industry Skills Council (AFISC) was formed in 2004 as one of ten
industry skills councils established to represent enterprises and workers covering the
entire spectrum of Australian industries and is funded by the Australian Department
of Education, Science and Technology (DEST), but comprises a private company
with directors reflecting the interests of Australia’s major agri-food industry sectors.
AFISC is responsible for approving relevant Training Packages, and currently it is
involved in both significant Training Package reform and the integration of animal
welfare into Training Packages. This provides an opportunity for the Australian
Animal Welfare Strategy (AAWS) to work with DEST and AFISC to achieve
improved animal welfare outcomes. There is scope for identifying animal welfare
competencies being taught in the VET Sector, evaluating how well they are being
taken up, redressing welfare deficiencies in courses arising from the emergence of
new information and changes to codes of practice, and examining program evalua-
tions to improve competencies. It should be mentioned that even though several
animal welfare-related units of competency may be included in a particular VET
Training Package, students do not necessarily cover all these competencies as
teachers can choose units from more than one Training Package.
The AAWS Education and Training Working Group (2008, pp. 8–9) engaged
the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) to use its data-
base for the year ending 2006 to conduct two searches covering students doing
AFISC-approved Training Packages that had animal welfare-related content. The
first search embraced 144 key units of competency relevant to animal welfare
education and training listed in Appendix 1 of Australian Animal Welfare Strategy
Education and Training Working Group (2008, pp. 15–16). These include, for
example, Australian Meat Industry (MTM) Training Package units entitled handle
animals, unload livestock, knock and stun animal, and stick and bleed animal, and
Rural Production (RET) Training Package units entitled crutch sheep, maintain
health and welfare of poultry, transport livestock, and slaughter livestock. The
findings of the first search showed, for instance, that 830 (61%) of 1,365 students
across Australia who in 2006 completed the Meat Industry Training Package
undertook during their course one or more units that included or had the potential
to include animal welfare content. Throughout Australia, 30 registered training
organisations (RTOs) delivered these courses. In the case of the Rural Production
Training Package, only 1,205 (25%) of 4,765 students undertook one or more units
that included or had the potential to include animal welfare content, and 65 RTOs
delivered these courses. The findings show that many students did not include in
their Training Package any unit of competency relevant to animal welfare, and this
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emphasises the need for animal welfare issues to be made a fundamental part of all
VET Sector units in Training Packages that relate to animals.
The second search of the NCVER database was based on specific units of
competency that include “humane handling of animals” or “animal welfare” in
the unit title. This search revealed that only a small percentage of students in the
Meat Industry Training Package and the Rural Production Training Package
included these units in their course. In the case of the Meat Industry Training
Package, the highest percentage for the two units covered was 22% for the 295 out
of 1,365 students who completed the unit entitled “Oversee Humane Handling of
Animals”, and for the Rural Production Training Package the highest percentage
for the four units covered was only 8% for the 405 out of 4,765 students who
completed the unit entitled “Care for Health and Welfare of Livestock”. This
demonstrates even more the need to include animal welfare issues in every aspect
of Training Packages to ensure that students, who in their working lives will
probably be involved with animals, are properly exposed to animal welfare matters
in their education and training. Indeed, the VET Sector has a particularly important
role to play in improving animal welfare through their educational packages that
embrace many activities involving animals.
In South Australia at the Gilles Plains Campus of TAFE, there is a Veterinary
and Applied Science Centre (2007) that offers training programs for people inter-
ested in a career in the animal industries. The courses at the Gilles Plains Centre are
provided for those wishing to become veterinary nurses, animal technicians, pet
shop assistants/groomers and welfare workers/kennel hands, and young people with
a dream of working with animals are encouraged to undertake such a course at the
centre in pursuit of that dream. Thus, the courses appear to be particularly suitable
for people with a real empathy towards animals.
The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) pro-
duced a research report (Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
1998) that concluded there was an urgent need in Australia to improve participation
rates for tertiary education and training in the rural population of the nation. This
was regarded as particularly the case for young rural people completing secondary
school or had recently done so. The report was in favour of a local community-
based approach to education and training and advised this should be supported by a
research program embracing case studies to develop a framework for “best prac-
tice” community initiatives; consider the way in which advisory mechanisms and
institutional links can provide the necessary community and regional focus; and
examine the attitudes of local farm leaders to education and training, the effect of
these on educational and training decisions by farmers, and the harvesting of local
leadership to support improved education and training outcomes. Moreover, the
report saw a need for education and training providers to understand the specific
requirements of their target markets to ensure education and training products meet
these needs. In all this, the present author regards it as important that animal welfare
issues and good animal husbandry are at the forefront of any such education and
training for those in rural areas.
The provision of continuing training and development is desirable for people

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working with animals. A useful source of information relating to animal welfare that
is relevant to vocational education and training is the Springer Animal Welfare
Series (Phillips 2009, p. ii) that includes separate books on the welfare of specific
animal types, and these cover cats, dogs, horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and laboratory
animals. In the case of professionals such as veterinary surgeons and agricultural
scientists, there is need to keep abreast of rapidly growing developments in their
fields including those related to animal welfare and ethics. Indeed, a great deal has
changed since most older professionals acquired their tertiary qualifications, and
even though their original qualifications might be largely what is required to qualify
to continue practising, it is desirable for them to keep up to date with developments
in their professions through continuing education. In the case of the veterinary
profession, such continuing education is often encouraged. For instance, the Austra-
lian Veterinary Association (AVA) recognises the importance of the role of lifelong
learning for the veterinary profession, and in 2008 it launched (Australian Veterinary
Association 2008a) AVA Vet Ed as a quality continuing education scheme to enable
AVA members to record their personal and professional development. The scheme
is based on AVA members receiving points for participation in educational acti-
vities, and it enables members to satisfy or exceed the requirements of the Veteri-
nary Registration Board. It is hoped this scheme will contribute to improved animal
welfare and help make veterinary practitioners aware of recent developments in this
area.
Continuing education is important also for people working in certain activities
such as slaughter where animal abuse and poor attitudes to animal welfare are
commonly encountered as described by Juliet Gellatley (1998, p. 10) and Temple
Grandin (Armstrong and Botzler 2003, pp. 187–189; Grandin and Johnson 2009).
In the case of slaughter Grandin, an acknowledged expert in “humane” animal
slaughtering techniques, regards it as essential for regular retraining as well as
operational auditing to take place to avoid worker attitudes and slaughter standards
from lapsing into unacceptability. Moreover, even though bad practices tend to be
more common in certain activities such as animal slaughter, some appropriate form
of continuing education would be useful also in relation to other activities involving
animals even though it would involve some cost in an already competitive market.
Nevertheless, the good welfare of animals under the responsibility of humans
should be of paramount importance.
It is regarded as desirable by Mike Radford (2001, pp. 315–316) for there to be
public control over activities involving animals and those responsible for them. This
can be achieved by means of licensing, certification, or regulation of both establish-
ments and personnel. In the opinion of the present author, any such control needs to
be both relevant and effective and have at its core the provision of good animal
welfare. The control needs to embrace some form of previous or continuing educa-
tion and training, and it should be designed so that there is a proper focus at all times
on animal welfare issues. In Britain, for instance, over the previous decade there
have been mandatory standards of competency covering the transport of animals
(Radford 2001, pp. 310–311). These specify that at least one person conducting
actual animal transport operations must be either specifically trained or have equiv-
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alent previous experience that qualifies the person to handle and transport vertebrate
animals as well as to administer appropriate care. The person concerned is required
to have sufficient knowledge and competence that the welfare of the animals
transported is safeguarded, and this includes a thorough knowledge of every aspect
of the transport operation that has a bearing on animal welfare. It is suggested by
Radford (2001, p. 316) that similar controls could be introduced in Britain for other
animal activities such as farming, pet shops, boarding facilities, and dog breeding
establishments where appropriate regulation was patently insufficient. Such controls
should include educational requirements or their equivalent, and they could be
expected to improve animal welfare in the areas concerned.
In relation to live animal exports from Australia, particularly to the Middle
East, the Australian Livestock Export Corporation Limited (Live Corp) (2006,
pp. 14–20) reported that one of its objectives was to improve the welfare of
livestock after arrival at the destination country. This has included the provision
of animal handling training at all major destination feed lots (except in Saudi
Arabia) with an emphasis on Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, Kuwait, Jordan, and Egypt.
Moreover, Live Corp engaged a Muslim consultant to investigate religious
requirements for halal meat production so as to provide greater understanding
of such requirements and assist in developing strategies to encourage the use of
pre-slaughter stunning in the Middle East. Various other animal welfare-related
initiatives that included education were also undertaken, at times in response to
animal activist activities or disturbing media reports. Furthermore, various
research and development (R&D) projects were conducted by Live Corp during
2005–2006 with the primary goal of improving animal welfare and health
(Australian Livestock Export Corporation Limited 2006, pp. 18–19), and some
of the key projects were reported to have had “important outcomes for animal
welfare and industry standards throughout the supply chain”. If live exports are to
be continued, any activities including educational initiatives to improve animal
welfare are welcomed.
However, an investigation was conducted by Animals Australia (2008) on
Australian sheep and cattle exports to the Middle East during the period
2003–2007, and this included visits to Kuwait, Egypt, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and
Jordan as well as to Abu Dhabi, Al Ain, and Dubai in the United Arab Emirates
(UAE). The investigation highlighted the seriousness and magnitude of the pro-
blems encountered from an animal welfare point of view. Furthermore, a briefing by
the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) led Handle With Care
Coalition (2008) made to the Australian Senate Committee on Rural and Regional
Affairs and Transport in September 2008 argued in favour of the phasing out of live
exports and move to a chilled meat trade to protect the welfare of Australian
animals, create more jobs involving slaughter and processing in Australia, and
maintain the reputation of Australia as a country with good animal welfare stan-
dards. Education has an important role to play in making communities in both
Australia and overseas, including people directly involved in the industry, fully
aware of the facts and issues, ensure that animal welfare matters are properly
addressed, and achieve an outcome that is in the best interests of the animals
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involved.
The Stocktake of the Australian Animal Welfare Strategy Education and Train-
ing Working Group (2008, pp. 2–4) identified a number of key insights for each of
the various animal sectors. Among these insights, it was observed in relation to
livestock/production animals that there was variation in the quality and quantity of
formal and informal education available on animal welfare for people who rear,
handle, transport, and slaughter livestock/production animals. Moreover, there was
need for trainers in the VET Sector to be provided with consistent and current
information by means of good resource materials and professional development.
The provision of this could enhance animal welfare dramatically, and high priority
should be given to achieving this nationally. On the matter of education, more
emphasis should be placed on training programs that have an evidence-based
content and have been evaluated. Moreover, modification of programs in the light
of evaluation could result in improved learning outcomes. Furthermore, training
programs should focus on competency-based assessment in order to show that an
adequate level of skills and knowledge has been achieved.
Various other insights were identified in the Stocktake. These included, in the
case of animals used for sport or recreation in peri-urban areas, a major concern for
the welfare of animals, and this should be addressed through targeted education. For
instance, registered horse trainers can provide specialist advice in the recreational
horse industry to assist families in purchasing a horse for younger family members,
and this provides a good opportunity to communicate horse welfare issues. The
companion animal sector is characterised by duplication of programs and resources
within and across states, and greater emphasis should be placed on evidence-based
and evaluated programs. Moreover, the provision of education and support to local
governments in preparing animal management plans could result in positive animal
welfare outcomes, although the disparate nature and requirements of local councils
around Australia needs to be recognised. There is scope for improved education to
address a poor level of awareness and commitment of Australians generally to the
welfare of animals in the wild, and education can be used to promote sustainable
land use planning and management that takes into account the needs of wildlife and
addresses the welfare of animals in the wild. In relation to aquatic animals, there are
animal welfare risks for fish kept in tanks, and these risks could be reduced by the
dissemination of information and education materials at point of sale. This applies
also to fish kept in tanks in office or commercial settings. The welfare of animals
used in research and teaching could be improved through better training of care
staff, greater enforcement of existing legislation, and more widespread teaching of
animal welfare and ethics.
The Stocktake of the Australian Animal Welfare Strategy Education and Train-
ing Working Group (2008) was the initial step in collating and assessing education
and training materials across each animal sector in Australia. The Stocktake con-
cluded (p. 11) that fragmentation in educational endeavours resulted in variation in
the quality of educational experiences, uncertainty in educational outcomes, and
gaps in education provision. Each animal sector should be encouraged to consider
opportunities for the provision of a coordinated national approach to animal welfare

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education within the sector through existing or potential collaborative institutional

arrangements. Currently, a transparent and coordinated national approach to animal
welfare does not exist in Australia, and it is suggested in the Stocktake conclusions
that such an approach could be facilitated by the Australian Animal Welfare
Strategy (AAWS).
3.4 Animal Protection Organisations
There is enormous diversity in the nature and activities of animal protection

organisations around the world, and they are involved in a wide variety of educa-
tion-related matters. Nevertheless, they all have the common theme of attempting in
some way to make the world a better place for animals. They range from very large
international multi-activity organisations such as the World Society for the Protec-
tion of Animals (WSPA) to local specialised organisations such as Hunter Animal
Watch in New South Wales. The evolution of animal protection organisations is
outlined briefly in Armstrong and Botzler (2003, pp. 5–7), and a more detailed
discussion of their origins, activities, and political influence is contained in Ryder
(1998, pp. 81–305). An account of the emergence of animal rights organisations
since the 1970s is given by Jasper and Nelkin (1992, pp. 29–41), and the political
influence of animal protection organisations in Britain and the USA is analysed in
detail by Garner (1998, pp. 93–108). On a global basis, there is great diversity
among animal protection organisations in terms of both the geographical jurisdic-
tion they cover and the categories of animals they seek to protect. The present work
is concerned primarily with the various types of educational contribution made by
animal protection organisations towards reducing animal suffering inflicted by
humans and the creation of a better world for animals.
The major international animal protection organisations that operate globally are
the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) based in London, the
International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) based in Brussels, the Humane
Society International (HSI) based in Washington, and People for the Ethical Treat-
ment of Animals (PETA) based in Norfolk, Virginia, in the USA. In 2005, WSPA
had a membership of over 600 member societies located in more than 150 countries
(Wirth 2005), and each of the large international animal protection organisations has
branches scattered around the world. These international organisations conduct
global campaigns that have an important educational role by making people around
the world aware of the types of animal abuse and suffering that occur in numerous
parts of the world. Such campaigns include those against caged bears milked for
their bile in China, Vietnam, and Korea, dancing bears in India, bull fighting in
Spain, wildlife poaching in Kenya, street dogs in Indonesia, slaughter of seal pups in
Canada, mulesing of sheep in Australia, the terrible treatment of animals in markets
and restaurants in various Asian countries, and whaling by Japan and Iceland. These
campaigns expose through education the abuses or activities that are taking place
3.4 Animal Protection Organisations 53
and put pressure on governments in countries where they occur to stop the practices
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and where appropriate find alternatives.

In addition to such community education campaigns, some global animal pro-
tection organisations have direct involvement also in the formal education system
of various countries. For instance, the World Society for the Protection of Animals
(WSPA) has an International Animal Welfare Education (IN AWE) program that
operates in schools in Africa and Latin America (IN AWE 2008), and WSPA
developed the Concepts in Animal Welfare syllabus in conjunction with Bristol
University for use in veterinary education around the world (de Boo and Knight
2005, pp. 451–453). Moreover, WSPA makes formal representations relating to
animal suffering at government level (Donald 1998, p. 11), and this can be regarded
as educating those involved in formulating public policy and legislation about
animal welfare issues. In the early 1990s, IFAW sponsored the establishment at
Oxford University of a fellowship in ethical and theological aspects of animal
welfare to which animal advocate and theologian Andrew Linzey was appointed
(Animals Today 1995c, p. 14), and this represented an innovative educational
initiative by an animal protection organisation.
More recently, WSPA in collaboration with other animal protection organisa-
tions including HSI, CIWF, and RSPCA is playing an important role in promoting a
campaign initiated by WSPA for a UN Declaration on Animal Welfare (World
Society for the Protection of Animals 2005a, b, 2006). As agreed at a meeting held
in Costa Rica in 2005, these organisations were to provide technical, logistical, and
lobbying support to the newly formed five-nation government Steering Committee
comprising Costa Rica, Kenya, India, Republic of the Philippines, and the Czech
Republic in influencing other governments in their regions to embrace A Proposal
for a Declaration on Animal Welfare adopted at an international conference held in
Manila in the Philippines in 2003. This support to the government Steering Com-
mittee involves WSPA and the other animal protection organisations in an educa-
tional role to reinforce formal government initiatives to achieve a draft Declaration
on Animal Welfare for submission to the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
of the United Nations (UN), and if adopted for submission subsequently to the
General Assembly of the UN. The Manila Proposal (World Society for the Protec-
tion of Animals 2005c, pp. 3–4) recognises in its preamble that “animals are living,
sentient beings and therefore deserve due consideration and respect”, and a Princi-
ple of the Declaration states that “all appropriate steps shall be taken by nations to
prevent cruelty to animals and to reduce their suffering”. The propagation by the
animal protection organisations of these sentiments regarding animal sentience and
suffering, as well as by the Steering Committee itself, should play a valuable
educational role in increasing awareness of animals as living creatures and reduce
their suffering around the world.
Currently, a WSPA-led coalition of animal protection organisations is conduct-
ing a campaign entitled Handle with Care that is exposing the suffering experienced
by animals globally during long-distance transport operations (Handle with Care
Coalition, World Society for the Protection of Animals 2008). Moreover, WSPA
campaigns actively against industrial animal agriculture that not only causes
enormous animal suffering, but has potentially dangerous global health implica-
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tions (World Society for the Protection of Animals 2005c, p. 12) and adverse effects
on poverty in developing countries (Cox 2007). Thus, international animal protec-
tion organisations and their global campaigns play important and diverse educa-
tional roles that should contribute through increased awareness and lobbying of
government to reduced animal suffering and improvement in the lives of animals.
An important international educational organisation concerned with animal
protection is the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW) founded in
England in 1926 (Universities Federation for Animal Welfare 2003). It is an
internationally recognised and independent charity that promotes through science
and education high standards of welfare for farm, companion, laboratory, and
captive wild animals as well as animals in the wild with which humans interact.
The chairman of the UFAW Scientific Advisory Committee from 1951 to 1962 was
Sir Peter Medawar CBE FRS, who won the Nobel prize for physiology and
medicine in 1960. UFAW sponsors scientific research on animals, publishes
books on animal issues, and promotes education in animal care and welfare.
A strategic review by UFAW in 1997 identified among its priorities (Kirkwood
2007) the promotion of education about animal welfare, particularly at the tertiary
level, and promotion of animal welfare by the provision of advice, dissemination of
information, development of guidelines and legislation, and organisation of meet-
ings and workshops. In 2003, UFAW published a book on Environmental Enrich-
ment for Captive Animals (Young 2003). Closely linked to UFAW is the Humane
Slaughter Association (HSA) (Humane Slaughter Association 2007) that is
concerned with the welfare of animals after they leave the farm gate, in particular,
the handling, transport, and slaughter of animals. HSA is strongly involved in
education and training on an international basis (Humane Slaughter Association
2007, pp. 5–11). In 2006, for instance, HSA was awarded the Meat Industry
“Training Initiative of the Year” award for a new training DVD Poultry Welfare –
Taking Responsibility that is accompanied by a booklet, and this provides compre-
hensive practical welfare guidance embracing best practice for the catching,
handling, transport, and slaughter of poultry. Moreover, in 2006 HSA held a 3-
day international training workshop at Bristol in the UK for improving food animal
welfare globally, and this was attended by participants responsible for the welfare
of food animals from state veterinary services and other authorities in 53 countries.
Regionally, in the European Union, Eurogroup for Animals (Eurogroup), previ-
ously called Eurogroup for Animal Welfare, was established in 1980 with the
objective of contributing to the introduction, implementation, and enforcement of
European Community laws to improve animal welfare and reduce animal suffering
(Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2004b). It is based in Brussels, Belgium. Euro-
group maintains regular contact within the European Union with the European
Parliament, the European Commission, and the Council of Ministers, and on the
international front it has links with the Council of Europe and its animal welfare
conventions, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), and the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2003, pp. 4–7, 2004a,
pp. 4–7, 2005, pp. 4–11). These contacts facilitate an educational role for Euro-
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group on animal welfare matters. Moreover, the strong communications and lobby-
ing network of Eurogroup with European Union institutions, representatives from
Member States, and its own member organisations throughout the EU has been
important in the success of Eurogroup in contributing to improved animal welfare
in the EU (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2005, p. 3).
The educational support provided by Eurogroup to its own member organisa-
tions includes the provision of information and advice on animal welfare issues,
legislative procedures in the EU, technical and legal matters, and the conduct of
national campaigns. Moreover, Eurogroup provides the secretariat for the influen-
tial all-party Intergroup on the Welfare and Conservation of Animals established by
the European Parliament in 1983, and this Intergroup is an important vehicle for the
education of Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) on animal welfare
issues. Recently, Eurogroup produced a report Responsible Retailing (Eurogroup
for Animals 2008) that examines animal welfare aspects of the food production
supply chain. This educates consumers about the source of their food and provides
examples of good practice in food production.
Membership of the European Union has risen from the original 6 Member States
in 1957 to 27 Member States in 2007 that include 18 new Member States since 1980
when Eurogroup was formed. However, there is generally a period of many years
from the application by a country to join the European Union and its formal
accession as a Member State. For instance, this period was almost 14 years in the
case of Cyprus and nearly 8 years for Slovenia (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare and
RSPCA International 2001, p. 19; Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2003, p. 13).
During the pre-accession period, a candidate country has to transpose the acquis
communautare of European Community law, including that relating to animal
welfare, into its national law and subsequently implement it (Eurogroup for Animal
Welfare and RSPCA International 2001, pp. 17, 20–21). To assist candidate
countries in the adjustment of their national legislation, the EU developed a support
structure and appointed a special Commissioner for Enlargement to head a Direc-
torate General to deal with enlargement issues. Nevertheless, accession to the EU
presented an enormous educational challenge in relation to animal welfare matters
for candidate countries, particularly as some had relatively little appreciation of
animal protection issues and animal welfare legislation either did not exist or was at
a rudimentary stage.
In this challenge, both RSPCA International and Eurogroup have played a
tremendously important educational role (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare and
RSPCA International 2001, pp. 5–7, 20–21, 44–47). For instance, the RSPCA
developed a 5-day training course covering such matters as setting up an SPCA,
fund raising, liaising with authorities and the media, developing a humane educa-
tion program, and establishing an animal shelter. The first training course was held
in Poland in 1994, and similar courses were conducted subsequently in other
countries. Moreover, the RSPCA developed a law enforcement course for inspec-
tors that was launched in 1998 for animal inspectors with TOZ, the Polish national
animal welfare organisation, and later was held for government inspectors in
several other countries. In 2001 and 2002, Eurogroup organised seminars on animal
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transport, and in 2002 it arranged a function in Brussels that dealt with animal
slaughter. Furthermore, Eurogroup conducted a series of seminars on EU Accession
and Animal Welfare (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2003, p. 13, 2004a, p. 15) that
were attended by representatives of animal protection organisations in candidate
countries. Thus, international and regional animal protection organisations, notably
RSPCA International and Eurogroup, have played an important educational part in
assisting candidate countries wishing to join the EU meet the challenges they
encountered along the road to their accession into the EU.
Many animal organisations exist to protect the interests of a particular category of
animal such as farmed animals, experimental animals, or wildlife, while others have
a specific purpose such as reforming the law designed to protect animals or promot-
ing the practice of vegetarianism that has the effect of reducing farm animal
suffering. Some of these specialised organisations such as Compassion in World
Farming (CIWF) operate on a wide geographical basis, whereas others such as
Hunter Animal Watch have much more localised activities. CIWF is a major animal
protection organisation based in England and is involved in farm animal welfare for
which it has been an active campaigner in both the UK and European Union (Animals
Today 1995a, pp. 8–11, 29). It was founded in 1967 by Peter Roberts, a “traditional”
farmer to whom the newly established practice of factory farming was abhorrent. The
organisation has been strongly opposed to farming practices that involve animal
suffering including the use of battery cages for layer hens, stalls and tethers as well as
farrowing crates for pigs, and the keeping of veal calves in crates. CIWF has
conducted educational campaigns with some success against these practices.
Today, CIWF continues to be a major player working for improved farm animal
welfare, and it is a member of the WSPA-led coalition Handle with Care that is
campaigning against long-distance animal transport, including live sheep and cattle
exports from Australia to the Middle East and other countries (Handle with Care
Coalition, World Society for the Protection of Animals 2008). In 2007, CIWF in
conjunction with Griffith University held a Humane Education Conference in Bris-
bane, Australia (Compassion in World Farming 2007), towards which the Sydney-
based organisation Voiceless provided substantial funding. Other initiatives by
CIWF include the publication of reports that provide positive educational perspec-
tives for farming layer hens (Arey 2004) and pigs (Arey and Brooke 2006).
Related to animal protection organisations that deal directly with the welfare of
farm animals, there are various organisations involved in the promotion of vegetar-
ianism that has the effect of reducing animal suffering through abstention from
eating animals that would otherwise probably occur. For instance, in Britain in
1994 Juliet Gellatley (Oogjes 1998, pp. 8–10) formed Vegetarians International
Voice for Animals (Viva) that condemns animal suffering and promotes vegetari-
anism, and in the USA Neal Barnard MD founded Physicians Committee for
Responsible Medicine (PCRM) that, among other things, promotes vegetarianism
(Animals Today 1995b, pp. 10–13). Moreover, Neal Barnard has devised and
advocates a five-point educational program to assist people in becoming vegetarian.
In Australia, an educational role in relation to vegetarianism is played by the
Australian Vegetarian Society that is based in Sydney and headed by Mark Berriman
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(Australian Vegetarian Society 2008).

There are various animal protection organisations that conduct educational
campaigns against the use of animals in experimentation and testing or conduct
research to find alternatives to animal use. For instance, in the UK the British Union
for the Abolition of Vivisection (BUAV) has campaigned for more than a century
against animal experimentation (Vaughan 2002, p. 29). Moreover, the British-based
Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments (FRAME) is doing
important scientific and educational work relating to alternatives to the use of
laboratory animals, and it publishes the journal Alternatives to Laboratory Animals
(ATLA) that is edited at FRAME by Professor Michael Balls in conjunction with an
international editorial board (Balls 2007). In the USA, the Physicians Committee
for Responsible Medicine (PCRM) is actively involved also in the promotion of
alternatives to the use of animals in both education and research (Animals Today
1995b, pp. 10–13), and in Australia the Australian Association for Humane
Research (AAHR) that was established in 1979 by Elizabeth Ashton (Ethical
Treatment of Animals 2004, p. 5) is now headed by Helen Rosser, who produced
a comprehensive educational report Animal Experimentation – A “Necessary
Evil”? (Rosser 2007). Each of these organisations aims to reduce the suffering
experienced by experimental animals, and they encourage the finding of alterna-
tives to animal use in such experimentation. Moreover, they produce educational
materials that can educate researchers and the general community about matters
related to the use of animals in research, testing, and education.
Although not an animal protection organisation as such, a very significant
development in relation to the use of animals in experimentation was the establish-
ment in 1993 by the European Commission of the European Centre for the Valida-
tion of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) based in Italy to fulfil a commitment in a
1986 Directive of the European Union regarding animals used for experimental and
other scientific purposes (Hughes 1995, pp. 14–15, 32). Professor Michael Balls
was appointed inaugural head of ECVAM. Since its formation, ECVAM has made
important advances involving alternatives to animal use, and its work is becoming
increasingly recognised internationally (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2004b, pp.
91–93). However, there is scope for animal protection organisations predicated on
replacement in the use of animals in experimentation to play an educational role by
monitoring and promoting the work of ECVAM as well as campaigning for
increased funding for ECVAM and the adoption globally of alternatives validated
by ECVAM. Another organisation that has an educational role in relation to the use
of animals in research and teaching is the Australian and New Zealand Council for
the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching (ANZCCART) based at the Univer-
sity of Adelaide. ANZCCART holds regular conferences and publishes
ANZCCART News that contains much useful educational material and contributes
to debate. For instance, ANZCCART News published a series of letters on animal
ethics committee transparency initiated by a Letter to the Editor written by Graham
Nerlich, Emeritus Professor of Philosophy in the University of Adelaide (Nerlich
2004, pp. 11–12).
Many animal organisations operate to protect wildlife, and in this they have an
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educational role. Such organisations include the Great Ape Project (Singer 1999,
p. 10) established in the early 1990s by a group of philosophers, scientists, lawyers,
social scientists, and writers that included Jane Goodall, Richard Dawkins, and
Peter Singer, and the project was aimed at achieving change in the moral status
attributed by humans to chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans. In Britain, the
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) has an educational role in relation
to birds. For instance, it produced a report entitled The Predation of Wild Birds in
the UK (Gibbons et al. 2007). Animals Asia Foundation was formed in 1998 by Jill
Robinson MBE (White 1999, pp. 16–17) to rescue and care for Asiatic black bears
(commonly known as moon bears) that are kept in small wire cages for the regular
extraction of bile through stomach implants for use in traditional Chinese medicine
(TCM), and it conducts a global education campaign against this cruel practice.
In Australia, Wildlife Victoria (Myroniuk 2001, p. 14) is involved in wildlife
rehabilitation largely made necessary by land clearing for human use and it raises
awareness of wildlife issues, while Australian Seabird Rescue (Ferris and Gillespie
2000, pp. 24–25) has since the early 1990s rescued and cared for injured seabirds
along the east coast of Australia and it educates fishers with the aim of reducing
seabird suffering. Indeed, there are a great many animal protection organisations
around the world that educate the community as well as put pressure on government
in relation to a diversity of wildlife animals.
In the case of companion animals, for instance, the Cat Protection Society of
NSW (Matysek 1999, p. 12) has for many years provided an affordable cat desexing
program as well as encouraged pet owners to have female cats desexed before they
have any kittens, while Hunter Animal Watch (Parkes 2008) based at Newcastle in
New South Wales provides educational advice and subsidises the cost of desexing
pets for pensioners in the Hunter Valley. Indeed, it has helped desex almost 16,000
companion animals over a 10-year period, and this has avoided bringing into the
world animals that could not be properly cared for.
A number of animal organisations have as their main aim the achievement of
legislative reform to make the world a better place for animals. Indeed, Eurogroup
for Animals within the European Union is one such organisation as described
earlier (Eurogroup for Animal Welfare 2004b). In the USA, Animal Legislative
Action Network (ALAN) was founded in 1994 by Richard McLellan, a zoologist
and emergency medicine consultant, as an action group to advocate and educate
about the importance of participating in the political process to achieve legal reform
(Animals Today 1999, pp. 10–12). Another legally focussed animal organisation in
the USA is Animal Legal Defence Fund (ALDF) of which Steven Wise, author of
Rattling the Cage and Drawing the Line, was a former president. ALDF consists of
a number of lawyers working for a world where animal lives and interests are
recognised, respected, and protected within the legal system (Bourke and Sankoff
2002, p. 27). Moreover, ALDF provided the inspiration behind the formation in
New Zealand in 2001 of Animal Rights Legal Advocacy Network (ARLAN)
comprising a national network of lawyers and law students dedicated to defending
animals from abuse and exploitation (Animal Rights Legal Advocacy Network
2001, p. 1). Its main role involves examining and responding to legal issues related
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to animals and their welfare. For instance, in 2001 ARLAN made a detailed
submission exposing the deficiencies in the New Zealand Draft Animal Welfare
(Pigs) Code of Welfare 2001 issued under the then new Animal Welfare Act 1999
(Animal Rights Legal Advocacy Network 2001, pp. 1–15).
In Australia, the NSW Young Lawyers Animal Rights Committee was formed in
1997 by Monique Pirona with five core objectives (Carmody 2000, pp. 28–29).
These comprised educating itself on animal law and legal issues, becoming engaged
in law-related animal projects, the raising of awareness within the legal profession
and wider community of law-related animal welfare issues, working with and
supporting other relevant organisations, and lobbying for animal law reform
where appropriate. More recently, in 2004 Voiceless was established in New
South Wales as a non-profit organisation by the Sherman family with the aim of
working for the modification or creation of legislation and policies designed to
protect animals (Sherman et al. 2005). Voiceless has become enormously influen-
tial in animal protection matters in Australia, and among other things it has
produced authoritative and educational reports on pigs (Sherman et al. 2005),
food product labelling (Sharman 2007), and meat chickens (Sharman and Kossew
2008). Katrina Sharman is corporate counsel for Voiceless. Each of the animal
protection organisations seeking to improve the lives of animals through reform of
the law contributes to educating members of the community regarding deficiencies
in the law so they can bring pressure to bear on politicians as makers of the law, and
more directly those involved in public policy and legislative change regarding the
welfare of animals and ways in which the law can be improved to reduce animal
suffering. Moreover, it is seen that there is a great diversity of specialised animal
protection organisations covering a wide range of animal categories as well as
animal related activities, and that these have a variety of educational roles.
In addition to the specialised animal protection organisations, there are many
other organisations that cover all types of animals but have activities confined to a
particular geographical region. This is the case with the various RSPCAs and other
similar organisations around the world. Among these are the original RSPCA
established in 1824 in the UK that includes the Scottish and Ulster SPCAs, RSPCAs
in each of the states and territories of Australia, as well as RSPCA Australia and
RNZSPCA in New Zealand, while other general national animal protection orga-
nisations include ASPCA in the USA, Animals Australia in Australia, and SAFE in
New Zealand.
These general national animal protection organisations cover all animals within
their geographical jurisdictions, and their operations could be said to be epitomised
by the Australian RSPCA motto For All Creatures Great and Small. They usually
conduct community education campaigns against specific types of human-inflicted
abuse and suffering experienced by various categories of animals, and are involved
also in a range of general educational activities aimed at creating compassion and
respect for animals, particularly among young people. They increase awareness in
the community about animal issues and encourage community members to enhance
animal protection through their individual actions and choices as well as by putting
pressure on politicians to reform the law to improve the lives of animals. Moreover,
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the operations of the many and diverse general as well as specialised animal
protection organisations around the world essentially ensure that every type of
human abuse of all categories of animals is covered. Indeed, these non-government
organisations can be regarded as the free enterprise guardians of animal protection.
The operations of the general national animal protection organisations involve a
wide range of educational activities as outlined by the examples that follow.
In Australia, RSPCA Australia and Animals Australia are the two traditional
major national animal protection organisations. RSPCA Australia is a federal
body whose membership comprises the eight RSPCAs in each of the states and
territories of Australia (RSPCA Australia 2004), and Animals Australia is a federa-
tion of a large number of separate and diverse animal organisations, some general
and some specialised, that include Animal Liberation in several of the states of
Australia, Choose Cruelty Free, People Against Cruelty in Animal Transport,
Hunter Animal Watch, and Wildlife Victoria (Animals Today 2003, p. 4).
RSPCA Australia each year publishes an updated set of policies and position papers
(RSPCA Australia 2004) that embrace a wide range of animal types and activities.
These policies and position papers contain a large amount of valuable educational
material on how animals should be treated and offer guidance for law reform to
improve the lives of animals. Moreover, each year RSPCA Australia organises a
scientific conference such as that on humane vertebrate pest control held in Can-
berra in 2003 (RSPCA Australia 2003), and these conferences and their proceedings
provide a valuable educational resource on scientific matters relating to improving
animal protection. In addition, RSPCA Australia each year awards two research
scholarships, namely the Alan White Scholarship for Animal Welfare Research
established in 1989 to advance animal welfare in Australia and the Humane Animal
Production Research Scholarship for research related to the development of humane
alternative animal production systems (ANZCCART News 2004, p. 17). For many
years, Animals Australia regularly published Animals Today that was a journal
containing informative educational articles and material on a wide range of animal
protection issues. Moreover, currently Animals Australia conducts a national
conference, and the 2007 annual conference held in Adelaide was the first such
conference that was open to the general public. Indeed, the activities of Animals
Australia also have had and continue to have valuable educational components.
In Australia, the RSPCAs in some of the states provide animal welfare education
for primary and secondary school students. For instance, RSPCA Victoria offers
such education to children and young people of various age groups at its Burwood
Education Centre (RSPCA Victoria 2008), and RSPCA Queensland conducts
animal welfare education through school visits as well as by the operation of its
mobile education bus EMU (RSPCA Queensland 2008). RSPCAs in Australia are
involved also in community education relating to animal welfare through the
provision of educational material and campaigns. For instance, RSPCA Victoria
has produced over recent years instructive educational newsletters covering a range
of animal welfare matters such as the danger of leaving pets in hot cars, the abuse of
layer hens associated with keeping them in battery cages, the poisoning of native
birds such as parrots, the live animal export trade, and the tail docking of dogs for
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cosmetic purposes (now banned following a vigorous RSPCA campaign).

Animal Liberation organisations in various states of Australia are active also in
providing educational materials and operating campaigns covering diverse animal
protection issues. For instance, Animal Liberation Queensland has humane animal
education strategies aimed at the consumer public in general and at university and
school students in particular (Burnett 2008). It is engaged also in political lobbying
that includes making submissions on revisions to animal protection legislation,
attending seminars on animal issues, and serving on committees, each of which
involves an educational role. Animal Liberation Queensland in collaboration with
overseas groups has produced classroom materials for both primary and secondary
schools, and Cynthia Burnett as Humane Education Officer for Animal Liberation
Queensland has when requested given talks to students at both schools and uni-
versities. Currently, Animal Liberation South Australia is conducting campaigns
against horse jumps racing and recreational duck shooting (Animal Liberation
South Australia 2009), and it is involved also in distributing informative educa-
tional brochures dealing with animal suffering involved in the meat chicken
industry and pig production. It is seen that both national and subnational general
animal protection organisations play an important educational role in drawing
attention to animal abuse in various circumstances and in attempting to improve
the lives of animals subjected to suffering inflicted by humans.
In his book Political Animals, Dr Robert Garner examined animal protection
politics in Britain and the USA, and he concluded (Garner 1998, p. 235) that the study
revealed above all that public pressure has led to reform. Moreover, on numerous
occasions, legislative change to improve animal protection occurred only after public
concern had materialised, and frequently, this followed wide publicity of a specific
event illustrating the need for reform. This emphasises the importance of animal
protection organisation campaigns that, with assistance from the media, muster
public support to influence politicians as makers of the law. It is desirable also for
animal protection organisations to work together harmoniously and constructively so
they exert even more effective influence on politicians. Indeed, as observed by
Garner (1998, pp. 83, 92) the reality is that most national animal rights organisations
do adopt a strategy of supporting non-abolitionist animal welfare reforms as a means
towards the possible eventual achievement of an abolitionist goal. Thus, animal
rights and animal welfare organisations can work together in the here and now to
make a better life for animals and reduce their suffering.
The conclusions of Robert Garner (1998, p. 237) that “... both the British and
American political systems have shown themselves to be reasonably responsive to
change”, and that “The task facing the animal protection movement in both
countries is to mobilise, by whatever means, a large enough constituency to make
further improvements in the lives of non-human animals a reality” are encouraging.
Indeed, people power in a democratic system has the potential to achieve further
much needed legislative reforms to reduce or eliminate suffering inflicted by
humans on animals. Furthermore, animal protection organisations can continue to
provide an important educational role in the achievement of this. It is of course
necessary not only for people to be made aware through education of animal abuses
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taking place, but for them to be educated also to use their knowledge of such abuse
to make personal choices and influence others so that in a practical way their
awareness is translated into the creation of a better life for animals. To help in the
achievement of this, animal protection organisations often provide useful educa-
tional guidance.
3.5 Other Contexts
There are various other educational contexts through which the educational themes
relating to reduction in animal suffering can be addressed. Several of these contexts
are outlined in this section, and where appropriate they are illustrated by examples.
In many cases, the educational contexts are interrelated.
3.5.1 Government Administration and Agencies
Government departments and agencies at international, regional, national, provincial,

and local levels make educational contributions of various kinds to improving animal
protection. At an international level, government representatives of the five Steering
Committee countries have the task of lobbying other governments around the world
to support the Manila Agreement towards a Declaration on Animal Welfare (World
Society for the Protection of Animals 2005a, b), and the World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE) is developing scientifically based international standards and
guidelines on animal welfare (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry
2005, pp. 33–34). Regionally in the European Union, the European Centre for the
Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) is active in the development and
propagation of alternatives to animal use in experimentation (Eurogroup for Animal
Welfare 2004b). Nationally, in Australia a major development for improving animal
protection was the launching in 2005 of the Australian Animal Welfare Strategy
(Wirth 2005, 2006; Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry 2005), and
prior to that the Australian Government was involved in the development of Model
Codes of Practice for the Welfare of Animals (Keniry et al. 2003; CSIRO 2008).
Moreover, at the state level in Australia, there are government animal welfare
branches that produce educational material on animal protection such as that avail-
able in Queensland and New South Wales (Department of Primary Industries and
Fisheries 2008; NSW Department of Primary Industries 2008). Finally, local councils
such as the Charles Sturt Council in South Australia produce educational resources in
relation to responsible pet ownership (City of Charles Sturt 2008).
Thus, a diverse range of educational activities that embrace all levels of govern-
ment have a bearing on improving animal protection. Indeed, these government
activities of various kinds make significant contributions towards the creation of a
3.5 Other Contexts 63
better informed and more compassionate human community in relation to its

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interaction with the animal world. Moreover, the better examples of government
involvement in educational type activities to improve animal protection can be used
as role models to create an improved life for animals around the world.
3.5.2 Parliamentary Legislation and Regulation
The contents of parliamentary legislation and regulation can provide a valuable

educational resource regarding the manner in which animals should be treated. For
instance, in Queensland S17 of the Animal Care and Protection Act 2001 specifies
the nature of the duty of care owed by humans towards animals, and in South
Australia S13 of the new Animal Welfare Act 1985 (that replaced the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals Act 1985) provides specific examples of animal abuse that create
the offence of ill treatment of animals. Similarly, the contents of regulations and
codes of practice can provide an educational resource. Nevertheless, the serious
limitations of both legislation and codes of practice in providing proper protection
to many categories of animal need to be borne in mind.
Officially, knowledge of the law is presumed. However, the observation of
Griffith University animal law lecturer Steven White (2007, p. 9) that students
were surprised to learn that the way animals are treated under the law is dependent
on their type shows that this is not the case. Moreover, in relation to codes of
practice, it was shown by C.G. Winfield of the Victorian Animal Research Institute
(Oogjes 1997, pp. 23–24) that 7 years after the introduction of the Code of Practice
for the Welfare of the Pig, there were serious deficiencies in the impact of the code
on actual practice. Under Article 144 of the fourth Geneva Convention (Convention
IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War 1949, there is an
interesting stipulation that the text of the convention be disseminated as widely as
possible so that the principles in it become known to the entire population. Such a
provision could be inserted also into any future international agreements relating to
animal protection and indeed in national legislation dealing with animal protection.
However, the existence of such a provision would not necessarily guarantee proper
dissemination of the contents of a convention or legislation. Indeed, there is a very
important role for education to play in ensuring that all persons involved with
animals are made familiar with the legal provisions relating to the animals for
which they are responsible.
3.5.3 Public Media
The public media that includes the press, radio, and television has an influential
educational role by informing the community at large about animal issues and the
treatment of animals by humans in particular. Indeed, a great educational advantage of
the various media outlets is that they reach a large number of people including those
who might not otherwise be made aware of the terrible abuse and conditions to which
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animals of various types are subjected. Moreover, the different categories of media
including newspapers, radio, and television reinforce one another, and each has an
important impact on politicians as makers of the law. Media publicity is useful also in
drawing attention to successful prosecutions regarding animal cruelty or abuse,
although perhaps such publicity should not include specific details of offences com-
mitted in case this results in “copy cat” actions by certain members of the community.
Over recent years, there has been media coverage on a wide range of animal
issues including animal abuse, and this makes the general community more aware
of what is happening to animals. For instance, in the print media in Australia there
have been informative articles (often accompanied by pictures), editorials, and
letters to the editor covering matters such as live animal exports, companion animal
abuse, and recreational duck shooting, while the radio has carried programs on
issues ranging from the poaching of endangered animal species to farm animal
conditions and consumer choices, and television has shown informative programs
on the cruelty associated with whaling, the abuse of exported live animals after
reaching their country of destination, and piggery suffering allowed under existing
codes of practice. The television programs were viewed by a large audience and
resulted in storms of protest about the terrible ways animals are treated. Indeed, the
media provides a powerful educational tool for exposing animal abuse of various
kinds, results in popular protest, and has an influence on politicians who might
otherwise be more complacent.
During the last 50 years or so that virtually covers the life of television, the
celebrated natural historian and film maker Sir David Attenborough (2009) has had
an enormous influence through his television documentaries in generating in the
community an appreciation of and fascination with the lives of animals, and this has
helped greatly in creating empathy between humans and animals. It is suggested by
the present author that a documentary film, similar to Al Gore’s An Inconvenient
Truth that exposes the global warming crisis (McEachen 2006), providing a broad
picture of the suffering in various circumstances inflicted by humans on animals
could have an important educational role, and if the documentary was narrated by a
person such as Sir David Attenborough it could be extremely influential in exposing
the terrible things humans are doing to animals and help change attitudes. Finally,
mention should be made of helpful advice given by Deb Kelly (2005, 2008),
Manager of the Animal Welfare Unit within the South Australian Department of
Environment and Heritage, regarding the making of effective use of the media for
the propagation of information including that about the need for improved animal
protection, and she draws attention to potential pitfalls in the process.
3.5.4 Parental and Preschool Education
There is an important role for parental and preschool education in influencing

young children during their formative years about the need to show kindness and
compassion towards animals as living creatures and to guide them in the proper
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treatment of animals. In this, women (and mothers in particular) have an especially

important part to play as there is evidence that women generally have more
empathy and show greater kindness towards animals than men do (Phillips 2009,
p. 50). However, it is highly desirable also for the attitudes of men towards animals
to be improved, and in this education can make a valuable contribution.
It is interesting to observe that the Roots and Shoots program of the Jane Goodall
Institute (Goodall 2003, pp. 229–251; Dainty 2006, p. 92) begins at the kindergar-
ten level. Moreover, the Roots and Shoots program is predicated on the belief that
The Power of Youth is Global. Indeed, it would be good for the welfare of animals
globally if preschool children all over the world were educated to develop a kind
and caring attitude towards animals, although it is recognised this presents an
enormous educational challenge, particularly as such an attitude is often lacking
in older people who have a big influence on children. Nevertheless, the educational
aim should be to replace a cycle of violence by a cycle of compassion.
3.5.5 Community Education
There is scope also for community education to have an influence in changing attitudes
and improving animal protection. This can be achieved, for instance, through adult
education courses such as those offered by Workers Education Authority (WEA) and
by University of the Third Age (U3A) programs, and by selected reading that
encourages greater kindness towards animals and develops increased appreciation of
the effects human actions have on animals. An enormously influential case of commu-
nity education leading to improved animal protection is provided by the outcome of
Henry Spira attending an evening adult education course conducted by Peter Singer at
the University of New York in 1974 (Singer 1998). As a direct result of attending the
course, Spira during the following 20 years or so (until his death) had an enormous
positive influence through his campaigning (assisted by others) that resulted in many
major improvements in the way both experimental and farmed animals were treated,
and in consequence he brought about a great reduction in their suffering. Of course, the
outcome of the community education experience of Henry Spira is exceptional, but
nevertheless community education has much to offer by fostering awareness of animal
abuse and bringing about change in human attitudes towards animals.
Another form of community education is the reading of books such as Animal
Liberation by Peter Singer (1975, 1990) that exposed animal abuses, and Making
Kind Choices by Ingrid Newkirk (2005) that through a series of short chapters
shows both the positive and the negative effects of human actions on the lives of
animals in virtually every aspect of human existence. Such books are easily read,
create awareness, and stimulate action to improve the lives of animals. They
provide a very valuable source of community education in relation to animal
protection matters.
3.5.6 Professional Associations

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There is an important educational role for professional associations, particularly

veterinary associations, in contributing to improved animal protection. For
instance, the British Veterinary Association (BVA) established an Animal Welfare
Committee for formulating policy on matters such as animal experimentation for
consideration by the BVA Council (Hollands 1985, p. 175) and the cautious
approach of the BVA together with its highly respected professional standing are
factors that enable it to have an influential educational role on legislators. In
Australia, the Australian Veterinary Association (AVA) supports the continuing
education of its members (Australian Veterinary Association 2008a), and it oper-
ates the AVA PetPEP education program developed by the AVA (Australian
Veterinary Association 2008b). The program involves veterinarians and school
teachers working together to educate primary school students about responsible
pet ownership as well as to enhance their overall understanding of animals. The
program is based on a resource book that provides valuable material for teaching a
unit on pets or animals, and it can be used also to integrate messages into other areas
of the school curriculum. Moreover, there is growing support for the program from
both veterinarians and schools throughout Australia, and the success of the program
illustrates how veterinarians and school teachers can collaborate to enhance animal
protection. There are other professional organisations also such as Physicians
Committee for Responsible Medicine (PCRM) (Animals Today 1995b,
pp. 10–13) that is based in the USA and is concerned with reducing animal suffering
in experimentation and encouraging vegetarianism.
3.5.7 Informative Advertising
Informative advertising has the potential to provide a powerful educational tool.

This is illustrated by the success in Australia of the Grim Reaper advertisements on
television designed to alert people to the dangers of AIDS, and the Quit advertising
campaign warning people of the health risks associated with cigarette smoking.
Similarly, well-designed and targeted advertisements could be used to inform
people about the suffering inflicted by humans on animals in various circumstances.
For instance, Animal Liberation New South Wales produced an advertisement to
illustrate the conditions under which meat chickens are reared to be displayed at
underground railway stations in Sydney where it would be viewed by a large
number of people, but the advertisement was rejected by NSW Rail. Even though
such advertisements might not be comfortable to see, they do have the potential to
shock people into becoming aware of the reality of what is happening, and this is
likely to result in changes that reduce animal suffering.
An informative full-page advertisement lodged by the Australian Orangutan
Project was published in New Scientist magazine in May 2009 (Australian
Orangutan Project 2009) to expose orangutan habitat destruction caused by defor-

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estation to make way for plantations to produce palm oil that is used as an
ingredient described as “vegetable oil” in many foods and other products and to
encourage consumers to eliminate products containing palm oil from their shopping
lists. This type of advertising could be used much more widely to inform the
community on animal issues, and it could reinforce related initiatives in other
educational contexts. Indeed, in relation to palm oil, the Adelaide zoo announced
recently (Kemp 2009) that the zoo’s well-known orangutan Karta would be joining
a national campaign urging the Australian Government to introduce mandatory
labelling of food products containing palm oil that is causing orangutan habitat
destruction, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia.
Mention should be made also that advertising can be used to mislead people,
particularly in response to growing awareness of animal welfare issues. For
instance, a poster displayed in a meat chicken shop stated that the chickens had
not been kept in cages, which was intended to give the impression they had been
reared under good animal welfare conditions. The reality is that meat chickens are
not kept in cages in contrast to layer hens, although most meat chickens are
subjected to appalling conditions and treatment as described by Sharman and
Kossew (2008) and by Pope (2009). Another example of deception in advertising
involved pork that was marketed with an advertising brochure prominently stating
the pork was bred free range. Careful reading of the brochure showed that the
breeding sows were kept under free range conditions, but it appeared that the pigs
reared for food consumption were not, contrary to the superficial impression given
by the brochure.
3.5.8 Personal Interactions
Personal interactions between individual humans can play an important part

towards improving animal protection. A profoundly influential case of such per-
sonal interaction was that between Peter Singer and his vegetarian philosophy
graduate student colleagues at Oxford (Singer 1975), who when asked by Singer
why they were vegetarians explained the suffering to which animals we eat are
exposed during their lives. As a result of that personal interaction, Singer became a
vegetarian himself, and with his publication of Animal Liberation (Singer 1975,
1990) and many other activities he became one of the most influential people in the
modern animal movement. The personal interaction of Singer with his philosophy
colleagues illustrates the importance of people communicating with one another
about suffering inflicted by humans on animals, and such personal interactions can
have an enormously important educational influence. Moreover, to know about
terrible things that are happening achieves nothing unless that knowledge is com-
municated to others by whatever means, or is otherwise acted upon, and collectively
those having such knowledge can exert important influence through their consump-
tion habits and by lobbying government for law reform. Indeed, wherever possible
individuals should speak out about their concerns regarding human-inflicted animal
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suffering, and in doing so this will eventually generate the momentum necessary for
major change. Each individual has the potential through his or her actions and voice
to make a difference in creating a better life for animals, and personal interactions
constitute an important educational context.
3.5.9 Self-enlightenment
The gaining of self-enlightenment can be regarded as a form of self-education.

A dramatic and influential case of such enlightenment was that of Canadian
philosopher Michael Fox (Singer 1990, pp. 242–243), who in 1986 published a
book The Case for Animal Experimentation. Following a highly critical review of
the book in The Scientist, Fox wrote a letter to the editor in which he said he agreed
with the reviewer, saw the arguments in his book were false, and that it was not
possible to justify animal experimentation on ethical grounds. Subsequently, Fox
became a vegetarian, and he has been influential in animal protection issues. There
are many other such personal experiences. For instance, Sir David Attenborough
spoke of an early German wildlife explorer, who shot the first gorilla he encoun-
tered then had immediate remorse for what he had done. In another case, the present
author was told by a hardened kangaroo shooter that he looked into the eye of a
wounded kangaroo he was about to put out of its misery, and the experience
affected him so much that he never again handled a gun. Moreover, the present
author in his early youth was involved in rabbit shooting, river fishing, and bird
nesting but for many years has regarded such activities as totally abhorrent.
The communication of such experiences of self-enlightenment can have an
influence on others, and the building of sufficient enlightenment can result in a
communal enlightenment that can bring about profound changes in national and
international morality. This has been observed historically in relation to changing
human attitudes towards slavery, colonialism, racial discrimination, and sexual
discrimination. Similarly, such enlightenment is gaining momentum today in rela-
tion to the animal movement, and in this education has a major role to play as
outlined in the present work.
Indeed, it is seen that there are many different educational themes relevant to
achieving improvement in the protection of animals against suffering inflicted by
humans and that these themes can be addressed constructively by means of a
number of interrelated educational contexts.
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Index
VetBooks.ir
A Animal industry interests, 16

AAWS. See Australian Animal Welfare Animal law, 44, 59, 63
Strategy Animal Legal Defence Fund (ALDF), 58
Abu Dhabi, 50 Animal Legislative Action Network (ALAN), 58
Accredited suppliers, 24 Animal Liberation, 4, 8–10, 22, 43, 60, 61,
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 65, 67
(AIDS), 66 Animal Liberation Queensland, 61
Acquis communautare, 33, 55 Animal Liberation South Australia, 61
Actual sentience, 8 Animal movement, 21, 30, 43, 67, 68
Adelaide zoo, 67 Animal population control, 46
Adult education, 22, 44, 65 Animal protection legislation, 2, 5, 13–20, 61
Advertising, 2, 24, 66–67 Animal protection movement, 21, 61
AFISC. See Agri-Food Industry Skills Council Animal protection organisations, 2, 20, 22, 23,
Africa, 36, 41, 45, 53 25, 27, 34, 36, 40, 41, 52–62
Agricultural practices, 40 Animal protection politics, 21, 61
Agricultural scientists, 49 Animal research, 11, 16, 42, 44
Agriculture, 5, 7, 14, 17, 23, 36, 40, 44, 53 Animal Rights Legal Advocacy Network
Agri-Food Industry Skills Council (AFISC), 47 (ARLAN), 16, 58–59
AIDS. See Acquired Immune Deficiency Animal rights organisations, 21, 52, 61
Syndrome Animals Asia Foundation, 58
Al, Ain, 50 Animals Australia, 16, 50, 59, 60
ALDF. See Animal Legal Defence Fund Animal shelter, 55
Alternatives, 2, 17, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, Animals Today, 29, 31, 32, 53, 56–58, 60, 66
39, 42, 46, 53, 57, 60, 62 Animal suffering, 1–68
America, 13, 22–23, 36, 41, 53, 61 Animal testing for cosmetics, 10
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty Animal transporters, 25
to Animals, 23 Animal trials, 13
Amnesty International, 36 Animal welfare, 1, 7, 10–12, 14–18, 20, 26–31,
Anaesthetic, 16, 23 34–36, 43–48, 50–56, 59–61, 67
Ancient Greece, 3 Animal Welfare Advisory Committee, 16, 20
Animal behaviour, 45 Animal welfare and ethics, 26, 28, 44, 49, 51
Animal Club, 40–41 Animal welfare education, 29, 31, 40, 41, 47,
Animal ethics, 4, 11 52, 60
Animal ethics committees, 11, 26, 42, 57 Animal Welfare League, 19
Animal experimentation, 5, 11, 44, 57, 66, 68 Animal welfare standards, 27, 35, 36
Animal export, 15, 50, 61, 64 Animal welfare teaching, 26, 28
Animal health, 17, 30, 35 Animal welfarist reforms, 21
Animal husbandry, 48 Anticoagulant rodenticides, 28
79
80 Index
ANZCCART. See Australian and New Zealand Barnard, Neal, 31, 32, 56
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Council for the Care of Animals in Bats, 12

Research and Teaching Battery cage, 10
ANZCCART News, 57, 60 Bear detection kit, 30
Ape, 1, 8, 11 Bear farming, 36
Aquatic animals, 51 Bears, 1, 12, 30, 36, 52, 58, 59
Aristotle, 3–5 Beef cattle, 10, 30
ARLAN. See Animal Rights Legal Advocacy Behaviour, 2, 6, 7, 12, 13, 30, 38, 40, 42, 45
Network Beijing, 14
Armstrong and Botzler, 4–7, 13, 22, 41, 49, Bekoff, Marc, 43
52, 57 Belgium, 54
Ashton, Elizabeth, 57 Bentham, Jeremy, 4
Asia, 8, 36, 41 Berriman, Mark, 57
Asiatic black bears, 12, 58 Bible, 3, 4
ASPCA. See American Society for the Biomedical research, 6
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Birch, Charles, 5, 11
Attenborough, David, 64, 68 Bird nesting, 68
Attitude, 3, 4, 9, 12, 13, 17, 25, 39, 41, 46, 65 Birds, 1, 13, 14, 25, 28, 58, 61, 68
Attitudinal change, 2, 8–13 Blooding of greyhounds, 14
Attribution of sentience, 8 Boarding facilities, 50
Australasian Law Reform Agencies Book of Genesis, 3, 4
Conference, 4 Brambell Committee, 6, 30
Australia, 5–7, 10–12, 14–21, 24, 25, 28, 29, Brambell report, 6
32, 33, 39–48, 50–52, 56–64, 66 Breeding sows, 38, 67
Australian and New Zealand Council for the Britain, 5, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19–21, 28, 30–32, 40,
Care of Animals in Research and 49, 50, 52, 56, 58, 61
Teaching (ANZCCART), 30 British Commonwealth, 45
Australian Animal Welfare Strategy (AAWS), British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection
7, 26, 46, 47, 52, 62 (BUAV), 57
Australian Animal Welfare Strategy Education British Veterinary Association (BVA), 66
and Training Working Group, 47, 51 Broiler chickens, 10, 16
Australian Association for Humane Research Brooke, Phil, 25, 26, 56
(AAHR), 56, 57 Broom, Don, 6, 13, 28–30, 37, 43, 45
Australian Capital Territory (ACT), 39–40 Buddhism, 3
Australian Livestock Export Corporation Bulgaria, 14
Limited, 50 Bull fighting, 12, 52
Australian National University (ANU), 44 Burnett, Cynthia, 61
Australian Orangutan Project, 66 BVA. See British Veterinary Association
Australian Seabird Rescue, 58
Australian Senate Committee, 58 C
Australian Vegetarian Society, 57 Cadavers, 29
Australian Veterinary Association (AVA), 48, Cambridge, 28, 37, 43, 46
49, 66 Cambridge University Animal Welfare
Austria, 44 Information Centre, 30
AVA. See Australian Veterinary Association Campaigning, 22, 23, 36, 56, 57, 65
AVA PetPEP education program, 66 Canada, 43, 44, 52
Avon, 22 Cancer, 32
Capacity to suffer, 4, 8
B Capture, 1, 4, 11, 23, 34
Baby orangutans, 34 Care and use of animals in schools, 41, 42
Bahrain, 50 Cat Protection Society of NSW, 58
Balcombe, Jonathan, 41 Cats, 1, 22, 25, 26, 28, 49, 58
Balls, Michael, 31, 57 Cattle, 10, 15, 21, 23, 26, 30, 40, 49, 50, 56
Index 81
Caulfield, Malcolm, 11 Crayfish, 7, 12

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Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics Creating awareness, 1

(CAWE), 26, 28, 31, 32 Creation, 3, 5, 41, 46, 51, 52, 59, 62
Certification, 25, 49 Cruelty, 4–8, 12, 14–20, 23, 24, 27, 29, 33, 42,
Chickens, 8, 10, 11, 16, 59, 61, 66, 67 53, 64
Child abuse, 42 Crustaceans, 7, 12, 17
Chimpanzees, 11, 58 Culture, 9, 23, 41, 45
China, 12, 14, 36, 52 Curriculum, 28, 39–41, 66
Chinese students, 8 Cycle of violence, 43, 65
Cholesterol levels, 32 Cyprus, 55
Choose Cruelty Free, 24, 60 Czech Republic, 34, 53
Circle of compassion, 25–26
Circuses, 25 D
CITES. See Convention on International Trade Dairy cows, 10
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna Dancing bears, 12, 52
and Flora Darwin, Charles, 4, 5, 29
CIWF. See Compassion in World Farming Davies, Alex, 32
Clearing forest, 1 Dawkins, Marian, 7
Cock fighting, 14 Dawkins, Richard, 58
Code of practice, 11, 15, 20, 42, 45, 63 Deceptive or meaningless advertising, 24
Coetzee, John., 45 Declaration on Animal Welfare, 7, 9, 33,
Colonialism, 68 34, 53, 62
Commissioner for Enlargement, 55 Declaration on Human Rights, 9, 34
Commonwealth legislation, 15 Definition of animal, 15, 17
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial DeGrazia, David, 22
Research Organisation (CSIRO), 15, 62 Denmark, 3
Community education, 2, 53, 59, 60, 65 Dialogue and compromise, 22
Companion animals, 1, 18, 25, 33, 44, 58 Direct action, 20
Compassion, 3, 5, 17, 24–26, 29, 30, 37–41, 43, Discomfort, 6
45, 59, 65 Discrimination, 2, 8, 9, 68
Compassion in World Farming (CIWF), 25, Disease control emergency killing, 35
26, 33, 39, 56 Dog breeding establishments, 50
Competency based assessment, 51 Dog fighting, 14
Computerised model of the human heart, 32 Dogs, 1, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 22, 26, 36, 52, 61
Computer models, 46 Dolphins, 1
Conference, 7, 30, 34, 35, 53, 57, 60 Draft Bill, 21
Conscientious objection, 29 Draize test, 23
Consciousness, 6–7, 9 Dubai, 50
Consumer awareness, 24 Ducks, 1, 12, 17
Consumer behaviour, 2 Dunlop, Fuchia, 12
Consumers, 13, 24, 39, 67 Duty of care, 14, 28, 63
Consumption habits, 67
Contexts, 1, 2, 30, 35, 37–68 E
Continuing education, 49, 66 EC. See European Community
Convention on International Trade in EC legislation, 11
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Economic and Social Council of the United
Flora (CITES), 30, 34 Nations (ECOSOC), 34, 53
Cosmetics, 10, 23, 24 Economic interests, 5
Costa Rica, 34, 53 ECVAM. See European Centre for the
Council of Europe, 33, 54 Validation of Alternative Methods
Council of Ministers, 51 Education, 1–3, 5, 8, 9, 12, 13, 18, 20, 22, 24,
Crabs, 7 25, 27–33, 37–55, 57–68
Crates, 10, 30, 46, 56 Educational, 40, 41, 45, 48–68
82 Index
Educational bus, 25 Factory farming, 1, 5, 6, 9, 24, 56

VetBooks.ir
Educational contexts, 37–68 Family-school-community, 38

Educational guidance, 62 Farm animals, 5, 6, 9, 10, 14–16, 22, 24–27, 30,
Educational influence, 43, 67 33, 46, 56
Educational information, 26 Farmed animals, 1, 44, 56, 65
Educational materials, 57, 60–62 Farming, 1, 5, 6, 9–12, 19, 24–26, 30, 34–36,
Educational programs, 37, 39, 41, 56 39, 40, 50, 56
Educational resource, 60, 62–63 Farming activities, 25
Educational source, 2 Farm workers, 25
Educational themes, 1–37, 62, 68 Fast-food companies, 27
Education Mobile Unit (EMU), 40 Fear and distress, 6
Egerton, John, 17, 19 First national legislation protecting animals, 13
Eggs, 21, 24 Fish, 3, 6, 8, 17, 29, 51
Egypt, 50 Fish, Lucy, 29
Eisler, Riane, 13 Fishers, 58
Electrical devices, 14 Fishing, 68
Elephants, 32, 35 Five freedoms, 6, 35, 36
Emotions, 5, 6, 39 Fly, 8
Empathy, 13, 37, 40–41, 48, 64, 65 Flystrike, 46
EMU. See Education Mobile Unit Food animals in China, 12
Enforcement, 2, 18–20, 27, 30, 51, 54, 55 Food production supply chain, 10, 55
Enforcement activities, 19 Food product labelling, 59
England, 14, 20, 44, 54, 56 Fox, 8, 12, 17, 21, 68
English literature, 45 Fox, Michael, 68
Entertainment and sport, 1, 17 FRAME. See Fund for the Replacement of
Environmental cost, 10 Animals in Medical Experiments
Environmental impact assessments, 28 Francione, Gary, 18, 22
Ethical acceptability, 26 Freedom of movement, 6
Ethical eating, 10 Free-range eggs, 24
Ethical treatment of animals, 57 Frogs, 12
Ethics, 11, 26, 28, 29, 44, 49, 51, 57 Fund for the Replacement of Animals in
EU. See European Union Medical Experiments (FRAME), 31, 57
Eurogroup. See Eurogroup for Animal Fund raising, 55
Welfare, now Eurogroup for Animals Fur animals, 23
Eurogroup for Animal Welfare, now
Eurogroup for Animals, 10, 54, 55, 58 G
Europe, 10, 12, 13, 27, 33 Garner, Robert, 21, 52, 61
European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Gellatley, Juliet, 49, 56
methods (ECVAM), 31, 57, 62 General Assembly of the UN, 53
European Commission, 7, 31, 54 General provisions, 14–16
European Community (EC), 31, 33, 54, 55 Genetically engineered, 30
European Parliament, 54, 55 Geneva Convention (Convention IV) relative
European students, 8 to the Protection of Civilian Persons in
European Union (EU), 7, 10, 14, 27, 31, 33, Time of War 1949, 63
54–58, 62 Gilles Plains Campus of TAFE, 48
Evolution, 5, 29, 52 Glasgow University, 29
Experimental animal carers and users, 25 Global accountability, 36
Experimental animals, 1, 9, 11, 15–17, 22, 26, Global health, 35, 54
33, 46, 56, 57 Godlovitch, Roslind, 43
Extermination, 17 Godlovitch, Stanley, 43
F Goodall, Jane, 13, 37, 41, 43, 58, 65
Face branding of cattle, 21 Good stockmanship, 25, 46
Facilitating change, 1 Gore, Al, 64
Index 83
Gorillas, 11, 58 Incremental improvements, 22

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Government administration and agencies, India, 34, 52, 53

2, 62–63 Indirect suffering, 1
Government animal welfare branches, 62 Individual animals, 1, 4, 34
Government departments and statutory Individual commitment, 13
authorities, 25 Indonesia, 34, 36, 52, 67
Grandin, Temple, 27, 49 Industrial agriculture, 6
Great Ape Project, 58 Industrial animal agriculture, 35, 36, 53
Great apes, 1, 11 Informative advertising, 2, 66–67
Green Bill, 20 Inspectors, 19, 55
Griffith University, 38, 44, 45, 56, 63 Intensive farming, 11, 19, 39
Intensive livestock husbandry systems, 6
H Intergroup on the Welfare and Conservation of
Habitat destruction, 1, 67 Animals, 55
Halal killing, 18 Internal market, 7
Halal meat production, 50 International animal welfare education
Handle animals, 47 (IN AWE), 41, 53
Handle with Care Coalition, 27, 50, 53, 56 International animal welfare organisations, 34
Handling, 27, 29, 30, 48, 50, 54 International conservation and environmental
Harmonisation, 33 conventions, 1
Harris, John, 43 International convention, 9, 33, 34
Harrison, Ruth, 6 International development agencies, 36
Health risks, 29, 66 International Fund for Animal Welfare, 52, 53
Heart disease, 32 International Humanitarian Law, 35
Higher education and research, 2, 43–46 International speciesism, 9
Hilton Hotel, 24 Invertebrates, 7
Hindu religion, 3 Investigation and prosecution, 19
Holland Park State School, 38 Israel, 44
Horse jumps racing, 61 Italy, 31, 57
Horses, 1, 12, 15, 17, 26, 32, 40, 49, 51, 61
Hot iron face branding, 23 J
HSA. See Humane Slaughter Association Japan, 52
HSI. See Humane Society International Johnson, Catherine, 27, 49
Human attitudes, 12, 13, 65, 68 Jordan, 50
Humane education, 25, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43, 56, 61 Journal, 31, 57, 60
Humane killing, 17 Journalism courses, 45
Humane Slaughter Association (HSA), 54 Judeo-Christian tradition, 3
Humane Society International (HSI), 34, 52 Judicial College, 44
Humane vertebrate pest control, 17, 60 Jump racing, 17
Human interest, 18
Hunger and thirst, 6 K
Hunter Animal Watch, 52, 56, 58, 60 Kangaroo populations, 32
Hunting, 1, 12, 17, 21, 39 Kangaroo shooter, 68
Hunting for sport, 17 Kelly, Deb, 64
Hunting of foxes, 12 Kenya, 34, 36, 52, 53
Killing, 1, 4, 9, 11, 12, 15, 17, 18, 24,
I 27, 35, 42
Iceland, 52 Kindness, 37, 64, 65
IFAW. See International Fund for Animal Klein, Calvin, 23–24
Welfare Knight, Andrew, 28, 29, 44, 53
IHL. See International Humanitarian Law Knock and stun animal, 47
IN AWE. See International Animal Welfare Korea, 36, 52
Education Kuwait, 50
84 Index
L Massey University, 32
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Laboratory animals, 11, 26, 31, 49, 57 Mathews, Dan, 23–24

Land-based marine pollution, 34 McDonald, Ian, 23, 24, 32, 46
Land mines, 35 McDonalds, 23, 24
Land transport, 15, 35 McLean, Andrew, 32
Latin America, 36, 41, 53 McLellan, Richard, 58
Latvia, 14 Meat, 4, 15, 17, 18, 27, 29, 32, 50, 59, 66, 67
Law reform, 2, 20, 21, 44, 45, 59, 60, 67 Meat chicken industry, 11, 61
Law students, 44, 58 Meat chickens, 59, 66, 67
Layer hens, 10, 19, 26, 56, 60, 67 Meat industry, 47, 48, 54
Laying hens, 21, 26 Medawar, Peter, 54
LD50 test, 23 Media, 2, 20, 40, 45, 50, 55, 61, 63–64, 68
Lead shot, 28 Men, 43, 65
Legal action, 14, 19, 22 Mexican cattle, 23
Legal protection, 6, 10, 18 Mexico, 35
Legal protection of animals, 6, 10, 18 Mice, 12
Legal provisions, 9, 33, 63 Midgley, Mary, 43
Legal reform, 21, 58 Model codes, 15, 16, 62
Legislation, 4, 5, 9–24, 26, 29–31, 33, 42, 45, Monkey, 8
51, 53–55, 58, 63 Moon Bears, 58
Legislation and its limitations, 13–18 Moral basis, 4, 43
Legislative and other reform, 2, 20–24 Moral development, 2
Legislative change, 20–24, 30, 46, 59, 61 Moral duty, 28
Legislative enactment, 1 Morality, 9, 13, 68
Legislative prohibitions, 22 Morally wrong, 4, 27
Legislative reform, 10, 11, 18, 20, 58, 61 Moslem Community, 18
Leniency in sentencing, 44 Mulesing, 46, 52
Liang, Cath, 39 Murdoch University, 29
Licensing, 25, 49
Linzey, Andrew, 4, 53 N
LIVE Corp. See Australian Livestock Export Narrogin Agricultural College, 40
Corporation Limited National Animal Welfare Advisory Committee
Live exports, 5, 50 (NAWAC), 16, 34, 41, 53, 55
Live export trade, 19 National Centre for Vocational Education and
Live sheep exports, 19 Research (NCVER), 47
Loane, Carmel, 38 National guidelines, 16
Lobbying government, 2, 67 National law, 5, 55
Lobbying of government, 20, 54 National sovereignty, 36
Lobster, 12 Natural habitats, 33
Local councils, 19, 25, 51, 62 Natural hierarchy, 3
Long distance animal transport, 27, 56 NCVER. See National Centre for Vocational
Education and Research
M Nerlich, Graham, 57
Macho, 13 Netherlands, 44
Malaysia, 67 Neumann, Geoff, 16
Mandatory labelling, 67 Newkirk, Ingrid, 23, 65
Manila agreement, 7, 9, 33, 62 New born human baby, 8
Marine animals, 1, 34 New South Wales, 11, 16, 19, 21, 29, 40, 42,
Marine debris, 34 52, 58, 59, 62, 66
Markets, 7, 11, 25, 26, 48, 49, 52, 67 Newspapers, 64
Martin, Richard, 5, 14, 42 New Testament, 4
Mason, Jim, 10 New York University, 22
Massachusetts Bay Colony, 13 New Zealand, 16, 30, 31, 41, 43, 44, 57–59
Index 85
NGOs, 36 Phillips, Clive, 26, 28, 31, 43

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Nobel Prize, 45, 54 Philosophers, 3, 4, 43, 58, 68

Noble, Denis, 21, 32, 46 Philosophy courses, 43
Non-government organisations, 60 Physical health, 7
Non-invasive teaching, 29 Physicians Committee for Responsible
Normal behaviour, 6 Medicine (PCRM), 31, 56, 57, 66
NSW Young Lawyers Animal Rights Physiological signs, 7
Committee, 59 Physiology, 8, 30, 54
Pigeon shoots, 12
O Pig production, 26, 61
Octopus, 7 Pigs, 1, 8, 10, 11, 15, 16, 19, 21, 26, 30, 46, 49,
OECD. See Organisation for Economic 56, 59, 67
Cooperation and Development Pirona, Monique, 59
OIE. See World Organisation for Animal Health Pleasure, 7, 8
Oil pollution, 34 Poland, 55
Oman, 50 Policies and position papers, 21, 60
Oogjes, Glenys, 16 Political lobbying, 61
Operational auditing, 49 Political systems, 21, 61
Orangutans, 11, 34, 58, 66–67 Pollution of sea, 1, 34
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Pork, 67
Development (OECD), 54 Positive educational perspectives, 26, 56
O’Sullivan, Siobhan, 11 Potential of people power, 21
Ottawa Convention, 35 Poultry, 1, 15, 16, 30, 40
Oxford, 4, 8, 32, 43, 53, 67 Poultry welfare, 47, 54
Poverty alleviation, 36
P Poverty in developing countries, 54
Pacheco, Alex, 23 Preaccession period, 55
Pain, 6, 7, 11, 17, 18 Predation by cats on birds, 25
Painful mutilations, 16 Prescribed pest, 17
Pain, injury, or disease, 6 Present author, 6, 13, 19, 20, 22, 36, 45, 48, 49,
Palm oil, 67 64, 68
Parental and preschool education, 64–65 Press, 63
Parliament, 5, 6, 21, 29, 54, 55 Pressure on government, 2, 53, 58
Parliamentary legislation and regulation, 2, 63 Primary Industries Ministerial Council
Parrots, 61 (PIMC), 16
PCRM. See Physicians Committee for Primary school, 38, 66
Responsible Medicine Principle of subsidiarity, 33
People Against Cruelty in Animal Transport, 60 Pro bono legal services, 20
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals Proctor & Gamble, 23
(PETA), 23 Productivity, 27
People power in a democratic system, 21, 61 Product labelling, 24, 59, 67
Personal commitment, 13 Product testing, 1, 23
Personal interactions, 2, 67–68 Professional associations, 2, 66
Pest animals, 15, 17, 46 Professional development, 37, 45, 49, 51
Pest control, 1, 60 Professional integrity, 46
PETA. See People for the Ethical Treatment of Professional organisations, 66
Animals Professional proficiency, 25
Pet bird, 16 Prohibitions, 14, 18, 22, 35
Pet owners, 25, 58 Property, 5, 18, 25
Pet ownership, 39, 62, 66 Prosecuting animal cruelty, 19
Pet shops, 48, 50 Protective legislation, 2, 5, 13–20, 61
Pets in hot cars, 60 Protocol on the Welfare and Protection of
Philippines, 7, 34, 53 Animals, 7, 33
86 Index
Protocols Additional to the Geneva Ritual slaughter, 17, 18, 23

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Conventions of 1949, 35 RNZSPCA. See Royal New Zealand Society

Public consultation, 21 for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
Public media, 2, 63–64 Road traffic, 28
Public officials, 19 Roberts, Peter, 56
Public opinion, 20 Robinson, Jill, 58
Public policy, 11, 53, 59 Rodents, 1, 17
Public pressure, 21, 61 Role models, 63
Public submissions, 20 Role of legislation, 2
Pythagoras, 3 Rollin, Bernard, 7, 43
Roots and Shoots, 41, 65
Q Rosser, Helen, 57
Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons
Qatar, 50
(RCVS), 28
Quality assurance, 16
Royal New Zealand Society for the Prevention
Queensland, 11, 14, 21, 25, 26, 28, 31, 32, 38,
of Cruelty to Animals, 59
40, 43, 44, 60–63
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Quran, 18
Animals, 34
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
R
(RSPB), 58
Rabbits, 1, 17, 23, 69
RSPCA. See Royal Society for the Prevention
Race horses, 1, 17
of Cruelty to Animals
Racial discrimination, 68
RSPCA Australia, 6, 16, 17, 21, 24, 32, 59, 60
Racism, 9
RSPCA International, 14, 33, 55, 56
Radford, Mike, 5, 18, 20, 25, 29, 49, 50
RSPCA Queensland, 25, 40, 60
Radio, 63, 64
RSPCA Victoria, 19, 40, 60
Rat, 8
RTO. See Registered Training Organisation
Rearing, 4
Rural Industries Research and Development
Reasoning ability, 3
Corporation (RIRDC), 48
Recreational duck shooting, 61, 64
Russel and Burch, 11
Recreational horse industry, 51
Ryder, Richard, 6, 8, 9, 13, 23, 29, 43, 52
Red meat, 32
Reducing animal suffering, 1–68
Reduction, 3–68 S
Refinement, 11, 31 Sachs, Jeffrey, 13
Reform, 2, 10, 11, 15, 18, 20–24, 33, 36, 44, 45, SAFE. See Save Animals From Exploitation
47, 58–61, 67 Saint Francis of Assisi, 4
Reforms in animal protection, 24 Saleyards, 15
Regan, Tom, 22, 43 SARS. See Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
Regional and international protection, 33–36 Saudi Arabia, 50
Registered training organisation (RTO), 40, 47 Save Animals From Exploitation (SAFE), 16,
Registration, 25 41, 59
Regular retraining, 49 Scholarship, 32, 60
Regulation, 2, 11, 14, 15, 25, 27, 49, 50, 63 School curriculum, 37, 39, 41, 66
Regulations on Land Warfare, 35 School systems, 2, 37–43
Religious practice, 17 School teachers, 22, 45, 66
Replacement, 11, 23, 31, 57 Schweitzer, Albert, 25
Research, 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 11, 16, 19, 21, 22, 26, 27, Science, 2, 5, 11, 26, 28–32, 35, 39, 43, 44, 54
30–33, 40, 43–52, 57, 60 Scientific evidence, 5, 29, 45
Research in the laboratory, 9 Scientific knowledge, 4, 5, 16
Respect for animals, 37, 40, 42, 59 Scientific research, 1, 11, 30, 32, 45, 46, 54
Respect for life, 37, 41 Scientific research and teaching, 11
Responsible retailing, 10, 55 Scientific Seminar, 17
Revlon, 22 Scientists, 11, 30, 43, 44, 46, 49, 58, 66, 68
Index 87
Scope for science, 2, 29–32 Stray dogs, 12

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Seabirds, 28, 58 Street dogs, 36, 52

Seal pups, 12, 52 Stress, 27, 30
Seals, 1 Stunning, 18, 27, 50
Sea transport, 35 Suffering, 1, 2, 4–15, 17, 18, 20–22, 24, 26, 27,
Secondary school, 2, 37–43, 48, 60, 61 32–34, 36–39, 41, 43, 52, 53, 57–59, 61,
Secondary students, 39, 40 64–68
Self enlightenment, 2, 68 Suter, Keith, 36
Sentience, 2–8, 12, 25, 53 Swine flu, 35
Sentient animal, 7, 8 Switzerland, 44
Sentient beings, 7, 8, 17, 37, 53 Sydney University, 28, 29
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), 14 Syllabus, 28, 44, 53
Sexism, 9
Sexual discrimination, 9, 68 T
Shackling and hoisting cattle, 23 TAFE. See Technical and Further Education
Sharman, Katrina, 59 Tail docking of dogs, 12, 21, 61
Sheep, 15, 19, 26, 40, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 56 Tasmanian, 39, 42
Sherman family, 59 Teacher education, 37, 45
Shooting, 12, 17, 28, 41, 61, 64, 65, 68 Teacher training, 37, 45
Short-term profitability, 26 Technical and Further Education (TAFE), 48
Singer, Peter, 4, 8–10, 22–24, 43, 54, 58, 65, 67 Television, 19, 63, 64, 66
Slaughter, 4, 10–12, 15, 17, 18, 23, 27, 33, 35, Tertiary education and training, 48
47, 49–52, 54, 56 Tested on animals, 24
Slaughterhouses, 23, 27 Tethers, 30, 46, 56
Slaughterhouse workers, 25 Tethers on pigs, 21
Slaughtering, 18, 27, 49 The Constitution (Australia), 11, 15
Slaughtering establishments, 15 Themes, 1–37, 52, 62, 68
Slavery, 68 Thermoregulatory ability, 30
Slovenia, 55 Threat by government, 19
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Three Rs (3Rs), 35
Animals (SPCA), 55, 59 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), 58
South Africa, 45 Traditional medicine, 30
South Australian, 14, 15, 17, 25, 64 Training, 2, 12, 24–29, 32, 37, 39, 40, 42,
Sow stall, 10 45–52, 54, 55
Sparrows, 13 Training of professionals, carers, and users, 24–29
SPCA. See Society for the Prevention of Training Package, 46–48
Cruelty to Animals Transparency, 5, 11, 13, 18, 20, 24, 57
Special provisions, 2 Transport, 4, 7, 15, 17, 27, 30, 33–35, 47,
Speciesism, 2, 8–13, 18, 27 49–51, 53, 54, 56, 60
Speciesist behaviour of humans, 12 Transportation, 10
Spira, Henry, 22, 23, 65 Transport operators, 27
Spread of disease, 27 Treaty of Amsterdam, 7, 33
Springer Animal Welfare Series, 26, 31, 49 Treaty of Rome, 33
Squeamish, 13 Tulloch, Gail, 45
Squid, 7 Turner, Jacky, 25
Stalls, 30, 38, 46, 56
Standards, 16, 27, 35, 36, 49, 50, 54, 62 U
Standing for animals, 19 UFAW. See Universities Federation for
States and territories, 11, 15, 16, 59, 60 Animal Welfare
Status of property, 18 UK. See United Kingdom
Steering Committee, 34, 53, 62 UN. See United Nations
Stick and bleed animal, 47 United Arab Emirates, 50
Stockmanship, 1, 25, 27, 46 United Kingdom (UK), 6, 24, 25, 28, 33, 39,
40, 44, 54, 56–59
88 Index
United Nations (UN), 7, 9, 34, 53 Voiceless, 10, 24, 40, 56, 59

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United States (US), 23, 32

Universities, 8, 9, 26, 28–30, 32, 38, 41, 43–46, W
53, 56, 57, 61, 63, 65 Wales, 14, 20
Universities Federation for Animal Welfare Watching brief, 18
(UFAW), 30, 54 Welfare, 1, 5–7, 15, 16, 20, 21, 25–30, 33, 34,
University of Adelaide, 45, 57 46–51, 54–56, 59, 62, 63, 65
University of Bristol, 28 Welfare of individual animals, 1
University of New York, 65 Welfare training, 27
University of Queensland, 26, 28, 31, 32, 43 Western Australian, 14, 15, 17, 40
University of Sydney, 5, 17, 29 Western philosophical thought, 4
University of the Third Age (U3A), 65 Whales, 1, 11
University teaching, 45 Whaling, 52, 64
Unload livestock, 47 White, Steven, 44, 63
Unnecessary suffering, 5, 18 WHO. See World Health Organisation
Urbanisation, 13 Wild ducks, 1, 12, 17
US. See United States Wild fowl, 28
Wildlife, 1, 15, 17, 25, 26, 28, 33, 39, 51, 56,
V 58, 68
Values education, 38–40, 45 Wildlife poaching, 36, 52
Varner, Gary, 6 Wildlife Victoria, 58, 60
Veal calves, 10, 30, 56 Wild species, 15
Vegan, 24 Wilkins, David, 10
Vegan diet, 10 Wirth, Hugh, 16, 19–21
Veganism, 10 Wise, Steven, 58
Vegetarian, 10, 24, 29, 32, 56, 57, 67, 68 Women, 9, 65
Vegetarianism, 4, 10, 56, 66 Workers Education Authority (WEA), 65
Vegetarians International Voice for Animals World Health Organisation (WHO), 35
(Viva), 56 World League for Animal Protection, 29
Vertebrates, 6, 17, 50, 60 World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE),
Vested interests, 19, 24, 46 35, 36, 54, 62
VET. See Vocational Education and Training World Society for the Protection of Animals
Veterinarians, 66 (WSPA), 7, 9, 25, 27, 28, 30, 34–36, 41,
Veterinary education, 28, 29, 44, 53 44, 50, 52–54, 56, 62
Veterinary profession, 49 World Trade Organisation (WTO), 54
Veterinary science, 26, 28, 32, 43, 44 WSPA. See World Society for the Protection of
Veterinary surgeons, 16, 25, 28, 49 Animals
Victoria, 17, 19, 40, 58, 60
Vietnam, 36, 52 Y
Violence, 9, 43, 65 Young people, 2, 13, 25, 37, 38, 41, 45, 48,
Violent behaviour, 42 59, 60
Virtual teaching aids, 46
Virtual teaching tools, 32
Vocational Education and Training (VET), Z
40, 46–49, 51 Zoo animals, 1

Animal Welfare, Vol10, Education For Animal Welfare (VetBooks - Ir)

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Education for Animal

Cover design: deblik, Berlin, Germany

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Animal welfare is attracting increasing interest worldwide, especially in developed

2 Educational Themes Related to Reduction in Animal Suffering . . . . . . . 3

3 Educational Contexts Involved in Reduction in Animal Suffering . . . . . 37

AAWS Australian Animal Welfare Strategy

IN AWE International Animal Welfare Education

Live Corp Australian Livestock Export Corporation Limited

E. Eadie, Education for Animal Welfare, Animal Welfare 10, 1

Educational Themes Related to Reduction

2.1 Animal Suffering and Sentience

E. Eadie, Education for Animal Welfare, Animal Welfare 10, 3

you all things.

Furthermore, it is observed by Singer (1990, p. 11) that there is a complete absence

Moreover, the capacity to suffer or experience enjoyment is adopted by the eminent

Thus, it is seen there is developing political awareness of animal suffering and

sentience at national, regional, and international levels, and such developments

2.2 Speciesism and Need for Attitudinal Change

humans is allowed, whereas the killing of (innocent) humans by humans is not

become better informed through greater transparency as to what is actually hap-

2.3 Animal Protection Legislation and Its Limitations

standards approved by an Animal Welfare Advisory Committee, and these stan-

provisions. Moreover, the extent of their suffering will depend to a considerable

extent on the attitude and compassion of those involved in experimentation using

2.4 Enforcement of Animal Protection Legislation

Even though legislation has educational value in providing information on what is

of an RSPCA to prosecute animal suffering because of inadequacy in the law or a

2.5 Achievement of Legislative and Other Reform

Improvements in animal protection can be achieved both by legislative reform and

2.6 Training of Professionals, Carers, and Users Involved

persons include, among others, owners of companion animals, farm workers,

experimental animal carers and users, animal transporters, slaughterhouse workers,

better education of carers and users can contribute in this regard.

of live animals in veterinary education. In May 2000, two fourth-year veterinary

2.7 Scope for Science to Contribute

Science can contribute to improvement in animal protection in a variety of ways.

establishment of the science of animal welfare in Western universities may prove to

Encouragement and support of high-quality research likely to lead to substantial

Promotion of animal welfare by provision of advice, dissemination of informa

tion, development of guidelines and legislation, and organisation of meetings

Professor Alex Davies of the Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical

Sciences at Massey University for using computer technology as an alternative to

2.8 Regional and International Protection

Animals know no man-made geographical boundaries, and their suffering is uni-

agreement, the willingness of five countries from different geographical regions,

that rapidly growing industrial animal agriculture in developing countries in Latin

Educational Contexts Involved in Reduction

In this chapter, consideration is given to a number of different though interrelated

3.1 Primary and Secondary School Systems

E. Eadie, Education for Animal Welfare, Animal Welfare 10, 37

formal education in schools should not be to indoctrinate, but rather to encourage

in relation to compassion, but used their compassion in a practical way to influence

the wider community so as to reduce the suffering of animals.

initiative in the ACT is encouraging for an expanded role of school education in

animals. In Australia, the use of animals in schools is subject to considerable

3.2 Higher Education and Research

improvements in animal welfare. Although potentially such knowledge can be

reformers from 32 law reform agencies in 25 British Commonwealth countries, the

important research findings included knowledge of the weakening of the bones of