O. A. Olatunbosun,1 O.

Bolarinwa1

FE Simulation of the Effect of Tire Design

Parameters on Lateral Forces
and Moments2

REFERENCE: Olatunbosun, O. A., Bolarinwa, O., “FE Simulation of the Effect of Tire
Design Parameters on Lateral Forces and Moments,” Tire Science and Technology, TSTCA,
Vol. 32, No. 3, July-September 2004, pp. 146-163.

ABSTRACT: Finite Element (FE) tire models are increasingly being used for tire design, vehi-
cle design studies and dynamic investigations. Such tire models have the inherent advantage of
being able to cover a wide range of tire design variables (such as detailed tire geometry and
material composition), in addition to an extensive coverage of operational conditions (such as
tire load, inflation pressure and driving speed). A variety of road input disturbances can also be
considered.
This paper presents a three-dimensional (3D) Finite Element tire model developed using
ABAQUS, a commercial finite element code for use in the development of new tire designs and
simulation of vehicle dynamics. Of particular interest are rolling tire output responses, such as
lateral forces and self-aligning moment generated due to steering input during vehicle maneu-
vering and vibration responses to road disturbances. The model will also be applicable in inves-
tigating other tire design issues, such as the heat generated in the carcass of the rolling tire. This
can present particular problems in heavily loaded tires, for example aircraft tires during take-
off. This model should enable the rapid development of new tire designs to satisfy specific
requirements.

KEY WORDS: finite element, tire model, steady state rolling, simulation, tire design

Introduction

For more than two decades, the Finite Element Method has been widely used
for the investigation of tire-pavement interaction behavior — static (inflation and
footprint loading) and dynamic rolling behavior. It is also being used as a viable
alternative to some tire tests (e.g. burst test) and also in tire design and behavior
studies [1].
This is a result of the inability of existing analytical models to incorporate,
in their formulation, vital structural details of the tire which affect its behavior.
Although these models may be suitable for application in vehicle simulation
models because they are less computationally expensive, they are less suitable

1 School of Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham

B15 2TT, UK.
2 Presented at the twenty-second annual conference of The Tire Society, Akron, Ohio, September
9-10, 1992.

146
 OLATUNBOSUN ET AL. ON FE SIMULATION 147

for the investigation of detailed tire performance changes in relation to changes

in tire construction. Hence, they do not provide a basis from which tire design
changes can be assessed with regards to tire behavior – such as ride and handling
performance [2].
In order to reduce the computational cost associated with Finite Element
Analysis (FEA) of the pneumatic tire, shell element formulation has been exten-
sively used to simulate tire behavior, including inflation, static deflection, modal
analysis and time domain analysis [3-6]. Such models utilize the mid-surface of
the tire to define axisymetric geometry, and also assign homogenous orthotropic
material property (which are presumed to be sensitive to tire design) for the com-
posite shell elements. Tielking [7] suggested that such models could be used for
investigating the effect of tire material and geometry changes on tire behavior.
However, this requires the determination of composite element properties at dif-
ferent sections of the tire by assembly of the individual plies. Unfortunately, this
does not offer the level of flexibility required for design purposes, which can be
provided by the use of more recently developed capabilities in FE codes.
With the advent of fast speed computers and the increasing advancement in
available proprietary FE codes as well as a repertoire of procedures and features,
3D FE analysis of tire–road contact is now commonly used in the tire design
process and the investigation of dynamic tire behavior [8,9]. Typically, Koishi et
al. demonstrate the feasibility of simulating tire cornering behavior using an
explicit finite element code, PAM-SHOCK [10]. Similarly, Shiraishi and col-
leagues simulated a rolling tire under 3D dynamic conditions with an explicit FE
code, LS-DYNA [11]. However, both models required long CPU time and may
not be particularly suited to parametric design studies.
For the present work, a new approach is presented for determining the mate-
rial properties of the tire components using a combination of experimental test-
ing and computational analysis using ABAQUS. The model is then validated by
using it to simulate tire inflation, static deflection of the contact patch and steady
state rolling analysis of the tire for pure side-slip condition. Finally, a parametric
investigation of the effect of material and geometric property variation on the tire
dynamic responses is presented.

Tire Dynamic Modelling Using Finite Element Method

Apart from supporting the vehicle and cushioning it against the influence of
road irregularities, the pneumatic tire serves as a means of generating the neces-
sary forces and moments at the tire road interface for the vehicle’s translational,
braking and lateral motion. Of particular interest in this present work is the
response of a rolling tire when subjected to a steering input (Fig. 1). In this state,
the dynamic characteristics of the tire are mainly specified in terms of the later-
148 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

al force and aligning moments generated, which respectively affect the control
and directional stability of the vehicle during cornering.

FIG. 1 – SAE tire axes.

By using a 3D FE model to represent the detailed complexities in the tire

structure, the effect of varying the material and/or geometric properties of the tire
components on its dynamic characteristics can be investigated during the design
stage of a tire.

FIG. 2 – 2D axisymmetric tire (P195/65R15) model.

 OLATUNBOSUN ET AL. ON FE SIMULATION 149

The 3D FE analysis of the passenger car tire (P195/65R15) used for the pres-
ent work is modelled with the commercial FE code ABAQUS. This FE code with
its extensive suite of recent developments such as the result transfer capability
(2D axisymmetric to symmetric 3D model), steady state rolling capability based
on the Langrangian/Eulerean formulation, finite sliding contact algorithm, geo-
metric and material non–linearity procedures etc., provides a robust platform for
tire design and is used to assess the validity of the material modelling algorithm
presented herein.
The material properties used in the model had to be determined experimen-
tally as the tire manufacturer did not provide them. The technique used is simi-
lar to that adopted by Burke and Olatunbosun [12], which involves cutting sam-
ples from the tire to be modelled for experimental testing of sections of the tire.
A major difference is that while the previous method modelled the composite as
shell elements, solid elements are used in the present work with parallel layers of
unidirectional rebars having isotropic properties to model the reinforcements. It
is therefore necessary to determine the properties of the rubber, the steel and cord
reinforcements for input into the model.
The tire’s 2D profile was obtained by first measuring its external profile
when mounted on a rim (at 0 psi) using a Coordinate Measuring Machine
(CMM), and then matching the profile of the tire’s cut section with the external
profile data points.
Due to the complexities of the tire structure and behavior during service,
such as the large displacement behavior, material incompressibility and vis-
coelasticity, rolling contact, etc., some simplifying assumptions were made to
reduce the problem scope, i.e.:
1. Slick tire representation – this implies that detail pattern on the tread
region is not included,
2. Negligible rim compliance,
3. Negligible viscoelastic property,
4. Homogeneous rubber material,
5. Shear forces at the contact patch are modelled with coulomb friction.
The tire sidewall is modelled using solid elements of hyperelastic rubber
material exhibiting non-linear stress behavior represented with Mooney Rivlin
material model [13,14] plus reinforcements modelled with parallel layers of uni-
directional rebars having isotropic properties. The belt region in the circumfer-
ential direction is modelled with two layers of steel reinforcement at ± 20° crown
angle, as well as two other layers of rebar reinforcements representing the twist-
ed nylon (0° – parallel to the circumferential direction) and twisted polyester (90°
– perpendicular to the circumferential direction) cords in this section. This is in
addition to the solid elements of hyperelastic rubber material representing the
tread. The material properties are then ‘tuned’ by comparing the results of sim-
ple tensile specimen models with corresponding tensile test (with sample fixed at
150 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

one end and load applied at the free end) on representative samples in these local
sections. Parametric runs of this model were carried out to determine the opti-
mum material properties that match experimental test results, as shown in Fig. 3.

FIG. 3 – Belt section material property optimization using stress-strain curve.

Some of the material and geometric details specified in the belt local section
for the foregoing analysis are presented as:

TABLE 1 – Material and geometric properties.

Material C10 (Mpa) C01 (Mpa) D1 (Mpa)
Hyperelastic Rubber 1 0 0
Rebar Material Xsectional Spacing(m) Orientation
2
Area (m ) (Deg.)
Fiber 1 Nylon 0.4208352E-6 1.189E-3 0
Belt 1 Steel 0.2118683E-6 1.16E-3 +20
Belt 2 Steel 0.2118683E-6 1.16E-3 -20
Fiber 2 Polyester 0.4208352E-6 1.189E-3 90
Material Young’s Modulus GPa Poisson Ratio
Steel 200 0.3
Nylon 3 0.3
Polyester 9.5 0.3
 OLATUNBOSUN ET AL. ON FE SIMULATION 151

Model Validation

The 2D geometrical profile is meshed with 62 quad hybrid elements and two
triangular elements at the transitional zones with a total of 173 nodes. This dis-
cretization represents the essential features of the complex tire structure to be
modelled. Then, the material properties obtained from the above local sections
material model are specified in the belt and sidewall regions of the 2D axisym-
metric model shown in Fig. 2. Using the developed model, the tire inflation, stat-
ic deflection and steady state rolling analyses were simulated and the results
compared with experimental predictions.

Inflation Analysis
The 2D model (Fig. 2) was used for the inflation analysis due to the axisym-
metric nature of the tire geometry and the computational savings it offered in
comparison with a full 3D model. The boundary condition is prescribed by fix-
ing the nodes at the tire–rim interface, and a pressure load is specified to simu-
late the cold inflation of the tire.
Experimentally, a coordinate measuring machine (CMM) was used to meas-
ure the nodal coordinates across a section of the tire at different levels of infla-
tion pressure. The extensions at the crown and shoulder positions were then com-
puted from the profiles of the tire in its un-inflated and inflated states.

TABLE 2 – Model validation: inflation analysis.

Pressure Crown Extension Shoulder Extension
(Psi) (mm) (mm)
Model Experiment % Difference Model Experiment % Difference
26 0.26 0.28 8 3.37 3.13 8
30 0.30 0.32 8 3.53 3.20 10
34 0.34 0.37 9 3.37 3.25 4

The average nodal deformation at the shoulder and crown positions due to
the pressure inflation load is summarized in Table 2. Comparison of the FE
analysis results with the experimental results shows good agreement indicating
that the material properties used in the model are valid.

Static-Load Deflection Analysis

The 3D symmetric model (with 2361 elements and 6073 nodes) of the tire
is obtained by revolving the 2D axisymmetric model in the 3D space about the
axis of revolution using the symmetric result transfer feature in ABAQUS.
152 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Basically, the 3D tire geometry is discretized into 13 circumferential coarse

sections, comprising 6 x 30° and 6 x 23.3° sections, plus 1 x 40° section which
is further split into 18 x 2.22° circumferential fine mesh sections in the contact
patch area, as shown in Fig. 4a.
This discretization scheme is used to define streamline-paths for the flow of
material in the Langrangian/Eulerian formulation adopted for the steady state
rolling analysis [15].
The footprint analysis comprises three major analysis steps, namely:
1. Apply inflation pressure (30 Psi was used in this study).
2. Establish surface contact between the tire and the road by moving the
road surface in contact with the fine mesh surface of the tire (prescribed
footprint). Then the finite sliding contact algorithm in ABAQUS is
invoked for this purpose.
3. Finally, with the contact patch established, apply preload in progressive
steps on the tire to simulate the static deflection from which the radial
stiffness of the tire is computed.
The AEC tire test rig [16] was used to perform deflection tests on the tire at
different tire inflation pressures. This rig provides for the static and dynamic test-
ing of rolling and non-rolling tires with facilities for measuring the forces and
displacements of the tire in the three principal directions. The load and deflection
results were simultaneously acquired using a data acquisition system and the
results were then processed for comparison with the simulation results.
Comparison of the static-load deflection plot of the model and experiment at
30 Psi (Fig. 4b) shows good agreement. Also, (in Table 3), the model’s predic-
tion of an increasing radial stiffness with increase in inflation pressure agrees
with the experimental results. The predicted radial stiffness at various inflation
pressures also shows reasonable agreement. Therefore, this gives confidence in
applying the footprint results to execute a steady state rolling analysis for vary-
ing conditions of slip angle, as shown in a latter section of this paper.

TABLE 3 – Comparison of model and experimental radial stiffness.

Pressure Model Experiment % Difference
Psi Radial Stiffness (KN/m) Radial Stiffness (KN/m) Radial Stiffness
26 183.46 170.51 8
30 200.87 177.34 13
34 217.11 194.74 11
 OLATUNBOSUN ET AL. ON FE SIMULATION 153

FIG. 4a– 3D tire model.

FIG. 4b – Static-load deflection plot at 30 psi.

Steady State Rolling Analysis

The steady state behavior of the tire is investigated using the steady state
transport analysis capability in ABAQUS. This option uses a reference frame
attached to the wheel axle, which does not rotate with the tire. The tire then
rotates through this frame with a fine mesh defined at the contact patch. This
approach represents a huge saving in computational overhead when compared
154 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

with a transient analysis, with fine mesh defined along the entire surface of the
deformable tire.
Restarting from the solution of the static deflection analysis, earlier dis-
cussed, the steady state transport option is first used to obtain the straight line
steady state rolling solutions between the full-braking and full-traction condi-
tions while varying the tire angular spinning velocities at the desired constant
road speed (10 km/hr was used in this study). With the straight line free rolling
solution obtained, the steady state simulation of the tire when subjected to a pre-
scribed slip angle is then implemented and the tire’s dynamic response in terms
of the lateral forces and aligning moments is obtained.
Simulation results were verified using results obtained from the AEC tire
test rig, mentioned earlier. For this study, the rig was reconfigured to enable the
application of steering input and provide a means for measuring the resultant
transverse forces.
For the rolling test, preloads of 250, 350 and 450 kgf were applied, while
maintaining a drum-road speed of 10 km/hr for each run. Sufficient time was
allowed for the tire to warm up and attain steady state condition before the appli-
cation of steering input. The tire was then steered progressively from 1° through
7° to simulate the application of side-slip angle on a rotating tire, while acquir-
ing force data over a period of time. The average transverse force measured dur-
ing the experiment is compared with the corresponding model prediction as
shown in Fig. 5.

FIG. 5 – Tire cornering behavior: lateral force.

 OLATUNBOSUN ET AL. ON FE SIMULATION 155

The generated lateral force for various slip angles are shown in Fig. 5 along
with those measured experimentally. Also, Fig. 6 shows the models prediction of
the aligning moment compared with the available empirical data for a similar
size of tire but of unknown constructional details. Given the variation in the
experimental radial load, due to the circumferential non-uniformity of the tire,
the plot in Fig. 5 shows a reasonable match between the simulation and experi-
mental results of the lateral forces obtained at a road speed of 10 km/hr and vary-
ing slip angles. Also, the ply steer effect is quite visible in this result due to the
asymmetry of the belt reinforcement. A similar effect applies to the aligning
moment profile shown in Fig. 6.

FIG. 6 – Tire cornering behavior: aligning moment.

The predicted aligning moment (Mz) shows a similar level to the measured
data from a similar sized tire, but with the peak Mz occurring at a lower slip
angle.

Parametric Studies

In order to explore the capability of the FE model as a tire design tool, the
effect of variation of the reinforcement material and geometric properties on tire
handling behavior was simulated using the FE model.
From the results of the parametric studies on the carcass strength shown in
Table 4, it is evident that altering the Young’s Modulus of the cord reinforcements
in the carcass had virtually no effect on the cornering stiffness of the tire although
there was some effect on the radial stiffness.
156 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

However, changing the crown angles of the steel belt plies (see Table 5) has
an effect on both the radial stiffness and the cornering stiffness. Increasing the
crown angle results in an increase in the cornering stiffness, accompanied by a
decrease in the radial stiffness. Decreasing the crown angle has exactly the oppo-
site effect. Likewise, the aligning moment increases with the crown angle, with
a 4% change in the peak aligning moment when the crown angle is changed by
25%.
Next, the impact of the tire constructional details were also investigated by
changing the numbers of belt and carcass plies in the tire model. The sensitivity
studies on the steel belt ply, as shown in Table 6, revealed a slight (~ 5%) increase
in the cornering stiffness when the belt layers are increased beyond two. On the
other hand, increasing the number of plies in the carcass (simulated by increase
in the carcass reinforcement volume fraction) resulted in a noticeable increase
(28%) in the cornering stiffness, with a corresponding decrease of 27% in the
peak aligning moment, as shown in Table 7.
Figures 7 and 8, respectively, show a comparison of the lateral force and
aligning moment generated by the original model and the modified design with
2, 3, and 4 plies in the sidewall instead of a single ply.

TABLE 4 - Sensitivity of tire cornering behavior to the carcass strength.

 OLATUNBOSUN ET AL. ON FE SIMULATION 157

TABLE 5 - Sensitivity of tire cornering behavior to the belt crown angle.

TABLE 6 - Sensitivity of tire cornering behavior to numbers of belt ply.

TABLE 7 - Sensitivity of tire cornering behavior to numbers of carcass ply.

158 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 7 - Sensitivity of lateral forces to the numbers of carcass ply.

FIG. 8 - Sensitivity of aligning moment to the numbers of carcass ply.

Also, the model was used to investigate the effect of changes in tire opera-
tional conditions such as preload, inflation pressure and speed on tire cornering
behavior.
As can be seen in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively, the lateral force and the align-
ing moment showed marked sensitivity to increase in preload due to increase in
the area of the contact patch. On the other hand, increasing the inflation pressure
produced a lateral force at elevated slip angles (see Fig.11), and decrease in the
 OLATUNBOSUN ET AL. ON FE SIMULATION 159

peak aligning moment as shown in Fig.12. These contrasting responses of the lat-
eral force and aligning moment stand to reason, since by increasing the pressure,
the carcass stiffness tends to increase while the length of the contact patch
decreases. Thus, the slight increase in the predicted lateral force can be attributed
to the increase in the carcass lateral stiffness; while the associated decrease in the
peak aligning moment is caused by the decrease in the area of the contact patch.

FIG. 9 - Sensitivity of lateral force to preload.

FIG. 10 - Sensitivity of aligning moment to preload.

160 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 11 - Sensitivity of lateral force to inflation pressure.

Finally, the model was used to investigate the impact of speed increase on
tire cornering behavior. Contrary to the experimental results (not shown), the pre-
dicted steady state lateral forces and aligning moment showed no sensitivity to
speed. This is thought to be due to the kinematics nature of the numerical tech-
nique used to obtain the reaction forces and moments at the tire-road contact
patch. Thus, it becomes important to model the effect of warming up of the tire
involving the possible introduction of temperature dependent tire material prop-
erties.

FIG. 12 - Sensitivity of aligning moment to inflation pressure.

 OLATUNBOSUN ET AL. ON FE SIMULATION 161

The model developed here, therefore, provides a means for investigating the
effects of various design changes on the performance characteristics of the tire
and for predicting the behavior of a tire under different operating conditions. The
model is also computationally efficient in comparison with other models, (as
shown in Table 8), which use time domain analysis for the simulation of similar
analysis. Typically, a Lateral Force vs. Slip Angle curve (0° to 7°) can be
obtained in about 133 minutes of CPU time on an DEC AlphaServer 8200 for one
set of operating conditions. This compares with 889 minutes for a time domain
simulation of a single cleat traverse reported by Olatunbosun and Burke [17] on
a similar machine.

TABLE 8 – Comparison of CPU time.

Author Analysis Type FEM CODE Platform CPU – Time
(hours)
Koishi et al. [10] Explicit PAM -SHOCK IBM RS6000/Model 591 32.5
Koishi et al. [10] Explicit PAM -SHOCK Futjitsu VX - 2 25
Shiraishi et al. [11] Explicit LS - DYNA NEC –SX4 Super Computer 30
Kazuyuki Explicit ABAQUS Fujitsu VXE 192
& Masataka [10]
Kazuyuki Implicit ABAQUS Fujitsu VXE 6.5
& Masataka [10]
Olatunbosun Time Domain NASTRAN DEC AlphaServer 8200 15
& Burke [17]
Present Study Implicit ABAQUS DEC AlphaServer 8200 2.2

Conclusion

A 3D FE tire model based on solid elements of hyperelastic rubber material

plus reinforcements modelled with parallel layers of unidirectional rebars has
been developed for use in static and dynamic analysis of tire behavior. The mate-
rial properties were determined using a new technique based on a combination of
experimental testing and FE modelling to validate the model.
Using the model, the impact of some tire material and geometric properties
on tire handling behavior was simulated, demonstrating the predictive capability
of the model during the tire design stage. The model is computationally efficient
and effective when compared with similar models and may be applied during the
tire design stage due to the realistically short run times. The basic model may be
applied in the investigation of the effects of changes in material and geometric
properties as well as tire operating conditions. Further work is ongoing to look
162 TIRE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

into the application of the model in areas such as heat generated in the carcass of
the rolling tire and tire vibration responses to road input.

Acknowledgement
The authors wish to express their appreciation to Dr. M. V. Blundell, School
of Engineering, Coventry University, UK, for providing some of the experimen-
tal data presented in this paper.

References

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 OLATUNBOSUN ET AL. ON FE SIMULATION 163

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