m.

Loo 1

A Model Analysis of Tire Behavior

Under Vertical Loading and
Straight-Line Free Rolling 2

REFERENCE: Loo, M. "A Model Analysis of Tire Behavior Under Vertical Loading and
Straight-Line Free Rolling," Tire Science and Technology, Vol. 13, No. 2, April-June 1985,
pp. 67-90.

ABSTRACT: A structural analog, consisting of a flexible circular ring under tension with a
nest of radially arranged linear springs and dampers, is developed as a pneumatic tire model.
The model is concerned with the prediction of the tire's vertical load-deflection characteris-
tics and its free rolling resistance.
The mathematical formulation of the boundary of the model's region of contact with a
smooth hard surface is based on approximations made using the theory of a tensioned string
supported by an elastic foundation. Forces developed within the contact region are
computed from geometrical considerations.
The model's ring tension and radial foundation stiffnesses, as related to the tire's inflation
pressure, are obtained experimentally by performing contact patch length measurements and
static point-load tests on the specific tire modeled. Further, by prescribing a loss factor in the
radial dampers, the model's free rolling resistance characteristics may be computed.
Experimental verification conducted on a radial tire shows general agreement between the
predicted and experimental vertical load-deflection characteristics for the normal working
range of inflation pressure, deflection, and interacting surface curvature. The predicted
rolling resistance characteristics are also found to be in good accord with experimental
measurements.

KEY WORDS: Tire models, rolling resistance, contact problems, finite element

~Engineering and Research Staff, Ford Motor Co., Dearborn, Michigan 48121
2Presented at the inaugural meeting of the Tire Society, March 25-26, 1982 at the University of
Akron, Akron, Ohio.

67
68 TIRE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

Nomenclature
a-- Undeformed radius of the ring model
c-- Damping coefficient for unit circumferential length of the
ring
Fx= Total horizontal resultant of the contact forces
Fx-r, Fx~, Fx~ = Components of F~ due to ring tension, elastic deformation
and damping forces respectively
F'xT = Rolling resistance force due to the transfer of tension preload
p'0 on roadwheel surface
Fz = Total vertical resultant of the contact forces
FzT, Fzk = Components of F, due to ring tension and elastic
deformation respectively
k= Stiffness of the ring supporting foundation per unit
circumferential length
Half length of the contact region measured on a flat surface
under stationary loading condition
N-- Resultant normal contact force on a roadwheel surface
p = Radial point load magnitude applied to ring
pj = Inflation pressure of the tire
po -- Radial preload on ring per unit circumferential length due to
internal pressure
p'0 = po established on the roadwheel
pr = Total radial load per unit circumferential length of the ring
p(O) = External loading per unit circumferential length on the ring,
as a function of angular coordinate 0
q = Slope of the curve for load as a function of normalized
deflection of the ring loaded against a chisel edge
q0 = Tire structural point load stiffness, normalized
R = Radius of roadwheel of test drum
r = Radial coordinate
S = Variable denoting distance along the circumference of
roadwheel
T= Tension of the ring
t = Time
v = Tire horizontal rolling velocity
w = Radial deflection of the ring
X, XR = Normalized rolling resistance characteristics on flat surface
and on roadwheel, respectively
x = Variable denoting distance along a flat contact surface
Z, ZR = Normalized vertical load-deflection characteristics on flat
surface and on roadwheel, respectively
z = Normalized radial displacement
 LOO ON A MODEL FOR THE ROLLING TIRE 69

zl, z2 : Normalized radial displacement of the free region, outside of

the forward and rear contact boundary, respectively
Zo, zc, z~ = Normalized radial displacement of the stationary contact
boundary, and of the forward and rear boundary under
rolling condition, respectively
a = Proportional constant between q and p~
fl = Dimensionless parameter defining the elastic characteristics
of the tire
6 = Angular coordinate measured from the center of the
roadwheel
6~ = Value of 6 for the resultant normal force N
60, 6f, 6r = Value of 6 defining the stationary contact boundary, and of
the forward and rear boundary under rolling condition,
respectively
A = Normalized vertical deflection of the ring when loaded
against a flat or cylindrical surface
= Damping parameter, normalized
r/-- Tire rolling loss factor
0 = Angular polar coordinate of the ring
0~, 02 = Angular coordinate of the free region of the ring, measured
from the forward and rear contact boundary, respectively
0o, Of, Or = Angular coordinate of the contact boundary under
stationary condition, and of the forward and rear boundary
under rolling condition, respectively
f~ -- Angular velocity of rolling of the ring

A composite structure made up of a ring and radially arranged elastic

foundation (Fig. 1) has typically been used to model the vibrational behavior of
pneumatic tires [1-3], as well as their static or rolling contact behavior when
loaded against a test surface [4-7]. In this paper a simpler formulation is sought
for the rolling contact pi'oblem. The ring, which represents the tread band of the
tire, is assumed to be massless and completely flexible. In the absence of inertia
and flexural rigidity, contact forces between the ring and the loading surface are
developed as a result of the following factors:
1. Component of the initial ring tension, representing the tire tread band
tension, imparted on the surface due to circumferential curvature change
imposed by the surface upon the ring.
2. Forces created by radial deflection of the spring elements, representing
components of the tire carcass sidewall membrane forces imposed on the surface.
3. Forces created by the radial damping elements incorporated in the elastic
foundation, representing the tire's carcass hysteretic loss mechanism.
70 TIRE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

As a further simplification, the radial spring elements are assumed to have

linear characteristics. It will be shown that such a model enables a closed-form
approximation of the tire's vertical load-deflection and rolling resistance
characteristics to be obtained, with the model's parameters readily deduced from
experiments.

FOUNDATION

FIG. 1 - The tire model.

Analysis
Differential Equation o f the Free Region
For the flexible ring model of Fig. 1, consider a differential ring element under
initial tension T, as shown in Fig. 2, where the prime notation indicates
differentiation with respect to 0, the angular polar coordinate taken from the
center of the ring.

! a

aO

'6- - ~e
FIG. 2 -- Differential ring element equilibrium.
 LOO ON A MODEL FOR THE ROLLING TIRE 71

Assume that Tis constant. This implies that Tis large compared with changes
in Tinduced by the radial deflection of the element; also that the radial deflection
w is small so that w'/a 4l, where a is the undeflected radius of the ring, and tan
(w'/a) = w'/a = sin (w'/a). Summing forces radially,

T( w' + w" +dO) - T w'a pra dO =O

T( l +W---a)-Pra=O (1)

wherepr is the total radial load on the element. For the free region of the model,pr
consists of p0, the internal pressure, kw, where k is the foundation stiffness, and
cw, where c is the foundation damping coefficient.
The ring tension Tas imposed by the internal pressurep0 initially, is given by
T=poa. Making the substitution into Eq 1 and simplifying,

T w " - ( k a w + ca #) -- 0 (2)
61

,,fel

FIG. 3 -- Angular coordinate system for free region.

The coordinate 0 is measured from a position fixed to the ring. For a model
rolling freely with constant angular velocity O, let 01 be a new coordinate that is
measured from a non-rotating reference (Fig. 3) so that 01 = 0 - O t. Transforming
from 0, t coordinates to 01, t coordinates, we may write Eq 2 as

T
-a- w " - c a (w- Ow')- k a w =O (3)
72 TIRESCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

In the steady-state condition, the time derivative v~ vanishes; introducing the

normalized variable z = w / a , we have
T z" + c aZf~ z - k a2z = 0 (4)
Equation 4 may be written as
z" + 2/;/~ z' -/~2z = 0 (5)
where the dimensionless parameters ~ and/3 are defined as
ca~
-- (6)
2xs
and

/~ = a
S
Further, if we assume that { is independent of the rolling speed ~, we may
(7)

define a rolling loss factor r/for the model, such that

c f~ = ~T k (8)
Hence

rja ~ _ r#3 (9)

{--2VT 2
The solution of Eq 5 is of the form
z= A exp[-[3(~+ ,,/1 + ~2)01] + B e x p [ 3 ( ~+ x / l + {2)0,] (10)
where A and B are constants depending on boundary conditions.
We consider the solution for which the angular coordinate 01 is always taken
from the point where the ring leaves contact (Fig. 3). By imposing the conditions
that z at a point far from the contact region tends to zero, we conclude that the
term which contains the positive radical in Eq 10 must vanish. The solution of the
forward free region is then
Zl = zr exp[-[3( ~ + O01] (I 1)
where zr is the normalized deflection of the ring at the contact edge. By a similar
procedure, the solution of the rear free region may be shown to be
z2 = Zr e x p [ - f l x / l + {2 002] (12)

Contact with a Flat Surface

B o u n d a r y Conditions. Within the contact region of the model rolling on a flat
surface, the radial deflection of the ring is constrained by the geometry of the
 LOO ON A MODEL FOR THE ROLLING TIRE 73

surface and is given by (Fig. 4)

l-2x
z= 1 - - - (13)
cos 0
where A = m a x i m u m deflection/radius. The slope of the contact line is given by

d w _ d ( a z ) _ z'.

as d(aO)

Hence
z' = -(1 - 2x) tan 0 sec 0 (14)

FIG. 4 -- Rolling contact o f the model against a flat surface.

At the forward edge of the contact region, defined by contact angle Of, this slope
must be continuous with that established for the free region in Eq 11, thus

z'f = -/~(v~ + ( + 0zf (15)

Equations 13 and 15 may be combined to express the conditions at the
boundary of the forward contact region as

2rf
zr + =0 (16)
Nx/l + ( + 0
or

1- A (1 - A ) t a n Of s e c Or
1 =0 (17)
cos 0f B(vq-7~ + 0
For the rear contact region, defined by the rear contact angle Or, a similar
74 TIRE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

relation may be derived as

1- A (1 - 2x)tan Orsec 0r
1 =0 (18)
COS0r /3(\/1 +(--0
Equations 17 and 18 are used to determine the contact boundary defined by
contact angles Of and Or, given the vertical deflection A and model parameters/3
and ~.

Stationary Vertical Load on Flat Surface. For the case of stationary vertical
loading, f~ = 0. The forward and rear contact regions are identical, defined by
contact angle 00 given by Eqs 17 or 18 with ~ = 0. Thus

1 1 A (l-2x)tan00sec00 =0 (19)
cos 00 /3

The vertical load established by stationary contact with the flat surface may be
computed by summing vertical components of forces due to ring tension preload
p0 and foundation stiffness k. Denoting the former sum by Fzv and the latter by
Fzk.

Fzv = 2 fSo po cos O" a dx (20)

Fzk = 2 [~~ k(az)cos O " a dx (21)

where the parameters 0 and x are denoted in Fig. 4. Substitution of

dx = (1 - 2x)sec20 dO, T= poa and z from Eq 13 into Eqs 20 and 21 and performing
the integration, gives

FzT = 2 T ( I - s ln(sec 0o + tan 00) (22)

Fzk = 2k a2(1 - A)[ln(sec 00 + tan 0o) (1 - 2x)tan 00] (23)
The total vertical load is the sum of Fzv and Fzk, and may be expressed as
Fz = 2(T+ k a 2) (1 - A)ln(sec 00 + tan 0o) - 2k a2(1 - A)Ztan 00 (24)

Rolling Resistance on Flat Surface. The horizontal resistance force to a freely

rolling model loaded against a flat surface may be obtained by summing the
horizontal components of all surface reaction forces at the contact region. Due to
the difference in formulation of the forward and rear contact angle of the contact
region, as given by Eqs 17 and 18, a forward shift of the contact region results.
 LOO ON A MODEL FOR THE ROLLING TIRE 75

The ring tension preload and the foundation elastic forces will have horizontal
resultants given by E,x and Fxk, respectively, where

F,T = Itf p0 sin O" a dx (25)

0r

F~k = ~ f k(az) sin O" a dx (26)

j- 0r
Further, the rolling condition imposes an additional contact force due to the
foundation damping mechanism present. The reversal of direction of the radial
displacement of the ring elements as they move from the fore to the aft region of
contact gives rise to a horizontal component, the resultant of which may be
evaluated as

Fx~ = - ~gf c(a~) sin O. a dx (27)

J- Or
where 2 = 12z' = - f~(1 - A)tan 0 sec 0, cl) = krl (Eq 9), and the other variables are
as before (Fig. 4).
Integration of Eqs 25-28 gives

FxT = T(1 - A) (sec Of see Or) (28)

Fxk=ka2(1 A)(sec0f sec0r)[l-lA(1-A)(sec0f+sec0r)] (29)

Fx~ = ~/3rl k a2(1 - A)2(tan3 Or+ tan 3 Or) (30)

The total horizontal resistance due to rolling contact with a flat surface is
obtained by summing the components given by Eqs 28-30, yielding

Fx = ( 1 - A) (sec Of- sec Or) {T+ k a2[ 1 - JR (1 - A) (sec Of + sec 0O]}

+ ~h 7/k a2(1 - A)2(tan 3 Of + tan 3 Or) (31)

Contact with a Roadwheel

Tire testing on a powered roadwheel to approximate running conditions on a
flat surface is so widespread that the performance of the model on the roadwheel
merits consideration.

Geometry and Boundary o f the Contact Region. Referring to Fig. 5 for

stationary loading of the model against a cylindrical roadwheel surface of radius
R, we have the following normalized geometrical relations:
(R/a)sin6=(1 z)sin 0 (32)
(R/a) cos 6 + (1 - z)cos 0 -- 1 + (R/a) - A (33)
76 TIRE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

MODEL

X R .~ I/.~ ROADWHEEL

FIG. 5 - Geometry q/'the contact area when the model is loaded against a stationary roadwheel.

Combining Eqs 32 and 33 gives

tan 0 = (R/a) sin 6 (34)

[1 + (R/a)- A] - (R/a)cos 6

from which

(R/a) sin 6
sin 0 = (35)
x / [ l + (R/a)- A] 2 - 211 + (R/a)- Al(R/a)cos 6 + (R~/a 2)

and

[1 + (R/a)- a] - (R/a)cos a
cos 0 = (36)
x/[1 + (R/ a) - A] 2 - 211 + (R/ a)- A](R/ a)cos 6 + (R2 / a 2)

Substitution of Eq 35 into Eq 32 yields

z = 1 X/[1 + (R/a)- A] 2 - 211 + (R/a)- Al(R/a)cos 6 + (R2/a 2) (37)

Now,

dz dz d6
z ' -- . . . . . (38)
dO d6 dO
Obtaining the separate derivatives from Eqs 34 and 37 and forming the product
by Eq 38, we obtain
 LOO ON A MODEL FOR THE ROLLING TIRE 77

[1 + (R/a)- A](Rla)sin 8
Z r-_ _

[1 + (R/a) - A](R/a) cos 8 - (R~/a ~)

i 1+
R
a
A
+R
1 ---A
a
): cos6+--
R2
a
2
(39)

Invoking the same procedure for obtaining the boundary of the contact region
as before (Eq 16), we have for the stationary loading case
Zto -
Zo+ ~-- 0 (40)

yielding, on substitution from Eqs 37 and 39,

l_ll+ VR/a)_si 8o }.
fill + (R/a)- A)(R/a)cos 8o (R2/a2)]

The contact angle 6o, as measured from the roadwheel center, may be obtained
from Eq 41, given the vertical deflection ,5 and the parameter ft.
For the rolling condition, roadwheel contact angles & (forward) and 6r (rear)
may be similarly established by using rolling parameters f i ( ~ ) and
f l ( x / T - ~ 8), respectively, in place of fl in Eq 41.
Stationary Vertical Load on Roadwheel. Ring tension preload transfer to the
roadwheel surface must take into account its curvature effect. For a convex
surface, the ring tension Tnow has an additional contribution to the vertical force
balance. Summing its vertical components, we obtain

F~X)R---2[f~ ~176176176176176 (42)

in which poa =po'R = T, ads = R d6, and the suffix R denotes the roadwheel
condition. Substitution and integration of the second term in Eq 42 gives

2T[R/8~ cosOdS+sin6o ] (43)

F~V)R= LaJ0

The vertical load component due to the model's elastic foundation may be
expressed as

Fzk)R--2f2~ (44)
78 TIRESCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

Substituting z from Eq 37 and cos 0 from Eq 36 into Eq 44 and simplifying,

The total vertical load established for stationary loading on a roadwheel

surface is given by the sum of the components given by Eqs 43 and 45:

The integral contained within the bracket may be evaluated numerically.

~ '~TIREMODEL

ROADWHEEL

FIG. 6 - Rolling resistance of the model that is due to ring tension preload transfer.

R o l l i n g R e s i s t a n c e o n R o a d w h e e l . In the case of a freely rolling model under

vertical load powered by a roadwheel, the transfer of ring tension preload p0',
which accounts for the curvature effect of the roadwheel in Eq 42, brings about an
offset in the resultant normal force to the vertical (Fig. 6). This is due to the
forward shift of the contact region caused by foundation damping, similar to the
case discussed for the fiat surface. However, unlike the offset established for the
flat contact case, the resultant normal force N does not pass through the ring
center, but is directed towards the roadwheel center. Since no torque is applied at
the model's center O (Fig. 6), moment balance about O requires that
F',~(1 - A) -- N eo (47)
 LOO ON A MODEL FOR THE ROLLING TIRE 79

where Uxv is the rolling resistance force due to the transfer of tension preload
p'o,
N is the normal resultant force due to the transfer of tension preload
p'0, and
eo is normalized offset distance of N from the model's axis O.
The vertical and horizontal components of N may he expressed as
t ~

F'T = ['~ p'0 cos 6" R d6 =p'oR(sin 6f + sin 6r) (48)

J- 6,
F'x = [6f P'o sin 6" R d6 =p'oR(cos 6r -- COS60 (49)
J-6r
The offset angle 6~ is given by
F'x _ cos 6r - cos 6f
tan 6c -- (50)
F'v sin 6f + sin 6r
For small angle tan 6c ~ sin 6c --~ 6c and N ~ F'v, thus

e = (l_zs+R)COS 6r - COS 6f (51)

sin 6f + sin 6r
and by Eq 47

-
F'xT- F'----L-Veo:p'oR[l+ ~ R ](COS6r-60 (52)
1 A a(1 - A)

The total resistance force acting tangentially to a roadwheel surface due to ring
tension preload transfer may be found as

The factor within the bracket is derived from all force resultant directed
towards the center of the ring, but is offset from the center of the roadwheel [8].
Substitution of Eq 52 and poa =p'oR = Tyields

FXT)R=[I+ a(1-2X)]T[R(6r sin0d6+ ~ R (COS6r COS6f)] (53)

R t a J-6r a(1 ~5)
The foundation elastic forces give rise to a tangential roadwheel surface
resultant given by
80 TIRE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

Substituting z from Eq 37 and sin 0 from Eq 35 into Eq 54 and simplifying

F@R=kaR[I+ a ( l - A ) ] [ ~ 6~sinOd6 R(coS&a cos&)] (55)

Finally, the foundation damping mechanism within the contact region gives
rise to an additional surface component given by

where ~ = f~z'. Substituting ofz' from Eq 30 and sin 0 from Eq 35 into Eq 55 and
simplifying, we obtain

)=bTaR[l+ a(l - 2x) ] f [ [l+_(R/a)____~-2x](R2/a2)s____in~6d__66(57)

F~ R R & [1 +(R/a)-A](R/a)cos6-(R2/a 2)

The total rolling resistance force acting on the contact region between the
model and the roadwheel is given by summing the components given in Eqs 53,
55, and 56:

The integrals appearing in each term may be evaluated numerically.

Contact with a Point Load

Consider the application of a radial point load P to a stationary ring model.
Using the solution form of Eq 11 and letting ( = 0 for the stationary case, we may
write
z =zoexp(-BO) (59)
where Zo is the normalized radial deflection at the point of loading and 0 is the
angular coordinate taken from P.
The slope of the deflection curve of Eq 59 at the point of application of P is
Z'o = -/3 Zo (60)
and for a point load

limTldZ/[~ - P
~o " dO/ % 2
or T~zo =--P (61)
2
 LOO ON A MODEL FOR THE ROLLING TIRE 81

Defining the normalized point load stiffness as

P
q = -- (62)
Zo

we obtain the tension in the ring as

T- q (63)
2/3
In view of the relation in Eq 7, we may also write the foundation stiffness as

k - fiq (64)
2a 2

Equations 63 and 64 have led to the establishment of a point load test on an

actual pneumatic tire as a means of obtaining the model parameters T and k.

Experimental Verification
Evaluation of the model's stationary and rolling characteristics was performed
on a 145-SR-15 radial tire. First, the model parameters/3 and q are obtained for
the tire by static tests to be described. Next, the model's vertical load-deflection
characteristics on a flat surface and on a 67.23-inch-diameter roadwheel are
computed and compared with measurements made on the tire over a range of
inflation pressures. Finally, by assuming a value of rolling loss factor r/for the
model, the tire's cold rolling resistance characteristics are predicted and
compared with measurements obtained on a roadwheel test.

Determination o f Tire Model Parameters

Characteristic Parameter ft. The characteristic parameter/3 for a pneumatic
tire is obtained from the slope of[z'~ versus Zo plot, using Eq 40 established for the
model. Both ]z'~ and Zo are calculated by determining the contact angle 0o of the
actual tire under static loading. For a flat surface, Zo and tz'~ are given by Eqs I3
and 14 as

1-A
Zo : 1 - - - (65)
COS 0o

and
Iz'~ = (1 - &)tan 0o sec 0o (66)
F r o m measurement of the tire contact print length for a known vertical
deflection

0~ ] a ( 1-~ A) (67)
82 TIRESCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

where ~ = half length of the tire contact patch and

a = outer radius of the pneumatic tire.
It was found that 0o is relatively unaffected by inflation pressures varying from 15
to 45 psi (103 to 310 kPa) for the tire tested, thus establishing/3 as a model
parameter independent of inflation pressure.
Figure 7 illustrates the plot ofl z'~ as a function Of Zofrom experimental points
obtained from contact length measurements made on a flat surface, using Eqs 65
and 66, as well as on a 67-inch-diameter roadwheel, using Eqs 37 and 39. The
slope of the best-fit line drawn through the origin gives the value/3 -=6.75 for
a= 12.275 in. for this tire.

IZol 0.2
0.3--
~ ~
ZX

0.1 /

L t ~ I I I
0 .02 .04 .06
Zo
FIG. 7 -- Experimental determination off3 as" the slope o f a plot oJ~ z,,1 as a function o f zo, This is on a
145/SRI5 tire. Circles are f r o m measurements on aJTat surface and triangles f r o m measurements on
the surface of a roadwheel that is 67,23 inches (l.7 m) in diameter.

Point-Load Stiffness q. The tire's point-load stiffness, as given by Eq 62, was

established over a range of inflation pressures by static load deflection tests
performed with the tire loaded radially against a chisel edge extending the full
width of the tire tread. Figure 8 shows a carpet plot of test results on the modeled
tire. The carpet plot is formed by initially plotting vertical load as a function of
vertical deflection at 45 psi (310 kPa), the maximum inflation pressure used.
Results at subsequent lower pressures are plotted with their origins displaced
along the abscissa by increments proportional to the change in the inflation
pressure. For completeness, the experimental curves for both loading and
unloading are shown. The straight line slope approximated from each test was
used to establish a relationship of q with inflation pressure pi of the form
 LOO ON A MODEL FOR THE ROLLING TIRE 83

q -- qo + o~pi (68)
where q is the tire structural point-load stiffness and c~ is a constant, termed the
pressure constant, and has the dimension of area.
I000 MICHELIN TIRE 145-5R-15
SCALE
I I I
0 0.25 0.5
nn 8 0 0 DEFLECTION (IN.)
_.1 I I l I
0 5 I0 15
PRESSURE' ('PSI) '~ ._Rr~ "
S 600 5~".,,~t>"
. . . . EX.E.,M'N.AL 2Z. ey
c~ 4 0 0

/ 7 / / / I- ~"
200

FIG. 8 -- Carpet plot o f load-deflection characteristics f r o m point-loading o f a 145/SR15 tire.

Figure 9 shows the straight line relation of Eq 68 established for the modeled
tire, from which the following parameters were extracted:
qo; 1345.4 lh (5.98 kN) and o~= 155.1 in 2 (0.1 m 2)

8000 --

m 6000
uJ
Z
I.L

V-
4000
a
<
o
._l
i.-
z 2000
n

i J i I l I i 1 J
0 I0 20 30 40
Experimental determination o f point-load stiffness q as afunction o f inflation pressuref o r a
FIG. 9 --
145/SR15 tire. The relationship obtained was q = 1345.4 + 155.1 p~ (in English units).
84 TIRE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

Tire Vertical Load-Deflection Characteristics

Using the model parameters established for the pneumatic tire in the preceding
two sections, the corresponding model's ring tension Tand foundation stiffness k
may be calculated using Eqs 63 and 64. Over a range of inflation pressures, the
model's vertical load-deflection characteristics were computed and compared
with experimental measurements made on the tire. Figure I0 illustrates the
comparison made on a carpet plot for loading against a flat surface and Fig. 11
for loading against a 67-inch-diameter roadwheel surface.
/
I,
SCALE , /,/ / / _
io o.,~ o.~ /(,' /,,' /
iooo b D~PLECT,ON.,.; /./,,'is// /I -
/i I I I /// 7/ //5" ./,
A /o 5 io i5 /I/ .I/ /I/ A,.
"//.r
m / PRESSURE(PSI) 1#/ // //./ //7 /
8ool- ,~'//// /// /~,' /,
o I-------EXP~R,,<N'rAL ~ / ~ ~5" t / / ~ .
I PREO,CTED I/ ~ <.,~')/ /'/ f/'" /.~
ool- ,,,/ .
<~ 9 i ~ H/ 9 i LI I/
o /,/ ///7 / z/ ~% / x9 ..-/
4ool- ~ " .~.'-" ...~f-.++

0 ~/ ~ "/" "I "I ~ ~ ~

F I G . 10 - - Carpet plot o f load-deflection characteristics from vertical loading o f a 145/SR15 tire

onto a fiat surface.

I2001-MICHELIN TIREI45-SR-15 /
/i SCALE ' /// /
/ 0 0.25 0.5 ///" /./
[OOO ~- DEFLECTION(IN.) /II" /.~" /
I i i i l /// ,'5,," /.
~, /o 5 Io ,5 /// ~.;" /57 -
| PRESSURE(PSI) ~a//;I ill I~//" //~
~oo~- ~ ~ ~
i R I
.X-,"
"-7
q I-------,XPER,,,NTA~ ,~,>',Og'"
~"/.'' /5.//
I-- PREDICTED (// /~" r //../" r --

i ~ ~ " j...~.- -
/ / / t / // //r 1/ ~--

0 z~ ,K / / /" / // //
FIG. 1I -- Carpet plot of load-deflection characteristics from vertical loading o f a 145/SRl5 tee
onto the surfi~ce o f a 6Z23-inch (1.7 rn) diameter roadwheeL
 LOO ON A MODEL FOR THE ROLLING TIRE 85

Results indicate that despite the inherent non-linearity of the elastic support
system of the actual tire, as evidenced by the departure of the experimental
load-deflection curves from the straight-line relations for the point-load tests
(Fig. 8), the model's prediction is in general agreement with the experimental
results for both flat and 67-inch-diameter roadwheel surfaces. Increasing linearity
with increasing surface curvature is evident, both in the experimental and
analytical plots. Increasing the surface curvature also causes an increase in
vertical deflection for a given load.

Cold Tire Rolling Resistance Characteristics

The tire's cold rolling resistance was measured at an ambient temperature of
70~ (21 ~C) on a powered 67-inch-diameter roadwheel using a transducer that
monitored the torque input to the roadwheel. The measured rolling resistance
was calculated from

Fx] = Input Torque - Skim Torque

)R R (69)
where the skim torque is that required to turn the roadwheel with the tire barely
touching it.
Tests were performed at a tire inflation pressure of 35 psi (241 kPa) with fixed
incremental vertical deflections. The tire's vertical load corresponding to each
measurement was also recorded.
Computation of the model's rolling resistance characteristics was performed
with an assumed cold rolling loss factor of rl = 0.0235. The value was chosen to
give good correspondence with experimental data. Plots of modeled characteris-
tics as functions of experimental values are compared on a vertical deflection base
in Fig. 12, and on a vertical load base in Fig. 13. The model's rolling resistance
characteristic on a flat surface was also computed using the same rolling loss
factor and plotted in the same figures. Rolling resistance was lower on the flat
surface than on the roadwheel, and appeared to be slightly lower than that which
resulted from the semi-empirical relationship that Clark [9] used to correct
surface curvature effects (Fig. 13). Although such correction is normally applied
to a tire that has rolled for some time and has achieved a state of temperature
equilibrium, it is assumed here that the same influences exist in the cold state.
Rolling resistance decreases with an increase in tire temperature, a phenomenon
largely attributed to the reduction in hysteretic loss of the rubber compound. This
decrease has been estimated analytically [10].

Parameter Influence
The influence of model parameters on the model's performance characteristics
may be established by fixing the point-load stiffness q and observing the variation
in the model's characteristics as the parameters/3, rl and the surface curvature are
individually altered. The model's vertical load-deflection relationship, given in
86 TIRE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

25 -

20 -
la.I
(D
Z

~- 1 5 - -
m__
w

cD I O - -

_J
..J
0 5--

o .,..,~ I I I I
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25
F I G . 12 Rolling resistance as a Junction of deflection for a 145/SR15 tire at 35 psi (241 kPa)
in['lation pressure. Predicted values on a 67.23-inch (l. 7 m) diameter roadwheel are given by the solid
line; those on aflat surface are given by the broken line. The circles are experimental values obtained
on the roadwheel.

25
,"n
d
v

w 20
(.D
z

(.t")
15
OlD
w
n~

cD
Z I0
J
0
rr
5

0
0
---•"1200 400 600
I
800
I
1000
I I I
1 2 0 0 [403

F I G . 13 Rolling resistance as a function of vertical load for a 145/SR15 tire at 35 psi (241 k Pa)
inflation pressure. Predicted values on a 67.23-inch (1.7 m) diameter roadwheel are given by the solid
line, and those on a flat sur[ace by the uni['ormly broken line. Values obtained by applying Clark's
curvature correction to the roadwheel values are those on the unevenly-broken line. The circles are
experimental values obtained on the roadwheeL
 LOO ON A MODEL FOR THE ROLLING TIRE 87

Eq 24 for loading against a flat surface and in Eq 46 for loading against a

roadwheel, may be expressed as

FL:q[(-~+/3)(1-A)ln(secOo+tanOo)-fl(1-~)2tanOo
]=qZ (70)

and

F, R ---qIR[l+fl
(al/3
~ c~ -a- sin6o

-/3 l+a-A )}8o=qZR (71)

on substitution of Eqs 63 and 64.

Similarly, the model's rolling resistance as given in Eqs 31 for flat surface and
58 for the roadwheel, may be expressed as

F~= q X and Fx] :~qXR (72)

2 ]R 2
where

X:(1-A)(secOf-secOr){~-+/3[
1-I~(1-A)(secOf+
secOr)]}+l/3/3rl(1-A)Z(tan3Of+tan3Or) (73)

and

x =-y{L7 /3 a, sin 0da+ /3(1--Zx) /3 (cos ~r

f:, z,sinOd6} (74)

Z, ZR, X and XR therefore define a set of normalized characteristics for models

having the same point-load stiffness q. The normalized vertical load deflection
characteristics are compared in Fig. 14 for different values of fi, and illustrate
that, for loading against a flat surface, increasing fl results in increasing stiffness
with increasing deflection. Conversely, a nearly constant but low stiffness may be
achieved with a small ft. Increasing surface curvature decreases stiffness, but its
effect is less pronounced, as shown in Fig. 15. Figures 16 and 17 illustrate the
influences of fl and r/on the normalized rolling resistance characteristics. For
proportional increases in either fl or r/, it is seen that/3 has a greater influence on
88 TIRE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

rolling resistance. Finally, in Figs. 18 and 19, the effect of surface curvature on
rolling resistance is portrayed, and shows how small increases of rolling resistance
due to surface curvature, as plotted on a deflection base, are translated into larger
increases when plotted against a vertical load base, because of the model's lower
vertical stiffness when loaded against a curved surface.

,8=10.0
0.3

/ ~ --6.75
0.2

= 2 . 25
0.1

.02 .04 .06 .08 JO

ZZ

F I G . 14 - - Calculated influence of[?, on characteristics o f normalized vertical load-deflection on a flat

SUs

0.3

F~at
Surface Z
0.2

ZR ~=0,5

Point Load
O.t

.02 .04 .06 .08 .10

Z~

F I G . 15 Calculated influence o f surJaee curvature q/'roadwheel on characteristics o f normalized

vertical load~deflection where 13= 6.75.
 LO0 ON A MODEL FOR THE ROLLING TIRE 89

.010 B=tOO

.008

.006 6.75

.004

.002
2.25

.02 .04 .06 .08 .10

s

F I G . 16 Calculated influence o f l3 on characteristics o f normalized rolling resistance on a flat

surface with a rolling IossJ'aetor rl o f 0.0235.
.010
~=.0348

.008

.006 .0255

X
.004

.0078
.O02

0 .02 .04 .06 .08 .10

F I G . 17 Calculated influence o f rolling loss factor ~7 on characteristics o f normalized rolling

resistance X. This is f o r a )qat surface with ~ = 6.75.

,007 R = 1.0
o

-~-= 2.0

.006 F~! Surface

.005

.004
XR

.005

.002

.001

.02 .04 .06 .08 .10

z3
F I G . 18 - - Cak'ulated influence o f surface curvature R on characteristics o f normalized rolling
resistance (X R on roadwheel and X on a flat surface). This isf o r ~ = 6.75 and ~7= O.0235. The abscissa
is normalized deflection A.
90 TIRE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

.007 R= l

Fiat Surface
.005 x,z

.004
XR
.003

.002

.001

.02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .12 .~4 .16 .t8 .20
ZR

FIG. 19 - Cah'ulated influence o f surface curvature R on characteristics o f normalized rolling

resistance (XR on roadwheel and X on a flat surface). This isf o r 13 = 6.75 and ~7= 0.0235. The abscissa
is normalized vertical load (Zk on roadwheel and Z on flat surface).

Conclusions
The use of a simplified model in describing the performance of a pneumatic tire
in vertical loadings and straight-line free rolling is demonstrated. In particular,
the model enables one, with relatively few parameters, that can be experimentally
derived, to define the tire's vertical stiffness characteristics and rolling resistance
over the normal working range of inflation pressures and interacting surface
curvature.

References

[1] Fiala, E. and Willumeit, H.P. "Radiale Schwingungen von Gurtel-Radialreifen."

Automobiltechnische Zeitschraft, Vol. 68, No. 2, 1966, pp. 33-38.
[2] B6hm, F. "Mechanik des Gurtelreifens." lngeniur Archiv, Vol. 35, p. 82, 1966.
[3] Tielking, J. T. "Plane Vibration Characteristics of a Pneumatic Tire Model." SAE Paper No.
650492, 1965.
[4] Clark, S. K. "The Rolling Tire Under Load." SAE Paper No. 650493, 1965.
[5] Yamagishi, K. and Jenkins, J. T, "The Circumferential Contact Problem for the Belted Radial
Tire." ASME Journal o f Applied Mechanics, Vol. 47, 1980, pp. 513-518.
[6] Klingbeil, W. W. "Theoretical Prediction of Test Variable Effects, Including Twin-Rolls, on
Rolling Resistance." SAE Paper No. 800088, 1980.
[7] Loo, M. "A Mathematical Model of the Rolling Pneumatic Tire Under Load." Ph.D.
Dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1980.
[8] Clark, S. K. "Rolling Resistance Forces in Pneumatic Tires." The University of Michigan,
Report 013662-5-1, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, January 1976.
[9] Clark, S. K. and Dodge, R. N. "A Handbook for the Rolling Resistance of Pneumatic Tires."
The University of Michigan, Report 013658- l-I, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, June 1978.
[ 10] Clark, S. K. and Loo, M. "Temperature Effects on Rolling Resistance of Pneumatic Tires." The
University of Michigan, Report 013662-3-1, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, April 1976.