Desalination 260 (2010) 248–253

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Desalination
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / d e s a l

Experimental investigation of a weir-type cascade solar still with built-in latent heat
thermal energy storage system
Farshad Farshchi Tabrizi ⁎, Mohammad Dashtban, Hamid Moghaddam
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Solar stills were used for water desalination in arid lands with lack of water in the fair climatic conditions. In
Received 21 November 2009 this paper, two cascade solar stills were constructed with and without latent heat thermal energy storage
Received in revised form 14 March 2010 system (LHTESS). Paraffin wax is selected as the phase change material (PCM) which acts as a LHTESS. Using
Accepted 16 March 2010
weir on each step, causes an increase in residence time. Furthermore, a thin layer of water covers the
Available online 16 May 2010
evaporation surface and reduces channelization. Thermal performances of the stills were compared in typical
sunny and partially cloudy days. Based on the obtained results, the total productivity is nearly the same for
Keywords:
Solar stills
both stills in a typical sunny day. However, for a partially cloudy day, the still with LHTESS has a significantly
Cascade solar still higher productivity. So, the still without LHTESS is preferred for sunny areas because of its simplicity and low
Phase change material construction costs, while the still with LHTESS is proposed for partially cloudy areas due to the higher
Productivity productivity. Also, the effect of flow rate on the still productivity is investigated during five sunny days. The
Desalination results show that the maximum productivity is obtained in the lowest possible flow rate.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction designed a baffle suspended absorber. Velmurugan et al. [12]

Supplying of fresh water is an urgent need for cleaning, drinking,
agriculture and domestic usages. Nowadays, remote areas and arid
zones suffer from water scarcity. Surveys reveal that about 79% of
available water is salty, only 1% is fresh and the rest 20% is brackish [1].
Desalination is a process in which fresh water is produced from saline
water. Solar stills are used for water desalination in remote areas and
rural places with low congestion and limited demand. Solar radiation
is free, abundant, available and need no transportation. Distillation is a
natural phenomenon. Solar energy heats water source, evaporates it
and condenses by clouds and back to the earth as rainfall. Solar stills
are simulating this natural process in a small scale. Solar energy can
directly or indirectly be used for desalination. Direct solar stills use the
solar energy to produce distillate directly in the solar collector and the
systems that combine conventional desalination system with solar
collector are called indirect systems [2]. Many reviews on different
types of solar stills can be found in the literature [2–5].
Several configurations of basin solar stills such as simple basin,
wick type, and stepped solar still were investigated by many
researchers. Performance of basin type of solar still have been
developed by Rahim [6,7], Bahadori and Edlin [8] and Tiwari et al.
[9]. El-Sebaii [10] investigated theoretically and experimentally a
shallow solar-pond integrated with a baffle plate. El-Sebaii et al. [11]
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 98 541 2414119; fax: + 98 541 2451775.
E-mail address: Farshchi@eng.usb.ac.ir (F.F. Tabrizi).
investigated the integration of fins at the basin of the still and
compared with other types and found that daily productivity was
increased from 1.88 to 2.8 kg/m2. Stepped solar stills and wick type
ones were investigated by some researchers [13–15]. Aybar [13]
tested an inclined solar still with and without wicks. The results
showed that the wicks increase the fresh water generation by two or
three times of bare plate. Souza et al. [16] have investigated the effect
of inclination of tilt evaporator and observed that higher efficiencies
were attained when the inclination of the collector was adjusted
monthly. El-Bassuoni [17] presented the design, analysis and
performance of ordinary and new modified cascade solar stills.
Radhawan [18], El-Sebaii and Al-Ghamdi et al. [19] studied the
transient performances of stepped solar still and a single basin solar
still with phase change material (PCM) as a storage medium,
respectively, and reported that the basin still integrated with heat
storage system is more efficient for water provision during the lack of
sunlight, especially at night because of storage capacity of basin water
mass and higher temperature difference between water and glass
cover due to the reduction in ambient temperature. On the other
hand, a considerable amount of heat was stored within the PCM
during sunshine hours instead of wasting it to surroundings. During
solidification of the PCM, the stored heat discharges to keep the basin
water at a temperature enough to produce distillated water. Most of
surveys on inclined solar still have been carried out on wick type stills.
In spite of advantages of these systems, construction costs, rapid
deterioration of wick materials and unsuitable distribution of saline
water prevented the practical use of these types of solar stills.

0011-9164/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.desal.2010.03.033
 F.F. Tabrizi et al. / Desalination 260 (2010) 248–253 249

In the present study, two cascade solar stills with latent heat
thermal energy storage system (LHTESS) and without LHTESS were
designed based on the optimum inclination through the year for
Zahedan city in Iran. Thermal performances of stills were compared in
typical sunny (23/05/2009) and partially cloudy (13/05/2009) days.
Furthermore, the effect of flow rate on total productivity of the stills
was investigated in five sunny consecutive days through 23 to 27 of
May, 2009.

2. Experimentation

2.1. Experimental set up

A cross sectional view of schematic diagram of cascade solar still is

shown in Fig. 1.
Aluminum sheet is used for the construction because of better
resistance to corrosion in low and medium temperatures, low weight
and easy formation. The stills consist of stepped absorber plate covered
with the inclined glass on the top with an air gap of about 2.5 cm that
creates an enclosure. Absorber consists of 15 steps with 60 cm width
and horizontal and a vertical surface with the lengths of 5 and 3 cm,
respectively. Therefore, the evaporation surface area is about 0.45 m2.
The ratio of length to height of steps (5 and 3 cm) is considered based
on optimum inclination through the year. Surveys [20–22] reveal that
the optimum inclination through the year is nearly equal to the
location latitude. This optimum angle is about 30° for Zahedan city
which is located in the east of Iran. A weir with 5 mm height and 59 cm
length is placed on each step in order to force the flowing water to go
through the absorber plate. Moreover, the residence time of water flow
is increased in the still. Also, channelization, which is a common
problem in inclined solar stills, is diminished because of the even
distribution of water on the absorber plate. A schematic top view of
water flow path on the absorber plate is shown in Fig. 2.
Absorber plate is painted with matte black paint to increase the
absorbtivity. Feed water passes through the steps and is heated by
solar energy. The water evaporates and condensed on the inner side of
the glass cover after releasing the latent heat. Distilled water is
conducted to the collection channel and concentrated feed water is
taken out from the outlet at the lower end of the steps. Bottom and
side walls of the still are well insulated in order to decrease heat loss.
A heat reservoir with 3 cm thickness is integrated with the still and
Fig. 2. A schematic top view of water flow path on the absorber plate.
filled by a phase change material (PCM) that acts as a LHTESS. Table 1
provides physical properties of common phase change materials
which are used as thermal energy storage.
Paraffin wax with 57 °C melting point was selected as a PCM due to
its medium storage, safety, reliability, congruent melting and
moderate cost. Paraffin wax is chemically inert and stable below
500 °C [24]. However, it has some undesirable properties such as low
thermal conductivity, incompatibility with plastic container and the
expansion issues during the phase changing periods [25]. During the
sunshine when the absorber temperature is higher than the PCM, heat
is transferred to PCM and charging process is started to store solar
energy as a sensible heat till PCM reaches its melting temperature.
Additional charging heat is then stored as the latent heat during the
melting process. After that, any additional heat will be stored as liquid
wax sensible heat. When the absorber temperature is lower than the
PCM (after sunset), reverse process is occurred (discharging process)
till the wax layer is fully solidified.

Fig. 1. Cross sectional view of a schematic diagram of cascade solar still.

 sensors. The glass cover temperature of the still with LHTESS was
recorded with the help of a thermocouple with a digital temperature
indicator. The recorded data were obtained every 15 min by means of a
data logger which connected to a computer. Wind velocity, ambient
temperature and the solar intensity were reported by local meteoro-
logical station in Zahedan city. In addition, some preliminary
analysis were carried out on distillated and feed water samples. A
turbidimeter 2100A was used to measure the value of turbidity.
Electrical conductivity at 31 °C was measured by conductometer 712.
Also, the value of pH was measured with the help of a pH-meter
620 metrohm.
2.2. Experimental procedure
3. Results and discussion
The performance of still with and without LHTESS was compared in
typical sunny (23/05/2009) and partially cloudy (13/05/2009) days. An experimental study in sunny (23/05/2009) and cloudy (13/05/
Also, the effect of flow rate on total productivity was investigated in 2009) days were carried out to compare the thermal performance of
five typical sunny days through 23 to 27 of May, 2009; consecutively.
The flow rates values that used in five sunny days are 0.055, 0.07,
0.085, 0.1 and 0.115 kg/min, respectively. All the experiments were
started at 8 AM and ended at 9 PM. Four Pt-100 resistance sensors
were used to measure the temperature at different point of the still.
One sensor was placed on the absorber plate to measure the absorber
temperature. Another one was used to measure the PCM temperature
in the heat reservoir. The outlet water temperatures in the stills with
and without LHTESS were measured by means of the two other
 F.F. Tabrizi et al. / Desalination 260 (2010) 248–253
glass is directly faces the radiation and its temperature rises faster in
comparison with water temperature. Then, the increase in water
temperature is faster in comparison with glass temperature due to the
higher heat losses from the glass to the ambient. On the other hand,
PCM temperature increases with time thereby the increased rate of
heat transfer from absorber plate to the PCM as the solar radiation
increases. Thermal energy is started to store as sensible heat in solid
wax till TPCM reaches to its melting point which is about 57 °C. Then,
TPCM remains nearly constant while the PCM undergoes the phase
change process. It is clear that the melting process is not completed
because the TPCM is not exceeded from the melting temperature till
the beginning of discharge process (around 4:00 PM). After that, the
discharge process is started with the constant temperature until the
PCM completely solidified and then its temperature decreases slowly
with time. Fluctuations in the water and glass cover temperatures in
Fig. 3B can be interpreted as the results of the unstable climatic
conditions in the partially cloudy day. However, the curves follow the
same pattern in the sunny day. Variations of outlet water temperature
with time for still with and without LHTESS in sunny and partially
cloudy days are depicted in Fig. 4A, B, respectively.
Fig. 4A indicates that in sunny day water temperature in still without
LHTESS is higher than the still with LHTESS during the sunshine till
15:30 due to continuous solar intensification. After that in the lack of
sunshine, water temperature decreases slowly in still with LHTESS due
to the use of the storage heat of PCM. Fig. 4B illustrates that in the
Fig. 5. A. Variations of wind speed with time in typical sunny day, (23/05/2009), and
B. variations of wind speed with time in typical cloudy day, (13/05/2009).
251
partially cloudy day water temperature in still without LHTESS is higher
during the sunshine till 13:30 which shows a shorter period in compare
with the sunny day. It should be noted that the results were affected by
environmental conditions such as wind speed, spatial wind barriers and
ambient temperature fluctuation. Figs. 5A,B and 6A,B show variations of
wind speed and ambient temperature in the sunny (23/05/2009) and
partially cloudy (13/05/2009) days, respectively.
The meteorological data shows that the average solar intensity is
about 610 and 540 W/m2day for sunny and partially cloudy days,
respectively. Fig. 7A and B shows variation of hourly productivity with
time in the typical sunny and partially cloudy days, respectively.
Fig. 7A indicates that hourly productivity in still without LHTESS is
higher during the high solar radiation intensity (about 4 PM) because,
some of the absorbed solar energy is used to increase the PCM
temperature when, the absorber temperature is higher than the PCM
and this trend is reversed in the low solar radiation intensity. It is
explicit from Fig. 7B that the hourly productivity in still without
LHTESS is affected by change in weather conditions while the stable
conditions are established in the still with LHTEES during the partially
cloudy day because of the using of the stored energy. Total productivity
for still with and without LHTESS is 4.85 and 5.14 kg/m2day for sunny
day (23/05/2009) and 3.4 and 2.1 kg/m2day for partially cloudy day
(13/05/2009), respectively. It is also observed that there is a significant
difference in the total productivity for the partially cloudy day while
nearly the same values for the sunny day.
Fig. 6. A. Variations of ambient temperature with time in typical sunny day, (23/05/2009),
and B. variations of ambient temperature with time in typical cloudy day, (23/05/2009).
252 F.F. Tabrizi et al. / Desalination 260 (2010) 248–253

Table 2
Comparison between total productivity of the designed still with other still
configurations.

Still type Date Productivity

(kg/m2day)

Designed still without LHTESS (present work) 23/05/2009 5.14

Designed still with LHTESS (present work) 23/05/2009 4.85
Inclined type with black fleece [13] May, 2004 2.995
Basin type only [12] 16/08/2006 1.88
Basin type with sponge [12] 13/08/2006 2.26
Basin type with wick [12] 06/04/2006 4.07
Basin type with fin [12] 28/08/2006 2.81

It is evident that an increase in the flow rate cause to decrease in

Fig. 7. A. Variations of hourly productivity with time for still with LHTESS and without
LHTESS (WLHTESS) in typical sunny day, (23/05/2009), and B. variations of hourly
productivity with time for still with LHTESS and without LHTESS (WLHTESS) in typical
cloudy day, (13/05/2009).
the total productivity. The maximum of total productivity for stills
with and without LHTESS are 4.85 and 5.14 kg/m2day respectively
which achieved in lowest possible flow rate (0.055 kg/min). This is
due to the fact that when the flow rate is low, water has a higher
temperature because of the increase in the water residence time.
Although, the maximum productivity is obtained in minimum flow
rate, however, it should be noted that very low flow rates cause to
unsuitable distribution of water and prevent to maintain a uniform
water film upon the evaporation surface. It is also understood that the
total productivity are slightly higher for still without LHTESS
compared to with LHTESS in sunny days. Nevertheless, the still with
LHTESS produces the distillated water during the lack of sunshine, but
its total productivity is slightly lesser than still without LHTESS in
sunny days because of more production during the sunshine by still
without LHTESS. In order to have a comparison, amounts of total
productivity of the designed stills and other still configurations are
provided in Table 2.
Also, the quality of the feed and distillated water samples are
analyzed and summarized in Table 3.
These parameters show some basic estimates on the quality of the
feed water and distillate that can be produce. Based on the obtained
results from the Table 3 the distillated water is suitable for domestic
usages. Also, the distilled water can be drinkable after mixing with a
little amount of free water.

The effect of flow rate on the still productivity is also investigated
for stills with and without LHTESS in five sunny days in nearly the
same climatic conditions through 23 to 27 of May, 2009, consecu-
tively. The average reported solar intensity by the local meteorological
station was in the range of 578 to 610 W/m2day. Variations of total
productivity with various flow rates are shown in Fig. 8.
4. Conclusions
Two cascade solar stills with and without LHTESS was constructed
for comparison of the stills productivity in sunny and cloudy days. The
effect of flow rate was also investigated on the total productivity of
stills during five sunny days. The experiments were conducted in
typical days under weather conditions of Zahedan city which is
located in the east of Iran. The concluded results are presented as
follows:

• Using weir on each step of the stills leads to a forced flow and
increases the residence time. Moreover, the weirs are to keep the
water film as shallow as possible (with low heat capacity) while
avoiding dry spots.
• The total productivity of still without LHTESS is slightly higher than
the still with LHTESS in sunny days. There is a significant difference
in productivity of still: 3.4 kg/m2day for still with LHTESS and
2.1 kg/m2day for still without LHTESS in partially cloudy day. Thus,
still without LHTESS is preferred for sunny areas because of its

Table 3
Analysis quality of the feed water and distillate samples.

Sample Feed water Distillated water

PH 8.1 6.5
Conductivity (µs/cm) 860 15
Turbidity (NTU) 1.4 0.1
Fig. 8. Variations of total productivity with various flow rates.
 F.F. Tabrizi et al. / Desalination 260 (2010) 248–253
simplicity and low construction costs and still with LHTESS is
proposed for partially cloudy areas due to the higher productivity
and its stable condition regard to change in the weather conditions.
• Nocturnal distillation of still with LHTESS is not considerable in the
continuous mode because the feed water with low temperature
flows onto the evaporation surface and causes to accelerate the
discharge process. Furthermore, the transferred heat from the PCM
to water flow on the evaporative surface is not enough to produce
high amount of distillated water because of decreasing in operating
temperature which is affected with ambient temperature.
• Increasing the flow rate results in decreasing the total productivity.
Highest total productivity achieved in the lowest possible flow rate
(0.055 kg/min) are about 4.85 and 5.14 kg/m2day for still with and
without LHTESS in the sunny day (23/05/2009), respectively.
• Preliminary tests on the distilled water proved that the distilled
water is suitable for domestic usages. Also, the distilled water can be
drinkable after mixing with a little amount of free water.
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