Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82

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Desalination
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/desal

Performance analysis of modified basin type double slope multi–wick solar MARK
still
Piyush Pala,⁎, Pankaj Yadava, Rahul Deva, Dhananjay Singhb
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Allahabad 211004, Uttar Pradesh, India
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Engineering & Technology Lucknow, Lucknow 226021, Uttar Pradesh, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper presents an outlook to enhance the productivity of a basin type double slope multi–wick solar still by
Desalination introducing the wicks. The experimental data for different months are presented, and analyzed the effect of
Instantaneous efficiency climatic and operational parameters on the performance of modified basin type double slope multi–wick solar
Multi–wick passive solar still still (MBDSMWSS). The study has been conducted at Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad
Wick
(MNNIT Allahabad), Uttar Pradesh (U.P.), India. A significant increase in the heat input, yield, and overall
thermal efficiency have been obtained. In the instantaneous efficiency equation, the yield output and the heat
input to the solar still is modified as input from both the glass covers and transparent walls are considered for the
modified solar still. The result shows that, the maximum yield is obtained as 9012 ml/day (4.50 l/m2 day) for
black cotton wick in comparison to 7040 ml/day (3.52 l/m2 day) for the jute wick at 2 cm water depth in
MBDSMWSS. Also, for same basin condition, the overall thermal efficiency of MBDSMWSS with the jute and
black cotton wicks are 20.94% and 23.03%, respectively.

1. Introduction water. Solar distillation is primarily a minor–scale replica of the natural

Fresh water is the need of every human being and agricultural
purposes but the sources of water around the world keep declining due
to huge consumption and population growth. Most of the sources of
fresh water are contaminated due to the inclusion of the chemicals
(pesticides, fertilizers, etc.), high content of heavy metals, and high
concentrations of salt in aquifers. The palatability of drinking water has
been determined by catalog of tasters in relation to its Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS) level as follows: excellent (< 300 mg/l); good (between
300 and 600 mg/l); fair (between 600 and 900 mg/l); poor (between
900 and 1200 mg/l); and unacceptable (> 1200 mg/l) [1]. The areas
around the world, where conditions arises from lack of access to clean
and germs free potable water, and grid–based electricity has been ab-
sent, there is an utterly need for facilitating such a cost effective tech-
nique, which is easy to handle, pollution free, and produces sufficient
amount of potable water to fulfill the needs of society. Most of the
developed and advanced techniques for water purification have rely on
coal–based electricity, which causes damage to the environment and
adversely affects the water quality. Thus, keeping the constraints of the
present situation, a renewable energy based water purification tech-
nique is required. Solar desalination is one of such an efficient process
that uses solar thermal energy for obtaining clean water from brackish
hydrological cycle that originates rain, which is the elementary source
of fresh water worldwide. Solar still is used as a structure for solar
distillation process [2,3], which utilizes solar energy to drive thermal
distillation processes. Solar desalination suitable in the areas where
drinking water is either limited in supply or is present in impure form
and solar energy is abundant in supply.
Arab Alchemists in 1551 [4] presented the work of distillation in the
earlier stages of desalination methods. Malik et al. [5] studied the de-
sign and performance of different types of solar distillers. Sodha et al.
[6] analyzed the performance and presented the design of a multi–wick
solar still, in which blackened jute wick is used to form the wet surface,
and oriented to absorbed the maximum solar radiation to achieve high
temperature. Tiwari and Tiwari [7] shows the effect of climatic para-
meters like the radiation intensity of solar rays, temperature of an en-
vironment, and operational parameters like the brackish water depth on
the performance of solar distillation system. Shukla and Sorayan [8]
presented and validated a thermal model for a multi–wick solar dis-
tiller. In this work, a computer model had been evolved and based on
modified heat transfer coefficients, validation of thermal model had
been accomplished. Mahdi et al. [9] built a tilted wick–type solar still to
characterize its performance. In this work, the charcoal cloth was used
as a wick to absorb the saline water. Rajaseenivasan et al. [10] were

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: piyushpal19@gmail.com (P. Pal), rahuldsurya@mnnit.ac.in (R. Dev).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2017.08.009
Received 4 April 2017; Received in revised form 28 June 2017; Accepted 17 August 2017
Available online 31 August 2017
0011-9164/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
P. Pal et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of modified basin type double slope multi–wick solar still.
used the different wicks, energy storing materials, porous materials and
variable depth of water in both single basin double slope and double
basin double slope solar distiller to increase the yield of a double slope
solar still by adding an extra basin.
Dev et al. [11–13] developed the characteristic equations (linear
and non–linear) for an active and passive solar stills. In this work, the
inclination angles 15°, 30°, and 45° of glass cover have been selected in
winter and summer conditions both. Pal and Dev [14] studied the
performance of modified basin–type double slope, and modified ba-
sin–type double slope multi–wick solar stills. Morad et al. [15] studied
the performance of solar still and flat–plate solar collector solar still,
which was the function of a thickness of glass cover and the brine depth
in the basin. Furthermore, based on equations of external, internal heat
transfers and energy balance, a thermal analysis was accomplished.
Saurabh and Sudhakar [16] presented a vast review of the various
designs of solar distillers used at domestic level. Prakash and Velmur-
ugan [17] scrutinized various parameters of the solar stills, which in-
fluenced the yield. The review showed an increase in the absorber area
increases the productivity. The height of the water in the basin is the
main parameter for the yield of the solar still. Pal et al. [18] studied the
design of modified basin–type double slope multi–wick solar still.
Manikandan et al. [19] reviewed different configurations and de-
signs of wick type solar distillers and concluded that researchers have
taken concerted efforts to make various new designs and configurations
of solar distiller for higher yield. Hansen et al. [20] found that water
coral fleece with heat transfer coefficient, absorbency, porosity, and
capillary rise are 34.21 W/m2 °C, 2 s, 69.67%, and 10 mm/h, respec-
tively is best working wicking material among selected material for the
higher yield of the solar still. Kaviti et al. [21] reviewed different design
and configurations used to improve the productivity of inclined solar
stills. Rufuss et al. [22] studied a detailed review of the various active
and passive, single and multi–effect passive and active solar stills, re-
viewed design of the solar stills, and stated various modifications for
improved overall performance and productivity. Kumar et al. [23]
presented a detailed observation of the single and multi–effect type
with passive and active configurations.
Al-Kharabsheh and Goswami [24] investigated a water distiller
system used solar heat as a low–grade energy. Researchers presented
the experimental result and theoretical analysis. In this work, the effect
of various operating conditions such as depth of water body, heat
source temperature, and temperature of the condenser, on the
69
Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82
performance of the system was studied. Tiwari and Tiwari [25] in-
vestigated the effects of the inclination of a condensing cover and depth
of the water on the yield and convective coefficient of heat transfer of a
passive solar distiller for the climatic conditions of New Delhi, India.
Deniz [26] investigated the improving of inclined solar water distiller
system performance under the environmental conditions of Turkey. In
this work, the system was experimented with bare, shaded bare plate,
and with black cloth, shaded black cloth wick. Ayoub et al. [27] de-
picted a sustainable alteration in the design of a solar still in the form of
a slowly swirling drum, this facilitates the creation of thin water films
that evaporate hurriedly and are incessantly renewed. Kalita et al. [28]
reviewed the effects of various geometric and operating parameters,
and energy losses and balance were calculated using the second law of
thermodynamic on the performance of a solar still. Sharshir et al. [29]
reviewed the various elements affecting solar still yield like climatic
conditions, design parameters, and operations. An augmentation of
yield by using wicks, stepped solar still, nanoparticles, internal and
external condensers, phase change materials, and internal and external
reflectors have been discussed.
From the above literature review, it is found that, the multi–wick
solar still is associated with following drawbacks: (i) improper supply of
water into the wick; (ii) improper use of incident solar radiation; and
(iii) improper collection of yield.
In this paper, a modified design of basin type double slope multi–-
wick solar still is presented for its performance evaluation in the cli-
matic conditions of Allahabad (U.P.) (Latitude 25°27′ N & Longitude
81°44′ E), India. The experiments are performed and effect of climatic
parameters like solar radiation, operational parameters like feed water
depth and wick material on MBDSMWSS have been studied.
2. Experimental setup and working principle
2.1. Description of experimental setup
The constructed experimental modified multi–wick solar still is in-
stalled on the rooftop of ‘Heat and Mass Transfer & Solar Energy
Laboratory’, Mechanical Engineering Department, MNNIT Allahabad,
Allahabad, U.P., India. Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of the
modified basin type double slope multi–wick solar still.
The solar still consist of a rectangular basin of area 2 m2 (length 2 m
and width 1 m), which is made up of thickness 5 mm of Fibre
P. Pal et al. Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82

Reinforced Plastic (FRP). The basin is painted black from inside to Table 1
absorb the maximum amount of solar radiation. The east (E) and west Specifications of MBDSMWSS.
(W) walls (along the solar still's width dimension), which has length of
Component Specification(s)
1 m and 0.12 m height from the solar still base, are made up of an
acrylic sheet of thickness 3 mm, and both wall have same area of Orientation East–West
0.12 m2. The south (S) and north (N) walls of solar still, both have 2 m Body material Basin and north wall made of FRP; east, west, and south
walls made of Acrylic sheet; east and west glass covers of
in length and 0.12 m in height at the end and maximum height of
simple window glass
0.38 m at the centre. The S–wall is made up of an acrylic sheet of 3 mm Basin area and colour 2 m × 1 m, black
thickness whereas N–wall is made up of a FRP of thickness 5 mm which Thickness of FRP 5 mm
is painted black from inside to absorb more solar radiation. Three walls Thickness of Acrylic 3 mm
i.e. E, W, S are made up of a transparent acrylic sheet of 3 mm thick- Height at ends 0.12 m
Height at centre 0.38 m
ness, which is equivalent thickness of acrylic sheet with respect to 5 mm
Glass cover 1.03 m × 1.03 m × 0.004 m
thickness of FRP on the basis of the same heat transfer rate. The dimension
equivalent thickness for an acrylic sheet with respect to 5 mm FRP is Quantity of glass 2
calculated using Fourier's law of heat conduction (one–dimensional): Inclination angle of 15°
glass cover
T − T1 ⎞ T − T1 ⎞ Colour of north wall Black
QCond = KFRP × AFRP × ⎛ 2 ⎜ = KACRY × AACRY × ⎛ 2
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ inside
⎝ LFRP ⎠ ⎝ LACRY ⎠ (1) Number of inlet to 1
solar still
For the same rate of heat transfer, when the two sides of FRP is Number of outlets 4
maintained at temperature T1 and T2. The thickness of acrylic is given with troughs at
by: the ends

KACRY × LFRP
LACRY =
KFRP (2)
where KACRY = 0.2W/m ‐ K, KFRP = 0.351W/m ‐ K.
The equivalent thickness of acrylic after calculation is obtained as
LACRY = 2.85 mm ≈ 3 mm, and 3 mm thickness of acrylic sheet is lo-
cally available in the market (Allahabad (U.P.) local market). So, acrylic
sheet of 3 mm thickness has been selected for the fabrication of
MBDSMWSS. Two simple flat glass covers are fixed to the solar still
frame at an inclination angle of 15° by window putty used as sealant.
The dimension of glass covers are 1.03 × 1.03 × 0.004 m3 (1.03 m
both in length and width, and 0.04 m in thickness). The angle of glass
cover has been chosen as 15° for easy collection of condensed water by
the action of cohesion, adhesion, gravity, and to avoid bulkiness
[19,30,31]. Also, 15° inclination angle allows the height of the
MBDSMWSS to be optimum at the centre since more height will cause
problem in capillary action and the water will not be fed properly for
effective evaporation. For the collection of water after condensation
and avoid mixing of condensed water into feed water, troughs are
provided on E, W, S walls. The troughs are kept at an inclination of 7 cm
height at one end and 5 cm height at another end from the base to
trickle the water outside for collection. One inlet pipe is connected
through N–wall opening to fill the feed water into the basin of solar
still. Four outlet pipes are connected to the storage tank to collect
distillate. Among the four outlets, two outlet pipes are provided to
collect the condensate of S–wall and one pipe each at E and W side to
collect the condensate of east and west glass cover, respectively. The
photograph of MBDSMWSS showing condensation on south wall is
shown in Fig. 2.
The orientation of the MBDSMWSS has been kept in the East–West
direction to receive the solar radiations for maximum hours of sun-
shine. The details of system design parameters and its specifications are
presented in Table 1.
In the solar still fabrication, 19 hanging wicks with increasing pat-
tern of heights towards the centre of MBDSMWSS are arranged, the
centre wick has the maximum height and wicks on E and W side have
the minimum height. The horizontal gap between the two consecutive
wicks is 10 cm. The jute and black cotton wick have dimension (stra-
p–layer of the wick from one side to another side including dip portion
in water) of 2.02 × 0.80 × 0.002 m3 and 2.02 × 0.80 × 0.001 m3,
respectively. The height of wicks and their position from the centre on
both side (E and W) of MBDSMWSS are given in Table 2. In
MBDSMWSS 19 rods which support the layers of wick and maintain the
gap between two successive wicks in order to proper feeding of water to
the wicks. This type of wick arrangement leads to the continuous supply
of water to the top surface of wick [26]. Figs. 3 and 4 show the pho-
tograph of MBDSMWSS using jute wick and black cotton wick, re-
spectively.
The jute cloth has wicking properties (or characteristics) like: (i)
heat transfer coefficient (15.4 W/m2 °C); (ii) porosity (16.7%); (iii)
capillary rise (10 mm/h); and (iv) absorbency (128 s) [20]. Similarly,
the black cotton cloth has wicking properties like: (i) heat transfer

Fig. 2. Photograph of MBDSMWSS showing con-

densation on south wall.

70
P. Pal et al. Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82

Table 2 incident into the basin and water through the glass covers and trans-
The wick heights and positions in MBDSMWSS. parent acrylic walls and get absorbed by the water and basin. Due to
transparent E and W walls, solar radiations start falling into the basin
Wick position (east wall to centre with Wick height (cm) (including dip
horizontal gap of 10 cm) portion of the wick) water during sunrise and sunset hours. In the conventional solar stills,
which were previously used, due to opaque walls, there were no pro-
First wick 10 vision for taking the advantage of solar radiations during sunrise and
Second wick 13
sunset hours, until the tilted surface of solar stills exposed to the solar
Third wick 16
Fourth wick 19 radiations, so that the incident solar radiation is absorbed by the basin
Fifth wick 22 and water [36]. In the modified design of solar still, water in the basin
Sixth wick 25 gets heated as well as the thin film of water starts evaporated from the
Seventh wick 28 wicking layers. Due to both heating and evaporation, the temperature
Eighth wick 31
of water vapour increases and with the increase of temperature, kinetic
Ninth wick 34
Centre wick 37 energy of water vapour also increases, which tends to increase the
random motion of water vapour molecules. The random movement
Note: These values of the wick heights is also taken for the wick's position from West wall causes collision of the water vapour molecules with each other and with
to centre of the MBDSMWSS. the inner surface of the walls, and glass covers of the solar still. An
adhesive force is acts between the water vapour, walls, and glass covers.
coefficient (36 W/m2 °C); (ii) porosity (28.5%); (iii) capillary rise Due to adhesive force, water vapour sticks to the inner surface of walls
(120 mm/h); and (iv) absorbency (1 s) [20]. The jute fibre has chemical and glass covers. After sticking, water vapour gets condensed on the
properties like: (i) jute fibres have weak resistant to alkalies; (ii) jute inner surface of walls and glass covers by releasing its latent heat of
fibres are weakened and dissipated by acids (cellulose chains disin- vaporization. As the time passes in a day, more solar radiations are
tegrate due to hydrolysis in presence of acids); and (iii) moisture regain absorbed by the basin and the heat stored in the basin is transferred to
for the jute fibre is about 12.5% and 36% at 65% and 100% relative the feed water by convection which increases the rate of evaporation of
humidity (RH), respectively [32]. The cotton fibre has chemical prop- water. After condensation of water vapour at walls and glass covers, the
erties like: (i) cotton fibre disintegrates in hot diluted and cold con- more condensed droplets of water (in comparison to conventional solar
centrated acid solutions; (ii) cotton fibre shows very good resistance to stills) trickles down to the trough provided at E, W, and S wall. The
organic solvents and alkalies; (iii) cotton fibres degrade by long ex- troughs carried the condensate to the storage tank through the outlet
posure to sunlight; and (iv) moisture regain for the cotton fibre is about pipes provided at E and W walls. This process removes microbiological
8.5% and 24% at 65% and 100% relative humidity (RH), respectively organisms and impurities such as salts and heavy metals leading to the
[33,34]. An acrylic has chemical properties like: (i) acrylic fibre have production of pure water. The hourly yield which is obtained from solar
good resistance to chemical and biological agents and very less affected the still, the same (hourly yield) is added again into the solar still to
by organic solvents, weak acids, weak alkalies and oxidizing agents; (ii) maintain the constant level of feed water in the basin. After completing
acrylic fibre degrade by strong alkalies and shows good resistance to the entire process the fed water is replaced by removing the glass covers
acids; and (iv) acrylic fibres have good resistant to sunlight [35]. and cleaning the solar still at regular interval to remove algae, fungus
and sediments from the basin of solar still.
2.2. Working principle of MBDSMWSS
2.3. Modifications
Tap water is fed into the solar still through an opening provided on
the N–wall. The water reaches the top of the wick's surface due to ca-
To augment the evaporation rate of multi–wick solar still, few
pillary action and a layer of water is formed on the layer of jute/black
modification has been tried in this work.
cotton wick, which is 5 cm below the glazing cover. Solar radiation

Fig. 3. Photograph of MBDSMWSS using jute wick.

71
P. Pal et al.
• In the conventional solar stills, and previous authors work [37,38],
glass was used which was prone to damage in transportation, in-
stallation, and during operation. Hence, a plastic material of low
thermal conductivity which is flexible, and retains its high trans-
parency for the longer duration under severe weather conditions can
be suggested to be used in the fabrication of modified solar still.
With this modifications, a modified solar still can have a long life-
time. In this presented work, a material (Acrylic) available in the
market is taken for study purpose to analyze the performance of
MBDSMWSS.
• The previously used solar still's wall were not transparent, although
the inclined glass surface and solar stills were exposed to the solar
radiation [6,8,10–12,20,31]. This amount of solar radiation was
neglected in the calculation of efficiency of previous solar stills also.
One can utilize this amount of thermal energy (solar energy) by
making the E, W, and S walls transparent using an acrylic sheet. It
allows the solar radiations to enter into the basin of solar still
through transparent walls for the whole day length, thus increases
the heat input and water temperature and so, increases the yield
rate. Due to adhesion of vapour on the S–wall, the condensation also
takes place on the inner surface of S–wall, thus improving the yield.
• The use of acrylic, which possesses high mechanical strength,
transparency, insulating property, light in weight also results ‘no
corrosion’, which was a problem associated with metals, which were
used in the fabrication of previous solar stills [9,10,15,20,26,36,39].
In the presented solar still, no metal is used for fabrication.
• An acrylic is low density material in comparison to metals, which
reduces the weight of the MBDSMWSS and facilitate to easy trans-
portation, and installation at the site.
• The wick arrangement is installed with 19 rods holding the wicks
together and making a strap layer on the rods close to the glass
surface. The capillary action enables the water to reach the top of
the wick's surface and a layer of water is formed on the wicks. So,
the distance for water vapour to reach glass surface is reduced.
Hence, more effective evaporation and condensation is takes place
with obviously reduced vapour loss. The conventional solar stills
had wicks one upon the other separated by some plastic liner, the
proper feeding was a problem in these setups, which leads to dry
patches in the wicks. So, the new design has the arrangement of
72
Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82
Fig. 4. Photograph of MBDSMWSS using black cotton wick.
hanging wicks for proper feeding of water and high evaporation
rates.
• The experimental setup also incorporates basin which was not used
in the conventional multi–wick solar stills to store the thermal en-
ergy of received solar radiations.
In the previous setups of solar stills, which was installed in India,
Rajaseenivasan et al. [10] constructed double slope single basin solar
distiller with mild steel plate and thermocol was used as an insulation
material. The thermal conductivity of mild steel is higher than FRP, so
the losses from the basin and walls of the constructed solar still with
mild steel plate are higher than the proposed solar still. The losses in-
creases as the day proceeds and temperature inside the solar still in-
crease. Though thermocol was used as an insulation which retards the
loss of energy up to some limit, but it breaks down gradually when
exposed to direct sunlight and it also not suitable for prolonged period
at different temperatures range. Weather and corrosive nature of mild
steel are also the constraints for proper working at different climatic
conditions of India. Murugavel et al. [39] constructed the double slope
solar distiller with mild steel plate. For the insulation, glass wool and
thermocol were used on the outer layer of the solar still, and for in-
sulation of basin interfaces, concrete used. To keep the productivity of
the solar still same as that of presented solar still, a very high thickness
of concrete insulation is needed. This will make the solar still more
heavy (with mild steel plate) than the presented solar still (FRP in-
sulated). So, the presented solar still come up with suggested mod-
ifications to increase the yield as well as the heat input through
transparent walls to enhance the thermal efficiency of solar still for the
climatic conditions of India.
3. Instantaneous and overall thermal efficiency of solar still
3.1. Instantaneous thermal efficiency
Instantaneous thermal efficiency [30,40] is defined as the ratio of
total heat lost by feed water due to condensation and total heat input to
the solar still through E, W, and S walls and both glass covers due to
solar radiation.
The total input solar radiation (instantaneous) to the solar still
P. Pal et al. Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82

i = 24
through glass covers (E and W side) and transparent walls (E, W, and S
wall) is given by the following equation: ∑ m˙ ew × L vap
i=1
ηO = × 100
I (t )input = IEg (t ) × AEg + IWg (t ) × AWg + IE (t ) × AE + IW (t ) × AW ∫ I (t )input × dt (11)

+ IS (t ) × AS (3) Here, the solar radiations (I(t)) and (I(t)input) appearing in the de-
nominator has zero value for off sunshine hour.
The hourly yield is given by the following equation:

ṁ ew = ṁ eE + ṁ eW + ṁ eS + ṁ eEg + ṁ eWg (4) 4. Experimental procedure and instrumentation

In the present experimental setup, the height of E and W walls have
been taken 12 cm only, hence, because of space constraint, troughs on
the inner surface of the E and W walls for yield collection have not
provided. Although for large water capacity of solar stills, heights of all
the walls can be increased, which provides space for the troughs to be
placed at E and W sides also. Due to this reason, the hourly yield takes
the following form:
ṁ ew = ṁ eS + ṁ eEg + ṁ eWg
Mathematically, instantaneous thermal efficiency can be expressed
as equation:
ṁ ew × L vap
ηi = × 100
I (t )input × 3600
The total daily yield of the MBDSMWSS is given by:
i = 24
Ṁ ew = ∑ ṁ ew
i=1
The fraction of total input solar radiation (instantaneous) on both
the glass covers comparing to total input solar radiation (I(t)input) is
given by:
IEg (t ) × AEg + IWg (t ) × AWg
F1 =
I (t )input
The Fraction of total input solar radiation (instantaneous) on walls
(E, W, and S wall) with respect to total input solar radiation (I(t)input) is
given by:
I (t )input − (IEg (t ) × AEg + IWg (t ) × AWg )
F2 =
I (t )input
Here, the solar radiations incident on glass covers and on E, W, and
S walls i.e. the sum of all the input solar radiations (I(t)input) have zero
values for off sunshine hour.
In conventional solar stills with opaque walls, the total yield ob-
tained and the total heat input to the solar still are considered through
the two glass covers. But, in the presented design of solar still, the total
yield obtained from the two glass covers and S wall i.e. ṁ ew (Eq. (5))
and the total heat input to the solar still through the glass covers (E and
W side) and the transparent E, W, and S walls (Eq. (3)) are considered.
Hence, there is a modification in the formulation of instantaneous
thermal efficiency of the MBDSMWSS. In modified design of solar still,
the net heat input increases due to three transparent walls as well as
yield produced leading to the overall increase in instantaneous thermal
efficiency.
4.1. Experimental procedure
To start the system, before sunrise, the inside space of solar still is
cleaned and filled with tap water at desired level and up to 5 cm of
maximum depth. As solar radiation incident on the solar still, tem-
peratures inside the solar still are raised. The distillation process drives
by the difference in temperature of the condensing glass covers and feed
water. The solar radiation, ambient temperature, basin temperature and
(5)
temperatures of whole desalination system are recorded every hour and
taken for 24 h from sunrise to next day sunrise. Also, the total amount
of yield in scaled cylindrical tank is measured at an hourly interval for
24 h. All the experiments were conducted from August 2015 to July
2016. The experiments are carried out in a typical clear day under the
(6) climatic conditions of Allahabad, U.P., India. All the observations were
taken for 24 h from 07:00 a.m. to 06:00 a.m. on next day morning.
4.2. Instrumentation and error analysis
(7)
To analyze the experimental data–climatic and operational para-
meters, the accurate and precise instrumentation is required for mon-
itoring the performance of desalination system. For measuring the
temperatures of different locations in the solar still, calibrated
Copper–Constantan type T thermocouples, integrated with temperature
indicator (auto temperature scanner) with selected channel and holding
(8) switch are used. Thermocouples are fixed at the following locations:
inner and outer walls of the solar stills, basin, inner glass surface, and
one thermocouple for basin water temperature. The outer glass surface
temperatures are measured using FLUKE (Model 62 max) infrared
thermometer. The outside wall temperatures are also measured by
FLUKE infrared thermometer. To measure solar radiation, AMPROBE
(Model SOLAR–100) Solar Power Meter (solarimeter) is used. The
(9)
ambient and water temperatures are measured using mercury–in–glass
thermometer. The yield (distilled water) obtained is measured by col-
lecting the condensate in a four similar scaled cylindrical tank of a least
count 2 ml of each cylindrical tank.
The minimum error (uncertainty) occurred in a measuring instru-
ment is equal to the ratio between instrument least count and minimum
value of the output measured by that equipment [42]. Using this defi-
nition, the error analysis for various measuring instruments used in the
experiments is shown in Table 3.
5. Economic analysis
The utility of MBDSMWSS depends upon the cost of production of
the distilled water and its applicability. An economic analysis provides
an alternative source to improve the performance of the still from the

Table 3
3.2. Overall thermal efficiency Accuracies and error limits for various measuring instruments.

The overall thermal efficiency of passive solar still is given by Tiwari Sl. no. Instrument Accuracy Range % error
et al. [41] is as follows:
1 Thermocouple ± 1 °C − 40:350 °C 3.57
∑ ṁ ew × L vap 2 Solarimeter ± 1 W/m2 0–1999 W/m2 0.38
ηO = 3 IR thermometer ± 1.5 °C − 30:500 °C 0.80
∑ (I (t ) × ASS × 3600) (10) 4 Mercury in glass thermometer ± 1 °C − 10:110 °C 5.88
5 Scaled cylindrical tank ± 2 ml 0–250 ml 10
The overall thermal efficiency of the MBDSMWSS can be written as:

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P. Pal et al. Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82

cost incurred in the system, where initial capital investment, annual

salvage value, and annual maintenance cost are used for estimating the
total annual cost [43].
For the present economic analysis of the solar still, the useful life (n)
of each component of the solar still has been considered as 15 years.
The total cost of the still after fabrication is taken as capital cost (Pcost).
The salvage value (SV) and interest rate (ir) have been taken 15% of the
capital cost and 12%, respectively. The annual maintenance cost (AMC)
has been assumed to be 15% of the annual first cost (AFC), which in-
cludes regular filling of ordinary tap water, cleaning of glass cover,
collection of distilled water, salt and scales removal, wick replacement
(or proper arrangement), and maintenance of sealant. The average daily
yield of the MBDSMWSS with black cotton and jute wicks are de-
termined as 4.0 kg/m2 and 3.75 kg/m2, respectively. For the calcula-
tion of annual cost of distilled water per kg or kWh, two cases have been
assumed. In case (a): all days i.e. 365 days and case (b): 300 days in a
year (65 days assumed as rainy or cloudy days), is considered as clear
days in a year.
The annual first cost (AFC) of the MBDSMWSS is calculated as:
Fig. 5. Monthly variation of global solar radiation for a typical day in different months at
AFC = CRF × Pcost (12) Allahabad, U.P., India.

where
hours in summer season is longer compared to winter due to the in-
ir × (1 + ir )n
CRF (Capital Recovery Factor) = clination of earth's axis of rotation.
(1 + ir )n − 1 (13) In the morning and evening hours, the amount of diffuse radiations
The annual salvage value (ASV) of the still is calculated as: in the environment is higher, as the day proceeds the amount of direct
solar radiations in the environment increases. The direct solar radia-
ASV = SFF × SV (14)
tions enter into the solar still only if the glass covers and walls (E, W,
where and S wall) are receiving the direct sun rays. The diffuse radiations
ir enter into the solar still even when the glass covers and walls are not
SFF (Sink Fund Factor) = facing the sun. The absorbed radiation raises the temperature of glass
(1 + ir )n − 1 (15)
and walls, and the glass and walls then transmit this heat to the outside
The total annual cost of the still (TAC) is determined by: environment.
TAC = AFC + AMC − ASV (16) Fig. 6 shows the hourly ambient temperature (°C) with respect to
time (h) for a typical clear day of each month. It is observed from the
Annual yield (AY) of the still is calculated by:
figure, in the month of April 2016; May 2016; and June 2016, the
AY = Average daily yield × Number of clear days in a year (17) ambient temperature was higher and lower in the month of December
2015; and January 2016. The maximum ambient temperature was
Then, the annual cost of distilled water (ACDW) per kg is obtained
47 °C at 13:00 h in May 2016.
by dividing the TAC byAY.
Fig. 7 shows the hourly variation of water temperature (°C) with
Annual useful energy (AUE) is estimated as:
respect to time (h) for a typical clear day of each month. The feed water
AUE = AY × L vap (18) temperature is an important variable in the desalination process. The
where Lvap value in kWh/kg is taken as 0.627 kWh/kg. higher thermal energy requirements of the solar system to offset the
Then, the annual cost of distilled water (ACDW) per kWh is obtained
by dividing the TAC byAUE.

6. Results and discussion

The following is the description of result and discussion. The data

observed during the experiment was calibrated and used for the ana-
lysis.
Fig. 5 shows the monthly variations of the global solar radiation
(W/m2) with respect to time (h) for a typical clear day of each month. It
is observed that the solar radiation starts falling on solar still at the
beginning of sunrise by the small quantity and increases gradually to a
maximum value, and then decreases till the end of the sunshine. The
maximum measured solar radiations were 1150 W/m2 in May 2016 at
11:00 h and 720 W/m2 in December 2015 at 13:00 h. Based on the
latitude of Allahabad (U.P.) (25°27′ N), the intensity of solar radiation
in summer season is extensively higher than winter season because the
sun position in the sky during the summer season is nearly overhead,
but during the winter season, the rays of the sun are far more tilted.
From the figure, it is clear that the maximum solar radiation received
around 11:00–12:00 h in summer while the maximum solar radiation
received in winter was around 12:00–13:00 h. since, in the northern Fig. 6. Hourly ambient temperature for a typical day in different months at Allahabad,
U.P., India.
hemisphere where Allahabad (U.P.) is located, the duration of sunshine

74
P. Pal et al.
Fig. 7. Hourly variation of water temperature for a typical day in different months at
Allahabad, U.P., India.
latent and sensible heat loads for evaporation is claimed by higher
temperature of feed water. Whereas, lower temperature of feed water
results in smaller solar still size, lower scaling rates and lesser start–up
time. The highest water temperature was in May 2016. The maximum
measured water temperature was 67 °C at 14:00 h.
Fig. 8 shows the hourly variation of yield (ml) with respect to time
(h) for a typical clear day of each month. With the increment in the
temperature difference between condensing glass covers and feed
water, the rate of an evaporation–condensation process also increases.
Furthermore, temperature gradient existing between the solar still
system and ambient environment also increases the heat losses from the
solar still. In MBDSMWSS, feed water is heated rapidly taking very less
start–up time to reaches a temperature that is adequate to evaporate
because of more heat gain through transparent acrylic walls. Then, the
water vapour originated during the process is converted to distillate
water by continuous condensation on the glass covers as well as on the
walls of the solar still. The maximum yield was 1118 ml at 13:00 h in
May 2016 and highest total yield measured was 9012 ml/day (4.50 l/
m2 day) in May 2016.
Fig. 9(a) shows the total incident solar radiation (W), (i.e. energy
Fig. 8. Hourly variation of yield for a typical day in different months at Allahabad, U.P.,
India.
75
Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82
Fig. 9(a). Total incident solar radiation (instantaneous) for a typical day in the month of
December 2015.
input) with respect to time (h) for a typical day in the month of De-
cember 2015. The maximum incident solar radiation (instantaneous)
was 1873 W for 2 m2 area at 12:00 h. The total input solar energy (for
2 m2 area of basin) increases as the amount of solar radiations incident
on MBDSMWSS increases till 12:00 h and then decreases due to sun's
position in sky and latitude of Allahabad (U.P.).
Using Eq. (8), Fig. 9(b) shows the fraction (F1) of total input solar
radiation (instantaneous) on both the glass covers with respect to time
(h) for a typical day in the month of December 2015. Based on the
latitude, location, local climate of Allahabad (U.P.) and orientation
(E–W) of solar still, it is depicted in figure, most of the fraction (F1) of
total input solar radiation (range 65–80%, avg. 74%) were falling on
the glass covers, only a fewer percentage (range 6–8%, avg. 6%) of total
input solar radiation was falling on the E and W walls. It will increase
when the area or height of E and W walls increases but increment in the
height of E and W walls increases the size and material requirements of
solar still. After neglecting the total input solar radiation on E and W
walls, most of the portion of wall's input solar radiation was falling on S
wall. About 20–34% (avg. 26%) of total input solar radiations were
incident on the walls of solar still, in which about 17–26% (avg. 20%)
of input solar radiation was incident on the S wall alone. From the
figure, it is also shown that, the amount of the fraction of total input
solar radiation (instantaneous) which was incident on the glass covers
and walls were higher in morning and evening hours because the
amount of diffuse radiations in the environment was higher in morning
and evening hours, as the day proceeds the direct solar radiations
Fig. 9(b). Fraction of total input solar radiation (instantaneous) on both the glass covers
for a typical day in the month of December 2015.
P. Pal et al. Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82

Fig. 9(c). Fraction of total input solar radiation (instantaneous) on walls (east, west, and
south wall) for a typical day in the month of December 2015. Fig. 10(b). Fraction of total input solar radiation (instantaneous) on both the glass covers
for a typical day in the month of April 2016.

incident on the glass covers and walls increases (diffuse radiation de-
creases), from 08:00 h–14:00 h, this fraction increases and reaches to
maximum value of 79.2% of total input solar radiations (in-
stantaneous). After 14:00 h, this fraction decreases due to lesser amount
of direct solar radiations incident on the glass covers and walls. After
16:00 h, again this fraction increases due to increment of diffuse ra-
diation in the environment. Using Eq. (9), the fraction (F2) of total input
solar radiation (instantaneous) on walls (E, W, and S wall) with respect
to time (h) is shown in Fig. 9(c).
Similarly, for the typical day in the month of April 2016, the total
incident solar radiation (W), (i.e. energy input), fraction (F1) of total
input solar radiation (instantaneous) on both the glass covers (Eq. (8)),
and fraction (F2) of total input solar radiation (instantaneous) on walls
(Eq. (9)) with respect to time (h) are shown in Figs. 10(a), 10(b), and
10(c), respectively. For April 2016, the maximum incident solar ra-
diation (instantaneous) was 2658 W for 2 m2 area at 11:00 h. The
fraction (F1) of total input solar radiation (instantaneous) on glass
covers range from 80–89% (avg. 84%). This fraction increases in the Fig. 10(c). Fraction of total input solar radiation (instantaneous) on walls (east, west, and
summer season because of the sun's overhead position i.e. sun ap- south wall) for a typical day in the month of April 2016.
proaches to the zenith angle. About 2–10% (avg. 7%) of total input
solar radiation was incident on the E and W walls. About 11–21% (avg.
radiation (W/m2) with respect to time (h) for a typical day at Alla-
16%) of total input solar radiations were incident on the walls of solar
habad, (U.P.), India. It has been observe from the figure that, some of
still, in which about 5–12% (avg. 9%) of input solar radiation was in-
the values of instantaneous thermal efficiencies have also been found
cident on the S wall alone.
like either ηi > 1 or ηi < 0 (before 08:00 h and after 16:00 h) when
Fig. 11 shows the determination of range of low variation of solar
experimental or theoretical data has been used and hence, these effi-
ciency values have not been taken for obtaining the characteristic
curves for analyzing the performance of MBDSMWSS and termed as
unrealistic results [11–13,40]. These unrealistic results have been ob-
tained because of two reasons: (i) low solar intensity in the morning and
evening hours and (ii) cooling of water takes place in off–sunshine
hour. Because of these reasons and from the point of view of accuracy,
and to analyze the solar still, the time period between 10:00 h–14:00 h
has been chosen to plot the characteristic curves as it is the high solar
intensity period (the solar still absorbed the maximum amount of direct
solar radiations and quantity of diffuse radiation in the environment is
less) and also the variation of incident solar radiation remain closer to
the average value of solar radiation of this period. In this time solar still
also works under quasi–steady state condition which gives realistic
results of ηi [11–13,40].
The variation of obtained values of instantaneous thermal efficiency
(y = ηi) of MBDSMWSS with respect to x = (Tw − Ta)/I(t)input has been
plotted (i.e. characteristic curve). With the help of characteristic curve
linear and non–linear characteristic equations (with coefficient of cor-
relation R2) has been obtained. It was noted from the figure that the ηi
Fig. 10(a). Total incident solar radiation (instantaneous) for a typical day in the month of curve was increasing linearly with increase in x. It is also noticed that
April 2016. the slope of the linear characteristic curves was positive due to higher

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P. Pal et al. Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82

Fig. 11. Determination of range of low variation of solar radiation

for any clear day at Allahabad, U.P., India.

for the climatic condition of Allahabad (U.P.), more solar energy input
(solar radiation) was available through its walls to heat the basin and
raised the temperature of water significantly. So, the wide range of x
was available in time period 09:00 h–15:00 h for experimental data
under quasi–steady state. In the summer season the time period
09:00 h–15:00 is more suitable for characterization of the solar still for
the Allahabad (U.P.) climate. In the winter season, because of short
day–length, fog present in the environment, lower temperature in the
morning and evening hours, and late receiving of direct solar radiation,
the time period 10:00 h–14:00 h is more suitable for analysis. Further,
for the purpose of precise analysis of MBDSMWSS, two graphs have
been plotted, one with time duration 10:00 h–14:00 h (Fig. 12(a)), and
other in 09:00 h–15:00 h (Fig. 12(b)). In Fig. 12(a) the coefficient of
correlation were 0.9517 and 0.9779 for the linear and non–linear
characteristic curve, respectively and in Fig. 12(b) the coefficient of
correlation were 0.8909 and 0.9747 for the corresponding linear and
non–linear curves. One can observe that both the non–linear curves
have similar R2 values (but the linear curves have more variation in R2
Fig. 12(a). Linear and non–linear efficiency curves for the MBDSMWSS for a typical day
in the month of March 2016 (duration from 10:00 h–14:00 h) in Allahabad, U.P., India.
value) and one can conclude that the non–linear curves are found to be
more accurate than that of linear curves because of non–linear behavior
and variability in the climatic parameters such as solar radiation, wind
velocity, ambient temperature, etc. Hence, non–linear characteristic
curves are recommended to predict the performance of MBDSMWSS
more precisely.
Fig. 13 shows the hourly variation of instantaneous thermal effi-
ciency, ηi (%) with respect to time (h) for a typical day in different

Fig. 12(b). Linear and non–linear efficiency curves for the MBDSMWSS for a typical day
in the month of March 2016 (duration from 09:00 h–15:00 h) in Allahabad, U.P., India.

evaporative heat transfer between water (evaporating) surface and

glass (condensing) cover. Similar kind of observations has been ob-
tained in previous studies [11–13], in which time period 10:00 h–14:00
was taken for study because in this time period the solar still is work Fig. 13. Hourly variation of instantaneous thermal efficiency for a typical day in different
under quasi–steady state and curve has less error. But in MBDSMWSS months at Allahabad, U.P., India.

77
P. Pal et al. Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82

Table 4
Hourly observations of various parameters for MBDSMWSS at 1 cm water depth on December 17, 2015.

Time (h) Temperature (°C) Hourly yield (ml) Solar radiation (W/m2)

Tb Tw Ta ṁ eEg ṁ eWg ṁ eS IG(t) ID(t) IEg(t) IWg(t) IE(t) IW(t) IS(t)

07:00 16 15 16 0 0 0 36 22 40 38 46 10 30
08:00 18 17 20 0 0 0 200 95 187 160 280 60 220
09:00 20 19 23 44 23 10 382 160 356 318 455 110 415
10:00 26 24 25 89 50 23 487 193 531 440 535 145 553
11:00 31 28 26 190 178 47 652 218 625 595 400 175 665
12:00 35 33 27 290 268 65 690 250 632 676 212 225 700
13:00 40 37 28 330 340 73 720 226 500 640 180 312 440
14:00 37 35 27 287 321 61 490 180 350 520 120 450 280
15:00 33 32 26 232 282 52 300 140 223 340 74 375 236
16:00 30 29 25 174 227 44 155 90 105 229 45 250 194
17:00 27 25 23 126 187 36 23 16 15 19 9 17 10
18:00 26 25 21 102 135 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
19:00 24 23 20 84 112 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20:00 23 21 19 54 76 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
21:00 22 20 19 38 56 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
22:00 21 20 18 30 44 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
23:00 20 19 18 22 32 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
24:00 19 18 17 15 21 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
01:00 18 17 17 10 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
02:00 18 16 17 8 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
03:00 17 15 16 4 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
04:00 16 15 16 2 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
05:00 16 15 15 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
06:00 15 14 17 0 0 0 21 14 16 19 20 9 14

Total hourly yield (ml) ∑ ṁ eEg = 2131, ∑ ṁ eWg = 2401, ∑ ṁ eS = 485. Total daily yield of the solar still (ml/day) is sum of all the total hourly yield (∑ ṁ eEg + ∑ ṁ eWg + ∑ ṁ eS )
= 5017 ml/day.

months at Allahabad, (U.P.), India. It is seen that the maximum in-
stantaneous thermal efficiencies were achieved in evening hours
(16:00 h and after on). This is due to the fact that, at evening hours
solar radiation is less but due to heat stored in the basin water, eva-
poration continues and yield is obtained. So, due to low heat input but
good yield output, instantaneous thermal efficiency is maximum in the
evening time. In the summer season, the heat input to solar still was
high as solar still absorbed the maximum amount of direct solar ra-
diation for longer duration. Along with heat input, the yield obtained
from the solar still in large quantity during 12:00 h–14:00 h. So, the
variation in the instantaneous thermal efficiency was less in that period.
But during the winter season, the variation in instantaneous thermal
efficiency after noon (12:00 h) was high, and in the evening hours, solar
still have maximum efficiency. The maximum instantaneous thermal
efficiency achieved was 54.80% at 16:00 h in December 2015.
Tables 4–5 show the details of solar radiations, ambient, basin, feed
water temperatures, and hourly yields for two typical days in the month
of December 2015, i.e. December 17, 2015 and December 20, 2015.
One can observe that there was little variation in the global solar ra-
diation on December 17, 2015 and December 20, 2015. So, one can
show the comparison of effect of different depths of feed water in the
basin. The depth of feed water in the solar still basin was 1 cm and 2 cm
on December 17, 2015 and December 20, 2015, respectively. The yield
collected in the solar sill at 1 cm water depth was greater than the 2 cm
water depth. This is because of the fact that, 1 cm water depth has less
volume of water in comparison to 2 cm water depth. So, lower water
depth implies lower heat capacity of water which results in higher
water temperature in the basin. Hence, 1 cm water depth evaporated
early in comparison to 2 cm water depth. Also, due to more heat ca-
pacity of 2 cm water depth, the distillate of solar still at 2 cm water
depth increases in the night in comparison to distillate obtained at 1 cm
water depth. The maximum yield obtained was 743 ml at 13:00 h in
December 17, 2015 and 688 ml at 13:00 h in December 20, 2015 cor-
responding to 1 cm and 2 cm water depth, respectively. The total yield
obtained at 1 cm and 2 cm water depth were 5017 ml/day (2.50 l/
m2 day) and 4418 ml/day (2.21 l/m2 day), respectively. Also, an
increase of 11.94% in yield when the depth of feed water in basin de-
creases from 2 cm to 1 cm in MBDSMWSS.
Showing the effects of the wicks on the performance of the
MBDSMWSS, experiments were performed on the solar still with jute
and black cotton cloth used as a wick on March 17, 2016 and March 25,
2016, respectively. In both the typical days the depth of feed water in
solar still was 2 cm. From Fig. 11, it is observed that there was slight
variation in the average solar intensity on March 17 and March 25,
2016. Hence, the comparison can be illustrated by assuming the same
amount of solar radiations on modified solar still.
The yield obtained with black cotton wick was greater than yield
obtained with jute wick. This is because of more solar radiation ab-
sorbing power of black cotton wick than jute wick. Due to capillary
action, a thin layer of water is formed at top of the wicks. The water
layer in the black cotton wick gets evaporated at much faster rate than
the water evaporated from the jute wick. Thus, yield obtained with
black cotton wick is more than the jute wick. The total yield obtained in
modified solar still with black cotton and jute wicks were 7740 ml/day
(3.87 l/m2 day) and 7040 ml/day (3.52 l/m2 day), respectively. Thus,
an increase of 9.04% in yield produced from MBDSMWSS, when black
cotton wick was used in place of a jute wick. Also, the overall thermal
efficiency of MBDSMWSS with jute and black cotton wicks were
20.94% and 23.03%, respectively. The dates of experiments for the
basin conditions with both the wicks and maximum daily yield are
given in Table 6.
The tap water was directly filled to the solar still for experimenta-
tion and its analysis after distillation. The quality of feed water and
final distillate for MBDSMWSS with jute wick and black cotton wick are
noted and tabulated in Tables 7–8, and further compared with EPA
standards for potable water. The distilled water after distillation process
have clean taste, bacteria free, odourless, and eliminating harmful
chemicals. It can be used in various chemical processed industries,
scientific and research laboratories, batteries, hospitals or private
clinics etc. The pH of distillate in both the cases was lower compared to
feed water and under permissible limit of EPA standard. The lower
value of pH signifies the removal of hydroxide ions (OH−) from the

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P. Pal et al. Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82

Table 5
Hourly observations of various parameters for MBDSMWSS at 2 cm water depth on December 20, 2015.

Time (h) Temperature (°C) Hourly yield (ml) Solar radiation (W/m2)

Tb Tw Ta ṁ eEg ṁ eWg ṁ eS IG(t) ID(t) IEg(t) IWg(t) IE(t) IW(t) IS(t)

07:00 15 14 15 0 0 0 30 24 36 34 40 8 24
08:00 17 16 17 0 0 0 184 112 187 147 268 52 205
09:00 19 18 21 38 18 6 348 165 344 294 440 102 395
10:00 24 23 23 80 38 18 435 178 514 425 512 130 539
11:00 30 27 25 167 161 38 618 201 598 564 388 164 641
12:00 33 31 26 265 244 54 656 240 618 658 197 218 673
13:00 38 35 27 302 321 65 695 207 488 628 169 290 426
14:00 36 34 27 254 300 54 471 169 324 500 105 442 270
15:00 33 31 25 214 262 42 258 130 209 322 67 356 224
16:00 28 27 23 156 206 36 141 118 98 220 38 238 187
17:00 25 25 22 109 160 28 17 15 11 17 7 12 7
18:00 24 24 19 88 124 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
19:00 23 22 18 75 89 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20:00 21 20 17 43 57 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
21:00 21 20 17 30 41 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
22:00 20 18 16 26 35 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
23:00 18 17 15 18 25 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
24:00 17 17 14 12 16 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
01:00 16 16 13 7 12 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
02:00 17 15 12 4 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
03:00 16 14 12 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
04:00 15 13 11 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
05:00 14 12 11 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
06:00 13 12 12 0 0 0 18 20 14 15 17 5 11

Total hourly yield (ml) ∑ ṁ eEg = 1890, ∑ ṁ eWg = 2124, ∑ ṁ eS = 404. Total daily yield of the solar still (ml/day) is sum of all the total hourly yield (∑ ṁ eEg + ∑ ṁ eWg + ∑ ṁ eS )
= 4418 ml/day.

Table 6 feed water. Turbidity values were found to be under permissible limit
Date of the experiments for basin conditions with jute and black cotton wicks and max- with both wicks. The obtained values of turbidity are indicator of water
imum daily yield.
clarity and elimination of suspended matters, which are organic and
Sr. no. Date of the Basin condition Total daily yield inorganic substances such as sediments, algae, and other contaminants.
experiments (ml/day) TDS value after distillation was found to be below standard limit with
both jute and black cotton wick, which represents the effective removal
1 December 17, 2015 1 cm water depth, jute 5017
of organic and inorganic elements. The obtained value of electrical
wick
2 December 20, 2015 2 cm water depth, jute 4418
conductivity signifies the effective removal of dissolved inorganic solids
wick from the feed water. The total hardness as CaCO3 obtained with both
2 March 17, 2016 2 cm water depth, jute 7040 the wicks was under EPA standard. All the values obtained after solar
wick distillation with both the wicks were under permissible limits of EPA
3 March 25, 2016 2 cm water depth, black 7740
[44] and WHO standards [45] for drinking water quality, which in-
cotton wick
4 May 16, 2016 2 cm water depth, black 9012 dicates the MBDSMWSS is effective and feasible in climatic condition of
cotton wick Allahabad, U.P., India.
The result of cost analysis shows that, the annual cost of the distilled
water (ACDW) production per kg for case (a) was found to be Indian Rs.
Table 7 1.51 (0.023 US$), and Rs. 1.59 (0.024 US$); and ACDW per kWh was
Quality parameters analysis of distillate from MBDSMWSS with jute wick (March 17,
found to be Rs. 2.41 (0.037 US$), and Rs. 2.54 (0.039 US$); and for case
2016).
(b) ACDW per kg was found to be Rs. 1.84 (0.028 US$), and Rs. 1.94
Parameters Feed water sample Distillate EPA std. (0.030 US$); and ACDW per kWh was found to be Rs. 2.93 (0.045 US$),
and Rs. 3.09 (0.047 US$) for the MBDSMWSS with black cotton and
pH 8.1 7.3 6.5–8.5
jute wicks, respectively. In present, average market cost of distilled
Turbidity (NTU) 4 1 5
Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 352 46 500
water (MCDW) is assumed as Rs. 10/kg (0.155 US$/kg). The net profit
Electrical conductivity (μS/cm) 766 39 1000 for case (a) was found to be Rs. 12,431.89 (192.57 US$), and Rs.
Total hardness as CaCO3 224 48 200 11,566.81 (179.17 US$); and for case (b) the net profit was found to be
Rs. 9830.85 (152.28 US$), and Rs. 9071.17 (140.51 US$) for the
MBDSMWSS with black cotton and jute wicks, respectively. The pay-
Table 8
back period for case (a) was found to be 386 days and 410 days; and for
Quality parameters analysis of distillate from MBDSMWSS with black cotton wick (March
25, 2016).
case (b) payback period was found to be 401 days and 430 days with
black cotton and jute wicks, respectively. The total fabrication cost of
Parameters Feed water sample Distillate EPA std. the MBDSMWSS components is given in Table 9. The economic analysis
of MBDSMWSS is presented in Table 10.
pH 8.4 7.2 6.5–8.5
Turbidity (NTU) 5 1 5
In the present study, jute and black cotton cloth were used as wick
Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 398 40 500 materials. The cost percentage was only 1.92% (≈ 2%) and 3.04% of
Electrical conductivity (μS/cm) 745 37 1000 total cost of the system for jute and black cotton cloth, respectively. In
Total hardness as CaCO3 238 44 200 MBDSMWSS the jute and black cotton wicks have three to six months of

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P. Pal et al. Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82

Table 9 two MBDSMWSS was unimportant (costly to stock the jute and cotton
Fabrication cost of the MBDSMWSS components. cloths). Hence, fresh wick is required during replacement. In the case of
requirement of a fresh wick, if there is a delay in the replacement be-
Components Quantity Cost/unit Costa
(Rs.) cause of unavailability of jute or cotton cloth in the market, the
MBDSMWSS can work without wick as a modified basin type double
FRP sheet (0.005 m thick) 2.65 m2 3451/m2 Rs. 9146 (141.67 slope solar still which can provide the potable water with lesser
US$)
amount. Hence, there is no urgency of replacing and keeping the stock
Acrylic sheet (0.003 m thick) 1.0 m2 600/m2 Rs. 600 (9.29 US$)
Glass cover (0.004 m thick) 2 pieces 500/piece Rs. 1000 (15.5 US of wicks.
$) The performance of previous authors work is given in Table 11. The
Iron stand 8 kg 60/kg Rs. 480 (7.43 US$) maximum amount of productivity was found 3.58 l/day for double
Outlet nozzle 0.1 kg 500/kg Rs. 50 (0.77 US$) basin double slope solar still during the months of March–May 2012 in
Black paint 0.5 kg 180/kg Rs. 90 (1.39 US$)
Tamil Nadu, India [10]. The productivity for presented solar still was
Silicon rubber (gaskets) 9.0 m 35/m Rs. 315 (4.88 US$)
Glass putty 2.5 kg 20/kg Rs. 50 (0.77 US$) 7.040 l/day (jute wick), 7.939 l/day (black cotton wick), and maximum
Fabrication cost, labor cost Lump sum Rs. 1000 (15.5 US 9.012 l/day (black cotton wick) for a typical day in the month of March
$) 2016; April 2016; and May 2016, respectively. When compared in
Jute cloth (for jute wick) 6.25 m2 40/m2 Rs. 250 (3.87 US$)
terms of productivity only, and taking 1610 ml/day quantity of yield as
Black cotton cloth (for black 6.25 m2 64/m2 Rs. 400 (6.2 US$)
cotton wick) reference for comparison, there were 77.13% (jute wick), 79.72%
Total cost of the still (with jute Rs. 12,981 (black cotton wick), and 82.14% (black cotton wick) increase in yield
wick) (201.08 US$) for a typical days in March, April, and May 2016, respectively for the
Total cost of the still (with Rs. 13,131 (203.4 presented solar still. Hansen et al. [20] achieved the maximum distillate
black cotton wick) US$)
in the inclined type solar still was 4.28 l/day by using water coral fleece
a
1 US$ = Indian Rs. 64.52 on 27/05/2017, (costs are based on Allahabad (U.P.) with weir mesh–stepped absorber plate. Elango et al. [37] found max-
market rate). imum yield of 5327 l/m2 day at 1 cm water depth by the insulated
double basin double slope glass still. Dwivedi and Tiwari [46] achieved
Table 10 the maximum daily yield in the double slope passive solar still was
Economic analysis of the MBDSMWSS. 2.27 kg/m2 day (4540 kg/day) in the month of April 2006. Tiwari and
Selim [47] found maximum yield was 8750 ml/day in double slope FRP
Cost types MBDSMWSS
multiwick solar still for a typical day in May 1984. Though, the yield
Jute wick Black cotton wick was higher in that still, but the body of the solar still was made up of
FRP (FRP mould was constructed with the help of a wooden die). The
Value cost of FRP sheet per m2 in present market is much higher than old
(1984) market price. So, the solar still is not economical in present
Total cost of the still (Pcost) 201.08 203.4 US$
Salvage value (SV) 30.16 30.51 US$ scenario due to high investment in FRP sheet, wooden die and mould
Annual salvage value (ASV) 0.90 0.92 US$/year preparation. In these stated [10,20,37,47] research work, authors
Annual first cost (AFC) 30.16 30.51 US$/year mainly focused on productivity of distillate obtained, authors not dis-
Annual maintenance cost (AMC) 4.52 4.57 US$/year cussed about the overall thermal and instantaneous thermal efficiency
Total annual cost (TAC) 33.78 34.17 US$/year
of solar still. In the presented solar still, maximum instantaneous
Case (a): 365 days operation
Annual yield (AY) 1368.75 1460 kg/year thermal efficiency and overall thermal efficiency were 54.80% and
Annual useful energy (AUE) 858.20 915.42 kWh/year 28.27% for a typical day in December 2015 and May 2016, respec-
Annual cost of distilled water (ACDW) 0.024 0.023 US$/kg tively.
Annual cost of distilled water (ACDW) 0.039 0.037 US$/kWh
Net profit (NP) 179.17 192.57 US$/year
Payback period (PP) 410 386 Days 7. Conclusions
Case (b): 300 days operation
Annual yield (AY) 1125 1200 kg/year In this work, a modified basin type double slope multi–wick solar
Annual useful energy (AUE) 705.37 752.40 kWh/year still have been designed, fabricated and analyzed its performance under
Annual cost of distilled water (ACDW) 0.030 0.028 US$/kg
the climate condition of Allahabad, (U.P.), India. The following con-
Annual cost of distilled water (ACDW) 0.047 0.045 US$/kWh
Net profit (NP) 140.51 152.28 US$/year clusions can be drawn on the basis of this study:
Payback period (PP) 430 401 Days

Note: NP = AY × (MCDW−ACDW);PP = (Pcost/NP) × solar still operation days per

• The MBDSMWSS, in which FRP and Acrylic were used for fabrica-
tion of the solar still in combination with wicks arrangement.
year.
Making the E, W, and S walls (acrylic) transparent in the solar still
allows more solar radiation to impinge on the basin throughout day
satisfactory working life depending upon the feed water quality. The
length. This increases the heat input and feed water temperature
yearly recurring cost was only 3.78% (≈ 4%) and 5.91% (≈6%) of
inside the solar still and so, increasing the temperature difference
total cost of the system for jute and black cotton cloth, respectively
between condensing glass cover and water surface. Hence, with
which was very nominal cost. So, one can be neglecting the nominal
reduced vapour loss and increased temperature difference, more
recurring cost of the wicks with respect to the total cost of the system.
effective evaporation and condensation were obtained, thereby
Hence, in the present study one can consider only one or two replace-
significantly improving the yield of the solar still.
ment of jute or black cotton wicks in a year (depending upon the re-
quirement if needed). Also, length of storage (stock), moisture content, • The yield was collected from the south (S) wall also due to con-
densation on the S wall's surface of the solar still. Therefore, the net
amount of high–moisture foreign matter, variation in moisture content
yield of the solar still has been improved.
throughout the stored mass, temperature of the jute and cotton during
stock, weather factors during stock like temperature; relative humidity; • The maximum measured solar radiation was 1150 W/m2 in May
2016. The average 84% and 74% of the fraction (F1) of total input
rainfall, and protection of the fibres from rain and wet ground all affect
solar radiation (instantaneous) incident on both the glass covers for
fibre quality and deteriorate wicks during storage [33]. So, it was very
a typical day in the month of April 2016 and December 2015, re-
cumbersome and to maintain small stock of wick material for one or
spectively. The average 9% and 20% of the fraction (F2) of total

80
P. Pal et al. Desalination 422 (2017) 68–82

Table 11
Comparison in productivity for double slope solar still at different basin conditions by various authors.

Sr. no. Name of the paper and author Basin condition Total production % increase in yield
production

1 Comparative study of double basin and single basin solar stills–T. Rajaseenivasan, 2 cm water depth 1610 ml/day Reference
T. Elango, K.K. Murugavel [10] Jute cloth 1775 ml/day 9.29
Black cotton cloth 1850 ml/day 12.97
2 Performance study on basin type double slope solar still with different wick Jute cloth 3.36 kg/day 52.08
materials and minimum mass of water–K.K. Murugavel, K. Srithar [39] Black cotton cloth 3.49 kg/day 53.86
Aluminium rectangular fin length 3.58 kg/day 55.02
wise with cotton wick
3 Annual energy and exergy analysis of single and double slope passive solar 1 cm water depth (April 2006) 4540 kg/day 64.54
stills–V.K. Dwivedi, G.N. Tiwari [46]
4 Double slope fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) multiwick solar still–G.N. Tiwari, Black jute cloth 8750 ml/day 81.60
G.A.M. Selim [47]
5 In presented work 2 cm water depth with jute wick 7040 ml/day 77.13
2 cm water depth with black cotton 9012 ml/day 82.14
wick

input solar radiation (instantaneous) on walls were incident on the ID(t) diffused solar radiation, W/m2
south wall for a typical day in April 2016 and December 2015, re- IE(t) solar intensity incident on the east side of solar still, W/m2
spectively. IEg(t) solar intensity on the east glass cover, W/m2
• The yield was higher at the lower water depth, the total yield ob- IG(t) global solar radiation, W/m2
tained in the typical days of December 2015 at 1 cm and 2 cm depth ir interest rate, %
of feed water was 5017 ml/day (2.50 l/m2 day) and 4418 ml/day I(t) solar radiation on solar still, W/m2
(2.21 l/m2 day), respectively. Thus, an increase of 11.94% in yield IS(t) solar intensity incident on the south wall of solar still, W/m2
was obtained when the depth of feed water decreases from 2 cm to IW(t) solar intensity incident on the west side of solar still, W/m2
1 cm in MBDSMWSS. IWg(t) solar intensity on the west glass cover, W/m2
• The yield obtained in MBDSMWSS for a typical days in March 2016 KACRY thermal conductivity of acrylic, W/m-K
with black cotton and jute wicks were 7740 ml/day (3.87 l/m2 day) KFRP thermal conductivity of FRP, W/m-K
and 7040 ml/day (3.52 l/m2 day), respectively at 2 cm water depth. LACRY thickness of acrylic, m
Thus, an increase of 9.04% in yield obtained from presented solar LFRP thickness of FRP, m
still, when black cotton wick was used in place of a jute wick. So, the Lvap latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
black cotton wick is better wick in comparison to jute wick. MCDW market cost of distilled water, US$/kg
• The maximum yield obtained was 9012 ml/day (4.50 l/m2 day) in ṁ eE hourly yield from the east wall of solar still, ml
May 2016 at 2 cm water depth with the black cotton wick. ṁ eEg hourly yield from the east glass cover of solar still, ml
• The maximum overall thermal efficiency of MBDSMWSS with jute ṁ eS hourly yield from the south wall of solar still, ml
and black cotton wicks were 20.94% and 28.27%, respectively. The ṁ ew hourly yield of the solar still, ml
maximum instantaneous thermal efficiency achieved was 54.80% in Ṁ ew total yield of the solar still, ml/day
December 2015. ṁ eW hourly yield from the west wall of solar still, ml
• The optimum annual cost of distilled water per kg and per kWh were ṁ eWg hourly yield from the west glass cover of solar still, ml
Rs. 1.51 (0.023 US$) and Rs. 2.41 (0.037 US$), respectively with the n still useful life in years, y
black cotton wick, when the useful life and interest rate for the NP net profit, US$/year
MBDSMWSS have been considered 15 years and 12%, respectively. PP payback period, day
Pcost capital cost of the still, US$
Nomenclature QCond conduction heat transfer, W
SFF sink fund factor, dimensionless
AACRY area of cross section of acrylic, m2 SV salvage value, US$
ACDW annual cost of distilled water, US$/kg or US$/kWh t time, h
AE area of east wall, m2 TAC total annual cost, US$/year
AEg area of east glass cover, m2 Tw water temperature, °C
AFC annual first cost, US$/year
AFRP area of cross section of FRP, m2 Subscripts
AMC annual maintenance cost, US$/year
AS area of south wall, m2 a ambient
ASS area of solar still, m2 b basin
ASV annual salvage value, US$/year E east
AUE annual useful energy, kWh/year g glass cover
AW area of west wall, m2 N North
AWg area of west glass cover, m2 S south
AY annual yield, kg/year SS solar still
CRF capital recovery factor, dimensionless w water
F1 fraction of total input solar radiation (instantaneous) on both W west
the glass covers
F2 fraction of total input solar radiation (instantaneous) on walls
(east, west, and south)

81
P. Pal et al.
Greek
dt small time interval, h
ηi instantaneous thermal efficiency (hourly basis)
ηO overall thermal efficiency of the solar still
Acknowledgement
The present work is carried out under the Institute Project Fund
sanctioned under letter Ref. no. 134/R & C/2013–14, dated: 23/08/
2013 of Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad,
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh–211004, India.
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