Applied Energy 87 (2010) 514–523

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Single basin double slope solar still with minimum basin depth and energy
storing materials
K. Kalidasa Murugavel a, S. Sivakumar a, J. Riaz Ahamed a, Kn.K.S.K. Chockalingam a, K. Srithar b,*
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Engineering College, Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu 628 503, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai, Tamil Nadu 625 015, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Solar still is a simple device which can convert available waste or brackish water into potable water using
Received 14 February 2009 solar energy. A single basin double slope solar still with an inner basin size 2.08 m  0.84 m  0.075 m
Received in revised form 19 May 2009 and that of the outer basin size 2.3 m  1 m  0.25 m has been fabricated with mild steel plate and tested
Accepted 31 July 2009
with a layer of water and different sensible heat storage materials like quartzite rock, red brick pieces,
Available online 5 September 2009
cement concrete pieces, washed stones and iron scraps. It is found that, the still with 3=4 in. sized quartzite
rock is the effective basin material. The still is theoretically modeled. In previous researcher’s work, var-
Keywords:
iation in transmittance is taken as constant. The variations in solar incidence angle and transmittance of
Solar still
Layer of water
the covers are also considered in this work. The theoretical values are compared with actual values. The
Minimum depth theoretical water and glass temperatures and the theoretical production rate are having higher deviation
Energy storing materials with actual. Hence, another thermal model developed for this still is applied to validate the results accu-
Transmittance variation rately. It is found that, the theoretical production rate using thermal model agrees well with
Incidence angle variation experimental.
Still modeling Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Clean potable water is a basic necessity for man along with food
and air. Fresh water is also required for agricultural and industrial
purposes. Direct uses of water from sources like rivers, lakes, sea
and underground water reservoirs are not always advisable, be-
cause of the presence of higher amount salt and harmful organ-
isms. The higher growth rate in world population and industries
resulted in a large escalation of demand for fresh water. The natu-
ral source can meet a limited demand and this leads to acute short-
age of fresh water.
The solar desalination technology using solar still is the cheap
and simple process [1]. A black-painted basin contains brackish
or sea water. This is enclosed in a completely air tight envelope
formed by wooden frame and a transparent cover at top. The black
basin absorbs the maximum part of the transmitted radiation
through the cover. Consequently, water contained in the basin
heated up and evaporates in the saturated condition inside the still.
Water vapor rises up until it comes in contact with the cooler inner
surface of the cover. There, they condense as pure water, slides
down along the cover bottom surface due to gravity and is col-
lected by using drainage. The construction of this type of still can
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 4522482240; fax: +91 4522483427.
E-mail address: ponsathya@hotmail.com (K. Srithar).
easily be performed by even people at rural area using the locally
available materials.
The production capacity of a simple basin type still is very less.
This makes the system highly uneconomical. Good number of work
has been carried out by researchers, to improve the production
capacity of the still by adopting different techniques. Recently,
the progresses in improving the effectiveness of the solar still has
been reviewed [2]. The basin water depth is having significant ef-
fect on productivity of the basin. Investigations show that, the
water depth is inversely proportional to the productivity of still
[3–6].
Around 11% of radiation received by the still basin is reflected
back without using it [1]. Very simple method of increasing the
absorption of the basin water is to add dye with the water [7]. Dif-
ferent types of absorbing materials are used in the basin along with
water [8], to increase the absorption of the still basin. Rubber mate
and charcoal are some materials used in the basin. Basin lined with
charcoal is used to enhance the absorption capacity of the basin
[9,10].
Some black materials can store more amount of heat energy and
increase the heat capacity of the basin. Glass, rubber and gravel are
such materials having these properties [11,12]. Experimental re-
sults show that, black rubber with 10 mm size, increase the pro-
ductivity of the deep basin still by 20% and black gravel with 20–
30 mm size, increase the productivity of a shallow basin still by
19% than a conventional still. Solar still was also tested with a

0306-2619/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.07.023
 K. Kalidasa Murugavel et al. / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 514–523 515

Nomenclatures

A area (m2) s transmittance

C specific heat capacity (J/kg K) x hour angle (deg)
d glass thickness (mm) 2 emissivity
h heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K) Dt time step (s)
hfg latent heat of water (J/kg)
I total radiation (W/m2) Subscripts
Kd diffused radiation fraction a air
m mass (kg) atm atmosphere
M molecular weight av average
p partial pressure of water vapour (N/m2) b basin
Q heat transfer, energy (W) c convection
t time (s) e evaporation
T temperature (°C) fw feed water
U overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K) g glass
V velocity of air (m/s) i incident
N north
Greek letters o overall
ab absorptivity r radiation
b inclination of the plane cover with horizontal (deg) S south
d sun declination angle (deg) sky sky
/ latitude (deg) T total
g efficiency (%) w water
h incidence angle (deg) em energy storing material
r Stefen–Boltzman constant (5.67  108 W/m2 K4)

special phase changing material as energy storing materials at its
basin [13].
Higher depth and energy storing materials are employed to
store the excess energy and to increase the night time production.
In the regions where the solar intensity is medium or low like In-
dia, the still with minimum depth is effective. When minimum
mass is used in the still, it will not spread the entire area of the ba-
sin and hence additional spreading materials are to be used along
with water [14]. The main objective of this work is to study the ef-
fect of minimum depth of water with different spreading materials
in the basin. In this work, a single basin double slope passive type
solar still is fabricated and tested with a layer of water (approxi-
mately 5–7.5 mm depth). The performance of the solar still is to
be compared with different types of energy storing materials like
quartzite rock, washed stone, cement block pieces, red brick pieces
and iron scraps. The above said energy storing materials are not at
all used so far in the still. The still is theoretically modeled. The to-
tal and diffused radiation variations, incidence angle variations and
the transmittance variations of the covers are considered in this
analysis. Theoretical performance is compared with actual perfor-
mance. It is found that the theoretical results are deviated more
with actual results. Hence another thermal model is applied to val-
idate the actual results.
2. Theoretical modeling
2.1. Solar radiation transmitted by glass covers
The total input energy to the still is the sum of total radiation
energy falling on north and south side glass covers for given instant
and is given by,
Q i ¼ Q iN þ Q iS ð1Þ
where QiN = AgN IN and QiS = AgS IS. Also the glass areas, AgN and AgS
are same and taken as 1.08 m2.
The energy available for utilization by the still for given instant
is the total solar radiation transmitted through the north and south
side covers for given time and it is given by,
Q s ¼ Q sN þ Q sS ð2Þ
where QsN = sN AgN IN and QsS = sS AgS IS. Here, sN and sS are trans-
mittance of the north and south side glass covers, respectively.
Commercially available window glasses are used as cover plate.
The transmittance of the glass at any time is the function of solar
incidence angle, diffused radiation fraction and thickness of the cov-
er plate. Experiments have been conducted using different window
glass thicknesses at different inclinations and orientations for dif-
ferent times of the day [15]. A correlation is developed to estimate
the transmittance (s) of the window glass with thickness ‘d’ and
for diffused radiation fraction of ‘Kd’. The correlation is given by,
s ¼ ½1:005  104  ð90  hÞ  K d   ½5:204  103  K d  d
þ ½0:095  K d2  þ ½0:029  K d  þ ½3:837  104  ð90  hÞ  d
2
 ½3:299  103  d   ½0:028  t þ ½9:117  104  ð90  hÞ
þ ½2:417  10 7
 ð90  hÞ2  þ 0:859 ð3Þ

North and south covers of the still receives the radiations at dif-
ferent angles and quantities. These radiation and transmittance
values are also varying with time. For the calculation of energy
available at the basin, the actual radiation energy received at the
inclined glass covers and the transmittance variations of the glass
covers are to be considered. Whereas, in previous research works,
theoretical predictions were carried out by considering the radia-
tion energy in horizontal plane and constant transmittance of glass
covers.
where ‘h’ is the incidence angle, and is calculated using sun earth
geometry, location of the place and the angle of inclination of the
glass surface [16]. When the angle of inclination of the plane with
the horizontal is at angle ‘b’ and facing south, the incidence angle
‘h’ on the inclined plane is given by [16],
cos h ¼ sin d sinð/  bÞ þ cos d cosð/  bÞ cos x ð4Þ
The value of inclination angle ‘b’ is negative when the inclined plane
is facing north.
516 K. Kalidasa Murugavel et al. / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 514–523

2.2. Energy balance equations where the basin area Ab is taken as 1.72 m2 and the convective coef-
ficient from the basin to glass cover is calculated using [18],
Radiation transmitted into the still through the glass covers is  2
continuously absorbed by the basin water. This result in increase ðpw  pg ÞðT w þ 273:15Þ 3
hc;wg ¼ 0:884 ðT w  T g Þ þ ð8Þ
of water temperature and the heat transfer from water to the glass 268900  pw
cover by different modes. A part of this heat transfer is by convec-
The evaporative heat transfer from the basin water to the cover
tion and radiation due to temperature difference between the
plate is written as [1],
water and lower surface of the glass. The remaining is by evapora-
tion, due to partial vapour pressure difference between the water Q e;wg ¼ he;wg Ab ðpw  pg Þ ð9Þ
surface and lower surface of the glass cover. The evaporated va-
where the evaporative coefficient from the basin to the glass cover
pour condenses at the bottom surface of the cover and transfer
is given by Malik et al. [1] as,
heat to the glass. A small part of heat is lost to atmosphere through
basin bottom and side wall by conduction and convection. For shal- Mw hfg pT
he;wg ¼ hc;wg ð10Þ
low basin still, the basin bottom surface and water are assumed as Ma C pa ðpT  pw ÞðpT  pg Þ
single element [17] and the temperature is taken as constant for
basin and water. The raw water is continuously supplied to the ba- The radiation heat transfer from the basin to glass cover is predicted
sin to keep the water mass in the basin always constant. This com- from [1],
pensating water mass takes sensible heat to attain equilibrium Q r;wg ¼ r 2wg Ab ½ðT w þ 273:15Þ4  ðT g þ 273:15Þ4 Þ ð11Þ
with basin water.
The transient energy balance equation for the basin water is The heat loss from the basin to the surrounding is calculated using
given as [18], [1],

ðmw C w þ mem C em ÞdT w =dt ¼ Q s ab;w  Q c;wg  Q r;wg  Q e;wg Q b ¼ UAS ðT w  T atm Þ ð12Þ
 Q b;wa  Q b;wa  Q fw ð5Þ For the still with deep basin, the reduction in mass of water due to
evaporation is negligible. But in the shallow basin still, the effect of
The heat taken by the glass lower surface from basin water con- mass water evaporated on performance of the still is significant.
ducts through the glass thickness. The upper glass surface in turn Hence it is assumed that the evaporated mass is continuously re-
transfer this heat to the atmosphere by convection and radiation placed and mass of water in the basin is assumed as constant. It
due to the temperature difference between glass, atmosphere and
sky. The temperature of glass material is assumed as constant
through out the material. It is also assumed that, the heat flow from
the basin is uniform over the surface and the both the cover receive
same amount of heat.
The transient energy balance equation for the glass cover is
given as [18],
mg C g dT g =dt ¼ ab;g Q i þ Q c;wg þ Q r;wg þ Q e;wg  Q c;ga
 Q r;ga ð6Þ

2.3. Heat transfer equations

The convection heat transfer from the basin water to the cover
plate becomes [1],
Q c;wg ¼ hc;wg Ab ðT w  T g Þ ð7Þ
Fig. 2. Photographic view of single basin double slope solar still.

Storage
Piezometer tank
Condensate
drain 30o inclined cover

Thermo
couples Condensate
drain
V2
Water
V1
V3
Water
Control
inlet
valves
Cement concrete Flexible hose
layer Glass wool Outer
and Thermo cool basin
Temperature Measuring
Insulation
indicator jar

Fig. 1. Single basin double slope solar still.

 K. Kalidasa Murugavel et al. / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 514–523 517

Table 1 is also assumed that, the replaced water is at atmospheric temper-

Accuracies and error for various measuring instruments. ature and takes heat from basin. The heat taken by the replaced
Sl. no. Instrument Accuracy Range % Error water is estimated from [1],
1 Thermometer ±1 °C 0–100 °C 0.25 Q fw ¼ me C w ðT atm  T w Þ ð13Þ
2 Thermocouple ±0.1 °C 0–100 °C 0.5
3 PV type sun meter ±1 W/m2 0–2500 W/m2 2.5 The convection heat transfer coefficient from the cover to the atmo-
4 Anemometer ±0.1 m/s 0–15 m/s 10 sphere including the radiation effect is predicted using [19],
5 Measuring jar ±10 ml 0–1000 ml 10
6 Piezometer ±10 ml 0–500 ml 10 hg;ca ¼ 5:7 þ 3:8 V ð14Þ
and the convective heat transfer is given as [1],
Q g;ca ¼ hg;ca Ag ðT g  T atm Þ ð15Þ
The radiation heat transfer from the glass to the sky is estimated
using [1],

Q gsky ¼ r 2g Ag ½ðT g þ 273:15Þ4  ðT atm þ 267:15Þ4  ð16Þ

The instantaneous water production of the still is calculated [1],
me ¼ Q e;wg =hfg ð17Þ
P
The overall production of the still = me(t) Dt
X
¼ Q e;wg ðtÞDt=hfg ð18Þ

2.4. Methodology for solving the equations

Fig. 3. Photograph of sensible energy storage materials used in the basin.
The incidence angles are calculated using the Eq. (4). The energy
transmitted through the covers are calculated using the Eq. (2). The
transmittances of the cover plates are calculated using the Eq. (3).
Usually in the previous works, this transmittance is taken as
constant.
Calculations are made to study the performance of the still with
minimum depth of 0.5 cm. For this depth, the mass of water in the
basin is 8.5 kg. Different masses of energy storing materials are
used in basin, to maintain uniform depth with minimum mass of
water. The theoretical performance of the still is evaluated by solv-
ing the heat balance Eqs. (5) and (6). Eqs. (7)–(16) are used to cal-
culate the various parameter used in the above heat balance
equations. The Eq. (17) is used to calculate the instantaneous pro-
duction of the still.
The partial pressure of water vapour in the air in N/m2, is calcu-
lated for given temperature (°C) using the following correlation
[20].

p ¼ 7235  431:43T þ 10:76T 2 ð19Þ

The latent heat of evaporation of water in J/kg, at given basin water
temperature (°C) is given by the following correlation [21].
hfg ¼ ð2503:3  2:398  TÞ  1000 ð20Þ
The specific heat capacity, in J/kg K, of the air inside the still is cal-
culated using the following correlation in terms of average temper-
ature (Tav in °C) between glass and basin water [22].

C pa ¼ 999:2 þ ð0:14339  T av Þ þ ð0:0001101T 2av Þ

Fig. 4. Photograph of the still with 1½ in. cement concrete pieces in the basin.  ð0:000000067581  T 3av Þ ð21Þ

Table 2
Different types of sensible energy storing materials used in the basin.

Sl. no. Name of the material used in the basin Depth in cm Mass of water in kg Masses of energy storing materials in kg Specific heat capacity in kJ/kg K
1 1=
4 in. quartzite rock 0.5 8.5 15.9 0.775
2 1=
4 in. naturally washed stones 0.5 8.5 17 0.745
3 3=
4 in. quartzite rock 0.75 12 39.9 0.775
4 1½ in. cement concrete pieces 0.75 12 22.65 0.78
5 11=4 in. red brick pieces 0.75 12 22.45 0.84
6 Mild steel scraps 0.5 8. 5 2 0.465
518 K. Kalidasa Murugavel et al. / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 514–523

The performance of the still – theoretical is evaluated by solving the
heat balance Eqs. (5) and (6). The calculations were made for every
10 s interval from 6 A.M. to next day 6 A.M. Using the initial values
of water and glass temperatures, initial heat transfer coefficients are
calculated using the Eqs. (7)–(17). Then, new values of glass and
temperatures at the end of first 10 s interval are calculated using
the Eqs. (5) and (6). The production rate is calculated using the
Eq. (17). Using these calculated water and glass temperatures, using
the same procedure, the water and glass temperatures and produc-
tion rate at the end of next 10 s interval are calculated. The above
step is repeated to calculate the temperatures and production rate
from 6 A.M. to next day 6 A.M. For each time interval, the actual
metrological conditions are considered. After the each time interval,
it is assumed that the distillate water delivered from the still is re-
placed by fresh raw water and the mass of the water in the basin is
always constant. Microsoft Excel package is used for the above
calculation.
3. Experimental setup and procedure
A single basin double slope solar still has been fabricated with
mild steel plate as shown in Fig. 1. The overall size of the inner
basin is 2.08 m  0.84 m  0.075 m and that of the outer basin
is 2.3 m  1 m  0.25 m. The gap between the inner and outer ba-
sin is air tightly packed with glass wool. The outer basin is made
up of mild steel sheet. The top is covered with two glasses of
thickness 4 mm inclined at 30° on both sides supported by woo-
den frame. The outer surfaces are covered with glass wool and
thermocole layers as insulation. The condensed water is collected
in the V-shaped drainage provided below the glass lower edge on
both sides of the still. The condensate collected is continuously
drained through flexible hose and stored in a measuring jar. A
hole in the basin side wall allows to insert the thermocouples
for the measurement of the basin water, still and condensate
temperature. Four thermocouples were placed in the basin at dif-
ferent locations. Two thermocouples are placed in the each side of
the drain to measure the condensate temperature. The hole is
closed with insulating material to avoid the heat and vapour loss.
Another hole is provided for water inlet. Through this hole, water
tube from piezometer is inserted to supply raw water continu-
ously to the basin from storage tank through control valves which
regulates the flow, to keep the mass of water in the basin always
constant.
Fig. 2 shows the photographic view of the solar still with stor-
age tank and temperature measuring system.

Fig. 5. Variation of incidence angle and atmospheric temperature.

800 0.90 Radiation on south

cover
700 0.80
Diffused radiation fraction,

Radiation on north
0.70
Solar radiation, W/m 2

600 cover
Transmittance

0.60
500
diffused radation
0.50 fraction on south
400 Duration : September to
cover
October, 2008 0.40
300 Diffused radiation
0.30 fraction on north
cover
200
0.20
Transmiittance of
100 0.10 south cover

0 0.00 Transmittance of
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 the north cover
Local Time, h

Fig. 6. Transmittance and radiation variations.

 K. Kalidasa Murugavel et al. / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 514–523
3.1. Measurements and error analysis
The temperatures of water, and vapor were recorded with the
help of calibrated K-type thermocouples in combination with a
digital temperature indicator. The ambient temperature is mea-
sured by calibrated mercury thermometer. The distillate from the
still was measured using measuring jar. The raw water was sup-
plied using measuring piezometer tube. The total and diffused
radiation on horizontal, inclined plane facing south and north were
measured using a calibrated photo voltaic (PV) tracking type sun
meter. The diffused radiations on inclined surfaces were measured
by blocking the beam radiation on the photo voltaic surface. The
ambient air velocity V, was measured with an electronic digital
anemometer. Table 1 shows the accuracies and error for various
instruments used.
Experiments have been conducted by adding different sensible
energy storage materials in the basin. Fig. 3 shows the photograph
of different energy storing materials used in the basin and Fig. 4
shows the photograph of the still with 1½ in. cement concrete
pieces in the basin.
Table 2 presents the mass of water and different energy storing
material used in the basin, their masses and their specific heat
capacities [23].
The experiments have been conducted at the open terrace of the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Engineering Col-
Fig. 7. Variations of production rate – small size materials.
519
lege, Kovilpatti (9°110 N, 77°520 E), a city in southern India during
August, 2008 to October, 2008. The observations are taken for
24 h duration starting from 6 A.M. The total and diffused radiations
on horizontal and inclined planes, the temperatures of the atmo-
sphere, condensate and basin water, and the masses of raw water
supplied and condensate collected are noted for every 30 min.
4. Variation of atmospheric temperature and incidence angle
Fig. 5 explains the variations of incidence angle on the covers
and on horizontal plane and atmospheric temperatures during
the experimental period. The variation of incidence angles on the
horizontal plane is close to zero during noon. For both the covers,
the incidence angle variations are almost similar. The atmospheric
temperature varies between 24 °C and 38 °C and it is maximum
around 2 P.M.
Fig. 6 shows the transmittance variations of the covers, total
radiation and diffused radiation fraction variations on the covers.
The south cover receives higher total radiation and less diffused
radiation than the north cover through entire day. The transmit-
tance of the cover is varying inversely with incidence angle for en-
tire day. But during morning and evening due to higher diffused
radiation, the transmittance is higher, even though the incidence
angles are high.
520 K. Kalidasa Murugavel et al. / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 514–523

5. Results and discussion
The experiments were conducted with different energy storing
materials on different days continuously during September to
October, 2008. During this period, the radiation condition is almost
same. The observations were considered for comparison for the
days, the atmospheric conditions are almost same. If any one of
the atmospheric parameter is having higher variation on any one
day, the observation for that day is not considered for analysis.
Fig. 7 compares the variations of production rates of 1=4 in.
quartzite rock, 1=4 in. naturally washed stones and mild steel turn-
ings in the basin with a layer of water (8.5 kg equivalent to
0.5 cm depth) in the basin along with the average radiation and
wind velocity variations during the experimental period. The still
with 1=4 in. quartzite rock is found to have higher production rate
compared with other materials. The production rates of the still
with these materials in basin are also compared with still with
same amount of water, without any energy storing material. But

Fig. 8. Variations of production rate – higher size materials.

Duration : September to October 2008

4 3.66
3.50 3.49
3.28 3.33 3.30
3.11
Produc tion, l/day

0
Mild steel

cotton
pieces
quartzite

quartzite

1 1/2"

concrete
washed
stones

turnings
1 1/4"

black

cloth
brick
cement

Light
1/4"

pieces
3/4"
rock

rock
1/4"

Basin material

Fig. 9. Overall productions – different materials.

 K. Kalidasa Murugavel et al. / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 514–523 521

while conducting experiment without energy storing material, a
light black cotton cloth is used to spread the water through entire
basin. The heat capacity of the cloth used is negligible. Due to high-
er diffusion effect, the still with light cotton cloth has higher pro-
duction rate than other materials.
The next sets of experiments are carried out with increased
depth of water and larger size of energy storing and absorbing
materials. Around 0.75 cm depth (equivalent to 12 kg of water) is
used along with 3=4 –1½ in. size quartzite rock, cement concrete
pieces and red brick pieces as different basin materials. Fig. 8
shows the production variation of the still with different larger size
energy storing and absorbing materials in the basin along with the
average radiation and wind velocity variations during the experi-
mental period. 1½ in. cement concrete piece basin still is having
higher production rate and 11=4 in. brick pieces basin still is having
lesser production during morning hours and the inverse is ob-
served during evening. The still with 3=4 in. quartzite rock is having
uniform production from morning to night.
Fig. 9 compares the overall production of the still with different
basin materials. Of all basin materials, 3=4 in. quartzite rock is the
most productive material when the water depth is 0.75 cm. At this
condition the production rate is enhanced by 6.2% compared with
the still with layer water of 0.5 cm depth and light cotton cloth as
spreading material.
Fig. 10 shows the variations of different parameters for the still
with 3=4 in. quartzite rock in the basin. The variations of water and
glass temperatures and glass–atmospheric temperature differ-
ences are proportional with production rate. The water–glass
temperature difference reaches maximum during morning hours
when the water temperature is around 60 °C and there after

80 0.5
W ater Temperature
0.45
70
Date: 21.09.2008 0.4
Basin material:
60
¾” quartzite rock Glass temperature

Production ra te, l/h

0.35
Temperature, o C

Mass of water: 12 kg
50
0.3

40 0.25 Diff. betw een w ater -

glass temperatures
0.2
30
0.15 Diff. betw een glass -
20 atmospheric
0.1 temperatures

10 Production rate
0.05

0 0
6 9 12 15 18 21 24 3 6
Local Time, h

Fig. 10. Actual variations of different parameters.

90 1
W ater temperature - still -
Theoretical 0.9
80
W ater temperature - stil -
solar
0.8
70 Glass temperature -Still -
solar
0.7
h

60 Glass temperature -still -

2
Temperature, o C

theoretical
Production ra te, l/m

Production rate - still - solar 0.6

50
Production rate - still - 0.5
40 theoretical
0.4
30
0.3

20
Date: 21.9.2008 0.2
Basin material:
10 ¾” quartzite rock
Mass of water: 12 kg 0.1

0 0
6 9 12 15 18 21 0 3 6
Local time, h

Fig. 11. Comparison of different parameters.

522
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Production ra te, l/h m 2
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
6 9
continuously decreases. Similar behavior is observed for the stills
with different basin materials. The maximum water and glass tem-
perature reached is inversely varying with the total heat capacity
of the water and basin material.
The performance of the still is analyzed using proposed theoret-
ical model by considering the transmittance variations. Fig. 11
compares the actual and the theoretical variation of the still with
3=
4 in. quartzite rock with 12 kg of water in the basin. The variation
patterns of actual water and glass temperatures and production
rate are closely matching with theoretical. But the deviation be-
tween the actual and theoretical quantities is higher. At higher
water temperature, the proportion of water vapour present in
the air inside the still is high and its effect on performance is not
considered in the theoretical analysis. This is the reason for higher
deviation between the actual and theoretical quantities.
Experiments were conducted with this still for different depths,
a thermal model was evaluated to predict the production rate
accurately in terms of different temperatures and validated [24].
The thermal model to predict production rate in kg/m2 h is given
by the Eq. (22). The theoretical prediction of production rate using
thermal model closely agrees with the experimental values as
shown in Fig. 12.
mw ¼ 0:012ðT w  T g ÞðT g  T a Þ  3:737  103 T w ðT g  T a Þ
 5:144  103 T g ðT g  T a Þ þ 5:365  103 ðT g  T a Þ2
3
þ 0:212ðT g  T a Þ  3:828  10 T w ðT w  T g Þ  5:015
 103 T g ðT w  T g Þ þ 2:997  103 ðT w  T g Þ2
þ 0:217ðT w  T g Þ þ 1:182  103 T w T g þ 1:663
 103 T 2g  0:106T g  0:065T w þ 8:352  104 T 2w
þ 1:992
6. Conclusion
A single basin double slope still has been fabricated and tested
for different energy storing materials like 1=4 in. quartzite rock, 1=4 in.
washed stones and mild steel scraps have been used in the basin
K. Kalidasa Murugavel et al. / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 514–523
Date: 21.9.2008
Basin material:
¾” quartzite rock
Mass of water: 12 kg
Still - Theoretical
Still - solar
Still - thermal model
12 15 18 21 0 3 6
Local time, h
Fig. 12. Actual and theoretical production rates.
with layer of water equivalent to 0.5 cm depth. To improve the
production further, 3=4 in. quartzite rock, 11=4 in. red brick pieces
and 1½ in. cement concrete pieces are used in the basin with
0.75 mm depth of water. The still has been theoretically modeled.
The transmittance and solar incidence variations are considered.
The total radiations on the sloped covers are taken as input. The
theoretical performance of the still is compared with actual still.
Out of different energy storing materials used, 3=4 in. quartzite rock
is the more effective which yields higher production per day.
Theoretically, the maximum values of production rate, water
temperature and glass temperature are varying inversely with heat
capacity of basin water and other materials used in the basin. The
total production also decreases with the increase of basin heat
capacity. The actual water and glass temperatures and production
rate are having higher deviation with theoretical values due to the
non inclusion of higher proportion of water vapour in the air inside
the still, effect of change in evaporative area and absorptivity of the
materials used in the basin.
The production rate depends on water, glass and atmospheric
temperatures, water–glass temperature difference and glass–
atmospheric temperature difference. The estimated production
rate using thermal model in terms of above temperatures closely
agrees with experimental values.
Acknowledgement
The useful discussion with Dr. Soteris Kalogirou, Department of
Mechanical Engineering and Materials Sciences and Engineering,
Cyprus University is acknowledged.
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ð22Þ
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