Energy 76 (2014) 276e283

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Solar desalination system using spray evaporation

S.A. El-Agouz a, *, G.B. Abd El-Aziz b, A.M. Awad b
a
Mech. Eng. Dep., Faculty of Eng., Tanta Univ., Egypt
b
Mech. Dept., Faculty of Industrial Education, Suez University, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper evaluates a one-stage technique to improve fresh water production from salty water by
Received 31 January 2014 enhancing the evaporation and condensation. A pilot plant is designed and constructed in an arid area
Received in revised form with 1 m2 solar water collector area to evaluate the one-stage process. The effect of main parameters on
1 August 2014
fresh water production of the unit is studied. The results show that, the productivity, efficiency, pro-
Accepted 3 August 2014
Available online 26 September 2014
ductivity rate, and Gained Output Ratio of the desalination unit are strongly affected by the inlet hot
water temperature and flow rate. Within the studied ranges, the maximum daily productivity reached to
9 l/m2. According to these results, fresher water production of the present system is higher than that
Keywords:
Solar desalination system
solar humidificationedehumidification desalination system in the previous studies. The maximum daily
Spray evaporation efficiency in the desalination system is about 87%. A TDS (total dissolved solids) of fresher water is
Salty water 40 ppm. Finally, the cost of distilled water per liter is $0.029.
Experimentally © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Desalination based on renewable energy such as solar energy,
presents a sustainable and a zero-polluting alternative to fossil fuel
based desalination, which aggravates environmental pollution
problems. It is cheap, allows energy diversification, available for
predictable periods of time, and helps avoid dependence on
external energy supplies (Garcia-Rodriguez [1]). Solar still desali-
nation uses a sustainable and pollution-free source to produce
high-quality water.
Fresh water could be obtained from salty water through the
solar HDH (humidificationedehumidification) cycle. In this pro-
cess, hot air supplied from a solar collector was circulated either by
a natural or a forced convection process over the water where it
becomes humid. The humid air was then passed through a
condenser or de-humidifier system where the desalinated water
was obtained. Multi-effect humidification plants were the most
effective units among solar desalination plants (Farid et al. [2]).
Many researchers have conducted studies on process and the
equipment's related to the (HDH) systems for water desalination.
Abdelkader [3] studied the solar desalination system with multi-
effect humidificationedehumidification cycles with couples cen-
tral solar receiver. In this system, saline water was warmed through
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: elagouz2002@yahoo.com, elagouz2011a@yahoo.com,
elagouz2011@yahoo.com (S.A. El-Agouz).
the solar central receiver and it was then entered into a desalina-
tion chamber. The air circulation in the humidification chamber
was provided by natural convection.
The amount of distillate water produced by the unit depends on
the solar collector size. The performance of the collector depends
mainly on the weather conditions, design and operating parame-
ters. However, to estimate the optimum values of these parameters
in different weather conditions using full experiment was costly
and time-consuming. Therefore, the development of a simulation
model offers a better alternative and has proven to be a powerful
tool in the evaluation of the performance of the system. Both air
and water, solar collectors were the main components of a solar
desalination unit and any improvement in their efficiency will have
a direct bearing on the water production rate and the product cost
(Al-Hallaj and Selman [4]). The solar collectors that were used to
heat water and/or air were expensive and can reach in some cases
from 25 to 30% of the total desalination unit cost by Ben Bacha et al.
[5]. The best known thermal processes for the desalination of
seawater, namely MED (multi-effect desalination) and MSF
(multistage flash), make an efficient use of energy because the heat
released in each stage or effect was used in the next one, making
multiple use of energy. However, these processes require a very
precise control of temperature and pressure in each stage, which
must be constant in time in order to keep the conditions needed for
the boiling process (El-Dessouky and Ettouney [6]). This poses a
problem when coupling desalination with solar energy, due to the
intrinsic variability of insolation, thus requiring a thermal storage

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.08.009
0360-5442/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S.A. El-Agouz et al. / Energy 76 (2014) 276e283
Nomenclature
A Area, m2
h Enthalpy, (kJ/kg)
H Solar radiation, (W/m2)
L Latent heat of water, (J/kg)
m Flow rate, (l/h)
M Productivity, (l/h)
Pp Pump power, (W)
T Temperature,
C
Greek letters
h Efficiency
Subscripts
Av Average
ci Cold inlet
co Cold outlet
d Daily
h Hourly
hi Hot Inlet
tank and/or a supplementary heat source from fossil fuels (Blanco
and Alarcon [7]).
In order to enhance utilization efficiency of the latent heat of
condensation, gain more fresh water output per square meter area
of solar collector and reduce the energy loss of the humid-
ificationedehumidification desalination unit, a series of designs of
multi-effect solar humidificationedehumidification desalination
system were presented by some researchers.
Zhani and Ben Bacha [8] presented an experimental investiga-
tion and an economic analysis on a solar desalination prototype
functioning by HD (Humidification/Dehumidification) of air. The
experimental results also that the outlet and the inlet temperatures
at different component levels were the same trends as solar radi-
ation and the ambient air temperature was an insignificant effect
on thermal performance of the unit. The cost of distilled water per
liter was $0.107.
Al-Hallaj et al. [9] studied the solar driven (HDH) desalination
system and the daily fresh water production rate ranged from
approximately 2.25 to 5.0 l/m2 of solar collector area, depending on
the average daily solar flux. Muller-Holst et al. [10] fabricated the
solar (HDH) desalination system for operation in Munich, Germany.
The system performance showed the average daily fresh water
production in June was approximately 7.5 l/m2 while that in
January was approximately 1.2 l/m2 solar collector area. Dai and
Zhang [11] presented the solar desalination unit with humidifica-
tion and dehumidification. They found that the performance of the
system was strongly dependent on the mass flow rate of salt water,
the mass flow rate of the process air, and the inlet salt water
temperature to the humidifier. The results showed that the pro-
ductivity achieved was around 6.2 l/m2 of solar collector area. Yuan
et al. [12] investigated a 1200 l/day (HDH) desalination unit. This
system was composed of a 100 m2 solar air heater field, a 12 m2
solar water collector. The results showed that water production of
the system can reach 10.7 l/m2 of solar collector area, when the
average solar radiation was 550 W/m2. Zhani et al. [13] developed
the modeling and the experimental solar desalination unit using air
and water solar collectors. They were found that the two-
temperature mathematical model describes more precisely the
real behavior of the water solar collector than the one-temperature
mathematical model. Gude et al. [14] designed the low temperature
277
ho Hot outlet
S Solar water collector
w Water
Abbreviations
CC Cooling coil
CV Control value
EC Condensation tower
ET Evaporation tower
FM Flow meter
FWR Fresh water reservoir
GOR Gain output ratio
HDH Humidificationedehumidification
HEX Heat exchanger
MED Multiple effect distillation
MSF Multi stage flash
PR Productivity rate
SWC Solar water collector
TC Thermocouples
TDS Total dissolved solids
TES Thermal Energy Storage
desalination system using solar collectors augmented by thermal
energy storage. A solar collector area was 15 m2 with 1 m3 of TES
(Thermal Energy Storage) volume or 18 m2 with 3 m3 of TES vol-
ume. The results show that the fresh water production can reach
6.67 l/m2 of solar collector area. Zamen et al. [15] experimentally
evaluated the two-stage technique to improve the humid-
ificationedehumidification process in fresh water production from
salty water. A two-stage pilot plant was designed and constructed
in an arid area with 80 m2 solar collectors. The results show that,
fresh water production can reach 7.25 l/m2 of solar collector area.
The main limitation of solar stills was their low productivity
compared to conventional desalination processes. The operating
efficiency was low due to main two limitations: (i) the rejection to
the atmosphere of the latent heat of condensation and (ii) the
difficulty of raising the evaporation temperature and decrease
condensation temperature as heating, evaporation and condensa-
tion take place in one container (He and Yan [16]).
It has been inferred from the literatures that most of the pre-
vious works have used heated water spray during the humidifica-
tion process where air used as a carrier gas to evaporate water from
the saline feed and to form fresh water by subsequent condensa-
tion. On the fact that the vapor carrying capability of air increases
with temperature:1 kg of dry air can carry 0.5 kg of vapor and about
2805 kJ when its temperature increases from 30 to 80
C (Parekh
et al. [17]). Therefore, the solar desalination requires efficient
methods of evaporation and condensation at relatively low tem-
peratures up to 70
C. Initially for small quantity, as in the earlier
designs the condenser is an integral part of the system. In addition,
Multi-effect solar still was suggested as an efficient method for the
production of desalinated water.
The present system is based on the generation of vapor from
salty water when it enters an evaporator tower and condensation of
vapor is accomplished by regenerative heating of the feed water.
The main objectives of the present work are to describe the design
for solar distillation system coupled with a solar water heater to
enhance productivity and efficiency. The paper presents the results
of a solar distillation system, with the water working in a closed
loop. The distillation chamber consists of evaporation and
condensation towers. The system is designed to improve the
evaporation rate by spraying water at low temperature.
278 S.A. El-Agouz et al. / Energy 76 (2014) 276e283
2. Process description and instrumentation
2.1. Process description
Figs. 1 and 2 show, respectively, a schematic diagram and a
photo of the experimental setup of the solar water desalination
unit. The developed unit operates at atmospheric pressure using
spraying water to production vapor. Three compartments consti-
tute the installation: ET (evaporation tower) and CT (condensation
tower), SWC (solar water collector), and TST (thermal storage tank).
The principle of functioning of this desalination process is as
follows. The salty water at (1) is pumped to the solar water collector
through CV (control value) that heated and then recycled to ther-
mal storage tank at (2). The solar water collector of 1 m2 as shown
in Fig. 2 is the major component of the unit. It has an absorber plate
containing uniformly spaced parallel copper pipes with it supper
surface painted black to increase the absorptivity of the system. The
solar collector inclination is nearly 30
horizontal and orientation is
kept in the south direction to receive maximum solar radiation
throughout the year The thermal storage tank is made of galvanized
steel sheet with volume 43 l and it is covered by glass wool
insulation.
The salty water is heated by the solar collectors as much as
possible. Then, the hot water at (3) is pumped to the top of the
evaporation tower through CV (control value) and FM (flow meter).
The hot water enters to sprinklers (4) which causes a spray of water
as vapor. Salty water remaining at the bottom of the evaporation
tower at (5) is directed to the thermal storage tank where it is
further heated and redirected to the sprinklers (4). The evaporation
tower of diameter 32 cm and height 38 cm is insulated by a layer of
thermal flex insulating tape 1 cm thick and covered by an
aluminum layer.
The cold salty water at (6) feds to the CC (cooling coil) and HEX
(heat exchanger) at different rates to condense the water vapor in
the evaporation tower and then it is exited at (7). Salty water,
which is preheated in the condensation tower, by the latent heat
SWC
TC
2 CC
Drain 7 TC
9 HEX
CV
8
CV
CV
TST
TC
P P
1 3
TST thermal storage tank CV
SWC solar water collector ET
FWR fresh water reservoir P pump
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of solar water desalination unit.
of condensation and it is pulverized into the thermal storage tank
at (8) and the drain at (9). The distilled water at (10) is collected in
a basin at the bottom of the condensation tower and leaves to the
FWR (fresh water reservoir). The HEX (heat exchanger) is con-
structed from two co-axial cylindrical of galvanized steel sheet
with thickness 1 mm. The diameter of two co-axial cylindrical are
0.5 and 0.51 m while the height 0.7 and 0.65 m. The heat
exchanger insulated by a glass wool layer with thickness of
30 mm, with thermal conductivity of 0.036 W/m K. A conical cover
is put in the top of heat exchanger. The cooling coil is made of
copper tube with 1.56 mm diameter that is wrapped in the form of
a helix.
2.2. Instrumentation
As shown in Fig. 1, the thermocouples at points (1, 2, 4, 5, 6,
and 7) is measured the temperature of salty water of inlet and
outlet of evaporation tower, condensation tower, and solar water
collector. They are attached to a Digit-Sense 12 Channel Scanning
Bench Top Thermometer with scale division of 0.1
C that is
connected to a computer and the temperature are recorded every
60 S. Water flow rate of evaporation tower, condensation tower,
and solar water collector is regulated manually by control value
and is measured by flow meters with a range of 0e450 l/h. The
voltage and current of the pumps (max. power 180 W) are
measured by using digital clamp meter type (KSR-266). The
desalinated water volume is measured by using a graduate tank
with a range of 0e15 l with an accuracy of ±0.01 l. TDS (Total
dissolved solids) of salty and fresher water is measured by YSI
model 556 MPS.
To estimate the uncertainties in the results presented in this
work, the approach described by Barford [18] is applied. Assuming
that a desired result is derived from n independent variables or
simultaneous measurements [e.g., R ¼ R(X1;X2;Xn) ] and letting u1,
u2,…, un be the uncertainties in the independent variables, we can
derive an expression for the uncertainty in the result, uR as:
Cold salty water
6
TC
CV
FM
TC 4
CV
CT ET
FM FM
5
10
TC
FWR
control value FM flow meter
evaporation tower CT condensation tower
TC Thermocouples
 S.A. El-Agouz et al. / Energy 76 (2014) 276e283 279

1Xn
hd ¼ h (4)
n 1 h


Lw$av ¼ 103  2501:9  2:40706Tw þ 1:192217  103 Tw
2
 (5)
 1:5863  105 Tw
3

Where hh and hd are the hourly and daily efficiency, Mw is the

hourly productivity, Lw$av is the average of the latent heat of
vaporization of water (El-Dessouky and Ettouney [6]), ASWC is the
solar water collector area, H is the incident solar radiation on the
horizontal surface, Pp ¼ I  V is the power of pumps that are
measured with different flow rate of hot and cold water, and n is the
number of effective running hours (duration of producing desali-
nated water).
The PR (productivity rate) is defined as the ratio of the fresh
water production rate of the inlet salty water flow rate and it is
calculated as (Zamen et al. [15]):
  
PR ¼ 100  Mw mw;hi (6)

The GOR (Gained Output Ratio) is a measure of the latent heat of

water produced per unit of heat input; the following expression for
GOR is (obtained McGovern et al. [19]):

Mw  Lw;av
GOR ¼ h i (7)
ðm  hÞw;hi  ðm  hÞw;ho

Where Mw is the fresh water production, mw,hi is the hot water flow
rate entering the system, Lw,av is the average latent heat of vapor-
ization at the ambient condition, and ½ðm  hÞw;hi  ðm  hÞw;ho  is
the total enthalpy difference between leaving and entering the
system for hot water. The hot water flow rate leaving the system is
calculated as:

mw;ho ¼ mw;hi  Mw (8)

Fig. 2. Photo of the experimental setup of solar water desalination unit. The desalination unit is tested in a certain period of time,
including hot and cold days. Examining the performance of setup
for each test takes one day in real conditions of various days and in
" each test in the early hours of the day. Desalination unit starts when
2     #0:5
vR vR 2 vR 2 water in the storage tank reaches an appropriate temperature and
WR ¼ u1 þ u2 þ … þ un (1) fresh water production begins. The productivity can start early in
vX1 vX2 vXn
the morning before 10.5 AM when the hot water temperature of the
The relative uncertainty in the result, R can be calculated as tank reaches 70
C. The solar radiation and temperature variation of
follows: the inlet and outlet of solar collector, evaporation tower, and the
condensation tower at different hot water flow rate are shown in
ER ¼ WR =R (2) Fig. 3. The average temperature difference of solar collector, evap-
Accordingly, the resulting errors of the calculated temperature oration tower, and condensation tower is about 1.6, 6, and 3
C
difference, the mass of water in the heated water tank, efficiency, respectively. Variation of hot water temperature is shown in Fig. 4.
productivity rate, and Gained Output Ratio of the desalination It is noticeable that the hot water temperature follows the same
system, respectively are ± 0.29%, ±0.7%, ±1.6%, ±0.75% and ±1.2%. trends as solar radiation.
The hourly productivity of the unit on hot and cold days is
shown in Fig. 5. On both of these days, the unit starts at 10.5 AM.
3. Results and discussion Because of higher solar intensity of hot days, the productivity on
these days is higher than that on cold days. The hourly productivity
This section describes the limits upon the hourly efficiency (hh), depends on hot water temperature of the storage tank and reduces
daily efficiency (hd), PR (productivity rate), and GOR (Gained Output when it drops as shown in Fig. 3. On cold days, because of lower
Ratio) of the desalination unit. These limits serve to bind the per- solar intensity and thus, reduction of the temperature of the storage
formance achieved in real systems. The hourly and daily efficiencies tank, productivity sharply reduces after about 2 h from the start
are calculated as: time, but, sharply productivity reduces after about 4 h from the
start time on hot days. The maximum hourly productivity is about
ðMw  Lw$av Þ=3600
hh ¼ 100    (3) 0.5, 0.7, 0.72 and 1.6 l/h at 57.6, 133.2, 214.2, and 288 l/h for hot
AS H þ Pp water flow, respectively.
280 S.A. El-Agouz et al. / Energy 76 (2014) 276e283

Fig. 3. Solar radiation and temperature variation in different hot water flow rate.

Fig. 4. Hot water temperature at different hot water flow rate.

 Hot day
Hot day

Hot day Hot day

Cold day Cold day

Fig. 5. Hourly productivity at different hot water flow rate.

Fig. 6. Accumulated productivity at different hot water flow rate.

282
Fig. 7. Effect of average hot water temperature on daily productivity, daily efficiency
and GOR at different inlet hot water flow rate.
Fig. 6 shows daily productivity at different hot water flow rate. It
can be seen that daily productivity increases with the increase of
hot water temperature as shown in Fig. 4. That is because of
increasing the temperature difference between evaporation and
condensation in which the evaporation rate is increased by
increasing the temperature difference. The maximum daily
Fig. 8. Effect of inlet hot water flow rate on productivity rate.
S.A. El-Agouz et al. / Energy 76 (2014) 276e283
Table 1
Comparisons of the productivity rate for present system and Zamen et al. [15].
Hot water flow rate, l/h Productivity rate, %, at Thi,av ¼ 70
C
Present system Zamen et al. [15]
57.6 1.33 0.094
133.2 1.25 0.089
214.2 0.69 0.084
288.0 0.64 0.080
productivity is about 5.8 l, 7.22, 7.27 and 9 l/m2 at 57.6, 133.2, 214.2,
and 288 l/h for hot water flow, respectively.
Fig. 7 shows the effect of the average hot water temperature on
daily productivity, daily efficiency and GOR at different inlet hot
water flow rate. It can be noticed that by increasing the salty water
temperature, the productivity and efficiency increases. It can be
seen that the heating temperature and the feed seawater mass flow
rate have a significant influence on the unit productivity. This
finding can be explained as follows: the increase of heating tem-
perature increases the vapor due to decrease the latent heat of
vaporization. Consequently, the amount of fresh water obtained
from the system is increased. At the same average hot water tem-
perature, it can be seen that an increase in hot water flow rate in-
creases daily productivity and efficiency. Daily productivity changes
from 2.8 to 9 l/m2 depending on hot water flow rate and
temperatures.
At the hot water flow rate 57.6 l/h, the maximum daily pro-
ductivity can reach 5.8 l/m2 at Thi)av ¼ 68.6
C, at the hot water flow
rate 133.2 l/h, the maximum daily productivity can reach 7.22 l/m2
at Thi)av ¼ 61
C. At the hot water flow rate 214.2 l/h, the maximum
daily productivity can reach 7.27 l/m2 at Thi)av ¼ 59.7
C and at the
hot water flow rate 288 l/h, the maximum daily productivity can
reach 9 l/m2 at Thi)av ¼ 58
C. The maximum efficiencies for present
are 68, 85, 80, and 87% at 57.6, 133.2, 214.2, and 288 l/h for hot water
flow, respectively. It can be seen that increasing the hot water flow
rate five times yields twice the productivity at Thi)av ¼ 58
C.
The GOR increases with increasing hot water temperature and
flow rate. A larger value of GOR in a desalination system means
higher energy efficiency and better distillate production
performance.
Fig. 8 shows the effect of the inlet hot water flow rate on pro-
duction rate. It can be seen that an increase in inlet hot water flow
rate decreases the productivity rate while an increase in average
hot water temperature increases productivity rate. The hot water
flow rate change from 60 to 70
C, the productivity rate increase by
about 70%.
TDS (Total dissolve solids) of salty feed water in village is more
than 3500 ppm and TDS of fresh water during the test period is less
than 40 ppm. This shows the ability of this process in desalination
of salty water to produce potable water in arid areas.
Comparison of productivity rate for present system and Zamen
et al. [15] is tabulated in Table 1 as a function of inlet hot water flow
rate, mw,hi, at Thi)av ¼ 70
C. It can be seen that an increase in water
flow rate decreases productivity rate. The results showed that the
productivity rate of the present system is higher than that for the
Zamen et al. [15] which uses a two-stage process at the same
condition.
Table 2
The average of Thi,av, Mw,av, hd,av, and CPL at different mw,hi.
mw,hi, l/h Thi,av,
C Mw,av, l/m2 hd,av, % CPL, $/l
57.6 62.0 4.04 49.2 0.049
133.2 57.8 4.92 60.0 0.040
214.2 57.0 6.00 61.1 0.033
288.0 53.4 6.70 63.0 0.029
 S.A. El-Agouz et al. / Energy 76 (2014) 276e283
4. Economic analysis
The calculation methodology is based on; the salvage value of
the units will be zero at the end of the amortization period. The
operator and maintenance costs are 20% of plant annual payment
(El-Dessouky and Ettouney [6]). The product water coat is calcu-
lated assuming 250 working days. Economic analysis of the water
desalination unit is given by Kabeel et al. [20]. The total cost of the
fabricated system is calculated from the sum of the cost of oper-
ating, the cost of maintenance, and the fixed charges cost. The cost
of operating; it includes the energy, the operating personnel, and
the handling of raw materials. The cost of maintenance; it includes
the maintenance personnel, the maintenance facility cost, the test
equipment, the maintenance support and handling cost, the
maintenance spares and repair parts. The fixed charges cost is
calculated from the present capital cost of desalination system; the
capital recovery factor, the interest per year, which is assumed as
6%; and the life years are assumed as 15 years in this analysis.
Finally, the cost of distilled water per liter can be calculated by
dividing the annual cost of the system by annual yield of solar still.
The total cost of the fabricated system is approximately $400.
Therefore, the fixed charges cost is $41.2 and operators and the
maintenance costs are $8.2, then the total cost of ownership is
$49.4. The average daily production of water is 6.7 l/m2. Finally, the
cost of distilled water per liter is $0.029. The results showed that
the cost of distilled water per liter of the present system is lower
than that for the Zhani and Ben Bacha [8].
Based on the results of four days, Table 2 shows the value of the
average of Thi)av, Mw)av, hd)av, and CPL at different mw,hi. From
Table 2, as increase inlet hot water flow rate from 57.6 to 288 l/h the
cost of water production decreases from 0.049 to 0.029 $/l. The
maximum of productivity and efficiency are 6.7 l/m2 and 63%.
5. Conclusions
Significant effects of the water temperature and flow rate of
productivity and efficiency of solar desalination system are
observed during the present experiments and the following points
are concluded:
 The inlet hot water temperature and flow rate have an impor-
tant effect on productivity, efficiency, productivity rate, and
Gained Output Ratio of the desalination unit.
 The increase in water flow rate increases productivity at the
same inlet average hot water temperature.
 The maximum daily productivity of the system reached to 9 l/m2
of solar collector area.
 The maximum productivity in the new desalination system is
higher than (HDH) desalination system.
 The maximum day efficiency in the new desalination system is
about 87%.
283
 TDS (Total dissolved solids) of salty water after desalination is
40 ppm.
 The cost of distilled water per liter is $0.029.
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