Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933

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Journal of Energy Storage

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Performance enhancement of tubular solar still using nano-enhanced

energy storage material integrated with v-corrugated aluminum basin,
wick, and nanofluid
Gamal B. Abdelaziz a, *, Almoataz M. Algazzar b, Emad M.S. El-Said c, Ashraf Mimi Elsaid d,
Swellam W. Sharshir b, *, A.E. Kabeel e, f, S.M. El-Behery g
a
Mechanical Department, Faculty of Technology and Education, Suez University, Suez, Egypt
b
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh 33516, Egypt
c
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
d
RHVAC Technology Department, Faculty of Technology and Education, Helwan University, 11282 Cairo, Egypt
e
Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
f
Faculty of Engineering, Delta University for Science and Technology, Gamasa, Egypt
g
Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Menoufyia University, Shebin El-Kom, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Herein, five alternative combinations were applied on and under the still basin to enhance tubular solar still
Solar desalination performance. Firstly, using a v-corrugated aluminum basin. Secondly, adding wick material to the v-corrugated
Aluminum v-corrugated basin aluminum basin. Thirdly, adding carbon black (CB) nanofluid on wick material located on the v-corrugated
Paraffin wax
aluminum basin (heat localization). Fourthly, using phase change materials (pure paraffin wax) under the v-
CB nanoparticles
Wick material
corrugated aluminum basin integrated with wicks and carbon black nanofluid (1.5 wt.%). Finally, the best case
consists of the v-corrugated basin combined with wick, 1.5 wt.% CB nanofluid and CB nanoparticles with 3 wt.%
were added to paraffin wax under the basin. The results showed that the productivity was enhanced by 21.4,
42.77, 58.48, 73.56, and 88.84% for the cases with the previous order. For the best case (fifth case), the thermal
energy and exergy efficiencies were enhanced by 82.16 and 221.8%, respectively, whereas the cost could be
saved by 22.47 %, compared to the conventional tubular solar still. Accordingly, the proposed materials and their
combinations led to acceptable and feasible enhancement in the tubular solar still performance due to the
improved heat transfer characteristics, and hence the increased evaporation rate.

1. Introduction desalination in the state of fossil fuels for sustainability reinforcement,

Most of the earth is covered by water, but unfortunately, two million
people (children are the majority) die of thirst annually. Under current
population growth and limited potable water resources, it is expected
that 3.5 billion persons will suffer from freshwater stresses by 2025 [1,
2]. Converting brackish water, which represents most of the earth’s
water, into potable water (desalination) is an intuitive solution for the
freshwater shortage. The most known single-phase desalination method
is reverse osmosis [3], while the common phase change desalination
methods are multi effect desalination [4], vapor compression [5],
multi-stage flash [6], humidification and dehumidification [7-9]. All of
these desalination technologies depend on fossil fuels and cost high
establishment and running expenses. Renewable energy is used in water
environmental conservation, and ensuring human survival [10]. The
widespread thermal desalination method depending on renewable en­
ergy sources is solar stills.
Solar stills (SSs) use solar energy to evaporate confined brackish
water in the isolated trough with a tilted glass cover. The evaporated
water is condensed on the glass cover and collected as the freshwater
product [11,12]. Advantages of SSs are simplicity, low cost, and easy
maintenance, depending on renewable clean energy and suitability to
arid regions. On the other side, the main limitation of SSs is their low
freshwater productivity. The researchers are sparing no effort to find
methods and technologies for SSs productivity enhancement.
Changing the SS configuration is an effective method to enhance its
performance, such as double slope solar still (DSSS) [13,14], pyramid

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: gbedair@ind.suezuni.edu.eg (G.B. Abdelaziz), sharshir@eng.kfs.edu.eg (S.W. Sharshir).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102933
Received 9 March 2021; Received in revised form 23 May 2021; Accepted 4 July 2021
Available online 13 July 2021
2352-152X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G.B. Abdelaziz et al.
solar still (PSS) [15,16], tubular solar still (TSS) [17-19], stepped double
slope [20], double slope solar still [21], wick still [22], pyramid [23,24],
pyramid SS with evacuated tubes [25], inclination angle of glass and
absorber plate [26], double basin SS with jute cloth [27], hybrid desa­
lination system[28-30] stepped double slope [20], reflectors [10],
nanoparticles [31], weir mesh-stepped absorber and coral fleece [32],
thin film evaporation [33-36] nanofluids [37], coated absorber by
nanoparticle[31,38,39] SS integrated with PV/T, and solar collector
[40] hydrogel materials [41] solar collectors [42-45] and phase change
materials (PCM) [46] PCM with Graphene Oxide [47].
Kabeel et al. [48] experimentally studied the effect of saline water
depth and cover cooling on TSS performance. The results revealed that
TSS with the lowest saline water depth (0.5 cm) has the best perfor­
mance. Adding cover cooling leads to an increment in thermal efficiency
and freshwater output by 32.6 and 31.4 %, respectively. Arunkumar
et al. [49] experimentally investigated the effect of cooling the cover of
TSS integrated with parabolic concentrators. The results revealed that
using air for cooling increases freshwater productivity by 49 % while
using water for cooling leads to a 144 % increment in freshwater output.
Kabeel et al. [50] carried out an experimental investigation to study the
effect of adding parabolic concentrator to TSS and replacing the con­
ventional rectangular trough by half concentric cylinders under four
different saline water layer thicknesses; 1, 2, 3 and 4 cm. the results
showed that the modified design of TSS with 2 cm saline water layer
thickness can give 90.8 % higher fresh water output compared to the
traditional TSS.
Another method to upgrade SS performance is changing the config­
uration of the absorber plate. Velmurugan et al. [51] concluded that
conventional SS freshwater output could be increased by 45.5 % when
its absorber plate is integrated with fins and sponges. Omara et al. [52]
experimentally evaluated the performance of two conventional SSs with
corrugated and finned absorber plates with another traditional SS. The
results indicated that the SS with corrugated and finned absorber plates
has higher freshwater productivity by 21 and 40 %, respectively. Elsh­
amy and El-said [53] experimentally showed that using semicircular
corrugated absorber plate with TSS enhances its freshwater productivity
by 26.47 %.
Adding wick materials to the brackish water in SSs is a simple, cheap,
and effective method to enhance their performance. Omara et al. [54]
carried out an experimental investigation to promote conventional SS
freshwater productivity by using steel corrugated absorber plates, wicks,
and reflectors. The results indicated that the modified SS’s freshwater
output is higher than conventional SS by 145.5 %. Haddad et al. [55]
improved the freshwater production of traditional SS by 51 % by adding
vertical rotating wicks. Sharshir et al. [30] experimentally studied the
effect of applying rejected water from the
humidification-dehumidification process as feed water for SS with wick
materials and compared its performance with conventional SS. The re­
sults revealed that this modification could increase freshwater produc­
tivity by 210.2 %. Moreover, the effect of integrating glass cover cooling
to the proposed SS was investigated and showed an increment in
freshwater productivity by 278.4 % compared to the conventional SS.
Newly, straight with the development of nanotechnology, and add­
ing nanoparticles to basin water is another method for SS performance
enhancement. Nanomaterials (NMs) have been combined into numerous
applications due to their large thermal properties, such as increasing the
heat transfer due to large surface area and high thermal conductivity,
and low specific heat, which improve the rate of evaporation [45,
56-58]. Using nanomaterials as a thin-film evaporation [33,35,36],
carbon black [20,25], MSS with Fe3O4 [34], CuO [23] and CuO and
graphite [59]. Sharshir et al. [60] experimentally indicated that adding
1 wt % of graphite and copper oxide micro-flakes to 0.5 cm saline water
depth of conventional SS integrated with glass cover cooling leads to an
increment in freshwater productivity by 53.95 and 44.91 %, respec­
tively. Compared to conventional SS, stepped DSSS with linen wicks and
1.5 wt % CB nanoparticles has higher fresh water output and lower cost
2
Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933
per liter of produced freshwater by 80.57 and 47.22 %, respectively
[33]. Sharshir et al. [20] experimentally indicated that freshwater
output of PSS might be increased by 72.95 % by using corrugated
absorber plate, wicks, and CuO nanoparticles.
Thermal energy storage is a technique followed to improve SS per­
formance. One of the thermal energy storage methods uses phase change
material (PCM), which stores excess thermal energy during high solar
Radiation intensity and releases this energy when solar radiation de­
creases [44,61-63]. Kabeel et al. [64] recorded an increment in TSS
freshwater productivity of 115.1 % by adding copper tubes filled with
PCM on the saline water basin. Kabeel et al. [65] experimentally studied
the effect of inserting different PCMs under conventional SS absorber
plate. The results revealed that freshwater productivity could be
augmented by up to 92 %. Freshwater productivity and daily thermal
energy efficiency of PSS can be enhanced by 87.4 and 106.85 %,
respectively by using a v-corrugated absorber plate with PCM under it
[66]. On the other hand, the thermal properties of PCMs can be effec­
tively enhanced by nanomaterials [67-69] either for hybrid or separate
PCMs [70]. As reported by Khan and Khan [71], the utilization of gra­
phene nanoplatelets could enhance the charge and discharge rates of
paraffin wax by 44.57 and 41.46 %, respectively. Besides, the addition of
graphite nanoparticles (10 wt.%) to paraffin wax can attain 1100% in­
crease in the thermal conductivity [72], whereas the addition of walled
carbon nanotubes (2 wt.%) can enhance the thermal conductivity in
solid and liquid states by 35, and 40%, respectively [73].
From the literature survey, there are various designs with various
modifications in the productivity and efficiency of SS. For example,
several modifications need extra parts such as reflectors, condensers,
and collectors to enlarge the exposed area to solar radiation. This has
resulted in higher costs and decreased efficiency despite increased
freshwater productivity. In addition, depending on cost-effective mate­
rials has been found to be a challenge, but separate materials still lead to
limited performance enhancement. Accordingly, the current work
aimed to merge the advantages of cost-effective and available materials
to evaluate the improved performance of TSS. The combinations were
done in many trials, and each case was compared to CTSS. The utilized
materials were a v-corrugated aluminum basin, wick, CB nanoparticles,
and PCM (paraffin wax). Five different experiments were conducted,
and their results were compared from three points of view: productivity,
thermal (energetic and exergetic) performance, and economic analysis.
Firstly, using a v-corrugated aluminum basin. Secondly, adding wick
material on the v-corrugated aluminum basin, Thirdly, adding carbon
black (CB) nanofluid on wick material located on the v-corrugated
aluminum basin (heat localization). Fourthly, using phase change ma­
terials (pure paraffin wax) under the v-corrugated aluminum basin in­
tegrated with wicks and CB nanofluid (1.5 % wt.) to increase the heat
transfer due to large surface area and high thermal conductivity as well
as low specific heat which improve the rate of evaporation. Finally, the
best case consists of the v-corrugated basin combined with wick, 1.5 %
wt. CB nanofluid and CB nanoparticles with 3 % wt. were added to
paraffin wax under the v-corrugated basin to improve the thermal
properties of PCM and increase the charge and discharge process. The
performance of developed TSS (DTSS) at various modifications were
examined such as v-corrugated aluminum basin, wick material on the v-
corrugated, nanofluid on the wick, PCMs, and PCMs combined with CB
nanoparticles and compared with CTSS. Moreover, the cost and eco­
nomic examination of the proposed systems were examined.
2. Experimental setup and procedure
2.1. Experimental test rig
Experimental work was accomplished in Berket-elsabaa city,
Menoufia, Egypt (latitude 31.4◦ N and longitude 30.8◦ E) under outdoor
environmental conditions from July to August 2020. Every proposed
modification was investigated on one experimental day, which lasted for
G.B. Abdelaziz et al. Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933

10 hours from 8 AM to 6 PM without PCM. Furthermore, the operating

periods increased in case of use PCM by 2 more hours (from 8 AM to 8
PM). The experimental setup’s schematic and pictorial views are shown
in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. Generally, the TSS consists of a metallic
basin contained in a transparent cover/cylinder. The most possible
amount of solar radiation penetrates the cover reaching the basin; sub­
sequently, the basin absorbs the solar energy and is heated up.
Accordingly, the saline water is further warmed up, and hence the
evaporation process occurs. The generated vapor reaches, under buoy­
ancy, the inner surface of the cover, which has a lower temperature, then
the condensation process occurs. Due to the rounded shape of the cover,
the condensate flows to a trough and is collected via a flask.
The experimental setup contains two identical TSSs; CTSS and DTSS.
CTSS was made of 15 mm thickness transparent polycarbonate with 0.5
m diameter and 1 m length. The saline water trough was made of 1.5 mm
thickness galvanized steel with a rectangular area of 0.4 × 0.9 m2. A thin Fig. 2. Photograph for the experimental test rig.
layer of black paint was added to the saline water trough to maximize
the absorbed solar radiation and minimize the reflected and lost solar rate of evaporation. For the fourth modification, the same DTSS in the
insulation. For DTSS, it was identical to the CTSS, except the saline third modification but with 10 kg of pure paraffin wax under the basin as
water trough was replaced by an aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate. a PCM. The PCM was added to store the excess thermal energy during
The basin was fabricated from a 0.7 mm thick aluminum sheet. The the charging process to be released during the discharge process. The
sheet was corrugated using a bending machine to form multi-equilateral heat transfer process description is quite similar to that is reported by Li
triangles (v-angle of 60◦ ) having 2 cm side length, with the cross- et al. [68]. The amount of radiation which penetrates the cover reaching
sectional view shown in Fig. 3. Hence, the heat transfer area was the basin is converted into heat as mentioned before. Further, a part of
doubled compared to that of CTSS basin, and the v-corrugated basin this heat is transferred to the water and the other is transferred to the
works effectively as fins, and this could enhance the evaporation rate. PCM by conduction during the charging process till obtaining complete
Besides, the aluminum basin has higher thermal conductivity than that melting. Then, with the declination of solar radiation intensity during
of the steel basin in the CTSS. Furthermore, the surface of the v-corru­ the afternoon hours, the PCM temperature becomes higher than that of
gated basin was painted in black to increase the absorptivity. basin and water, hence, heat is transferred to the working medium via
For the second modification, wick material was added to the v- conduction which is known as discharging process. Accordingly, the
corrugated basin. For the third modification, 1.5 wt.% of CB nano­ measurement time was extended to 8 PM to show the effect of the dis­
particles were added on wicks located on the aluminum v-corrugated charged heat from the PCM on the productivity. For the fifth modifica­
basin to increase the heat transfer due to large surface area and high tion, the same of DTSS in the fourth modification but the paraffin wax
thermal conductivity as well as low specific heat which improves the was mixed with 3 wt.% of CB nanoparticles to enhance its thermal

Fig. 1. Detailed schematic drawing.

3
G.B. Abdelaziz et al. Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933

Table 1
Thermophysical properties of paraffin wax [69,74] and CB nanoparticles [25].
Property Paraffin wax CB
Density, (kg/m3) 840 1720
Specific heat, (kJ/kg. K) 2.1 0. 690
Thermal conductivity, (W/m. K) 0.21 120
Melting point, (◦ C) 54 3550
Latent heat of fusion, (kJ/kg) 190 288.24
Viscosity, (N.s/m2) 0.0269 -

devices to record and monitor the hourly variations in the various

measured parameters. Ambient, glass cover, and basin water tempera­
tures were measured by using K-type thermocouples. Solar radiation
intensity was evaluated by means of a solar power meter (TES-1333R
model). Type vane digital anemometer (GM816 model) was applied to
measure the wind speed. Evaluation of freshwater productivity was
occurred by using a graded cylinder. All dimensional measurements
were done with the aid of measuring tape. Table 2 represents the
Fig. 3. Cross-sectional view of v-corrugated basin. measuring ranges, accuracies, and errors of utilized measurement de­
vices. The values of accuracies and ranges of these devices were ob­
tained from the manufacturer (name plate).
properties (charging and discharging process). CB nanoparticles were Calculating a value depending on the measured parameters leads to a
selected because of their high solar radiation absorptivity, good thermal propagated uncertainty because of individual uncertainties of measured
conductivity, and low cost compared with other nanoparticle’s types. By parameters. The following equation can be applied to evaluate the
aid of transmission electron microscopy (TEM), an image for CB nano­ propagated uncertainty of function X [75]:
particles was taken as shown in Fig. 4 (a). The image shows clearly that [( )2 ( )2 ( )n ]0.5
∂X ∂X ∂X
the CB nanoparticles have spherical shapes with a grain size of 40 nm. To Ux = U + U + ... + U (1)
∂x1 1 ∂x2 2 ∂xn n
characterize the absorptivity of the proposed material, UV-Vis LabRAM
HR800 (manufacturer is HORIBA, device range = 200 – 2200 nm, and
where Ux I the propagated uncertainty of value X and Un is uncertainty
accuracy = ± 0.5 nm) was used. The materials’ absorptivity was
value of the measured parameter xn .
measured at wavelength range of 400 – 1100 nm. Water, carbon black
nanofluid, and black paint spectral absorptivity’s are illustrated in Fig. 4
(b). As shown, carbon black nanofluid has a uniform absorptivity of
~99.99 % higher than black paint by around 5.49 %. Moreover, the
thermophysical properties of the PCM and CB nanoparticles are given in Table 2
Specifications of measurement devices and corresponding errors.
Table 1. For all experiments, saline water height in CTSS was kept at 1
cm, and the same water mass was maintained in the DTSS to compare Measurement device Measuring range Accuracy Uncertainty,%
between two stills fairly. Thermocouple -50-180◦ C ± 0.1◦ C 1
Solar power meter 0-2000 W/m2 ±10 W/m2 0.456
Anemometer 0.1-30 m/s ±0.1 m/s 2.7
2.2. Measurements test plan Graded cylinder 0-5000 ml ±5 ml 2
Measuring tape 0-3 m ±1 mm 1.24
The experimental setup was provided with various measurement

Fig. 4. Characterization outputs (a) TEM image for CB nanoparticles and (b) spectral absorptivity of water, carbon black nanofluid and black paint [20].

4
G.B. Abdelaziz et al.
3. Experimental findings and discussion
The experiments were conducted to evaluate the performance of the
DTSS compared to CTSS. For this aim, the hourly variation of all
affecting, meteorological and system, parameters were recorded. To
guarantee the stability of the obtained results, materials’ repeatability
and enhancements, measurements of each case were repeated in three
days. All results assured the uniformity and stability of the measure­
ments due to the rapprochement of the values with negligible differ­
ences, and hence the stability of the materials and the achieved
enhancements could be trusted. In the following sections, the resulted
data of a single day of each case are presented as an example for illus­
trating the system behavior. Besides, the energetic and exegetic per­
formance and cost analysis are given. Furthermore, the details
mathematical of the DTSS with v corrugated wick materials consists of
the energy balance equations and the relationship between the heat
transfer between media and PCM can be found in [68,76]
3.1. Effect of using v-corrugated aluminum absorber plate
Changes in solar radiation intensity and air speed were recorded
during the experiment and plotted in Fig. 5 (a). As illustrated, solar
insulation began at 320 W/m2 at 8:00 AM, and then this value was
Fig. 5. Performance of CTSS and DTSS by aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate (a) solar radiation intensity and wind speed, (b) ambiente, glass and basin water
temperatures and (c) hourly and accumulated fresh water productivity.
5
Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933
continuously increasing till its maximum value of 950 W/m2 at 12:00
PM. After that, it was decreasing till recording 185 W/m2 at the end of
experimentation day (at 6:00 PM). Air speed was varying within the
range of 0.2-1.6 m/s throughout all the experimental days. Fig. 5 (b)
represents a plot for variations in ambient air, glass cover of CTSS, glass
cover of DTSS, basin water of CTSS, and basin water of DTSS tempera­
tures during the experimentation day. With respect to the previous order
of temperatures, their beginning values (at 8:00 AM) were 30.2, 34.1,
34.3, 33.5, and 36 ◦ C. While, their maximum values (at 1:00 PM) were
34.5, 50.1, 51.6, 62.3, and 68.3◦ C. Finally, their end values (at 6:00 PM)
were 29.3, 34.5, 34.9, 36.5 and 37◦ C. Hourly and accumulated fresh­
water productivity of CTSS and DTSS are shown in Fig. 5 (c). During the
first hour in the experiment (from 8:00 AM to 9:00 AM), CTSS produced
0.18 L/m2 of freshwater, while DTSS freshwater productivity was higher
by 22.22 %. The maximum hourly freshwater productivity was recorded
at 1:00 PM, CTSS freshwater output was 0.53 kg/m2, and DTSS fresh­
water output was higher by 18.87 %. The accumulated freshwater
output of CTSS and DTSS was 3.28 and 3.97 kg/m2, respectively. In
other words, DTSS accumulated freshwater output was higher than CTSS
by 21.04 %. Considering the error bars presented in Fig. (b, and c), it can
be clearly seen that the intersection between the error margins occurred
in glass temperatures only. The value of glass covers temperatures are
expected to be close due to the identical ambient conditions, and no
G.B. Abdelaziz et al.
cooling methods have been used. Hence, there is no worry about the
intersection of their error margins. Whereas the most important values
are water temperatures and productivity, which all indicate the effect of
the proposed modifications (outcome). So, the no noverlapped margins
refer to the significant effect of the modification on the performance.
This observation can be generalized for all upcoming cases.
The obtained enhancement can be attributed to the enhanced ther­
mal conductivity because of integrating the aluminum plate. In addition,
the enhanced heat transfer as the area was doubled due to the utilized v-
corrugated basin in the DTSS instead of the flat one in the CTSS. All these
features may effectively lead to an increase in the evaporation rate.
3.2. Effect of adding wick material on the aluminum v-corrugated
absorber plate
Fig. 6 (a) represents the variations in solar radiation intensity and
wind speed during the experiment. As illustrated, a curve that looks like
an inverted bell with a maximum value of 930 W/m2 at 12:00 PM il­
lustrates solar radiation intensity variations. The starting value at 8:00
AM and the end value at 6:00 PM of solar radiation intensity were 350
and 190 W/m2, respectively. Air speed was oscillating during the
experimentation day between maximum and minimum values of 0.8 and
2.5 m/s, respectively. Fig. 6 (b) illustrates the variations in ambient air,
Fig. 6. Performance of CTSS and DTSS by wick material and aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate (a) solar radiation intensity and wind speed, (b) ambiente, glass
and basin water temperatures, and (c) hourly and accumulated freshwater productivity.
6
Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933
glass cover of CTSS, glass cover of DTSS, basin water of CTSS and basin
water of DTSS temperatures during the experimental day. With respect
to the previous order of temperatures, their beginning values (at 8:00
AM) were 29.3, 34, 34, 33.5, and 36.7◦ C. While, their maximum values
(at 1:00 PM) were 34.5, 50.6, 51.9, 64.9, and 72.8◦ C. Finally, their end
values (at 6:00 PM) were 30.1, 33.5, 35.8, 35.6 and 39.2◦ C. Fig. 6 (c)
shows hourly and accumulated freshwater productivity of CTSS and
DTSS. CTSS produced 0.18 kg/m2 of freshwater during the period be­
tween 8:00 AM to 9:00 AM and DTSS freshwater output was higher by
66.67 %. The maximum hourly fresh water output was recorded at 1:00
PM, CTSS freshwater output was 0.53 kg/m2 and DTSS fresh water
output was higher by 32.08 %. Totally, the accumulated freshwater
output of CTSS and DTSS was 3.32 and 4.74 kg/m2, respectively. In
other words, DTSS accumulated freshwater output was higher than CTSS
by 42.77%. In addition to the previously mentioned features of utilizing
a v-corrugated aluminum basin (higher heat transfer area, and thermal
conductivity), the wick materials have good capillarity that helps in
lifting the water to the surface of the basin. So, a thin wetted film can be
obtained, which ease and emphasize the evaporation process.
G.B. Abdelaziz et al.
3.3. Effect of adding CB nanoparticles and wick material on the
aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate
Wick material was added to the v-corrugated basin, and 1.5 wt% of
CB nanoparticles were added on wicks located on the aluminum v-
corrugated basin to increase the heat transfer due to large surface area
and high thermal conductivity as well as low specific heat which im­
proves the rate of evaporation. Variations in solar radiation intensity
and wind speed were recorded during the experiment and plotted in
Fig. 7 (a). As shown, solar radiation intensity began at 290 W/m2 at 8:00
AM, and then this value was continuously increasing till its maximum
value of 925 W/m2 at 1:00 PM. After that, it was decreasing till
recording 170 W/m2 at the end of experimentation day (at 6:00 PM). Air
speed was oscillating throughout all the experimental days between
maximum and minimum values of 0.4 and 3.2 m/s. Fig. 7 (b) represents
a plot for variations in ambient air, glass cover of CTSS, glass cover of
DTSS, basin water of CTSS and basin water of DTSS temperatures during
the experimentation day. With respect to the previous order of tem­
peratures, their beginning values (at 8:00 AM) were 29.8, 33.6, 35.3,
33.6, and 38.4◦ C. While, their maximum values (at 1:00 PM) were 33.5,
Fig. 7. Performance of CTSS and DTSS by CB nanoparticles, wick material and aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate (a) solar radiation intensity and wind speed,
(b) ambient air, basin water, and glass cover temperatures and (c) hourly, and accumulated freshwater productivity.
7
Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933
50.1, 52.5, 65.2, and 74.5◦ C. Finally, their end values (at 6:00 PM) were
30.1, 33.4, 37.5, 36.5 and 40.3◦ C. Hourly and accumulated fresh water
productivity of CTSS and DTSS are illustrated in Fig. 7 (c). During the
first hour in the experiment (from 8:00 AM to 9:00 AM), CTSS produced
0.18 L/m2 of fresh water, while DTSS freshwater productivity was
higher by 77.78 %. The maximum hourly fresh water productivity was
recorded at 1:00 PM, CTSS fresh water output was 0.55 kg/m2, and DTSS
fresh water output was higher by 41.82 %. Totally, the accumulated
freshwater output of CTSS and DTSS was 3.3 and 5.23 kg/m2, respec­
tively. In other words, DTSS accumulated freshwater output was higher
than CTSS by 58.48 %. Herein, in this case, the utilization of CB nano­
particles might enhance the thermophysical properties (increased ab­
sorptivity and thermal conductivity and decreased specific heat) of the
evaporation media. Therefore, it could participate with the aforemen­
tioned advantages of the corrugated aluminum basin and wick materials
in enhancing the vapor generation and the yield.
G.B. Abdelaziz et al.
3.4. Effect of integrating PCM under the aluminum v-corrugated absorber
plate with presence of wick material and CB nanoparticles
The DTSS contains 10 kg of pure paraffin wax as a PCM under the
basin. Paraffin wax was added as a phase change material to store the
excess thermal energy while high solar radiation intensity during the
day and release that thermal energy when solar radiation intensity is
decaying which led to an increase in operating periods. Variations in
solar radiation intensity and wind speed were recorded during the
experiment and plotted in Fig. 8 (a). As shown, solar radiation intensity
began at 310 W/m2 at 8:00 AM, then this value was continuously
increasing till its maximum value of 945 W/m2 at 1:00 PM. After that, it
was decreasing till recording 165 W/m2 at the close of experimentation
daytime (at 6:00 PM). Air speed was varying within the range of 0.2-1.8
m/s throughout the experimental day. Fig. 8 (b) represents a plot for
variations in ambient air, glass cover of CTSS, glass cover of DTSS, basin
water of CTSS, basin water of DTSS, and PCM temperatures during the
experimentation day. With respect to the previous order of tempera­
tures, their beginning values (at 8:00 AM) were 29.8, 32, 37.5, 33.5, 40,
and 33.8◦ C. While, their maximum values (at 1:00 PM) were 33.5, 52,
53.9, 66, 78 and 79.5◦ C. Finally, their end values (at 6:00 PM) were
30.1, 34, 37.8, 35.5, 44.5 and 48.9◦ C. Hourly and accumulated fresh
water productivity of CTSS and DTSS are shown in Fig. 8 (c). During the
first hour in the experiment (from 8:00 AM to 9:00 AM), CTSS produced
Fig. 8. Performance of CTSS and DTSS by PCM, CB nanoparticles, wick material, and aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate (a) solar radiation intensity and wind
speed, (b) ambient, PCM, basin water and glass temperatures, and (c) hourly and accumulated freshwater productivity.
8
Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933
0.19 L/m2 of fresh water, while DTSS freshwater productivity was
higher by 47.37 %. The maximum hourly fresh water productivity from
CTSS was recorded at 1:00, and its value was 0.56 kg/m2, and DTSS
maximum hourly freshwater output was higher by 32.14 % and recor­
ded at 2:00 PM. The maximum hourly freshwater productivity of DTSS
was shifted one hour compared to CTSS because of the presence of PCM.
The accumulated freshwater output of CTSS and DTSS was 3.22 and 5.58
kg/m2, respectively. In other words, DTSS accumulated fresh water
output was higher than CTSS by 73.56 %. It is noticed that DTSS pro­
duced freshwater till 8:00 PM when there was no solar radiation. It can
be justified by the thermal energy released from PCM at that time. So,
additional yield could be obtained besides that was emphasized by other
three materials: v-corrugated aluminum basin, wick, and CB nanofluid.
3.5. Effect of integrating nano-enhanced PCM under the aluminum v-
corrugated absorber pate with the presence of wick material and CB
nanoparticles
Finally, with the same modifications mentioned above the DTSS the
pure paraffin wax was mixed with 3 wt.% of CB nanoparticles to
enhance its thermal properties (charging and discharging process). CB
nanoparticles were selected because of their high solar radiation ab­
sorptivity, good thermal conductivity, and low cost compared with other
nanoparticles types.
G.B. Abdelaziz et al.
During the experiment, variations in solar radiation intensity and
wind speed were reported and plotted in Fig. 9 (a). As shown, solar
radiation intensity began at 295 W/m2 at 8:00 AM, and then this value
was continuously increasing till its maximum value of 930 W/m2 at 1
PM. After that, it was decreasing till recording 170 W/m2 at the close of
experimentation day (at 6 PM). wind speed was oscillating throughout
all the experimental days between maximum and minimum values of 0.7
and 3.5 m/s. Fig. 9 (b) represents a plot for variations in ambient air,
glass cover of CTSS, glass cover of DTSS, basin water of CTSS, basin
water of DTSS, and nano-enhanced PCM temperatures during the
experimentation day. With respect to the previous order of tempera­
tures, their beginning values (at 8:00 AM) were 29, 33, 36, 33.2, 41, and
34.5◦ C. While, their maximum values (at 1:00 PM) were 33.5, 50.2,
56.5, 65.3, 80.5 and 83◦ C. Finally, their end values (at 6:00 PM) were
31, 34.5, 40.5, 37.2, 50.2 and 58.5◦ C. Hourly and accumulated fresh­
water productivity of CTSS and DTSS are shown in Fig. 9 (c). During the
first hour in the experiment (from 8:00 AM to 9:00 AM), CTSS produced
0.17 kg/m2 of freshwater, while DTSS freshwater productivity was
higher by 94.12 %. The maximum hourly fresh water productivity from
CTSS was recorded at 1:00, and its value was 0.55 kg/m2, and DTSS
maximum hourly freshwater output was higher by 38.18 % and recor­
ded at 2:00 PM. The maximum hourly freshwater productivity of DTSS
Fig. 9. Performance of CTSS and DTSS by nano-enhanced PCM, CB nanoparticles, wick material and aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate (a) solar radiation
intensity and wind speed, (b) ambient air, PCM, basin water and glass cover temperatures and (c) hourly and accumulated freshwater productivity.
9
Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933
was shifted one hour compared to CTSS because of PCM. Totally, the
accumulated freshwater output of CTSS and DTSS was 3.14 and 5.92 kg/
m2, respectively. In other words, DTSS accumulated freshwater output
was higher than CTSS by 88.84 %. Because of thermal energy released
from nano-enhanced PCM during the absence of solar radiation, DTSS
was producing freshwater till 8:00 PM. Besides, compared to the fourth
case, more yield was obtained as the nanoparticles could enhance the
thermal conductivity of the paraffin wax, increasing the charged/dis­
charged heat, which increased the vapor generation and water
production.
4. Thermal performance
4.1. Thermal energy efficiency
Thermal energy efficiency is a good indicator to assess and compare
thermal systems such as SSs, so the thermal energy efficiency of every
experimented SS is calculated here. SS’s thermal energy efficiency can
be defined as the ratio between the latent heat of the freshwater output
(FWO) to the absorbed solar energy. The following equation was used to
evaluate the daily thermal energy efficiencies of all tested SSs [59]:
G.B. Abdelaziz et al.
( )
∑ ment by 103.01 % compared by CTSS). Furthermore, exergy efficiency
ṁFWO × hfg
ηd = ∑ (2)
(I(t) × AG × 3600)
where ηd is daily thermal energy efficiency,mFWO is hourly freshwater
output throughout the experimentation time (kg/h), hfg is the latent heat
of vaporization (J/kg) which can be evaluated by applying the following
equation [77], I(t) is solar insulation (W/m2) and AG is the area of the
glass cover (m2).
hfg = 2.5019 × 106 − 2.40706 × 103 × Tw + 1.192217 × Tw2 − 15.863 × 10− 3
× Tw3
(3)
where Tw is average water temperature (o C).
Depending on the occurred calculations, the daily thermal energy
efficiency of CTSS was 22.48 %, while the daily thermal energy effi­
ciency of DTSS by aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate was 27.69 %
(enhancement by 23.18 % compared by CTSS). It was found that DTSS
by adding wick material on the aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate
has a daily thermal energy efficiency of 34.22 % (enhancement by 52.22
% compared to CTSS). Furthermore, the daily thermal energy efficiency
of DTSS by adding CB nanoparticles and wick material on the aluminum
v-corrugated absorber plate was 38.37 % (enhancement by 70.69 %
compared to CTSS). DTSS by PCM, CB nanoparticles, wick material, and
aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate recorded daily thermal efficiency
of 38.28 % (enhancement by 70.28 % compared to CTSS). While, DTSS
by nano-enhanced PCM, CB nanoparticles, wick material, and aluminum
v-corrugated absorber plate recorded daily thermal efficiency of 40.95
% (enhancement by 82.16 % compared by CTSS). As previously
mentioned, the thermal energy efficiency is a function of (productivity,
latent heat, radiation intensity, and projected area). For both DTSS and
CTSS, the radiation intensities and areas are the same, hence the thermal
energy efficiency varies directly with the (ṁFWO × hfg ). Hence, the higher
hourly production and latent heat (function of water temperature), the
higher thermal energy efficiency can be obtained, so it was enhanced for
all kinds of DTSS compared to CTSS. In addition, it is well noticed that
the enhancement ratios of the efficiency are similar to that of produc­
tivity. The reason is that the latent heat have close values for the
investigation temperature range (~2325 – 2425 kJ/kg.K), so the effi­
ciency varies linearly with the productivity have the same variation
ratios.
4.2. Exergy efficiency
As shown in the following equation, exergy efficiency can be calcu­
lated by dividing exergy output on exergy input [59,78]:
Exergyoutput Exoutput
ηEX = = (4)
Exergyinput Exinput
where hourly output and input exergy can be evaluated by using the
following two equations:
ṁFWO × hfg
(
T + 273
) CAOM = 0.3 × CAF
Exoutput = ( )× 1− a (5)
3600sh− 1 Tw + 273
[ ( ) ( )4 ]
4 Ta + 273 1 Ta + 273
Exinput = AG × I(t) 1 − × + × (6)
3 Ts 3 Ts
where Ta is ambient air temperature (◦ C) and Ts is sun temperature in
Kelvins (6000 K).
Based on the carried-out calculations, the exergy efficiency of CTSS
was 1.33 %, while exergy efficiency of DTSS by aluminum v-corrugated
absorber plate was 1.91 % (enhancement by 43.61 % compared by
CTSS). It was found that DTSS by adding wick material on the aluminum
v-corrugated absorber plate has exergy efficiency of 2.7 % (enhance­
10
Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933
of DTSS by adding CB nanoparticles and wick material on the aluminum
v-corrugated absorber plate was 3.23 % (enhancement by 142.86 %
compared by CTSS). DTSS by PCM, CB nanoparticles, wick material, and
aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate recorded exergy efficiency of
3.64 % (enhancement by 173.68 % compared by CTSS). DTSS by nano-
enhanced PCM, CB nanoparticles, wick material, and aluminum v-
corrugated absorber plate recorded an exergy efficiency of 4.28 %
(enhancement by 221.8 % compared to CTSS). Regarding Eqs. (5) and
(6), it can be noticed that the variation of the exergy efficiency depends
mainly on hourly productivity, latent heat, and water temperature, as
the values of radiation intensities, area, ambient temperature, and sun
surface temperature are the same for CTSS and DTSS. Hence, all kinds of
DTSS have higher exergy values compared to CTSS for two reasons. The
first is that they have higher values of water temperature and hence the
Carnot term (1 − TTwa +273
+273), and latent heat are higher Second, the values of
hourly productivity are higher in case of DTSS.
5. Economic analysis
Freshwater resources are limited, and economics can be defined as
the study of scarcity effects [79]. So, any method or technology adopted
to supply humans with freshwater is related to cost and economics.
Herein, all experimented SSs are studied from the economic point of
view. Sun rises almost every day of the year in Egypt, but the daily
freshwater output was multiplied by only 270 days to get the annual
productivity of the tested SSs. So, the obtained results are true and
reliable, even though they depend only on one-day readings [80].
Table 3 was established to estimate the total cost per one liter of
freshwater output of every experimented SS. All calculations in this
section were done with aid of the following equations described in
[81-83].
LTC =
CTA
(7)
FWOTA
where LTC is total cost per one liter of fresh water output, CTA is total
annual cost which may be evaluated by the applying following equation
and FWOTA is total annual fresh water output.
CTA = CAF + CAOM − VAS (8)
where CAF is the annual fixed cost, CAOM is the cost of annual operations
and maintenance and VAS is the annual salvage value. All of these values
were evaluated by aid of the following equations.
CAF = CF × FR (9)
where CF is the fixed cost and FR is recovery factor that may be evaluated
by knowing the annual interest value (i = 12%) and the system life years
(n = 10).
i(1 + i)n
FR = (10)
(1 + i)n − 1
(11)
VAS = S × FSF (12)
where S is the salvage value and equals to 20%CF and FSF may be
evaluated as follows:
i
FSF = (13)
(i + 1)n − 1
Finally, as presented in Table 4, the proposed modifications led to
feasible, and acceptable behavior compared to other studies from the
literature with various designs and materials
G.B. Abdelaziz et al. Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933

Table 3
Illustrated the estimated total cost per one liter of the freshwater output of each experiment.
Item CTSS DTSS by aluminum DTSS by wicks and DTSS by nanofluid, wicks, DTSS by PCM, nanofluids, DTSS by nano-enhanced PCM,
v-corrugated basin aluminum v-corrugated and aluminum v-corrugated wicks and aluminum v- nanofluids, wicks and aluminum v-
basin basin corrugated basin corrugated basin
CF , $ 85 95 105 110 117 120
CAF , $ 15.04 16.81 18.58 19.47 20.71 21.24
CAOM , $ 4.51 5.04 5.58 5.84 6.21 6.37
CTA , $ 18.59 20.77 22.96 24.06 25.59 26.24
FWDTA , L/ 877.5 1071.9 1279.8 1412.1 1506.6 1598.4
year
LTC , $/L 0.02118 0.01938 0.01794 0.01703 0.01698 0.01642

6. Conclusions
Table 4
Synopsis freshwater, efficiency, and cost of several kind of solar stills.
Briefly, five different attempts were carried out to enhance the per­
Type of SS and Reference Maximum Thermal CPL formance of tubular solar still (TSS). The first attempt was replacing the
modifications daily energy ($/L)
conventional flat iron saline water basin by another v-corrugated one
freshwater efficiency
(kg/m2) (%) made of aluminum. The second attempt to upgrade TSSs performance
CTSS Present study 3.3 22.48 0.02118 was adding wick material on the aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate.
v-corrugated 3.97 27.69 0.01938 The third attempt included adding 1.5 wt.% CB nanoparticles on the
aluminum 4.74 34.22 0.01794 wick material located on the aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate. The
absorber 5.23 38.37 0.01703
Wick material on 5.58 38.28 0.01698
fourth attempt contained 10 kg of pure paraffin wax under the
the aluminum v- 5.92 40.95 0.01642 aluminum v-corrugated absorber plate with CB nanoparticles and wick
corrugated material on the basin. Finally, the fifth attempt contained adding 3 wt.%
CB nanoparticles CB nanoparticles to PCM located under the aluminum v-corrugated
and wick material
absorber plate with carbon black nanofluid and wick material on the
on the aluminum
v-corrugated basin. The main results showed good enhancement compared to the
Wick, CB literature as summarized in Table 4. The conclusions can be drawn as
nanofluid and follows:
PCM under
aluminum v-
corrugated
• Using v-corrugated aluminum absorber led to an increment in
Wick, CB freshwater output, exergy efficiency, and thermal energy efficiency
nanofluid and by 21.4, 43.61, and 23.18 %, respectively, compared to CTSS.
PCM with CB • Adding wick material on the aluminum v-corrugated enhanced the
nanoparticles
freshwater output, exergy efficiency, and thermal energy efficiency
under aluminum
v-corrugated by 42.77, 103.01, and 52.22 %, respectively, compared to CTSS.
SS with weir mesh- Hansen et al. 4.28 71.2 - • Using CB nanoparticles and wick material on the aluminum v-
stepped absorber [32] corrugated improve the freshwater output, exergy efficiency, and
and coral fleece thermal energy efficiency by 58.48, 142.86, and 70.69 %, respec­
Double basin SS Modi and Modi 0.942 23.7 -
tively compared to CTSS.
with jute cloth [27]
DSSS with black Pal et al. [84] 4.50 23.03 0.037 • Utilizing wick, CB nanofluid and PCM under aluminum v-corrugated
cotton as a enhanced the freshwater output, exergy efficiency, and thermal en­
multi–wick ergy efficiency by 73.56, 173.68, and 70.28 %, respectively
SS with floating Kaushal et al. 5.9 21.2 -
compared to CTSS.
wick and waste [85]
heat recovery • Using wick, CB nanofluid, and PCM with CB nanoparticles under
SS with multiple Vigneswaran 4.4 46.29 - aluminum v-corrugated improved the freshwater output, exergy ef­
PCMs as energy et al. [86] ficiency, and thermal energy efficiency by 88.84, 221.8, and 82.16
storage %, respectively compared to CTSS.
A v-corrugated Shalaby et al. 3.32 - 0.0955
• The proposed system using a wick, CB nanofluid, and PCM with CB
absorber of CSS [46]
using PCM nanoparticles under aluminum v-corrugated reduced the cost by
Coated basin of PSS Kabeel et al. 6.6 - 0.0107 22.47 % compared to CTSS.
with TiO2 [38]
Coated basin of SSS Sathyamurthy 0.76 kg/m2 34.3 -
CRediT authorship contribution statement
with nanoparticle et al. [31] hr
in black paint
SS integrated with Shafii et al. 5.85 55.5 0.0069 Gamal B. Abdelaziz: Conceptualization, Resources, Writing – orig­
condensation area [87] inal draft, Writing – review & editing. Almoataz M. Algazzar: Writing –
SS integrated with Eltawil et al. 5.2 41 0.066 original draft, Writing – review & editing. Emad M.S. El-Said:
PV/T, and solar [88]
Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
collector
SS with a energy El-Sebaii et al. 4.005 37.8 - Ashraf Mimi Elsaid: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing – re­
storage [89] view & editing, Visualization. Swellam W. Sharshir: Conceptualiza­
tion, Resources, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing,
Formal analysis. A.E. Kabeel: Validation, Writing – review & editing,
Visualization, Supervision. S.M. El-Behery: Conceptualization, Formal
analysis, Writing – review & editing, Visualization.

11
G.B. Abdelaziz et al. Journal of Energy Storage 41 (2021) 102933

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