Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay:

The directional power relay is unsuitable for use as a directional protective relay under short-
circuit conditions. When a short-circuit occurs, the system voltage falls to a low value and there
may be insufficient torque developed in the relay to cause its operation. This difficulty is
overcome in the Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay which is designed to be almost
independent of system voltage and power factor

Constructional details: Fig. 21.19 shows the constructional details of a typical Induction Type
Directional Overcurrent Relay. It consists of two relay elements mounted on a common case viz.
Directional element and
Non-directional element.
1. Directional element: It is essentially a directional power relay which operates when power
flows in a specific direction. The potential coil of this element is connected through a potential
transformer (P.T.) to the system voltage. The current coil of the element is energised through a
C.T. by the circuit current. This winding is carried over the upper magnet of the non-directional
element. The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the directional element are connected in series with the
secondary circuit of the overcurrent element. Therefore, the latter element cannot start to
operate until its secondary circuit is completed. In other words, the directional element must
operate first (i.e. contacts I and 2 should close) in order to operate the overcurrent element.
2. Non-directional element: It is an overcurrent element similar in all respects to a non-direc-
tional overcurrent relay described in Art. 21.11. The spindle of the disc of this element carries a
moving contact which closes the fixed contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the operation of
directional element.
It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current setting but has
been omitted in the figure for clarity and simplicity. The tappings are provided on the upper
magnet of overcurrent element and are connected to the bridge.
Operation: Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the
circuit protected by the relay. Therefore, Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay (upper
element) does not operate, thereby keeping the overcurrent element (lower element)
unenergised. However, when a short-circuit occurs, there is a tendency for the current or
power to flow in the reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the upper element
rotates to bridge the fixed contacts 1 and 2. This completes the circuit for overcurrent element.
The disc of this element rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the trip circuit.
This operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section. The two relay elements are
so arranged that final tripping of the current controlled by them is not made till the following
conditions are satisfied :
current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element.
current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of overcurrent
element.

Working and Advantages of Reverse Power Relay and Preferential Trips

In series of marine electro-technology blogs, here we are going to discuss about the basic
working principle & importance of Reverse Power Relay & Preferential Trip arrangements
provided on MSB.
REVERSE POWER RELAY

Reverse Power Relay

Reverse Power Relay is a directional protective relay that prevents/protect the generator from
motoring effect (going to reverse direction). It is used where generator runs in parallel with
other utility or generator. The relay monitors the power supply from the generator and in case
the generator output falls below a preset value, it quickly activates the trip and disconnects the
generator.
CONSTRUCTION
The relay is made up of lightweight non-magnetic Aluminium disc between two soft laminated
iron core electromagnets. The upper magnet is wound with Voltage Coil (PT) which is supplied
from one phase & artificial neutral of generator output. The other output magnet is wound with
Current Coil (CT) connected to the same phase as the voltage in the upper electromagnet.
WORKING
Since Voltage Coil has more number of turns, so it has move inductive value and more induced
current that lag in the coil by an angle of 90°. The current coil has less number of turns so less
number of turns, so it has less inductive valve & less induced current that lag less.
As we all know that current carrying conductor produces the magnetic field. So both upper and
lower section produces magnetic fields. But Induced current in PT lags more than CT so
magnetic field produced in upper section will be weaker than lower section & both magnetic
fields will have a difference of 90°
When both fields pass through the Aluminium disc, it produces eddy current. As a result of the
formation of eddy current torque is generated that tries to rotate the disc. Under normal power
flow, the trip contact on the disc are open and rotation is restricted by stoppers but if a reverse
power starts to flow the disc is rotated in opposite direction, moves away from the stoppers in
the direction of trip contact that activates the trip.
Why is Reverse Power Relay required?
When two or more power units are running in parallel and if reverse power flow occurs, the
same unit will start drawing power from the main bus bar. it can cause overloading of the other
power supply unit and hence leads for the preferential trip or may lead to total power
failure(Blackout). At the same time the faulty unit will draw power from main bus bar and go
for motoring effect and RPM will soot up which leads to over speed trip or in worst case some
mechanical failure to the prime mover.
When does reverse power flow…..?
When the prime mover of a generator is not supplying sufficient torque to keep the generator
rotor spinning at the same frequency as the bus goes to which the generator is supposed to be
connected, the generator will start behaving like a motor and instead of supplying power it will
draw power from bus bar.
During synchronization, it might be possible to have the synchroscoperotates slow
(anticlockwise direction) and then close the breakup. under this condition. The generator would
then be drawing current from the bus for instead of supplying current through the bus (which
occurs when the breaker is closed with the synchroscope rotates in the fast anticlockwise
direction).
Faulty Governer of the prime mover.
Loss of excitation in the alternator.
How do you test reverse power trip?
Reverse power trip can be tested by load shifting with the help of Governor control. when the
Load has shifted sufficiently from the generator to be offloaded (Nearly 10% of the max rated ),
reverse power relay will open the ACB of the same generator. this relay can be tested by
simulation using boost test push button on the relay to see if it gives a trip signal.
PREFERENTIAL TRIPPING
What is the use of preferential trip?
The preferential trip is a kind of electrical arrangement on the ship which is designed to
disconnect the non-essential circuit .i.e non-essential load from the main bus-bar in case of
partial failure or overload of the main supply.
The non-essential circuit or loads on the ship are air conditioning unit, exhaust ventilation fans,
& galley equipment which can be disconnected momentarily. The main advantage of the
preferential trip is to supply uninterrupted power for propulsion and safe navigation under
overloading condition of the power unit. 
CONSTRUCTION

Preferential
Trip
The preferential trip circuit consists of an Electromagnetic coil and a dashpot arrangement to
provide some delay to disconnect the non-essential circuits. Along with this, there is also an
alarm system provided, which function as soon as overload is detected and trips start
operating. There are some mechanical linkages provided in the circuit which instantaneously
operates the circuit for preferential trips.
The dashpot arrangement consists of a small Piston with the small orifice and which is placed
inside a small cylinder assembly. The Piston moves up against the viscous fluid silicon and the
time delay is governed by the orifice in the Piston
WORKING
The current passes through the electromagnetic coil and the linkage are kept from the
contacting using a spring arrangement. As soon as the current value increases the limit, the
electromagnetic coil pulls the linkage up against the spring force and operates the
instantaneous circuit and the alarm system. The lower linkage completes the circuit for the
preferential trip circuit.
The current passes through the coil in the preferential trip circuit which pulls the piston in
the dashpot arrangement. The movement of the piston is governed by the diameter of the
orifice and the time delay made by the same. The preferential trip operates at 5,10, & 15
seconds and the load is isolated accordingly. If the overload still persists, then blackout will
occur.

Impedance Relay: Operation and Types |

It is noteworthy here that in electrical engineering, the term ‘impedance’ can be applied to
resistance alone or reactance alone, or a combination of the two. In protective relaying
terminology, however, an impedance relay has a characteristic that is different from that of a
relay responding to any component of impedance and therefore, the “impedance relay” is very
specific.
An impedance relay is a voltage restrained overcurrent relay. The relay measures impedance up
to the point of fault and gives tripping command if this impedance is less than the relay setting
Z. Relay setting Z is known as replica impedance and it is proportional to the set impedance i.e.
impedance up to the reach of the relay. The relay monitors continuously the line current I
through CT and the bus voltage V through PT and operates when the V/I ratio falls below the
set value.
Operation of an Impedance Relay:
The principle of operation of an impedance relay is illustrated in Fig. 3.41. The voltage element
of the relay is excited through a potential transformer (PT) from the line under protection and
current element of the relay is excited from a current transformer (CT) in series with the line.
The portion AB of the line is the protected zone. Under normal operating conditions, the
impedance of the protected line is Z.

The relay is so designed that it closes its contacts whenever impedance of the protected section
falls below the set value i.e., Z in this case.
Now assume that a fault occurs at point F1in the protected zone. The impedance, is the ratio of
the bus voltage and fault current (V/I), between the point where the relay is located and the
point of fault will become less than Z and hence the relay operates. Should the fault occur
beyond the protected zone (say at point F2) the impedance will be more than Z and the relay
contacts do not close.
Operating Characteristic of an Impedance Relay:
The impedance relay is a double actuating quantity relay and essentially consists of two
elements—current-operated element and voltage-operated element. The current element
produces a positive or pick-up torque while the voltage element develops a negative or reset
torque. Taking spring control effect as – K3 the torque equation of the relay is –
ADVERTISEMENTS:
T = K1l2 – K2 V2 – K3 …(3.19)
Where, V and I are the rms values of voltage and current respectively. At balance point, when
the relay is on the verge of operating, the net torque is zero, and

It is customary to neglect the effect of control spring, since its effect is noticeable only at
current magnitudes well below those normally encountered. Hence taking K3 = 0, the relay
torque equation becomes-

The operating characteristic in term of voltage V and current I is shown in Fig. 3.42, where the
effect of control spring is shown as causing a noticeable bend in the characteristic only at the
low-current end. For all practical purposes, the dash line, which represents a constant value of
Z, may be considered the operating characteristic.

The relay will pick up for any combination of V and I represented by a point above the
characteristic in the positive-torque region, or, in other words, for any value of impedance less
than constant value represented by the operating characteristic. By adjustment, the slope of
the operating characteristic can be changed so that the relay will respond to all values of
impedance less than any desired upper limit.
The more convenient way of describing the operating characteristic of a distance relay is by
means of ‘impedance diagram’ or R-X diagram, as illustrated in Fig. 3.43. The numerical value of
the ratio of V to I is shown as the length of the radius vector, such as Z, and the phase angle θ
between V and I determines the position of vector, as shown.
Since the operation of the impedance relay is practically or actually independent of the phase
angle θ, the operating characteristic is a circle with its centre at the origin. Any value of
impedance less than the radius of the circle will result in positive torque and any value of
impedance greater that this radius will result in negative torque. The impedance relays
normally used are high speed relays.
Types of Impedance Relays:
1. Electromagnetic Type Impedance Relay:
Such a relay is shown in Fig. 3.44 (a). In this relay two torques are produced by electromagnetic
action of the voltage and current and these two torques are compared. The solenoid B is
voltage excited from the secondary of the PT and develops a clockwise torque pulling the
plunger P2downward and tends to rotate the balance arm in the clockwise direction.
The spring acts as a restraining force and sets up a mechanical torque in the clockwise direction
as illustrated. Another torque is developed by the solenoid A in the counter-clockwise direction
which tends to pull the plunger P1 downwards. This solenoid is current excited from the
secondary of CT which is connected to the line under protection. This torque is called the
deflecting or pick-up torque.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
In normal operating conditions i.e., when there is no fault and equilibrium prevails, the balance
arm is horizontal and the relay contacts are open. When a fault occurs in the protected zone
the current in the CT primary goes up and so in the relay coil. Thus torque developed by
solenoid A is increased. Also due to voltage drop with the occurrence of fault the magnitude of
restraining torque developed by solenoid B decreases. Thus the balance arm rotates in counter-
clockwise direction and the relay contacts are closed.
The pull of the solenoid A (i.e., current element) is proportional to I2 and that due to solenoid B
(voltage element) to V2. Consequently the relay will operate when-

The values of the constants K1 and K2depend upon the ampere-turns of the two solenoids, and
the ratios of the instrument transformers. By providing tappings on the coil, the setting of the
relay can be changed.
The time-impedance characteristic of the relay is shown in Fig. 3.44 (b). The ordinate represents
the time of operation for the relay and the abscissa represents impedance which is proportional
to distance. As may be seen the operating time for almost the entire length (for which the relay
is designed to operate) is constant. Towards the end of the predetermined length, the curve
rises gradually because the pulls of the voltage and current elements become nearly equal, and
after the point A has been passed the operating time rapidly becomes infinite.

Such a relay is classified as definite distance type impedance relay, because it operates
instantaneously for faults up to a predetermined distance from the relay.
The quality of protection provided by the distance impedance system is superior to that
provided by overcurrent (time-graded) relays. Since the operating time is same for all relays,
the number of feeders in series that can be protected is unlimited. It lacks, however, one
important feature of the latter in that the back-up protection is not available except for short
length AB.
2. Induction Type Impedance Relay:
Induction type impedance relay consists of a combination of an overcurrent element with a
voltage-restraint element, the circuit being illustrated in Fig. 3.45 (a).
The induction type impedance relay consists of a metallic disc usually made of aluminium or
copper which is capable of rotating between two electromagnets—upper magnet and lower
magnet. The upper electromagnet has two separate windings similar to that of overcurrent
relay. The primary winding is connected to the secondary of the CT connected in the line to be
protected. The winding has a number of tappings so as to vary the current settings, the tappings
are connected to a plug bridge.
The secondary winding on the upper electromagnet is connected in series with the windings on
the lower electromagnet. The currents in the secondary are due to electromagnetic induction.
By this arrangement leakage fluxes of upper and lower electromagnets are sufficiently
displaced in space and phase to set up a rotational torque on the induction disc, as in the
shaded pole induction disc motor. The torque is controlled by a permanent magnet (not shown
in the figure). The controlling or braking torque caused by the permanent magnet varies
directly as the driving torque.
The spindle which carries the induction disc is shown connected by means of spiral spring
coupling to the second spindle which carries the bridging piece or the moving contact of the
relay trip contacts. The bridge is normally held in the open position by an armature held against
the pole face of an electromagnet energized by the voltage of the line. It is to be pointed out
that in actual practice the spindle carrying the induction disc is attached to the inner end of the
spiral spring through a geared counter shaft in order to obtain the required characteristic for
the relay operating time.
Under normal operating conditions the pull exerted by the armature is more than that of the
induction element and thus the trip circuit contacts remain open. When the fault occurs, the
induction disc starts to rotate with a speed approximately proportional to the operating
current, neglecting the effect of the control spring. Hence the time taken by the disc to turn
through a given angle varies inversely as the current.
Also as the disc rotates the spring is wound. The disc continues rotating till the tension of the
spring is sufficient to overcome pull of the voltage restraint electromagnet over its armature
and as soon as this armature is released the trip contacts are closed.
Thus the angle through which the induction disc is to rotate for the operation of the relay
depend upon the value of the pull on the restraint armature. The greater this pull, the greater
would be the travel of the disc. However, this pull is also approximately proportional to the
voltage, therefore, the angle through which the disc is to rotate for the operation of the relay is
directly proportional to voltage V. Thus in this type of relay the time required is directly
proportional to line voltage V and inversely proportional to current I i.e., the time of operation
is proportional to V/I or impedance of the line or section.
The simple impedance relay, is instantaneous type i.e., it operates as soon as the impedance of
the line or section falls below a certain value. But the time of operation in case of induction
type impedance relay is proportional to the distance of fault from the relay point. A fault nearer
to the relay will operate it earlier than a fault farther away from the relay. Because of such
characteristic, this relay is called the time-distance relay.
The approximate time-distance characteristic of time-distance relay is shown in Fig. 3.45 (b).
The exact time-distance characteristic is curved, as illustrated dotted in the figure.
The torque on the disc tends to be proportional to the square of the circuit current i.e., I2 while
the pull of the restraint magnet tends to be proportional to the square of the voltage i.e., V2.
Thus the time of operation tends to be proportional to the square of the impedance i.e., Z2 or
proportional to the square of the distance. Thus we get the time-distance characteristic as a
curve.
3. Directional Impedance Relays:
The directional feature to the impedance relay can be provided by employing the impedance
relay along with a directional unit as is done in the case of a simple overcurrent relay to operate
as a directional overcurrent relay. This means the impedance unit will operate only when the
directional unit has operated.
Directional feature senses the direction in which fault power flows with respect to the location
of CT and PT.
Directional impedance relays operate for the following conditions:
1. Impedance between the fault point and relay location is less than the relay setting Z.
2. The fault power flows in a particular direction from relay.
The directional unit permits tripping only in the positive torque region the active portion of the
impedance unit characteristic is shown shaded. The net result is that the relay will operate only
for fault points that are both within the circle and above directional unit characteristic.
Torque Equation for Directional Impedance Relay:
Torque equation for directional element is given as –
T = K1 V I cos(θ – τ) Refer to Eq. (3.12)
Where, θ is the phase angle between V and I and τ is the impedance angle of the relay. Values
of angles are taken as positive in clockwise direction.
When the relay is about to pick up,
the torque T = 0; cos (θ – τ) = 0
or (θ – τ) = ± 90° or θ = τ ± 90°
Hence for positive torque 0 should be ± 90°.
If the effect of spring control is taken into account, the torque equation becomes
T = K1 V I cos(θ – τ) – K2
At balance point i.e., when the relay is about to pick up
T = 0;
K1 V I cos(θ – τ) = K2 …(3.21)
Substituting I = V/Z in above equation we have –
K1 x V x (V/Z) . cos(θ – τ) = K2
or Z = (K1/K2) V2 cos(θ – τ) …(3.22)
The above Eq. (3.22) describes an infinite number of circles and for each value of V there will be
a corresponding circle. The characteristics of directional impedance relay for one value of V can
be represented on the R-X diagram as shown in Fig. 3.48.
The fact that for some values of θ, impedance Z will be negative which should be ignored.
Negative Z has no significance and cannot be shown on R-X diagram.
When cos (θ – τ) = 1 or θ = τ, impedance Z will have maximum value and will lie on the line of
maximum torque OM. When cos (θ – τ) = 0, Z = 0 and θ = 99° ± τ. The characteristic will
therefore be a circle with Z as diameter and the centre of the circle will lie on the line OM. The
diameter of the circle will be proportional to the square of the voltage.
4. Single Phase Impedance Type Distance Relay for Transmission Line Protection:
A single phase impedance type distance relay for protection of transmission line consists of a
single-phase directional unit, three high-speed impedance-relay units, and a time unit, together
with the usual targets, seal-in-unit, and other auxiliaries. The three impedance units are labeled
Z1, Z2 and Z3 respectively. These can be adjusted for any desired value independently.
On R-X diagram shown in Fig. 3.50 the circle for Z1 is the smallest, the circle for Z3 is the largest,
and the circle for Z2 is an intermediate. Thus we have divided the transmission line under
protection in three zones. It can be seen from Fig. 3.50 that any value of impedance within the
Z1 circle will cause all the three impedance units to operate. The operation of Z1 and the
directional unit will trip a breaker directly in time T1 which is very short.
Whenever Z3 and the directional unit operate, the timing unit is energised. After a definite
delay, the timing unit will first close its T2 contact, and later its T3 contact, both time delays
being independently adjustable. Therefore, it can be seen that a fault within zone Z2 but
outside zone Z1 (i.e., between the circles of Z1 and Z2) will result in tripping in T2 time. And
finally, a value of Z outside the Z1 and Z2 circles, but within the Z3 circle, will result in tripping in
T3 time.
If tripping is somehow blocked, the relay will make as many attempts to trip as there are
characteristic circles around a given impedance point. However, use may not be made of this
possible feature.
Figure 3.50 shows also the relation of the directional-unit operating characteristic to the
impedance- unit characteristics on the same R-X diagram. Since, the directional unit permits
tripping only in its positive-torque region, the inactive portions of the impedance unit
characteristics are shown dotted. Thus tripping will occur only for points that are both within
the circles and above the directional unit characteristic.
Operating time-impedance characteristic for an impedance type distance relay is shown in Fig.
3.51. This characteristic is usually called a “stepped” time-impedance characteristic. It is
noteworthy that the Z1and Z2 units provide the primary protection for a given transmission line
section while Z2 and Z3 provide backup protection for adjoining busses and line sections.
5. Modified Impedance Type Distance Relay:
The modified impedance type distance relay is like the impedance type except that the
operating characteristics are shifted as illustrated in Fig. 3.52. It is shifted by introducing a
current bias’ which merely consists of introducing into the voltage supply an additional voltage
proportional to the square of the current. Hence the modified torque equation is given as –
T = K1 l2 – K2 (V + CI)2 …(3.23)
The term (V + CI) is the rms magnitude of the vector addition of V and CI involving angle θ
between V and I as well as a constant angle in the constant C term. By such biasing, the
characteristic circle can be shifted in any direction from the origin, and by any desired amount,
even to the extent that the origin is outside the circle. Slight variations may occur in the biasing,
due to circuit elements saturation. That is why, it is not the practice to make the circles pass
through the origin, and therefore a separate directional unit is required.
Drawbacks of Plain Impedance Relay:
The plain impedance relay, though very simple in theory and in construction, has several
drawbacks such as given below:
1. The plain impedance relay can operate in either direction. It responds to the faults on both
sides of CT, PT location. So it cannot discriminate between internal and external faults.
2. The plain impedance relay is sensitive to power swing as a large area is covered by the circle
on each side on R-X plane. During power swing which is caused by severe faults, the relay sees
fictitious impedance and if this impedance is less than the relay setting, the relay may operate.
3. The plain impedance relay is affected by arc resistance of line fault and results in under-
reach.
Time-Characteristics of High Speed Type Impedance Relay:
Although impedance relays with inherent time delay are encountered occasionally, only high-
speed type impedance relays will be considered. The operating-time characteristic of a high-
speed impedance relay is shown in Fig. 3.46. The curve shown in the figure is for a particular
value of current magnitude.

For other current values similar characteristics are obtained. Curves for higher currents will lie
below this curve, and curves for lower currents will lie above it. It is observed that for
impedance values above 100% pick-up impedance, the relay does not operate. The curve I
represents the actual characteristic while curve II is simplified representation of the same (right
angle instead of curve).
Impedance Type Distance Relay
Definition: The relay whose working depends on the distance between the impedance of the
faulty section and the position on which relay installed is known as the impedance relay or
distance relay. It is a voltage controlled equipment.
The relay measures the impedance of the faulty point, if the impedance is less than the
impedance of the relay setting, it gives the tripping command to the circuit breaker for closing
their contacts. The impedance relay continuously monitors the line current and voltage flows
through the CT and PT respectively. If the ratio of voltage and current is less than the relay
starts operating then the relay starts operating.
Principle of Operation of Impedance Relay
In the normal operating condition, the value of the line voltage is more than the current. But
when the fault occurs on the line the magnitude of the current rises and the voltage becomes
less. The line current is inversely proportional to the impedance of the transmission line. Thus,
the impedance decreases because of which the impedance relay starts operating.
The figure below explains the impedance relay in much easier way. The potential transformer
supplies the voltage to the transmission line and the current flows because of the current
transformer. The current transformer is connected in series with the circuit.
Consider the impedance relay is placed on the transmission line for the protection of the line
AB. The Z is the impedance of the line in normal operating condition. If the impedances of the
line fall below the impedance Z then the relay starts working.
Let, the fault F1 occur in the line AB. This fault decreases the impedance of the line below the
relay setting impedance. The relay starts operating, and its send the tripping command to the
circuit breaker. If the fault reached beyond the protective zone, the contacts of the relay
remain unclosed.
Operating Characteristic of an Impedance Relay
The voltage and the current operating elements are the two important component of the
impedance relay. The current operating element generates the deflecting torque while the
voltage storage element generates the restoring torque. The torque equation of the relay is
shown in the figure below

The -K3 is the spring effect of the relay. The V and I are the value of the voltage and current.
When the relay is in normal operating condition, then the net torque of the relay becomes zero.

If the spring control effect becomes neglected, the equation becomes

The operating characteristic concerning the voltage and current is shown in the figure below.
The dashed line in the image represents the operating condition at the constant line
impedance.
The operating characteristic of the impedance relay is shown in the figure below. The positive
torque region of the impedance relay is above the operating characteristic line. In positive
torque region, the impedance of the line is more than the impedance of the faulty section.
Similarly, in negative region, the impedance of the faulty section is more than the line
impedance

The impedance of the line is

represented by the radius of the circle. The phase angle between the X and R axis represents
the position of the vector. If the impedance of the line is less than the radius of the circle, then
it shows the positive torque region. If the impedance is greater than the negative region, then it
represents the negative torque region.
 This type of relay is called the
high-speed relay.
Electromagnetic Type Induction Relay
In such type of relay, the torque is induced by the electromagnetic action on the voltage and
current. These torques are compared. Consider the circuit of the electromagnetic type
induction relay. The solenoid B is excited by the voltage supplied of the PT. This voltage
develops the torque in the clockwise direction, and it pulls the plunger P2 in the downward
direction. The spring connects to the plunger P2 apply the restraining force on it. This spring
generates the mechanical torque in the clockwise direction.
The solenoid A generates the other torque in the clockwise direction and thus moves the
plunger P1 downwards. The solenoid one is excited by the CT of the lines. This torque is called
the deflecting or pick up torque.
When the system is free from fault, the contacts of the relay become open. When the fault
occurs in the protective zone, the current of the system rises because of which the current
across the relay also increases. The more torque developed on the solenoid A. The restoring
torque because of the voltage decreases. The balance arms of the relay start rotating in the
opposite direction, thus closed their contacts.
 The pull of the solenoid A, i.e., (current
element) is proportional to I2 and that due to solenoid B (voltage element) to V2.
Consequently, the relay will operate when

The value of the constants k1 and k2 depend on the ampere-turns of the

two solenoids, and the ratios of the instrument transformers. By providing tappings on the coil,
the setting of the relay can be changed.
The y-axis shows the operating time of the relay and the X-axis represents their impedances.
The operating time of the relay remains constants. The value of the voltage and current
becomes constant at the predetermined distance and after that their value becomes infinite.
 Induction Type Impedance Relay
The circuit diagram of the induction type impedance relay is shown in the figure below. This
relay consists current and voltage element. The relay has an aluminium disc, which is rotating
between the electromagnets.
The upper electromagnet has two separate windings. The primary winding is connected to the
secondary coil of the current transformer. The current setting of the winding is varied by the
help of the plug bridge placed below the relay.
The electromagnetics of the relay connects in series with each other. The flux induce between
the electromagnets produces the rotational torque, which rotates the aluminium disc of the
relay. The permanent magnet provides the controlling and braking torque.
In normal operating conditions the force exerted on the armature is more than the induction
element which keeps the trip contacts open. When the fault occurs in the system, then the
aluminium disc starts rotating, and their rotation is directly proportional to the current of the
electromagnet. The rotation of the disc-wound the spring.

The angle of the rotation of the disc for relay operation depends on the force acting on their
armature. The force acting on the armature is directly proportional to the applied voltage. Thus,
the angle of rotation also depends on the voltage.
Time-Characteristic of High-Speed Type Impedance Relay
The figure below shows that the relay does not operate for the value more than the 100
percent pickup value. The curves 1 is the actual characteristic, and the curve 2 is the simplified
characteristic of the curve 1.
 Drawbacks of Plan Impedance Relay
The following are the disadvantages of the impedance relay.
It gives the response on both the side of the CT and PT. Thus, it becomes difficult for the
breaker to determine whether the fault is external or internal.
The relay is easily affected by the arc resistance of the line.
It is very sensitive to the power swing. The powerful wings generate the faults on the line
because of which the impedances of the line vary.
The relay always operates when the impedance of the line is less than the relay settings.

Overvoltage Protection
When the voltage in a system, raised beyond its rated voltage, then it is known as overvoltage.
This overvoltage may be of transient or persistent nature. The main cause due to which
overvoltage is produced in the power system may be conveniently grouped into two categories,
namely, internal and external. Internal overvoltage has got their origin within the system itself,
whereas external overvoltage is because of lightning on the lines.
This over voltage may cause damage to insulators and substation equipment. It is, therefore,
necessary to provide a means to protect the insulators and other apparatus from the harmful
effect of overvoltage. Some devices are available to reduce the amplitude and front steepness
of surges. The following will be described here
Rod gap
Surge Diverter
Overhead Earth Wire
Overhead Earth Wire
An overhead earth wire or ground wire is one of the most common devices used to protect the
lines against lightning. It is the wire carried the line supports and runs over the phase
conductors. The purpose of the earth wire is to block the direct lightning strokes, which would
otherwise strike the phase conductors. The waves of lightning reach the adjoining towers which
pass them to earth safely.

In case the resistance of electrical tower

or ground is small, the lighting will be raised to very high voltage, which will cause a flash over
from the tower to one or more phase conductors. Such a flashover is known as black flash over.
Back flash over on the line can be minimized by reducing the tower footing resistance using
driven rods and counterpoise where soil resistivity is high.
Rod gap
The rod gap is one of the most common frames of protective devices. It is an air gap between
the ends of two rods. The gap setting should be such that it should break under all conditions
before the equipment to be protected is affected. The chief merits of this device are simplicity,
reliability and cheapness.
Rod gap has a some restrictions like they are unable to prevent the flow of power which flows
in the gap after the breakdown. It is used in the places where continuity of supply is not of
much importance. In such cases (where continuity is important) , automatic reclosing circuit
breakers are used.
 Surge diverters
Surge-diverters or lightning arrester is a device used for distracting abnormal high voltage to
ground without affecting the continuity of supply. Surge diverters are three types
Expulsion-type surge diverter
Valve-type surge diverter
Metal-oxide surge diverter
The name surge diverters appear to be correct than lightning arrester.

Overvoltage Protection
There are always a chance of suffering an electrical power systemfrom abnormal over voltages.
These abnormal over voltages may be caused due to various reason such as, sudden
interruption of heavy load, lightening impulses, switching impulses etc. These over voltage
stresses may damage insulation of various equipments and insulatorsof the power system.
Although, all the over voltage stresses are not strong enough to damage insulation of system,
but still these over voltages also to be avoided to ensure the smooth operation of electrical
power system.
These all types of destructive and non destructive abnormal over voltages are eliminated from
the system by means of over voltage protection.
Voltage Surge
The over voltage stresses applied upon the power system, are generally transient in nature.
Transient voltage or voltage surge is defined as sudden sizing of voltageto a high peak in very
short duration.
The voltage surges are transient in nature, that means they exist for very short duration. The
main cause of these voltage surges in power system are due to lightning impulses and switching
impulses of the system. But over voltage in the power system may also be caused by, insulation
failure, arcing ground and resonance etc.
The voltage surges appear in the electrical power system due to switching surge, insulation
failure, arcing ground and resonance are not very large in magnitude. These over voltages
hardly cross the twice of the normal voltage level. Generally, proper insulation to the different
equipment of power system is sufficient to prevent any damage due to these over voltages. But
over voltages occur in the power system due to lightning is very high. If over voltage protection
is not provided to the power system, there may be high chance of severe damage. Hence all
over voltage protection devices used in power system mainly due to lightning surges.
Let us discuss different causes of over voltages one by one.
Switching Impulse or Switching Surge
When a no load transmission line is suddenly switched on, the voltage on the line becomes
twice of normal system voltage. This voltage is transient in nature. When a loaded line is
suddenly switched off or interrupted, voltage across the line also becomes high enough
currentchopping in the system mainly during opening operation of air blast circuit breaker,
causes over voltage in the system. During insulation failure, a live conductor is suddenly
earthed. This may also caused sudden over voltage in the system.
If emf wave produced by alternatoris distorted, the trouble of resonance may occur due to 5th
or higher harmonics. Actually for frequencies of 5th or higher harmonics, a critical situation in
the system so appears, that inductive reactance of the system becomes just equal to capacitive
reactance of the system. As these both reactance cancel each other the system becomes purely
resistive. This phenomenon is called resonance and at resonance the system voltage may be
increased enough.
But all these above mentioned reasons create over voltages in the system which are not very
high in magnitude.
But over voltage surges appear in the system due to lightning impulses are very high in
amplitude and highly destructive. The affect of lightning impulse hence must be avoided for
over voltage protection of power system.
Methods of Protection Against Lightning
These are mainly three main methods generally used for protection against lightning. They are
Earthing screen.
Overhead earth wire.
Lighning arrester or surge dividers.
Earthing Screen
Earthing screen is generally used over electrical substation. In this arrangement a net of GI wire
is mounted over the sub-station. The GI wires, used for earthing screen are properly grounded
through different sub-station structures. This network of grounded GI wire over electrical sub-
station, provides very low resistance path to the ground for lightning strokes.
This method of high voltage protection is very simple and economic but the main drawback is, it
can not protect the system from travelling wave which may reach to the sub-station via
different feeders.
Overhead Earth Wire
This method of over voltage protection is similar as earthing screen. The only difference is, an
earthing screen is placed over an electrical sub-station, whereas, overhead earth wire is placed
over electrical transmission network. One or two stranded GI wires of suitable cross-section are
placed over the transmission conductors. These GI wires are properly grounded at each
transmission tower. These overhead ground wires or earth wire divert all the lightning strokes
to the ground instead of allowing them to strike directly on the transmission conductors.
Lightning Arrester
The previously discussed two methods, i.e. earthing screen and over-head earth wire are very
suitable for protecting an electrical power system from directed lightning strokes but system
from directed lightning strokes but these methods can not provide any protection against high
voltage travelling wave which may propagate through the line to the equipment of the sub-
station.
The lightning arrester is a devices which provides very low impedance path to the ground for
high voltage travelling waves.
The concept of a lightning arrester is very simple. This device behaves like a nonlinear electrical
resistance. The resistance decreases as voltage increases and vice-versa, after a certain level of
voltage.
The functions of a lightning arrester or surge dividers can be listed as below.
Under normal voltage level, these devices withstand easily the system voltage as electrical
insulator and provide no conducting path to the system current.
On occurrence of voltage surge in the system, these devices provide very low impedance path
for the excess charge of the surge to the ground.
After conducting the charges of surge, to the ground, the voltage becomes to its normal level.
Then lightning arresterregains its insulation properly and prevents regains its insulation
property and prevents further conduction of current, to the ground.
There are different types of lightning arresters used in power system, such as rod gap arrester,
horn gap arrester, multi-gap arrester, expulsion type LA, value type LA.
In addition to these the most commonly used lightning arrester for over voltage protection
now-a-days gapless ZnO lightning arresteris also used.