Human Health and Diseases

Huan Health & Diseases 8/ 1
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

1. HEALTH
1.1 Basics of Health

• Health, for a long time, was considered as a state of body and mind where there was a balance of
certain ‘humors’. This is what early Greeks like Hippocrates as well as Indian Ayurveda system of
medicine asserted.
• It was thought that persons with ‘blackbile’ belonged to hot personality and would have fevers.
This idea was arrived at by pure reflective thought.
• The discovery of blood circulation by William Harvey using experimental method and the
demonstration of normal body temperature in persons with blackbile using thermometer
disproved the ‘good humor’ hypothesis of health.
• In later years, biology stated that mind influences, through neural system and endocrine system,
our immune system and that our immune system maintains our health.
• Hence, mind and mental state can affect our health. Of course, health is affected by
(i) genetic disorders deficiencies with which a child is born and deficiencies/defects which
the child inherits from parents from birth,
(ii) infections and
(iii) life style including food and water we take, rest and exercise we give to our bodies,
habits that we have or lack etc
1.2 More on Health

• Health does not simply mean ‘absence of disease’ or ‘physical fitness’.
• It could be defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing.
• When people are healthy, they are more efficient at work.
• This increases productivity and brings economic prosperity.
• Health also increases longevity of people and reduces infant and maternal mortality.
• Balanced diet, personal hygiene and regular exercise are very important to maintain good health.
• Yoga has been practised since time immemorial to achieve physical and mental health.
• Awareness about diseases and their effect on different bodily functions, vaccination
(immunisation) against infectious diseases, proper disposal of wastes, control of vectors and
maintenance of hygienic food and water resources are necessary for achieving good health
2. DISEASES
2.1 Basics of Disease

• When the functioning of one or more organs or systems of the body is adversely affected,
characterised by various signs and symptoms, we say that we are not healthy, or we have disease
• Diseases can be broadly grouped into infectious and non infectious.
• Diseases which are easily transmitted from one person to another, are called infectious diseases.
• Infectious diseases are very common and every one of us suffers from these at one time or other.
• Some of the infectious diseases like AIDS are fatal.
• Among noninfectious diseases, cancer is the major cause of death.
• Drug and alcohol abuse also affect our health adversely.
• The disease can be defined as a disorder of the mind or body.
• This term covers varied conditions leading to deviation of the human body from the normal
course or deviation from the normal health. Thus disease is opposed to health.
• From time immemorial diseases have been a prime concern of man.
• Early man thought that diseases were caused by evil spirits, hence cure consisted of pacifying the
evil spirits with the help of charms and magic.
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• ‘Hippocrates’ (B.C. 460359), the great Greek physician was the first to separate medicine from
religion and superstition.
2.2 Pathogens & Parasites

• ‘Pathogen’ is an organism which is capable of producing a disease.
• The ability of the pathogen to gain entrance and produce symptoms of disease is called
‘pathogenicity’.
• ‘Virulence’ is the degree of pathogenicity of a pathogen in the host body.
• Pathogens are biological agents including bacteria, fungi, viruses, mycoplasma, protozoans,
helminths, etc.
• ‘Parasite’ is the organism which lives at the expense of the other organism called host for
obtaining food and shelter.
• A parasite may cause disease in the host.
• ‘Infection’ is the interaction between the host and the parasite having a competition for
superiority.
2.3 Types of Diseases

2.3.1 CONGENTIAL DISEASE
Diseases contracted before birth due to defective heredity ( chromosomal abnormalities and gene
mutations), physiological disturbance or transplacemental transmission, e.g. hemophilia colour
blindness, sickle cell anaemia, Down’s syndrome, klinefelter’s syndrome.
2.3.2 ACQUIRED DISEASE

Diseases contracted after birth due to infection, defective diet, hypersensitivity, injury, addiction,
degeneration, cancer, depression etc. Acquired diseases are broadly differentiated into two types,
communicable or infectious and noncommunicable or noninfectious. Communicable diseases are
of several type like deficiency disease, degenerative or organic disease, allergies, mechanical
psychological, cancer, metabolic disorders, physical disorder.
2.3.3 COMMUNICABLE DISEASE

They are diseases due to pathogens that can be transferred from one individual to another e.g.
Viral, bacterial, protozoans, fungal, helmintic other organisms, sexually transmitted etc.
2.3.4 DEFICIENCY DISEASE

Disease caused by absence or deficiency of an essential element e.g. anemia, goiters, kwashiorkor,
beriberi etc
2.4 Agents of Diseases

Disease agent is an organism, substances force or disturbance which causes disease due to excessive
presence, deficiency or absence. They are of following types:
2.4.1 PATHOGENS/BIOLOGICAL AGENTS

They are biological entities which causes infectious disease. Example virus ( mumps, chicken pox,
small pox), mycoplasma ( acute leukemia, bronchitis), Chlamydia ( trachoma) rickettsia ( typhus,
trench fever ), bacteria ( cholera, tetanus), spirochaetes ( syphilis) ,fungi ( ringworm, thrush,
moniliasis, pulmonary aspergillosis), protozoa (giardiasis, sleeping sickness), helminths ( filariasis,
ascariasis, taeniasis), other organisms (scabies)
2.4.2 NUTRIENT AGENTS

Deficiency of vitamins ( beriberi, scurvy, night blindness), minerals ( anemia, rickets), carbo
hydrates, fats and protein ( maramus, kwashiorkor) or excess of food ( obesity)

2.4.3 CHEMICAL AGENTS
(i) Endogenous: Excess presence of urea and uric acid, reduced secretion of ADH (diabetes insipidus)
or insulin ( diabetes mellitus)
(ii) Exogenous: Pollutants( pneumoconiosis) allergens ( allergy)
2.4.4 PHYSICAL AGENTS

Heat ( e.g. stroke), cold (frost bite), radiations, sound (impaired hearing) , electricity, pressure, humidity
etc
2.5 List of Diseases

2.5.1 BACTERIAL DISEASES
2.5.2 PROTOZOAN DISEASES

2.5.3 Ph
VIRAL DISEASES
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2.5.4 FUNGAL DISEASES
2.5.5 HELMINTHIC DISEASES
3. SOME COMMON DISEASES

3.1 Diseases Caused by Viruses

3.1.1 COMMON COLD
• One of the most infectious human ailment.
• It is caused by Rhino viruses.
• They infect the nose and respiratory passage but not the lungs.
• The common cold is characterised by nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, cough,
headache, tiredness, hoarseness etc. for 3 to 7 days.
3.1.2 INFLUENZA
• It is commonly known as “Flu” and is highly infectious.
• It causes fever and pain all over the body and affects the nose, throat and air passages as in
common cold.
• The disease is caused by various types of influenza viruses (e.g., Myxovirus influenzae).
• It starts with fever, headache, sore throat, cold with sneezing and pain all over the body with
restlessness.
• In neglected cases, complications like pneumonia, bronchitis and ear infections may develop
3.2 Diseases Caused by Bacteria

3.2.1 CHOLERA
• This is an acute infectious disease caused by Vibrio cholerae.
• These may get into a healthy person with contaminated food and water.
• The patient starts passing stools frequently, which are white like rice water, and gets repeated
vomiting.
• Since, a large quantity of fluid and salts are rapidly lost through stools and vomit, therefore, the
most important core treatment is to replace the lost fluid and salts equally rapidly.
• Rapid replacement of fluid and elecrolytes is done by oral rehydrationtherapy.
3.2.2 TYPHOID
• It is an infectious disease caused by Gram negative bacterium called Salmonella typhi which is a
nonspore forming bacillus.
• Typhoid germs are contracted from food or drink contaminated with excreta from carriers or
patients.
• The spread is facilitated by poor environmental hygiene.
• The infection is usually localised in the small intestine and colon.
• The incubation period is usually 1272 hours but may be up to 2 weeks.
• Symptoms are Nausea, vomiting and an early chill are common initially followed by colicky
abdominal pain and diarrhoea of watery, green, offensive stools.
• Blood mixed with stool and high fever may occur if there is involvement of colon. Symptoms may
subside within a week or two.
• There is clinical syndrome characterised by fever, headache, cough, splenomegaly and leucopenia.
• This is called enteric fever.
• The fever is continuous in type which rises in a stepwise manner.
• Diagnosis is done by Widal test which determines the agglutinins against the antigen.
• The test is usually positive in the 2nd week of the disease.
• A classical example of typhoid carrier recorded in history was Mary Mallon who was a cook.
3.2.3 PNEUMONIA
• This disease is caused by Diplococcus pneumoniae.
• Pneumonia is a serious disease of the lungs.
• Lymph and mucus collect in the alveoli and bronchioles of the lungs so that the lungs do not get

sufficient air.
• Proper exchange of gases does not take place in the alveoli. It usually lowers body resistance.
• Infection spreads by sputum of the patient.
• Breathing rate increases with high grade fever. Common in children below age of 5 years.
3.3 Diseases Caused by Protozoa

3.3.1 MALARIA
• Malaria is caused by a digenetic (having two hosts to complete its life cycle) and triphasic (having
three phases of life cycle) protozoan parasite known as Plasmodium.
• Sir Ronald Ross (1897), a doctor in Indian Army, established that malarial parasite is transmitted by
the bite of a female Anopheles mosquito for which he got Nobel Prize in 1902.
• Life cycle of Plasmodium requires two hosts for completion human and mosquito. Plasmodium
enters the human body as sporozoites (infectious form) through the bite of infected female
Anopheles (vector). The sporozoites reach the liver cells via blood where they initially multiply.
• These then attack the RBCs resulting in their rupturing. The rupture of RBC is associated with the
release of haemozoin, a toxin which causes the chill and high recurring fever every three to four
days.
• The female Anopheles mosquito when bites an infected human being, the malarial parasites enter
into the mosquito’s body and undergo further development to form sporozoites that finally move
to the salivary glands of the insect.
• The bite of these mosquitoes introduces the sporozoites inside the human body, thus initiating
the above mentioned cyclic process again.
• Symptoms are the attack of malaria is preceded by tiredness, headache and muscular pain. Malaria
is characterised by recurring rigors lasting 610 hours. There are three stages: (i) cold stage (chill
and shivering). (ii) hot stage (high fever). (iii) sweating stage (perspiration and gradual fall in
temperature).
• There are four species of Plasmodium which cause four main types of malaria in humans. They are :
Plasmodium vivax : Causes benign tertian malaria in which fever recurs after every 48 hours.
P. malariae : Causes quartan malaria in which fever appears after every 72 hours, and often
produces persistent subclinical malaria.
P. falciparum : Causes cerebral malaria or malignant tertian malaria where fever recurs after every
48 hours.
P. ovale : Causes mild tertian malaria
3.3.2 AMOEBIASIS
• Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite in the large intestine of human which causes
amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery).
• Symptoms of this disease include constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools with excess
mucous and blood clots.
• Houseflies act as mechanical carriers and serve to transmit the parasite from faeces of infected
person to food and food products, thereby contaminating them. Drinking water and food contami
nated by the faecal matter are the main source of infection.
• The trophozoites of the parasite make their way deep by eating through mucosa of the intestinal
wall. Here they multiply by binary fission and spread rapidly outward to form flaskshaped ulcers
containing cellular debris, lymphocytes, blood corpuscles and bacteria. This causes the formation
of abscesses in the intestinal wall.
• Diagnosis, consists of microscopical detection of trophozoites or cysts in faecal smears.
• Treatment of amoebic dysentery is not very difficult but the permanent cure is sometimes hard to
achieve as relapses do occur.
• The most significant advance in the treatment of amoebiasis has been the use of Metronidazole
and Tinidiazole as an amoebicide.
3.4 Diseases Caused by Helminthis

3.4.1 ASCARIASIS
• It is caused by Ascaris lumbricoides which is an endoparasite of the small intestine of human
beings, but also infects the pigs and cattle. It is more common in the children, because the latter
are generally in the habit of eating soil and clay, which may be infected by the eggs of Ascaris.
• The food of the worm consists of semidigested food of the host, the blood and the fluid of the
alimentary canal of the host.
• There is no secondary host in the life cycle of this parasite. Since a large number of adult Ascaris
worms normally infest a single host, they obstruct the intestinal passage and thereby cause
abdominal discomforts, like colic pains. The patient may also suffer from impaired digestion,
diarrhoea and vomiting.
• In children, where the ascaris infection is quite common, mental efficiency is affected and body
growth is retarded. The disease can best be treated by administering antihelminthic drugs. Healthy
person acquires infection via contaminated food water, vegetables, fruits, etc.
• Symptoms include internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anaemia and blockage of intestinal
passage
3.4.2 FILARIASIS
• Inflammation in one of the lower limbs due to Wuchereria (W. bancrofti and W. malayi),
• The filarial worms cause a slowly elephantiasis developing chronic inflammation of the organs in
which they live for many years, usually the lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs and the disease is
called elephantiasis or filariasis.
• The genital organs are also often affected, resulting in gross deformities
• Pathogens are transmitted to a healthy person through the bite by the female Culex mosquito
vectors.
3.5 Diseases Caused by Fungi

• The dermatophytes are a group of closely related fungi. These infect the skin hair and nails and
cause a variety of clinical conditions collectively called as dermatophytoses or tinea or ringworm.
• Dermatophytes include three genera : Trichophyton. Ringworm affected area of the skin It infects
skin, hair and nails. Microsporum. It attacks the hair and skin but usually not the nails. Epidermo
phyton. It infects the skin and nails but not the hair.
• Thus main symptoms of the disease are appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various parts of the
body such as skin, nails and scalp. These lesions are accompanied by intense itching.
ZPRACTICE 1
Q1. Name two disease whose spread can be controlled by eradication of ades mosquito (2018)
Q2. Why is Gambusia introduced into drains and ponds? (2014)
Q3. Explain what causes chill in humans during malarial attack. Name the causative organism of
malignant malaria. (2012)
Q4. Name the causative organism, two symptoms and mode of transmission of amoebiasis(2012)
Q5. Name the causative organism, two symptoms and mode of transmission in ascariasis. (2015)
Q6. Define the term ‘health’. Mention any two ways of maintaining it. (2011)
Q7. List the specific symptoms of typhoid. Name its causative agent. (2016)
Q8. At what stage does Plasmodium gain entry into the human body? Write the different stages
of its life cycle in the human body. (2015)
Q9. Write the scientific name of the pathogen that causes amoebic dysentery. Enumerate four
symptoms of the disease. How is the disease transmitted?
Q10. A ten year old boy had chicken pox. He is not expected to have the same disease for the rest
of his life. Why?
Q11. Why is Mary Mallon famous?

Q12. Name the vector that spreads diseases like dengue and chikungunya.
Q13. Name two organisations that are doing a lot to educate people about AIDS
Q14. Describe the stages in the life cycle of Plasmodium with the help of a flow diagram.
Q15. Mention various ways by which Human Immunodeficiency Virus is transmitted?
4. IMMUNITY
• Everyday we are exposed to large number of infectious agents.

• However, only a few of these exposures result in disease. Why?
• This is due to the fact that the body is able to defend itself from most of these foreign agents.
• This overall ability of the host to fight the diseasecausing organisms, conferred by the immune
system is called ‘immunity’.
• The organs of the immune system includes primary lymphoid organs like bone marrow and
Thymus where immature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen sensitive lymphocytes and
secondary lymphoid organs like lymph nodes, spleen which provide sites of interaction of lympho
cytes and antigens.
• The immunity is of two types (a) innate immunity (b) acquired immunity
5. INNATE IMMUNITY
Innate immunity is nonspecific type of defence, that is present at the time of birth. This is accom
plished by providing different types of barriers to the entry of the foreign agents into our body.
5.1 Physical Barriers

• Skin on our body is the main barrier which prevents entry of the microorganisms. Its outer tough
layer, the stratum corneum prevents the entry of bacteria and viruses.
• Mucus coating of the epithelium lining the respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts also
help in trapping microbes entering our body.
5.2 Physiological Barriers
• Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from eyesall prevent microbial growth.

• Oil secreted by the oil glands and sweat secreted by sweat glands make the surface of the skin
acidic (pH 35). This does not allow the microorganisms to establish on the skin. Some friendly
bacteria also occur on the skin which releases acids and other metabolic wastes that check the
growth of pathogens.
• The sweat also contains an enzyme named lysozyme that destroys the cell walls of many bacteria.
• Lysozyme is also present in tears and checks eye infections. Lysozyme is also present in the saliva
which kills bacteria present in food.
• Highly acidic gastric juice also kills harmful bacteria in the stomach
5.3 Cellular Barriers

Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body like polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLneutro
phils) and monocytes and natural killer (type of lymphocytes) in the blood as well as macrophages
in tissues can phagocytose and destroy microbes
5.4 Cytokine Barriers

• Virusinfected cells secrete glycoproteins called interferons which protect noninfected cells from
viral infection.
• Interferons are the glycoproteins released by the cells in response to a viral infection which they
help to combat.
• These interferons do not kill/inactivate the virus, but they make the unattacked cells less susce
ptible so they are prevented from the attack of virus. Interferons were discovered by Isaac and
Lindemann.
• They also prevent the viruses from taking over the cellular machinery.
• Interferon proteins have proved to be effective in treating influenza and hepatitis, but their role
in cancer treatment is doubtful. biological response modifiers such as ±interferon which activates
their immune system and helps in destroying the tumor.
6. ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
• Immune system forms third line of defence.

• There are two components of immune system in body:
(i) Humoral immune system and (ii) cellmediated immune system.
The important characteristics of the immune systems are:

(a) Specificity : Ability to differentiate between foreign molecules.
(b) Diversity : To recognize enormous variety of foreign molecules.
(c) Discrimination : Ability to differentiate between foreign and self i.e., will respond to foreign
compound and avoid response to self molecules.
(d) Memory : After encountering any foreign agent or microbe, immune response is evoked. It
results in the formation of memory cells responsible for retaining memory. This is the basis of
vaccination as the second response
Specific Immunity Involves two types of Cells

1. Lymphocytes 2. Antigen Presenting Cells
LYMPHOCYTES
• Lymphocytes (a type of WBCS) are the main cells of immune system of the body. Lymphocytes,
meant for immune system, are of two types: Tcells and Bcells.
• Both types of cells develop from the stem cells found in the liver of the foetus and in the bone

marrow cells of the adult. Those lymphocytes that migrate to the thymus and differentiate under
its influence are called ‘Tcells’, while those cells that continue to be in the bone marrow for
differentiation are known as ‘Bcells
• The final maturation of young lymphocytes occur in lymphoid tissues like lymph nodes, spleen and
tonsils. Tcells are responsible for cellular immunity, however, Blymphocytes produce antibodies
that take part in the humoral immunity.
• Both Tcells and Bcells require antigens to trigger them into action but they respond differently.
Blymphocytes are independent of the thymus and in man probably complete their early matura
tion within the bone marrow. They are called Bcells because they mature within the Bursa of
Fabricius found in the cloaca of birds.
ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS

• Antigen presenting cells (APCs) are a special class of cells which process and present exogenous
antigens. APCs include macrophages, Bcells, and dendritic cells.
• APCs are strategically located in places where antigens are likely to penetrate non specific
defenses and enter the body. These are the epidermis and dermis of the skin, mucus membranes
that line the respiratory, urinary, reproductive tracts.
Antigens
• The antigens are foreign ‘molecules’ that invade the body of an organism.
• The word ‘antigen’ is a shortened form of‘antibody generating’ because they stimulate the
production of antibodies in response to infection. Antigens are generally large molecules.
• The majority of them are made of proteins or polysaccharides found on the cell walls of bacteria
and other cells or on the coats of viruses. All antigens are not the parts of microorganism.
• Other structures like pollen grains, white of an egg, shell fish, certain fruits and vegetables,
chicken, feathers of birds, blood cells from other persons or animals, drugs, chemicals, etc. can
also induce the immune system to produce antibodies.
Antibodies
• Antibodies are an army of proteins produced by plasma cells
• Each antibody molecule has four peptide chains, two small called light chains and two longer
called heavy chains. Hence, an antibody is represented as H2L2. Different types of antibodies are
produced in our body. IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG are some of them.
• In the regions concerned with antigen binding, these regions are extremely variable, whereas in
other regions of the molecule, they are relatively constant. Thus each heavy and each light chain
possesses a variable and a constant region. The isotype of an Ig is determined by the constant
region.
• Lchains are linked from Hchains by disulphide (SS) links. Intrachain SS links divide H and L
chains into domains which are separately folded.
• Antibodies are synthesized by B lymphocytes and exist in 2 forms either membrane bound or
secreted.
• Antigens have determinants called epitopes. Epitopes are molecular shapes recognized by anti
bodies, which recognise the epitope rather than whole antigen.
• Antigens may be proteins, lipids or carbohydrates, and an antigen may consist of many different
epitopes, and/or may have many repeated epitopes.

6.1 Types of Acquired Immunity

6.1.1 ACTIVE IMMUNITY
When an organism’s own cells produce antibodies it is called active immunity. It develops when a
person suffers from a disease or gets vaccination for a disease
6.1.2 PASSIVE IMMUNITY

• In passive immunity, the antibodies are produced in some other organisms (e.g., vertebrates) in
response to the given antigen. These antibodies are then injected into the human body at the time
of need. This is known, as inoculation.
• For example, persons infected by rabies, tetanus, Salmonella (causes food poisoning) and snake
venom are given the sufficient amount of antibodies so that they can survive.
• Passive immunity provides immediate relief, however, active immunity requires some time for
the formation of antibodies
• The yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during the initial days of lactation has abundant
antibodies (IgA) to protect the infant. The foetus also receives some antibodies from their mother,
through the placenta during pregnancy. These are some examples of passive immunity.

6.2 Vaccination and Immunisation

• The principle of immunisation or vaccination is based on the property of ‘memory’ of the immune
system. In vaccination,
• A preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine) are
introduced into the body. The antibodies produced in the body against these antigens would
neutralise the pathogenic agents during actual infection.
• The vaccines also generate memory – B and Tcells that recognise the pathogen quickly on
subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with a massive production of antibodies.
• If a person is infected with some deadly microbes to which quick immune response is required as
in tetanus, we need to directly inject the preformed antibodies, or antitoxin (a preparation
containing antibodies to the toxin).
• Even in cases of snakebites, the injection which is given to the patients, contain preformed
antibodies against the snake venom. This type of immunisation is called passive immunisation
6.3 Cell Mediated Immunity
Mode of Action of Tcells to Antigens or cell mediated immunity (CMI):

• Tcells are the major cells that drive cellular immunity whereas an another type of lymphocyte,
called as B cells, is the principle cell involved with antibodymediated immunity.
• Tcells are socalled because they are matured in an organ called the thymus.
• The surface of a Tcell contains thousands of T cell receptors (TCR) but, for anyone Tcell, all the
receptors are identical (monoclonal).
• This means that anyone Tcell is only able to recognize a small group of related antigens i.e. each T
cell is specific only to those antigens and is not effective against any others.
• The receptor rarely binds with an entire antigen but with a subsection of it called an epitope.
• The function of Tcells is to detect cells in the body that are internally infected with viruses and
bacteria.
• Two types of Tcells sample different populations of cells and take different action when they
detect a antigen. These are the “killer” or cytotoxic (CD8+) T cells and the “helper” (CD4+) Tcells.
• The CD8+ and CD4+ describe the types of receptors that each carries.
• A third type of Tcell called a “suppressor” Tcells also uses the CD8+receptor.
• Almost all the cells in the body express a protein called the major histocompatibility complex
protein

GRAFT REJECTION
• Grafts of a kidney, heart, lung, liver, etc. from one human to another always (unless donated by an
identical twin) are seen by the recipient’s immune system as antigenic and elicit an immune
response.
• If unchecked, this response will eventually lead to destruction of the graft. Both CD4+ and CD8+ T
cells participate in graft rejection.
• They are responding to differences between donor and host of their class II and class I histocom
patibility molecules (respectively)
There are four varieties of grafts:

1. Autografts are tissue grafts transplanted from one body site to another in the same person.
2. Isografts are grafts donated to a patient by a genetically identical individual, the only example
being identical twins.
3. Allografts are grafts transplanted from individuals who are not genetically identical but belong to
the same species.
4. Xenografts are grafts taken from another animal species, such as transplanting a baboon heart
into a human
6.4 Primary and Secondary Immune Responses

• Each B and T lymphocyte displays on its surface a specific receptor; the number of cells expressing
a given receptor is rather small. In case of a B cell, this receptor is the antibody produced by that
cell. When this receptor interacts with the antigenic determinant specific to it, the lymphocyte
becomes activated and divides to form a clone of cells. These cells are also transformed into
effector cells, i.e., antibody producing B cells and T cytotoxic cells.
• This phenomenon is called clonal selection, where all the cells in a given T or B cell clone are
derived from a single parental cell, and exhibit the same specificity for antigenic determinant. But
some of the activated lymphocytes develop into longlived memory cells, and do not produce
antibodies or kill infected cells.
• The immune response mounted as a result of the first encounter of an animal with an antigen
takes relatively longer, is feeble, and declines rapidly. This is known as primary immune response.
But a subsequent encounter of this animal with the same antigen results in a heightened immune
response much more rapidly. This is referred to as the secondary immune response or anamnestic
response. The secondary response is due to the memory cells that were produced during the
primary response; it lasts much longer than primary response. This is why a person surviving a
disease like chicken pox or measles becomes immune to subsequent attacks of the same disease
7. ALLERGY
• The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment
is called allergy & substances to which such an immune response is produced are called allergens.
• The antibodies produced to these are of IgE type. Common examples of allergens are mites in
dust, pollens, animal dander, etc.
• Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty in
breathing.
• Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast cells. For
determining the cause of allergy, the patient is exposed to or injected with very small doses of
possible allergens, and the reactions studied.
• The use of drugs like antihistamine, adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of
allergy. Somehow, modern day life style has resulted in lowering of immunity and more sensitivity
to allergens more and more children in metro cities of India suffer from allergies and asthma due
to sensitivity to the environment. This could be because of the protected environment provided
early in life.

8. AUTOIMUNITY
• Memorybased acquired immunity evolved in higher vertebrates based on the ability to

differentiate foreign organisms (e.g., pathogens) from self cells.
• While we still do not understand the basis of this, two corollaries of this ability have to be
understood. One, higher vertebrates can distinguish foreign molecules as well as foreign
organisms. Most of the experimental immunology deals with this aspect.
• Two, sometimes, due to genetic and other unknown reasons, the body attacks selfcells. This
results in damage to the body and is called autoimmune disease.
• Rheumatoid arthritis which affects many people in our society is an autoimmune disease.
• Myasthenia gravis, which impairs communication between nerves and skeletal muscles.
• Multiple sclerosis, which destroys the myelin of the white matter of the brain and spinal cord.
9. LYMPHOID ORGANS
Lymphoid organs are those organs where the maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes take
place. There are two types of lymphoid organs:
9.1 Primary Lymphoid Organs (Central Lymphoid Organs)

• They are those organs where T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes mature and acquire their
antigen specific receptors. Thymus and Bursa of fabricius of birds are primary lymphoid organs.
The bone marrow of mammals is considered equivalent to avian Bursa of fabricius.
• All the cells of the immune system are initially derived from the bone marrow. They form through
a process called hematopoiesis.
• During hematopoiesis, bone marrow derived stem cells differentiate into either mature cells of
the immune system or into precursors of cells that migrate out of the bone marrow to continue
their maturation elsewhere.
• The bone marrow produces Bcells, NK cells, granulocytes and immature thymocytes, in addition
to red blood cells and platelets
• Thymus is also called “Throne of immunity” or “Training school of T lymphocytes”. The function of
the thymus is to produce mature T cells. Immature thymocytes / prothymocytes leave the bone
marrow and migrate into the thymus.
• Through a remarkable maturation process, sometimes referred to as thymic education, T cells
that are beneficial to the immune system are spread, while those T cells that might evoke a
detrimental autoimmune response are eliminated. The mature T cells are then released into the
blood stream.
9.2 Secondary Lymphoid Organs (Peripheral Lymphoid Organs)

• After maturation, B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes migrate via blood vascular and lymphatic
system to the secondary lymphoid organs where they undergo proliferation and differentiation.
• The secondary lymphoid organs are lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, peyer’s patches of the small
intestine, appendix and mucosal associated lymphoid tissues(MALT).
• MALT is located within the lining of the major tracts (digestive, respiratory and urinogenital). It
constitutes about 50% of the lymphoid tissue in human body.
SPLEEN
• The spleen is an immunologic filter of the blood. It contains B cells, T cells, macrophages, natural
killer cells and red blood cells.
• In addition to capturing foreign materials (antigens) from the blood that passes through the
spleen, migratory macrophages bring antigens to the spleen via the bloodstream.

• An immune response is initiated when the macrophages present the antigen to the appropriate B
or T cells. This organ can be thought of as an immunological conference center.
• In the spleen, B cells become activated and produce large amounts of antibody. Also, old red blood
cells are destroyed in the spleen
LYMPH NODES
• The lymph nodes function as an immunologic filter for the body fluid known as lymph. Lymph
nodes are found throughout the body.
• It is composed mostly of T cells, B cells, and macrophages, the nodes drain fluid from most of our
tissues.
• Antigens are filtered out of the lymph in the lymph node before returning the lymph to the
circulation.
• In a similar fashion as the spleen, the macrophages that capture antigens present these foreign
materials to T and B cells, consequently initiating an immune response
ZPRACTICE 2
Q1. Which diagnostic test confirm typhoid in humans (2020)

Q2. State the importance of T lymphocytes (2020)
Q3. Name the type of immunity mother provides to new born. How does it happen? (2019)
Q4. What is the functional difference between Bcells and Tcells? (2019)
Q5. Name the microbe responsible for malaria and its various species. (2017)
Q6. Why is colostrum a boon to the newborn baby? (2015)
Q7. Name any two types of cells that act as ‘cellular barriers’ to provide innate immunity in
humans.
Q8. What is an autoimmune disease? Give an example.
Q9. When does a human body elicit an anamnestic response? (2013)
Q10. Some allergens trigger sneezing and wheezing in human beings. What causes this type of
response by the body?
Q11. How does a vaccine for a particular disease immunise the human body against that disease?
Q12. Why is a person with cuts and bruises following an accident administered tetanus antitoxin?
Give reasons. (2016)
Q13. Name and explain the two types of immune responses in humans. (2012)
Q14. It is generally observed that the children who had suffered from chickenpox in their child
hood may not contract the same disease in their adulthood. Explain giving reasons the basis
of such an immunity in an individual. Name this kind of immunity.
Q15. Why are lymph nodes and bone marrows called lymphoid organs? Explain the functions of
each one.
Q16. Name the kind of immunity attained when instead of antibodies weakened antigens are
introduced into the body.
Q17. A youth in his twenties met with an accident and succumbed to the injuries. His parents
agreed to donate his organs. List any two essential clinical steps to be undertaken before
any organ transplant. Why is the transplant rejected sometimes? What views would you
share with your health club members to promote organ donation?
Q18. Name and explain any four lymphoid organs present in humans.

10. ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS)
• The word AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome. This means deficiency of
immune system, acquired during the lifetime of an individual indicating that it is not a congenital
disease. ‘Syndrome’ means a group of symptoms.
• AIDS was first reported in 1981 and in the last twentyfive years or so, it has spread all over the
world killing more than 25 million persons.
• AIDS is caused by the Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a group of viruses called
retrovirus, which have an envelope enclosing the RNA genome.
• Transmission of HIVinfection generally occurs by
(a) sexual contact with infected person.
(b) by transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products.
(c) by sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers
(d) from infected mother to her child through placenta.
• It is important to note that HIV/AIDS is not spread by mere touch or physical contact; it spreads
only through body fluids. It is, hence, imperative, for the physical and psychological wellbeing,
that the HIV/AIDS infected persons are not isolated from family and society.
• There is always a timelag between the infection and appearance of AIDS symptoms. This period
may vary from a few months to many years (usually 510 years).
• After getting into the body of the person, the virus enters into macrophages where RNA genome
of the virus replicates to form viral DNA with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. This
viral DNA gets incorporated into host cell’s DNA and directs the infected cells to produce virus
particles.
• The macrophages continue to produce virus and in this way acts like a HIV factory. Simultaneously,
HIV enters into helper Tlymphocytes (TH), replicates and produce progeny viruses.\

10.1 Replication of retrovirus
• The progeny viruses released in the blood attack other helper Tlymphocytes. This is repeated
leading to a progressive decrease in the number of helper T lymphocytes in the body of the
infected person. During this period, the person suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhoea and weight
loss.
• Due to decrease in the number of helper T lymphocytes, the person starts suffering from infec
tions that could have been otherwise overcome such as those due to bacteria especially Myco-
bacterium , viruses, fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma.
• The person becomes susceptible to opportunistic infections, invasion of normally harmless micro
organisms that now proliferate wildly because of the defective immune system.
• The patient becomes so immunodeficient that he/she is unable to protect himself/herself against
these infections.
• A widely used diagnostic test for AIDS is enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A positive
ELISA should be confirmed using another test called the Western blot test.
• Treatment of AIDS with antiretroviral drugs is only partially effective. They can only prolong the
life of the patient but cannot prevent death, which is inevitable
10.2 Treatment
• To date, four drugs with similar action are used to inhibit HIV replication and slow the progression
of AIDS.
• All are nucleoside analogs, substances that are similar to the naturally occurring nucleosides in
RNA and DNA. They block conversion of retroviral RNA into DNA.
• The first and still most commonly used drug to treat AIDS is AZT (azidothymidine) or Retrovir.
Among patients taking AZT, there is a slowing in the progression of symptoms.
10.3 Prevention of AIDS

• As AIDS has no cure, prevention is the best option. Moreover, HIV infection, more often, spreads
due to conscious behaviour patterns and is not something that happens inadvertently, like
pneumonia or typhoid.
• Infection in blood transfusion patients, newborns (from mother) etc., may take place due to poor
monitoring. The only excuse may be ignorance & it has been rightly said, “don’t die of ignorance”.
• In our country the National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) and other nongovernmental
organisation (NGOs) are doing a lot to educate people about AIDS. WHO has started a number of
programmes to prevent the spreading of HIV infection.
• Making blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV, ensuring the use of only disposable needles and
syringes in public and private hospitals and clinics, free distribution of condoms, controlling drug
abuse, advocating safe sex and promoting regular checkups for HIV in susceptible populations, are
some such steps taken up.
11. CANCER
• ‘Cancer’ is characterised by the uncontrolled multiplication of abnormal cells in the body.

• The spread of cancerous cells to distant sites via blood is termed ‘metastasis’.
• Normally cells show a property called ‘contact inhibition’ by virtue of which contact with other
cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth but cancer cells have lost this property.
11.1 How Cancer Cells Differ from Normal Cells?

• Normally, the production of new cells is regulated in such a manner that at any given time, the
number of a given cell type remains nearly constant. Normal cells live in a complex interdepen
dent manner, regulating one another’s proliferation known as ‘Contact inhibition’.

• Occasionally, some cells may arise, which do not respond to normal growth control mechanisms.
These cells proliferate in an unregulated manner, and give rise to clones of cells that can expand to
a considerable size; this growth is called tumour.
• All tumours are not malignant. Noncancerous tumours, commonly called benign tumours, remain
confined to their original location and are incapable of indefinite growth, e.g., warts. However,
malignant tumours grow rapidly, with infinite life span of the proliferating cells, and become
progressively invasive. Only the malignant tumours are properly referred to as true cancer or
‘neoplasm’
11.2 Types of Cancer

Cancers are classified on the basis of the tissue of origin from where they arose. Most of the cancers
fall into one of the following categories :
1. Carcinomas : Cancers of this type arise from epithelial tissues, such as skin or the epithelial lining
of internal organs or glands (about 85 per cent of all tumours).
2. Melanomas : These are cancerous growths of melanocytes (a type of skin cells).
3. Sarcomas : These are derived from tissues of mesodermal origin, e.g., bone, fat and cartilage.
They are rare in humans (about 1 per cent of all tumours).
4. Leukemias and lymphomas : These are tumours of the hematopoietic cells.
11.3 Causes of Cancer

Chemical, biological or physical agents that can cause cancer are known as carcinogens. Depending
on their mode of action, carcinogens fall into the following main categories :
(i) Agents that can cause alterations in the genetic material (DNA), resulting in oncogenic
transformation that can lead to cancer, e.g., various types of radiations, and chemicals.
(ii) Agents that promote the proliferation of cells, which have already undergone genetic alterations
responsible for oncogenic transformation. These agents are called tumour promoters, e.g., some
growth factors and hormones.
(iii) Cancer causing DNA and RNA viruses (tumour viruses) have been shown to be associated with
oncogenic transformation.
• Ionising radiations like Xrays and gamma rays and nonionizing radiations like UV cause DNA
damage leading to neoplastic transformation.
• The chemical carcinogens present in tobacco smoke have been identified as a major cause of lung
cancer.
• Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic viruses have genes called viral oncogenes. Furthermore,
several genes called cellular oncogenes (conc) or proto oncogenes have been identified in normal
cells which, when activated under certain conditions, could lead to oncogenic transformation of
the cells.
11.4 Detection and Diagnosis

• Cancer detection is based on biopsy and histopathological studies of the tissue and blood and
bone marrow tests for increased cell counts in the case of leukemias.
• In biopsy, a piece of the suspected tissue cut into thin sections is stained and examined under
microscope (histopathological studies) by a pathologist.
• Noninvasive techniques, like Xray (using injected dyes), CT scans and MRI scans can be used to
detect cancers of internal organs like kidneys and pancreas.
• Computed tomography uses Xrays to generate a threedimensional image of the internals of an
object.

• MRI uses strong magnetic fields and nonionising radiations to accurately detect pathological and
physiological changes in the living tissue.
• Modern techniques monitor and detect the molecular changes that occur in cancer cells; this
enables an early diagnosis of cancer.
• Antibodies against cancerspecific antigens are also used for detection of certain cancers.
11.5 Treatment of Cancer

Various approaches have been adapted for the treatment of cancer. Therapeutic strategies vary,
depending on the etiology of each individual cancer.
Some of the common approaches include:

(i) surgery (ii) radiotherapy (iii) chemotherapy (iv) immunotherapy
These therapies can be used either singly, or in a suitable combination.
11.5.1 SURGERY
• Surgical manipulation/excision of tumour mass is one of the easiest approaches in the treatment
of cancer. However, surgery does not ensure that all the cancer cells have been removed.
• Moreover, not all tumours are accessible for surgical manipulation. Surgical reduction of tumour
load is also considered advantageous prior to initiation of other therapeutic approaches.
11.5.2 RADIATION SURGERY

This approach focuses lethally irradiating cells in a tumour mass. However, this approach also
causes tremendous damage to several tissues in the vicinity of tumour mass.
11.5.3 CHEMOTHERAPY
Several chemotherapeutic drugs are used in this strategy to kill tumour cells. Some such drugs can
specifically kill tumour cells. However, majority of them have a number of side effects.
ZPRACTICE 3
Q1. Name any two techniques that are useful in detecting cancers of internal organs. (2020)
Q2. Why sharing of injection needles between two individuals is not recommended? (2019)
Q3. Retroviruses have no DNA. However, the DNA of the infected host cell does possess viral
DNA. How is it possible? (2015)
Q4. Name the two types of cells in which the HIV multiplies aer gaining entry into human body.
Q5. Name the cells HIV attacks first when it gains entry into a human body. How does this virus
replicate further to cause immuno deficiency in the body?
Q6. A person in your colony has recently been diagnosed with AIDS. People/residents in the
colony want him to leave the colony for the fear of spread of AIDS.
(a) Write your view on the situation, giving reasons.
(b) List the possible preventive measures that you would suggest to the residents of your
locality in a meeting organised by you so that they understand the situation.
(c) Write the symptoms and the causative agent of AIDS. (2018)
Q7. Indiscriminate diagnostic practices using Xrays etc., should be avoided. Give one reason.
Q8. Differentiate between benign and malignant tumors. (2015)
Q9. Why are the tumors cells dangerous? (2010)
Q10. Why do normal cells not show cancerous growth? (2012)
Q11. How do benign tumors turn malignant? How does the latter harm the human body? (2013)

Q12. Why are cancer patients often given ainterferon as part of the treatment? (2014)
Q13. AIDS related complex (ARC) is a disease which leads to fever, swollen lymph nodes, loss in
weight, etc, it represents what stage of AIDS?
Q14. When is the world AIDS day and cancer awareness day celebrated
12. DRUGS
The drugs, which are commonly abused are opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids. Majority of
these are obtained from flowering plants. Some are obtained from fungi.
• A person who is habitual user if abstains from a drug (abstinence), his body reacts i.e., ceases to
function normally. It is called ‘physical dependence’.
• The symptoms appearing in the body are withdrawal symptoms and range from mild tremors to
convulsions, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, muscle cramps, all depending upon the type of drug
abused.
• In many cases the withdrawal symptoms may be life threatening and needs medical supervision
12.1 SedativeHypnotics
• Sedatives are the drugs that reduce excitement, assuage pain and lower the physiological or
functional activity leading to drowsiness or sleep.
• Hypnotics are also the drugs that induce sleep.
• Sedativehypnotics are more or less general CNS depressants and they include Barbiturates and
Benzodiazepines.
• ‘Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines’ are substituted derivatives of barbituric acid (a combination of
melonic acid and urea; called malonyl urea) which are general depressants of all excitable cells
but CNS is most sensitive to them.
• They reduce anxiety and induce sleep. Repeated use of this causes to addiction.
• It results in permanent damage to brain, headache, coma and muscular twitching.
12.2 Opiates (Opioid Analgesics or Opiate Narcotics)

• Opiates or opioids are derived from opium alongwith their synthetic relatives.
• The drug that relieves pain by acting on CNS are termed as analgesic, they are also called pain
killers.

• Opium is dried latex of unripe capsular fruits of poppy plant, Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae).
• It has heavy smell and bitter taste. It is smoked or eaten.
• Opioids bind to specific opioid receptors present in our CNS and gastrointestinal tract.
• Opiates have narcotic, analgesic, sedative and astringent (that cause contraction of body parts)
effects.
• They slow down respiratory activity, cause constriction of pupil of eye, decrease glandular
secretions, impair the digestion, produce nausea, vomiting and sterility.
• Opium addicts lose weight, fertility and interest in work.
• Opium contains a number of alkaloids:
(i) Morphine : It is the main opium alkaloid, which is a strong analgesic and also has sedative and
calming effect. Morphine depresses respiratory centre and contributes to the fall in SP.
(ii) Codeine : A derivative of opium (methylmorphine) which occurs naturally in opium and is partly
converted in the body to morphine. It is mild analgesic; which do not cause addiction. It is an ingre
dient of many medicines and cough syrups. Its prominent side effect is constipation.
(iii) Heroin [Diamorphine or Diacetylmorphine] : Heroin also called as smack and is semisynthetic
opiate which is addictive most dangerous of all the opiates. It is about 3 times more potent than
morphine.
12.3 Stimulants
• Drugs which stimulate the nervous system; make a person more wakeful, alert and active; and
cause excitement.
• However, addiction is psychological and withdrawal of stimulant is followed by depression,
anxiety and restlessness. e.g., caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines etc.
(I) CAFFEINE
It is bitter alkaloid; obtained from the leaves of tea plant, (Thea sinensis)seeds of coffee plant,
(Coftea arabica)seeds of cocoa plant, (Theobroma cacao)It is mild stimulant and taken as bever
agestea, coffee, cocoa and cola drinks.
(II) COCAINE
• It is a natural alkaloid obtained from leaves of coca plantErythroxylum coca (Erythroxylaceae).
• It is bitter, white, crystalline powder with vasoconstrictor properties and hence, it is a good local
anaesthetic.
12.4 Hallucingens
• Drugs which changes ones mood and behaviourthought percetion in a manner like that of seen in
psychosis.
• The hallucinating agents generally produce a dream like state with disorientation and loss of
contact with reality
(i) LSD : It is the most powerful psychdelic drugs. it causes dreams emotional outburst and severe
damage to CNS
(ii) Product of hemp plant cannabinoids : it contain tetrahydrocannabinol and bhang and ganja
along with marijuana belong to this category

13. ADOLESCENCE & ALCOHOL ABUSE
• Adolescence is accompanied by several biological and behavioural changes. Adolescence, thus is a

very vulnerable phase of mental and psychological development of an individual.
• Alcoholism is a dependency of a person on regular consumption of alcohol either in low
concentration (wine, bear etc.) or in high concentration (rum, vodka etc.)
13.1 Effects of Alcohol on an Individual

13.1.1 EFFECT ON LIVER
Absorbed alcohol is carried directly to the liver, where it becomes the preferred fuel. Use of
moderate amounts of alcohol does not cause liver damage, provided adequate nutrition is
maintained. However, chronic alcoholism causes the following diseases:
(i) Alcoholic Fatty Liver : The liver becomes enlarged, yellow, greasy and firm. Hepatocytes (cells of
liver) are distended by large fat globules which push the hepatocyte nucleus against the cell
membrane. There is increase in the fat synthesis in the liver
(ii) Alcoholic Hepatitis : It is characterised by degeneration of hepatocytes. The damaged
(degenerated) hepatocytes are surrounded by polymorphonuclear leucocytes.
13.1.2 EFFECT ON NERVOUS SYSTEM

(i) Will power, judgement power and self control become reduced.
(ii) Control on emotion becomes reduced.
(iii) Moral sense becomes reduced.
(iv) Cerebellum becomes affected which results the loss of muscle coordination so affected person
shows staggering gait and incoherent speech.
(v) Inflammation axons of neurons leads to neuritis
13.2 Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse

• The immediate adverse effects of drugs and alcohol abuse are manifested in the form of reckless
behaviour, vandalism and violence.
• Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or
cerebral hemorrhage. A combination of drugs or their intake along with alcohol generally results in
overdosing and even deaths.
ZPRACTICE 4
Q1. How does smoking tobacco in humans lead to oxygen deficiency in their body?
Q2. What is ‘withdrawal syndrome’? List any two symptoms it is characterised by.
Q3. Write the scientific name of the source plant of the drugs, marijuana and hashish and
mention their effect on the human body.
Q4. Name the plant source of the drug popularly called ‘smack’. How does it affect the body of
the abuser?
Q5. Name the plant source of ganja. How does it affect the body of the abuser? (2012)
Q6. Why is using tobacco in any form injurious to the health? Explain.
Q7. Why do sports persons often fall a victim to cocaine addiction? (2013)
Q8. Do you support ‘Dope’ test being conducted on sportspersons participating in a prestigious
athletic meet? Give three reasons in support of your answer. (2014)
Q9. Prevention is better than cure” is an apt slogan to safeguard adolescents from drug abuse.
List any 6 steps that could be taken in this regard. (2013)
Q10 “Bhang, Charas and Ganja” are resinous materials of Cannabis indica and are Psychotrophic in
toxicating drugs. These drugs are used for what effect?
Q11. ‘Bhang’ and ‘Hemp’ are obtained from which plant?
Q12. “Heroin” is obtained from the plant of which family?

Microbes in Human Welfare 10/ 1
MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE

• Microbes are present everywhere in soil, water, air, inside our bodies and that of other animals
and plants.
• They are present even at sites where no other lifeform could possibly exist such as deep inside
the geysers (thermal vents) where the temperature may be as high as 100°C, deep in the soil,
under the layers of snow several metres thick, and in highly acidic environments.
• They are diverse protozoa, bacteria, fungi and microscopic plants viruses, viroids and also prions
that are proteinecious infectious agents.
• Microbes like bacteria and many fungi can be grown on nutritive media to form colonies, that can
be seen with the naked eyes. Such cultures are useful in studies of microorganisms.
• Microorganism can be bacteria, fungi, archaea or protist, but not viruses and prions, which are
generally classified as nonliving. Microorganism are generally single celled or unicellular in
nature. Microbes live almost everywhere on earth i.e soil, water and air even they are present
deep inside the earth such as deep sea.
1. MICROBES IN HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS
A number of milk products viz cheese, yoghurt, curd, milk powder, cream, butter etc. are produced
from milk. Milk is prevented from spoilage by Pasteurisation. It is a high temperature treatment
followed by rapid cooling. Some important milk product are as follows:
1.1 LAB (Lactic Acid Bacteria)

• LAB like Lactobacillus are added to milk. It converts lactose sugar of milk into lactic acid.
• Lactic acid causes coagulation and partial digestion of milk protein casein.
• Milk is changed into curd, yoghurt and cheese.
• The starter or inoculum used in prepartion of milk products actually contains millions of LAB.
(a)Bacteria: (a) Rodshaped, magnified 1500X; (b) Spherical shaped, magnified 1500X;
1.2 Curd
• Indian curd is prepared by inoculating skimmed and cream milk with Lactobacillus acidophilus at a
temperature of about 40°C or less.
• Curd is more nutritious than milk as it contains a number of organic acids and vitamins including
B12. LAB present in curd also checks growth of disease causing microbes in stomach and other parts
of digestive tract. This action of LAB is called as “Probiotic”.
• Curd is eaten as such, salted or sweetened. Curd is churned to prepare lassi/ butter milk & butter.
1.3 Yoghurt
• It is fermented milk. It is made from milk, skimmed milk or flavoured milk. The fermentation is
carried out by Streptococcus salivarius sub spp thermophilus and Lactobacillus dulbruckii sub spp
bulgaricus together at a level of 2% by volume.

• The flavour in yoghurt is due to acetaldehyde which is about 23 – 41 mg/kg. Both the organism are
lacking in alcohol dehydrogenase and produce acetaldehyde from glucose portion of lactose via
pyruvate and due to the action of threonine aldolase.
1.4 Cheese
• It is partially degraded concentrate of milk fat and casein, manufactured by activity of micro
organisms. Cheese consists of milk curd that has separated from whey or liquid part.
• There are several hundred varieties of cheese which are prepared by selected types of micro
organisms. The quality and characteristic taste of cheese is determined by the biochemical activi
ties of specific microorganisms.
• Cheese is of three types soft (5080% water), semihard(about 45% water) and hard (less than 40%
water). The method of preparing cheese with the help of microbes was known in Asia and Europe
long before Christ.
• Large holed Swiss cheese is ripened with the help of CO2 producing bacterium called Propionibac
terium sharmanii. Roquefort cheese or blue cheese uses Penicillium roquefortii, while Camembert
cheese employs Penicillium camembertii for ripening.
1.5 Bread
• Bread is prepared with the help of Baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
• The dough which is used for making breads is allowed to ferment for 10 12 hours with yeast. The
sugar present in dough is rapidly fermented by the yeast with the production of CO2 and alcohol.
This process is known as ‘leavening of breads’.
• Leavening is caused by secretion of three types of enzymes by yeast. They are amylase, maltase
and zymase.The leavened dough is baked. Both carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol evaporates,
making the bread porous and soft.
2. MICROBES IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS
Microbes are used to synthesise a number of industrial products for human use. Industrial scale
production requires very large vessels called fermentors or bioreactors to grow microbes. Alcoholic
beverages and antibiotics are two common industrial products obtained by microbes.
2.1 Fermented Beverages/Alcohol

• Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Brewer’s yeast) is used for the production of beverages like wine, beer,
whisky, brandy or rum, by fermenting malted cereals and fruit juices, to produce ethanol.
• Production of different types of alcoholic drinks depend on type of raw material for fermentation
and type of processing.
• Wine (912% alcohol) and beer (36% alcohol) are filtered, pasteurised and bottled without further
distillation while distillation of fermented broth is carried out for producing hard liquors like
whisky, brandy and rum.
2.2 Production of Antibiotics

• An antibiotic is a substance produced by a microorganism, which in low concentration inhibits
the growth and metabolic activity of pathogenic organisms without harming the host.
• First antibiotic is generally associated with the name of Alexander Flemming (1928) when he
discovered Penicillin from Penicillium notatum.
• The antibiotic was however, commercially extracted by efforts of Ernst Chain and Howard Florey.
The chemical was extensively used in treating wounded American soldiers in world war II.
• Flemming, Chain and Florey were awarded Nobel Prize in 1945.
• Bulk of antibiotics are obtained from three groups of microorganism i.e., Eubacteria, actino
mycetes and fungi.
• Antibiotics have greatly improved our capacity to treat deadly diseases like plague, whooping
cough, diphtheria, leprosy etc. So with reference to human beings these are prolife.

• Antibiotics function either as bactericides (kill bacteria) or bacteriostatic (inhibit growth of bact
eria) by any of these methods:
(i) Disruption of cell wall synthesis,
(ii) Inhibition of 30S and 50S ribosome functioning,
(iii) Disruption of synthesis and repair of plasmalemma.
(iv) Inhibition of aatRNA binding to ribosome.
(v) Inhibition of translation.
2.3 Production of Enzymes

• The proteinaceous biocatalyst which catalyse the biological reactions without themselves under
going any change are called enzyme. William Kuhne coined the term ‘Enzyme’ in 1867.
• The constitutive enzymes are always produced in amounts usable by the cell where as adaptive
enzymes are produced by microbial cell in response to the presence of particular enzyme
substrate.
2.3.1 PECTINASES
• They are obtained from fungi grown on pectin containing medium. Examples are Aspergillus niget,
Byssochlamys fulvo.
• Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus and Penicillium species are used for pectinase production.
• Pectinases are used to clarify fruit juices and grapes, must for the maceration of vegetables and
fruits besides extraction of oil.
2.3.2 INVERTASES (SACCHARASE OR SUCRASE)

This enzyme splits sucrose into glucose and fructose. Invertases is obtained from Saccharomyces
fragilis, S.cerevisae and some other Saccharomyces spp.
2.3.2 PROTEASES
• The protein hydrolyzing enzymes are known as ‘proteases’.
• Proteases are obtained from Mortierella renispora, Aspergillus and Bacillus species, used in
detergents to remove proteinaceous spots. Bottled juices are also clarified using proteases and
pectinase
2.3.3 LIPASES (GLYCEROL ESTER HYDROLASE)

• The enzyme responsible for the break down of oils and fats prior to their digestion by
microorganism are extracellular lipases which catalyse the hydrolysis of triglycerides to free fatty
acids, partial glycerides and glycerols.
• Candida, A. niger, Pencillium, Mucor, Rhizopus have been reported for extracellular lipase
production. Olive oil is used as a substrate for the lipase enzyme.
2.3.4 AMYLASES
These are starch degrading enzymes. Amylases are used for the removal of starch from woven cloth.
• Amylases, glucoamylases and glucoisomerases converts corn starch in to fructose rich corn syrup.
• Rennet is an extract from the stomach of calf that contains enzyme rennin. The enzyme is used in
cheese making.
• The enzyme called Tissue Plasminogen Activator (TPA) is used to dissolve blood clots especially in
heart attack victims.
2.4 Production of Other Bioactive Molecules

• Streptokinase (Tissue Plasminogen Activator or TPA) : It is an enzyme obtained from the cultures
of some haemolytic Streptococci. It has fibrinolytic effect, used to dissolve blood clots in heart
patients.

• Cyclosporin A : It is an eleven membered cyclic oligopeptide obtained through fermentive activity
of fungus Trichoderma polysporum. It has antifungal, antiinflammatory and immunosuppressive
properties.
• Statins : They are products of fermentation activity of yeast Monascus purpureus which resemble
mevalovate and is competitive inhibitor of Betahydroxy Beta methylglutaryl CoA reductase or
HMG COA reductase. This competitively inhibits cholesterol synthesis. It is used as cholesterol
lowering agent.
2.5 Microbial Production of Organic Acid

Certain microbes have the ability to convert carbohydrates into organic acids, this capability of
microorganisms is applied in the industrial production of some commercially important organic
acids. A few very important organic acids are as follows.
1. Acetic Acid
It is prepared from fermented alcohols with the help of acetic acid bacteria, Acetobacter aceti.
Alcoholic fermentation by yeast is anaerobic process, but the conversion of alcohol to acetic acid is
aerobic one. It is used for the prepration of vinegar. It is also used in pharmaceuticals, colouring
agents, insecticides and plastic industries.
2. Citric Acid
It is obtained through the fermentation carried out by fungi Aspergillus niger and Mucor species on
sugary syrups. Yeast Candida lipolytica can also be employed, provided its nutrient medium is made
deficient of iron and manganese. Citric acid is employed in dyeing, engraving, medicines, inks,
flavouring and preservation of food and candies.
3. Gluconic Acid
The acid is prepared by the activity of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chtysogenum. Gluconate is
used widely as a source of calcium for infants, cows and lactating mothers.
4. Lactic Acid
It was first acid to be produced by industrial fermentation. It is commercially produced from
fermentable carbohydrates such as corn and potato starch, molasses and whey by using the bacteria
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and L. delbrueckii.
ZPRACTICE 1
Q1. Why are pectinase and proteases added to fruit juices?

Q2. Name the clot buster enzyme.
Q3. Name the microbe that yields lactic acid.
Q4. Describe important enzymes obtained through microbial activity.
Q5. Describe Cyclosporin A, statins and important organic acids manufactured with the help of
microbes.
Q6. Name the various microbes that are devoid of cellular structure. Which one of them is made
exclusively of protein, exclusively of nucleic acid and both [nucleic acid and protein].
3. MICROBES USED IN SEWAGE (WASTE) WATER TREATMENT
Sewage is the used and waste water consisting of human excreta, industrial and agricultural wastes
that enter the sewage.
• Sewage is collective noun used to represent municipal waste (both liquid and solid waste)
generated in cities and towns which is carried off in sewerage.

• It contains large amount of domestic water and waste including human and animal excreta,
microbes and every things that enter sewerage system.
• Sewage or municipal waste should not be passed into rivers, streams and other water bodies,
because it not only contains human excreta and other organic wastes but a number of pathogenic
microbes.
• It is made less polluting by passing it through sewage treatment plants (STPs).
• Treatment of waste water is done by the heterotrophic microbes naturally present in the sewage.
The various steps in sewage treatment are :
3.1 Primary Treatment

• It is a physical process of removal of large and small particles from sewage through sequential
filtration and sedimentation.
• Initially, floating debris is removed by sequential filtration, then the grit (soil and small pebbles)
are removed by sedimentation.
• The sewage is first shredded and churned. It is then passed through many screens or skimmers to
remove large pieces of organic matter. The sewage is now passed into a large primary settling tank
having a gentle slope.
• Grit, sand and other heavy particles settle down.
• All solids that undergo sedimentation and screened organic matter collectively constitute primary
sludge.
• Primary sludge can be used for preparing compost or manure directly. It can also be burnt.
• The waste water (primary effluent) after removing the primary sludge contains fine organic matter.
It is passed for secondary treatment.
3.2 Secondary Treatment or Biological Treatment

• It involves biological process of microbial degradation of organic matter.
• There are three main methods use of oxidation tanks, trickling filter method and activated
sludge method.
• In activated sludge method the effluent from primary settling tank is passed into an aeration tank.
It is agitated mechanically.
• Air is pumped into the effluent. It contains a large population of aerobic heterotrophic microbes,
including bacteria and fungi.
• The microbes form flocs (masses of bacteria associated with fungal filaments).
• The BOD of the effluent rises initially and the treatment continues till the BOD decrease to a
certain level.
• It is taken to secondary settling tank where the flocs undergo sedimentation.
• The sediment is called activated sludge (This can be the inoculant for next secondary treatment).
• The supernatant is allowed to pass into rivers and streams.
• Activated sludge is taken to anaerobic sludge digesters alongwith the primary sludge.
• Here, anaerobic microbes act upon organic matter to first produce monomers & then organic acids.
• This convert the latter into a mixture of gases like methane, hydrogen sulphide & carbon dioxide.
• The gaseous mixture is called biogas. It is inflammable and can be used as a source of energy.
• The spent sludge is used as manure, land fill or can be burnt. Pathogens present in the original
sewage get killed during anaerobic digestion.
3.3 Tertiary Treatment

• It is physiochemical process in which chlorine gas, zirconium, ozone gas, perchlorate salts, UV rays
or reverse osmosis etc are used to remove DDT, pesticides, pathogens and remove turbidity in
waste water. It is preferred when water is to be used for domestic use.

River Action Plans :
• Prior to 1985, very few cities and towns had sewage treatment plants.
• The municipal was The municipal waste water was discharged directly into rivers resulting in their
pollution and high incidence of water borne diseases.
• In order to protect the major rivers of India from sewage pollution, the Ministry of Environment
and Forests, has initiated development of sewage treatment plants under the National River
Conservation Authority, e.g., Ganga Action Plan (GAP), Yamuna Action Plan, etc.
4. MICROBES IN PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS
• Biogas is a mixture of gases produced from degradable organic matter by activity of various
anaerobic bacteria.
• The microorganisms involved in biogas production are mainly facultative as well as strict
anaerobic bacteria.
• The most important among them are methanogenic archaebacteria, represented by
Methanobacterium.
• The other bacteria involved are Bacillus, Cellulomonas, Clostridium and Ruminococcus.
• These bacteria are commonly found in anaerobic sludge formed during sewage treatment.
• Methanogens do occur in rumen of cattle where they act upon cellulose.
Composition of Biogas
The major component of biogas is methane (about 50 —70%) which is highly inflammable.
The other gases are carbon dioxide (30 — 40%) and 10% mixture of other gases, viz., H2, H2S etc.
Calorific value of biogas is 4429 kcal/ m3 at 50% methane content.
4.1 Substrates Useful in Biogas Production

• Animal Wastes: Cattle dung and urine, Buffalo dung and urine, Goat/sheep dung and urine,
slaughter house wastes
• Aquatic Plants: Eichhornia (water hyacinth), algae
• ByProducts/Wastes: Bagasse, bran, tobacco waste
• Crop Residues: Crop stubble, straw, weeds, fodder, cotton and jute sticks
• Forest Residues: Bark, branches, leaves, twigs
• Human Wastes: Night soil (human faeces and urine)
• Urban Solid Wastes: Paper, domestic wastes etc.
4.2 Commercial Production of Biogas

• The technology for biogas production was developed in India by IARI (Indian Agriculture Research
Institute) and KVIC (Khadi and Village Industries Commission).
• A biogas plant has a large (1015 ft. deep) concrete or brick lined air tight cylindrical tank called
‘digester’.
• It has a charge pit for passage of slurry into digester, a floating gas holder of metal with an outlet
for gas and a pit for removal of sludge or manure. The raw material used in biogas plants is cattle
dung, night soil, farm refuse, water weeds (e.g., Eichhornia) and other organic wastes.
• It is converted into slurry with 90% water content and fed to digester.
• Cattle dung contains Methanobacterium and other methanogens which are normally present in
rumen of cattle for aiding in digestion of cellulose.
• An inoculum can also be provided when a gobar gas plant is to be initiated.
Formation of biogas is a three step anaerobic process:

1. Solubilisation (Decomposition) :

• Organic wastes are composed of lipids, proteins, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. In the first
stage of biogas generation, facultative anaerobic decomposers are active.
• They secrete hydrolytic enzymes, e.g., lipases, cellulases, proteases, peptidases.
• The enzymes breakdown the complex organic components into simpler and soluble substances.
The latter are commonly called monomers.
2. Acidogenesis :
• Monomers are changed into organic acids with the help of fermentating microbes. The most
common organic acids produced during acidogenesis is acetic acid.
• Hydrogen and carbon dioxide are produced as by products.
3. Methanogenesis :
• Methanogens or methane producing bacteria become active.
• They act on various components of microbial digestion and fermentation. Some important basic
reactions are :
5. MICROBES AS BIOCONTROL AGENTS
5.1 Biological Pest Control or Biopesticide

• Biopesticides are the organisms which are applied to destroy the pests. They are used to destroy
the weeds as well as the insect pests. Two basic types are bioherbicides and bioinsecticides.
• Transgenic plants are genetically engineered plants to develop resistance against pests. e.g.,
transgenic tobacco and transgenic cotton.

• Smoother crops are those which do not allow the weeds to grow nearby e.g., barley, rye, Sorghum,
millet, sunflower, alfalfa, soyabean, marigold etc. Smoother crops eliminate weeds through
chemicals. Crop rotation with these crops will naturally reduce the incidence of weeds.
• Catch/ trap crops : Around the major crop in the field some early growing crop is sown in strips
which is termed as catch or trap crop. The pests get attracted towards the early grown trap crop and
then can be easily killed by cutting and destroying the trap crop. A good example of trap crop is
bhindi (okra) which is sown around the cotton field to attract the jassid and spotted bollworm.
Sesame is also good trap crop to attract the red hairy caterpillar from the cotton field.
• Bioherbicides : It involves the biological control of weeds by some living organisms. e.g., use of
insects feeding on a specific weed or use of microorganisms which will cause diseases in weeds.
Some of the common examples are given below:

(a) In India and Australia, the overgrowth of Opuntia (prickly pear cactus) was checked by the
introduction of the cochineal insect (Cactoblastis cactorum).
(b) The first bioherbicide was mycoherbicide called Devine, derived from a fungus Phytophthora
palmivora which controls the growth of milk weed vines in Citrus orchards.
(c) Another mycoherbicide called Collego has been derived from conidia of fungus Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides. It controls the growth of northern Jointvetch (Aeschynomene virginica fam.
Leguminosae) growing in rice fields.
(d) Extensive growth of Hypericum perforatum or kalmath weed was checked in USA by the
introduction of Chrysolina beetles.
(e) Water hyacinth has been successfully controlled in Florida using the indigenous fungus
Cercospora rodmanii.
Bioinsecticides
These are non persistent, non toxic and biodegradable. They include
(a) Pathogens, Parasite and Predators :

• A well known example of biological control of an insect pest is the destruction of large populations
of aphids (a pest on crucifers) by an insect called lady bug or praying mantis which feeds on the
aphids.
• The hoover fly larvae (Syrphid larvae) are very effective in keeping the aphids (plant bugs) under
check as they feed on the aphids only. Dragon flies are useful to get rid of aphids and mosquitoes.
• The mosquito larvae are easily controlled by rearing the larvicidal fish Gambusia (mosquito fish).
• The sugarcane scale insects are controlled by the coccinellid predators (Cailochorus negriti
and Pharoscymnus homi), the fluted scale insect (lcerya purchasi), a common pest on Citrus trees
by the lady bird beetles (Rodolia cardinalis) and Nephantis serinopa, is a dangerous pest on
coconut palms, by Perisierola nephanticdis and Trichospilus pupivora.
• Baculoviruses are pathogens that attack insects and other arthopods. NPV (Nuclearpolyhedrovirus)
based insecticide has been found to eliminate bollworms which cause extensive damage to
cotton. These are species specific and narrow spectrum.
• Trichoderma species are effective biocontrol agents of several plant pathogens. Trichoderma
species are freeliving fungi that are very common in the root ecosystems.
(b) Sterilisation Strategy :

Screw worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was eradicated by releasing sterile males.
(c) Insect Hormone or Pheromones :

• The pheromones are those chemical messengers which help in communication, sending alarm
signals, marking trails or for attracting males.
• Pheromones are secreted by females. Traps containing pheromones are placed in infested
fields. Males attracted by the trap become unavailable for reproduction.
• In confusion technique, the pheromone containing papers are spread all over the field, so males
can no longer locate the females.

• Introduction of moulting hormone ecdysone or juvenile hormones at inappropriate times
results in the early death of insect pests.
(d) Natural Insecticide :

• These are obtained from living organisms (Plants) e.g., rotenones (obtained from the roots of
(Derris elliptica), nicotine (obtained from tobacco), pyrethrum and cinerin (pyrethroids, obtained
from Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium), azadirachtin from margosa (Azadirachta indica) leaves,
thurioside from mutant strains of a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).
• Thurioside is a proteinaceous toxin and is effective against several insects such as moths, flies,
mosquitoes and beetles which accumulate as crystals inside the bacteria during sporulation.
5.2 Integrated Pest Management

• Sustainable pest management is otherwise known as Integrated pest management i.e.,
integration of tactics for control of single pest on one or more crops.
• The overall objective of IPM is to create and to maintain situations in which insects are prevented
from causing significant damage to crops.
6. MICROBES AS BIOFERTILISERS
Organic farming is the raising of unpolluted crops through the use of biofertilisers that provide
optimum nutrients to crop plants.
• Organisms which can be used to improve the nutrient quality of soil through biological activity
are known as biofertilisers.
• The main sources are bacteria, cyanobacteria and fungi. In paddy fields, cyanobacteria serve as an
important biofertiliser.
(a) Symbiotic N2 fixing bacteria like Rhizobium leguminosarum fixes atmospheric N2 in root
nodules of legumes.
(b) Frankia (Actinomycetes) in root nodules of nonlegume plants (e.g., Casuarina and Alnus).
(c) Symbiotic cyanobacteria (blue green algae) like Anabaena azollae fixes atmospheric N2 in leaves
of Azolla (water fern). Azolla pinnata (a pteridophyte) is used as an excellent fertilizer in rice
field.
(d) Anabaena cycadae lives in coralloid root of Cycas (a gymnosperm).
(e) Aulosira is most active, non symbiotic nitrogen fixer in rice field in India.
(f) Free living nitrogen fixer like Azospirillum and Azotobacter enrich the nitrogen content in soil.
(g) Mycorrhiza : It is symbiotic association between the fungus and roots of higher plants (seed
plants). Many members of the genus Glomus form mycorrhiza. The fungal partner absorbs
phosphorus from soil and passes it to the plant. Plants having mycorrhizal associations show
resistance to rootborne pathogens, tolerance to salinity and drought, and an overall increase in
growth and development. It is of two types :
(i) Ectomycorrhizae (Ectotrophic or Ectophytic) : Hyphae of fungus only form mantle on the outer
surface of the root, increasing absorption of water and minerals e.g., Pinus, oak etc. Mycorrhiza
absorb and store nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium.
(ii) Endomycorrhizae (Endotrophic or Endophytic) : Fungal hyphae penetrate into cortex and cells of
root e.g., orchids, coffee and woody plants. These are also called as vesicular arbuscular mycor
rhizae or VAM, because cortical cells swell and form vesicles or arbuscles. It has significant role in
phosphorus nutrition in plants.
7. Sustainable Agriculture
Is the act of farming using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between organisms and

their environment. ”an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site
specific application that will last over the long term”
For Example:
• Satisfy human food and fibre needs.
• Enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural
economy depends.
• Make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and onfarm resources and integrate,
where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls.
• Sustain the economic viability of farm operations.
• Enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.
8. ORGANIC FARMING
It is a form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost,
and biological pest control. Organic farming uses fertilizers and pesticides (which include herbi
cides, insecticides and fungicides)
Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes and enchances
biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of offfarm
inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain and enchance ecologial harmony.
Z PRACTICE 2
Q1. (a) What do you understand by biocontrol?

(b) Why biocontrol is preferred over conventional farming?
Q2. Explain the physical process of sewage treatment.
Q3. Why organic farmers do not recommend the eradication of insect pests? Explain giving
reasons.
Q4. How does biofertilizers enrich the fertility of soil?
Q5. What are flocs? Explain their role. (2019)
Q6. Describe the procedure involved in sewage treatment?
Q7. What are statins? Name the microorganism that produces this substance?
Q8. What is biogas? How is it produced and Name the icrobes invaded in biogas production?
Q9. Microbes can be used to decrease the use of chemical fertilizers & pesticides. Wxplain how
this can be accomplished?
Q10. How does primary sludge differ from activated sludge? What type of changes in the sludge
are carried out in anaerobic sludge digester?
Q11. Name the group of bacteria involved in setting milk into curd. Explain the process they carry
in doing so. Write another beneficial role of such bacteria. (2019)
Q12. Explain the changes that milk undergoes when suitable starter/inoculum is added to it. How
does the end product formed prove to be beneficial for human health? (2020)


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Huan Health & Diseases 8/ 1

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

1.1 Basics of Health

1.2 More on Health

2.1 Basics of Disease

Zschool Tutorials, Center 1 : Patrakar Colony Road II Center 2 : Iskcon Road

2.2 Pathogens & Parasites

2.3 Types of Diseases

2.3.2 ACQUIRED DISEASE

2.3.3 COMMUNICABLE DISEASE

2.3.4 DEFICIENCY DISEASE

2.4 Agents of Diseases

2.4.1 PATHOGENS/BIOLOGICAL AGENTS

2.4.2 NUTRIENT AGENTS

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2.4.4 PHYSICAL AGENTS

2.5 List of Diseases

2.5.2 PROTOZOAN DISEASES

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2.5.4 FUNGAL DISEASES

2.5.5 HELMINTHIC DISEASES

3. SOME COMMON DISEASES

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3.1 Diseases Caused by Viruses

3.2 Diseases Caused by Bacteria

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3.3 Diseases Caused by Protozoa

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3.5 Diseases Caused by Fungi

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• Everyday we are exposed to large number of infectious agents.

5.1 Physical Barriers

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5.3 Cellular Barriers

5.4 Cytokine Barriers

• Immune system forms third line of defence.

The important characteristics of the immune systems are:

Specific Immunity Involves two types of Cells

Zschool Tutorials, Center 1 : Patrakar Colony Road II Center 2 : Iskcon Road

ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS

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6.1 Types of Acquired Immunity

6.1.2 PASSIVE IMMUNITY

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6.2 Vaccination and Immunisation

6.3 Cell Mediated Immunity

Mode of Action of T­cells to Antigens or cell mediated immunity (CMI):

Zschool Tutorials, Center 1 : Patrakar Colony Road II Center 2 : Iskcon Road

There are four varieties of grafts:

6.4 Primary and Secondary Immune Responses

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• Memory­based acquired immunity evolved in higher vertebrates based on the ability to

9.1 Primary Lymphoid Organs (Central Lymphoid Organs)

9.2 Secondary Lymphoid Organs (Peripheral Lymphoid Organs)

Zschool Tutorials, Center 1 : Patrakar Colony Road II Center 2 : Iskcon Road

Q1. Which diagnostic test confirm typhoid in humans (2020)

Zschool Tutorials, Center 1 : Patrakar Colony Road II Center 2 : Iskcon Road

Zschool Tutorials, Center 1 : Patrakar Colony Road II Center 2 : Iskcon Road

10.3 Prevention of AIDS

• ‘Cancer’ is characterised by the uncontrolled multiplication of abnormal cells in the body.

11.1 How Cancer Cells Differ from Normal Cells?

Zschool Tutorials, Center 1 : Patrakar Colony Road II Center 2 : Iskcon Road

11.2 Types of Cancer

Mode of Action of Tcells to Antigens or cell mediated immunity (CMI):

• Memorybased acquired immunity evolved in higher vertebrates based on the ability to