VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

Robot Drive Systems

An actuator is a device for producing mechanical movement. Classification of actuators along three
dimensions is:
o The input power source,
o The geometrical type of movement (linear, rotational etc.)
o The dynamical type of output (whether the actuator is primarily a generator of position,
velocity or force).
There are three types of power source used in Industrial robots: pneumatic, hydraulic and electric.
The robot’s capacity to move its body, arm and wrist is provided by the drive system used to power
the robot. The drive system determines the speed of the arm movements, the strength of the robot and
its dynamic performance. When an actuator is at remote position from the joint it drives, its power
can be transmitted to the joint by following transmission methods:
o Rigid links
o Shafts
o Chains, wires or belts
o Gear trains.

Fig: An Actuator system

 Hydraulic Drive System:

Hydraulic power is used for the largest manipulators, some of which can carry a payload of several
tons, because it is possible to generate an extremely high force in a small volume, with good rigidity
and servo control of position and velocity. The high force is a consequence of the pressure at which
hydraulic systems are operated, 130 bar being common and higher pressures not unusual. Hydraulic
actuation is also common for large industrial robots. Hydraulic robots are used for heavy load transfer
operations.
Hydraulic system comprises the following components.
o Hydraulic power supply
o A servo valve for each of motion
o A sump
o A hydraulic motor for each axis of motion.
Hydraulic Power Supply:-
Motor, pump, filter, check valve, press valve, Accumulator

1 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

Fig: Hydraulic drive system

Advantages of Hydraulic drive system:
1. It provides greater speed and strength to the robot
2. Robots have greater load carrying capacity
3. Hydraulic system can meet sudden demands in power
4. hydraulic robot can withstand shock loads
5. The can be used in hazardous area with high fire risks.
6. It is a stiff system.
7. Accuracy of the system is high.
8. It has better response
9. It has highest power/weight ratio.
10. Good for large robots and heavy pay loads. Works in wide range of speeds.
Disadvantages:
1. It occupies more floor space
2. Leakage do normally occur, which cause loss in performance & contaminates work area
3. Not economical for smaller robots
4. Less reliable than electric robots.
5. Expensive & noisy.
6. Low compliance.
7. Leakage and dirt are inherent in the system.
8. Requires more accessories like pump, motor, reservoir, etc.
9. Large inertia, High torque, high pressure on the actuator.
10. Change in temperature alters the viscosity of the fluid hence causes sluggish movement of the
robot.
Application:- Spot Welding, Arc Welding, M/C loading & unloading, Heat treatment, Material
Transfer.
 Pneumatic Drive System:
Pneumatic actuators as used for industrial robots work on compressed air at a pressure of, typically, 10
bar, which is provided as a standard service in many factories, so the robot does not need its own
compressor. They are confined almost entirely to pick and place manipulators since the
compressibility of air makes it difficult to design servo systems. In a pick and place machine the
valves are either fully on or fully off, and each actuator stops only at the end of its travel. A pneumatic
actuator is also often used for the gripper of an electric or hydraulic robot, where its elasticity is useful
as it automatically limits the force which can be applied and can cope with variations in the size of the
workpieces. Also, a pneumatic gripper actuator is very light and needs to be connected only by a
narrow flexible tube which is easy to feed through a complex wrist. Pneumatic auxiliary devices,
particularly jigs and clamps, are often used with an industrial robot and operated by the robot

2 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

controller. Pneumatic drive is generally used for small robots with limited degree of freedom (2 – 4).
These robots are often limited to simple pick-n-place operations with fast cycle. Pneumatic system
uses same principle of Hydraulic power system. Compressor, Filter, Press, Regulators, Lubricator,
Drier, Check valve, Directional Control valve, Actuators.

Fig: Pneumatic drive system

Advantages:-
1. Very quick in action response time hence fast working cycle
2. Control of Robot motion is simple
3. Cheapest form of drive & reliable drive
4. Safe to use in hazardous & wet areas.
5. Inexpensive & simple
6. Good for On –Off applications and pick & place.
7. Reliable components. Compliant systems.
8. No leaks or sparks.
Disadvantages:-
1. It operates in limited sequence at fixed speed, speed control not possible.
2. Not suitable for handling heavy pay loads under high precision
3. Very low stiffness.
4. Noisy system.
5. Deform under load constantly.
6. Lowest power to weight ratio.
7. Requires accessories like compressor, filter, etc.
Application: - Pick & place, Simple Assembly
 Electric Drive System:
Electric actuation is the dominant method for industrial robots. Most electric robots use servomotors;
DC servomotors, which power the majority of existing robots, brush less DC servomotor and AC
servomotor, are also used. Electric actuation can also be done by stepper motors, for a limited class of
robots. To actuate rotational joints appropriate gear train in conjunction with motor will be used. To
actuate linear joints pulley system or rack & pinion mechanism are used with Electric motor. Electric
drive robots can be used in assembly, painting and inspection purposes.
Advantages:-
1. Accuracy & repeatability of Electric drive robot is better than other two

3 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

2. Since drive is small it requires less floor space

3. Drive system best suited to electric control
4. They are environment friendly & relatively quiet & clean
5. Good for all size of robots.
6. Better control & high precision.
7. Reliable and low maintenance.
8. Higher compliance
Disadvantages:-
1. It does not provide as much speed or power as Hydraulic system
2. They are not safe in Hazardous areas
3. Low stiffness.
4. Needs braking device when arm is not moving.
5. Needs reduction gears, this increases cost, weight,
Application: - Pick & place, Assembly, Inspection, Spray Painting, M/C loading & unloading
Feedback components
Potentio meters:- The potentiometer is an electrical device comprising a resistor with a sliding third
contact, often termed a wiper, which allows the voltage to be varied depending upon where the slider
is positioned along the length of the resistor. These are analog devices whose output voltage is
proportional to the position of a wiper. Potentiometers may be either linear or angular. It consists of
resistive element. The voltage between the wiper and the ground is proportional to the ratio of the
resistance on one side of the wiper to the total resistance of the resistive element which determines the
position of the wiper. They are the resistive type of transducers and the output voltage is proportional
to the displacement and is given by:

where x is the input displacement, x is the total displacement and E is the supply voltage.
i t
.

Fig: Potentio meter

Resolvers: - Resolvers resemble small AC motors, and generate an electrical signal for each revolution
of their shaft. Resolvers that sense position in closed-loop motion control applications have one
winding on the rotor and a pair of windings on the stator, oriented at 90 o. This is an analog device
whose output is proportional to the angle of rotating element with respect to a fixed element. In a
servo system, the resolver’s rotor is mechanically coupled to the drive motor and load. When a rotor
winding is excited by an AC reference signal, it produces an AC voltage output that varies in
amplitude according to the sine and cosine of shaft position. If the phase shift between the applied
signal to the rotor and the induced signal appearing on the stator coil is measured, that angle is an

4 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

analog of rotor position. The absolute position of the load being driven can be determined by the ratio
of the sine output amplitude to the cosine output amplitude as the resolver shaft turns through one
revolution. (A single-speed resolver produces one sine and one cosine wave as the output for each
revolution.)

v2 Stator

Rotor
v
1 v=f(Sin)

v in
v=f(cos)
Stator

Fig: Resolver
The rotor winding is excited by an AC reference voltage, at frequencies up to a few kHz. The
magnitude of the voltage induced in any stator winding is proportional to the sine of the angle θ
between the rotor coil axis and the stator coil axis. The shaft angle can be determined from the relative
magnitude of the two signals. In the case of a resolver, with a rotor AC reference voltage of V sin ωt,
the stator’s terminal voltages will be:

Resolvers are more reliable than encoders but resolution is lower. Only AC signal must be used for
excitation
Encoders: An encoder is a rotating circular device that can output a digital signal for each small
portion of a movement. There are two types of encoders
a. Incremental encoder b. Absolute encoder
Incremental encoder: - It is a disc encoded with alternating transparent and opaque stripes aligned
radially. A photo transmitter is located on one side disc and a photo receiver on the other side of the
disc. As the disc rotates the light beam from the transmitter is alternately passed and broken which is
detected by the receiver its out put is a pulse train having frequency proportional to the speed of
rotation of the disc. For direction information two sets of transmitter and receivers are aligned 90 0 out
of phase. It is possible to use the encoder for position information with respect to a known starting
position.

5 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

Fig: Incremental encoder

Absolute encoder: - This employs same basic construction as incremental encoder except that there
are more tracks of stripes and a corresponding number of transmitter and receivers. The stripes are
arranged to provide a binary number proportional to shaft angle. Angle can be read directly from the
encoder without any counting device. The resolution of absolute encoder is 2 n
n = number of tracks on the disc

Fig: Absolute encoder

Gray Coding
Sector Contact 1 Contact 2 Contact 3 Angle
111 OFF OFF OFF 0° to 45°
110 OFF OFF ON 45° to 90°
101 OFF ON OFF 90° to 135°
100 OFF ON ON 135° to 180°
011 ON OFF OFF 180° to 225°
010 ON OFF ON 225° to 270°
001 ON ON OFF 270° to 315°
000 ON ON ON 315° to 360°

 Velocity Sensors:
Encoders are also used as velocity sensors. Velocity can be estimated by calculating signals received
from the encoder with respect to time. A tachometer is also used as a velocity sensor. A tachometer is
dc generator which provides an output voltage proportional to the angular velocity of the armature.

Actuators
Actuators are the muscles of robots. They provide motion to the link and joints of the robot. The
actuator must have enough power to accelerate and decelerate the links and to carry the loads, yet be
6 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

light economical, accurate, responsive, reliable and easy to maintain. There three types of actuators
used in robots are hydraulic, pneumatic and electric.
Hydraulic linear actuator:
1) Single acting cylinder
2) Double acting cylinder
Hydraulic Rotary actuator (Hydraulic motors):
i. Gear motors
ii. Vane motors
iii. Piston motors.
Pneumatic actuators:
Similar to Hydraulic.
Electric actuators:
DC servomotors, Brush less DC servomotor, AC servomotor, Stepper motors,
Robot Sensors
A sensor is a device that responds to a specific physical stimulus and produces a measurable
corresponding electrical signal. The sensors provide the ability for the robots to deal with their
environment intelligently. A robot with sensors is easier to train in the performance of complex tasks
while, at the same time, requires less stringent control mechanisms than preprogrammed robots.

Fig: Classification of Robot Sensors

The function of robot sensors may be divided into two principal categories: Internal sensors and
External sensors. Internal sensors are used to monitor and control the various joints of the robot; they
form a feedback control loop with the robot controller. Examples of internal sensors include
potentiometers, optical encoders, and tachometers of various types can be deployed to control the
speed of the robot arm. On the other hand, External sensors are external to the robot itself and are used
7 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

when it is required to control the operations of the robot with other equipments in the robotic work
cell. It deals with the detection of variables such as range, proximity, and touch. External sensing is
used for robot guidance, as well as for object identification and handling. External state sensors may
be further classified as contact or noncontact sensors.

Fig: Robot gripper with fingertip force and tactile sensing.

Contact sensors respond to physical contact, such as touch, slip, and proximity. Touch includes
whether something is touching, the pressure of a touch and weights and forces. Slip refers to the
motion of an object sliding out of a mechanical hand or gripper. Proximity sensors measure the
nearness of objects and displacements of the robot or target. Contacting sensors must touch their
environment to operate. Their use is limited to objects and conditions that can do no harm to the
sensors. Contact devices vary in sensitivity and complexity. Contact sensor operation is based on
transducers. Whereas some use purely electrical transducers such as pressure variable resistances,
others rely on mechanical processes that arc changed into an electrical signal by various means such as
strain gauges, optics or potentiometers. The most simple contact sensor is merely a mechanical switch.
The more sophisticated devices can produce a three dimensional profile of an object.
Non contacting sensors gather information without touching an object. They can be used in
environments where contact sensors would be damaged. Noncontact sensors rely on the response of a
detector to variations in acoustic or electromagnetic radiation. They can measure many parameters,
including velocity, position, and orientation. Simple Noncontact sensors merely determine whether
something is present or not in its range. More complicated devices can be used to distinguish between
8 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

objects and work pieces. Through special techniques, data for a three dimensional profile of an object
can be obtained as with tactile sensing. The vision and range sensing generally provide gross guidance
information for a manipulator, while proximity and touch are associated with the terminal stages of
object grasping. Force and torque sensors are used as feedback devices to control manipulation of an
object once it has been grasped.
 Touch and Tactile Sensors:
Touch sensors are used in robotics to obtain information associated with the contact between a
manipulator hand and objects in the workspace. Touch information can be used, for example, for
object location and recognition, as well as to control the force exerted by a manipulator on a given
object. Touch sensors can be subdivided into two principal categories: binary and analog. Binary
sensors are basically switches which respond to the presence or absence of an object. Analog sensors,
on the other hand, output a signal proportional to a local force.
Binary Sensors: - Binary touch sensors are contact devices, such as micro-switches which either turns
on or off when pressed. A switch is placed on the inner surface of each finger of a manipulator hand,
as shown in Fig. This type of sensing is useful for determining if a part is present between the fingers.
By moving the hand over an object and sequentially making contact with its surface, it is also possible
to center the hand over the object for grasping and manipulation. Multiple binary touch sensors can be
used on the inside surface of each finger to provide further tactile information. In addition, they are
often mounted on the external surfaces of a manipulator hand to provide control signals useful for
guiding the hand throughout the work space.

Fig: Binary touch sensors.

Analog Sensors: - An analog touch sensor is a compliant device whose output is proportional to a
local force. The simplest of these devices consists of a spring-loaded rod shown in Fig. which is
mechanically linked to a rotating shaft in such a way that the displacement of the rod due to a lateral
force results in a proportional rotation of the shaft. The rotation is then measured continuously using a
potentiometer or digitally using a code wheel. Knowledge of the spring constant yields the force
corresponding to a given displacement.

Fig: A basic analog touch sensor.

Tactile Sensing: - is the detection and measurement of the spatial distribution of forces perpendicular
to a predetermined sensory area, and the subsequent interpretation of the spatial information. Tactile
sensors can be used to sense a diverse range of stimulus ranging from detecting the presence or

9 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

absence of a grasped object to a complete tactile image. A tactile sensor consists of an array of touch
sensors. The contact forces measured by these sensors are able to convey a large amount of
information about the state of a grip. Texture, slip, impact and other contact conditions generate force
and position signatures that can be used to identify the state of a manipulation of object.

Fig: A robot hand equipped with tactile sensing arrays.

 Range Sensing:
Range sensors are devices that capture the three dimensional (3-D) structure of the world from the
viewpoint of the sensor, usually measuring the depth to the nearest surfaces. These measurements
could be at a single point, across a scanning plane, or a full image with depth measurements at every
point. The benefits of this range data is that a robot can be reasonably certain where the real world is,
relative to the sensor, thus allowing the robot to more reliably find navigable routes, avoid obstacles,
grasp objects, act on industrial parts, etc. Several range sensing techniques are Triangulation,
Structured Lighting Approach and Time-of-Flight Range Finders
Triangulation method: -An object is illuminated by a narrow beam of light which is swept over the
surface. The sweeping motion is in the plane defined by the line from the object to the detector and the
line from the detector to the source. If the detector is focused on a small portion of the surface then,
when the detector sees the light spot, its distance D to the illuminated portion of the surface can be
calculated from the geometry of Fig. since the angle of the source with the baseline and the distance B
between the source and detector are known. The above approach yields a point measurement. If the
source-detector arrangement is moved in a fixed plane (up and down and sideways on a plane
perpendicular to the paper and containing the baseline in Fig.), then it is possible to obtain a set of
points whose distances from the detector are known. These distances are easily transformed to three-
dimensional coordinates by keeping track of the location and orientation of the detector as the objects
are scanned.

Fig: Range sensing by triangulation

Structured Lighting Approach: - This approach consists of projecting a light pattern onto a set of
objects and using the distortion of the pattern to calculate the range a sheet of light generated
through a cylindrical lens or a narrow slit. As illustrated in Fig. the intersection of the sheet with
objects in the work space yields a light stripe which is viewed through a television camera displaced
10 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

a distance B from the light source. The stripe pattern is easily analyzed by a computer to obtain
range information. For example, an inflection indicates a change of surface, and a break corresponds
to a gap between surfaces. Most systems based on the sheet-of-light approach use digital images.

Fig: Structured Lighting Approach

Time-of-Flight Range Sensors: - Time-of-flight range sensors exactly compute distance by
measuring the time that a pulse of light takes to travel from the source to the observed target and
then to the detector (usually collocated with the source). In a sense, they are radar sensors that are
based on light. The travel time multiplied by the speed of light (in the given medium – space, air or
water – and adjusted for the density and temperature of the medium) gives the distance. Laser-based
time-of-flight range sensors are also caller light detection and ranging (LIDAR) or laser radar
(LADAR) sensors.

Fig: Range Sensors

 Proximity Sensing:
Proximity sensors have a binary output which indicates the presence of an object within a specified
distance interval. Typically, proximity sensors are used in robotics for near-field work in connection
with object grasping or avoidance.
o Inductive Sensors
o Hall-Effect Sensors
o Capacitive Sensors
o Ultrasonic Sensors
o Optical Proximity Sensors
11 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

Inductive Sensors: - Sensors based on a change of inductance due to the presence of a metallic object
near its field. Figure shows a schematic diagram of an inductive sensor which basically consists of a
wound coil located next to a permanent magnet packaged in a simple, rugged housing. When there is
no ferromagnetic object in its field there is no movement of the flux lines and, therefore, no current is
induced in the coil. However, as a ferromagnetic object enters or leaves the field of the magnet, the
resulting change in the flux lines induces a current pulse whose amplitude and shape are proportional
to the rate of change in the flux. The voltage waveform observed at the output of the coil provides an
effective means for proximity sensing.

Fig: An inductive sensor Fig: Shape of flux lines Fig: Shape of flux lines
in the absence of a when a ferromagnetic body
ferromagnetic body is brought close to the
. sensor
Hall-Effect Sensors: - The Hall Effect relates the voltage between two points in a conducting or
semiconducting material to a magnetic field across the material. When used by themselves, Hall-effect
sensors can only detect magnetized objects. However, when used in conjunction with a permanent
magnet in a configuration such as the one shown in Fig. they are capable of detecting all ferromagnetic
materials. When used in this way, a Hall-effect device senses a strong magnetic field in the absence of
a ferromagnetic metal in the near field, when ferromagnetic material is brought in close proximity with
the device, the magnetic field weakens at the sensor due to bending of the field lines through the
material. Thus reduces the Lorentz force and, ultimately, the voltage across the semiconductor. This
drop in voltage is the key for sensing proximity with Hall-effect sensors.

Fig: Hall-effect sensor

Capacitive Sensors:- The capacitive sensors are potentially capable (with various degrees of
sensitivity) of detecting all solid and liquid materials. These sensors are based on detecting a change in
capacitance induced by a surface that is brought near the sensing element. The basic components of a
capacitive sensor are shown in figure below. The sensing element is a capacitor composed of a
12 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

sensitive electrode and a reference electrode. These can be a metallic disk and ring separated by a
dielectric material. A cavity of dry air is usually placed behind the capacitive element to provide
isolation. The rest of the sensor consists of electronic circuitry which can be included as an integral
part of the unit, in which case it is normally embedded in a resin to provide sealing and mechanical
support. The capacitor is included as part of an oscillator circuit, so that the oscillation starts only
when the capacitance of the sensor exceeds a predefined threshold value. The start of oscillation is
then translated into an output voltage which indicates the presence of an object. This method provides
a binary output whose triggering sensitivity depends on the threshold value.

Fig: A capacitive proximity sensor.

One more approach utilizes the capacitive element as part of a circuit which is continuously driven by
a reference sinusoidal waveform. A change in capacitance produces a phase shift between the
reference signal and a signal derived from the capacitive element. The phase shift is proportional to
the change in capacitance and can thus be used as a basic mechanism for proximity detection.

Ultrasonic Sensors: - It is a popular sensor in robotics that employs acoustic pulses and their echoes
to measure the range to an object. Since the sound speed is usually known, the object range is
proportional to the echo travel time. At ultrasonic frequencies the sonar energy is concentrated in a
beam, providing directional information in addition to range. Its popularity is due to its low cost, light
weight, low power consumption, and low computational effort, compared to other ranging sensors. In
some applications, such as in underwater and low-visibility environments, sonar is often the only
viable sensing modality. Sonars in robotics have three different, but related, purposes:
1. Obstacle avoidance: the first detected echo is assumed to measure the range to the closest object.
Robots use this information to plan paths around obstacles and to prevent collisions.
2. Sonar mapping: a collection of echoes acquired by performing a rotational scan or from a sonar
array is used to construct a map of the environment. Similar to a radar display, a range dot is
placed at the detected range along the probing pulse direction.
3. Object recognition: a sequence of echoes or sonar maps is processed to classify echo-producing
structures composed of one or more physical objects. When successful, this information is useful
for robot registration or landmark navigation.
The electro acoustic transducer as shown in figure below is of the piezoelectric ceramic type. The
resin layer protects the transducer against humidity, dust, and other environmental factors, it also acts
as an acoustical impedance matcher. Since the same transducer is generally used for both transmitting
and receiving, fast damping of the acoustic energy is necessary to detect objects at close range. This is
accomplished by providing acoustic absorbers, and by decoupling the transducer from its housing. The
housing is designed so that it produces a narrow acoustic beam for efficient energy transfer and signal
directionality. The operation of an ultrasonic proximity sensor is best understood by analyzing the
waveforms used for both transmission and detection of the acoustic energy signals. Robots use the
13 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

pulse mode at larger distances to determine their own position relative to their environment and at
short distances to determine the range of target object.

Fig: An ultrasonic proximity sensor

Optical Proximity Sensors: - Optical proximity sensors are similar to ultrasonic sensors in the sense
that they detect proximity of an object by its influence on a propagating wave as it travels from a
transmitter to a receiver. One of the most common approaches for detecting proximity by optical
means is shown in figure below. This sensor consists of a solid-state light-emitting diode (LED),
which acts as a transmitter of infrared light, and a solid-state photodiode which acts as the receiver.
The cones of light formed by focusing the source and detector on the same plane intersect in a long,
pencil like volume. This volume defines the field of operation of the sensor since a reflective surface
which intersects the volume is illuminated by the source and simultaneously "seen" by the receiver. A
surface located anywhere in the sensitive volume will produce a reading. It is possible to calibrate the
intensity of these readings as a function of distance for known object orientations and reflective
characteristics.

Fig: Optical proximity sensor

 Force and Torque Sensing:
Force and torque sensors are used primarily for measuring the reaction forces developed at the
interface between mechanical assemblies. The principal approaches for doing this are joint and wrist
sensing. A joint sensor measures the Cartesian components of force and torque acting on a robot joint
and adds them vectorially. For a joint driven by a dc motor, sensing is done simply by measuring the
armature current. Wrist sensors are mounted between the tip of a robot arm and the end-effector. They
consist of strain gauges that measure the deflection of the mechanical structure due to external forces.

14 P E S C E Mandya
 VIII Sem Mechanical Industrial Robotics

Fig: Wrist force sensor

The sensor shown in figure uses eight pairs of semiconductor strain gauges mounted on four deflection
bars one gauge on each side of a deflection bar. The differential connection of the strain gauges
provides automatic compensation for variations in temperature. Since the eight pairs of strain gauges
are oriented normal to the x, y, and z axes of the force coordinate frame, the three components of force
F and three components of moment M can be determined by properly adding and subtracting the
output voltages, respectively.

15 P E S C E Mandya