Unit 2

Unit 2 Actuators & Sensors
2.1 Actuators
Actuators are devices which provide the actual motive force for the robot joints. Actuators
are like the muscles of a human arm and hand. The actuators are classified based on their
source of power as:
 Hydraulic Actuators
 Pneumatic Actuators and
 Electric Actuators
2.1.1 Hydraulic Actuators
 Hydraulic actuators are powered by pressurized oil.
 Hydraulic actuators are designed to operate at pressures of 1000 to 3000 psi and are hence
suitable for high power applications.
 The various components of a hydraulic actuator are shown in fig.1.
Fig.1. Components of a hydraulic actuator
 A simplified hydraulic circuit is as shown in fig.2.
Fig.2. Hydraulic Circuit
EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

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 The oil which is the source of power for hydraulic actuators is stored in a reservoir. The
oil is first filtered by an oil filter. The filtered oil is sucked using a hydraulic pump.
Valves are used to control the flow of oil in the circuit. There is a four – way valve which
allows the flow of oil in forward and reverse directions. The flow of oil in the forward
direction is via the feed line, and in the reverse direction it is via the return line. The
pressurized oil actuates a piston inside the cylinder, which causes the actuation of joints
of a robot.
 An accumulator is a storage device which can be used when there is a sudden demand in
power.
 The inertial load, linear spring and viscous damper in fig.2 represent the mechanical
system of robot.
 An important attribute to be selected is the bulk modulus of the oil. If the bulk modulus of
oil is high, the robot is stiff, quick responding and the pressure build up is fast. On the
other hand if the bulk modulus is low, the robot is loose, slow responding and the
pressure build up takes a lot of time.
 The advantages of hydraulic actuator are:
 High efficiency and high power – to – size ratio.
 Complete and accurate control over speed, position and direction of actuators
are possible.
 Large forces can be applied directly at desired locations
 Greater load carrying capacity than pneumatic and electric actuators.
 No mechanical linkages are required.
 Self-lubricating and non – corrosive. (since oil is used)
 Can meet sudden demands in power (because of presence of accumulator)
 More capable of withstanding shock loads than the electric actuators.
 The drawbacks of hydraulic actuator are:
o Leakages can occur, causing loss in performance and general contamination of
working area.
o Risk of fire is higher.
o The power pack is noisy (70dB), if not protected by acoustic muffler.
o As the viscosity of oil changes with temperature, the movement of robot gets
affected (When temperature increases, viscosity decreases and hence movement
increases. When temperature decreases, viscosity increases and hence movement
decreases or becomes sluggish)
o For smaller robots, hydraulic actuators are not economically feasible.
o Servo control of hydraulic systems is complex.
2.1.2 Pneumatic Actuators
Pneumatic actuators are powered by compressed air.
Pneumatic actuators are widely used for typical opening and closing motions of jaws in
the gripper of the robot.
Pneumatic actuators operate at about 100 psi, which is very small when compared to the
hydraulic actuators, and are hence not suitable for high power applications.
The various components of a pneumatic actuator are shown in fig.3.
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Fig.3. Pneumatic Actuator Circuit

The air which is the source of power for pneumatic actuators is first filtered for dust
particles if any. The filtered air is then compressed using a compressor. The compressed
clean air after passing through an after cooler is stored in the receiver tank. The stored air
is then passed through the drier for removal of moisture content, as moisture can damage
the components of pneumatic system.
The air then passes through a FRL (Filter – Regulator – lubricator) package, where it is
filtered, regulated (controlled) and lubricated. This air then passes through a direction
control valve and then actuates the actuator component.
The advantages of pneumatic actuator are:
Cheapest of all the actuators
Easy to store and transmit compressed air
Compressed air is clean, explosion proof and insensitive to temperature variations
They are reliable and maintenance cost is low because of fewer moving parts
Technology is very familiar one
Very quick in action and response time is less, thus suitable for fast work cycles
No mechanical transmission device is usually required
No danger of explosion or electrocution
Compact system
Control is simple
Interconnection between components is easy
The drawbacks of pneumatic actuators are:
o Since air is compressible, precise control of speed and position is not easily
obtainable
o Resetting the system will be slow if mechanical stops are used
o Not suitable for heavy loads
o If moisture penetrates the units, the components can get damaged.
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2.1.3 Electric Actuators
An electric actuator is one where an electric motor drives robot links through some
mechanical transmission devices like gears.
The advantages of electric actuator are:
Widespread availability of power supply
Lighter than hydraulic and pneumatic actuators
High power conversion efficiency
No pollution of the environment
Better accuracy & repeatability
Quite and clean
Easy to maintain and repair
Well suited for electronic control
The drawbacks of electric actuators are:
o Mechanical transmission systems are required
o Additional power is required for moving the parts of transmission system
o Unwanted movements due to backlash and plays in the transmission elements
o Because of complex transmission system, the control system is complex
o Not safe in explosive environments
The various types of electric motors are:
Stepper motors
 Variable reluctance type
 Permanent magnet type
 Hybrid type
DC motors
 Permanent magnet type
 Brushless Permanent magnet type
 DC Servo motors
AC motors
 Single phase squirrel – cage induction motor
 Three phase induction motor
 Synchronous motor
 AC Servo motor
Linear Actuators (Solenoid)
The motors commonly used in robotics are Stepper motors, DC Servo motors and AC
Servo motors.
2.1.3.1 Stepper Motors

A stepper motor is actuated by a series of discrete electrical pulses and provides output in
the form of discrete angular motion increments.
In robotics, stepper motors are used for relatively light duty applications.
Stepper motors are used in open loop systems rather than closed loop systems.

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The schematic of a stepper motor is shown in fig.4.
Fig.4. Stepper motor schematic
The stator is made up of four electromagnetic poles and the rotor is a two – pole
permanent magnet.
If the electromagnetic stator poles are activated in such a way that pole3 is N (North
Pole) and pole1 is S (South Pole), then the rotor alignment is as shown in fig.4.
If the stator is excited so that pole4 is N and pole2 is S, then the rotor makes a 90° turn in
the clockwise direction.
By rapidly switching the current to the stator electronically, it is possible to make the
motion of rotor appear continuous.
The resolution of stepper motor is determined by the number of poles in the stator and
rotor. More the number of poles more will be the resolution. The resolution is given by:
The relation between resolution and step angle is given by:
Where, n is the resolution and A is the step angle.

The torque – speed characteristics of a stepper motor is as shown in fig.5.
Fig.5. Torque – speed characteristics of stepper motor

The torque is also a function of the angle between stator and rotor poles.
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The torque is maximum, when the poles are aligned.
The maximum torque is called “holding torque” of the motor.
To increase the resolution of stepper motor, a technique known as “half stepping” or
“micro stepping” can be used. In this technique, current is applied to more than one set of
stator windings, so that the rotor seeks an average position.
One drawback of half stepping or micro stepping is that the value of holding torque
decreases.
The advantages of stepper motor are:
Do not require any feedback system
No digital to analog conversion is necessary
Motor inertia is often low
The drawbacks of stepper motor are:
o Lower output
o Lower efficiency
o Drive inputs and circuitry have to be designed carefully
 There are three types of stepper motors:
 Permanent magnet stepper motors
 Variable reluctance stepper motors and
 Hybrid stepper motors
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motors
Fig.6. Permanent magnet stepper motor

 In permanent magnet stepper motors, the stator consists of wound poles and the rotor
poles are permanent magnets.
 The stator of phase II differs by 90° phase angle when compared to that of phase I.
 When phase I is excited, the rotor alignment is as shown in fig.6(i). If now the phase II is
also excited, the effective stator poles shift anticlockwise by 22.5° as shown in fig.6(ii).
Now, keeping the phase II still energised, if the phase I is de – energised, the rotor will
move another 22.5°.
 The permanent magnet stepper motors have the advantage that they have a small residual
holding torque called detent torque, even when the stator is not energized.
Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors

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 A variable reluctance stepper motor has no permanent magnet on the rotor and the rotor
employed is a multi – toothed ferromagnetic material.
 The large differences in magnetic reluctances that exist between the direct and quadrature
axes develop the torque.
 The stationary field developed by DC in some stator coils tends to develop a torque which
causes the rotor to move to a position where the reluctance of the flux path is minimum.
Hybrid Stepper Motor
 This is a combination of permanent magnet type and variable reluctance type stepper
motors.
 A hybrid stepper motor is a permanent magnet stepper motor with constructional features
of toothed and stacked rotor adopted from the variable reluctance type.
 The main advantage of hybrid stepper motor is that even if the stator excitation is
removed, the rotor continues to remain locked into the same position, as it was before the
removal of excitation.
2.1.3.2 DC Servo Motors
 DC motors used in closed loop position control are called servomotors.

 They are best suited for high power applications.
 Servomotors are motors with motion feedback control, which are able to follow a
specified motion trajectory.
 A DC servomotor is as shown in fig.7.
Fig.7. DC Servomotor
 In a DC servomotor, both angular position and speed can be measured (using devices
such as shaft encoders, tachometers, resolvers, potentiometers etc.) and compared with
the desired position and speed. The error signal (difference between the desired and actual
response) is conditioned and compensated using analog circuitry or is processed by a
digital hardware processor or computer and supplied to drive the servomotor towards the
desired response.
 DC servomotors can be either brushed motors or brushless motors.
 In a brushless servomotor, the armature windings are in stator and the permanent magnets
are in rotor.
 In a brushed servomotor, the armature windings are in rotor and the permanent magnets
are in stator.
 In brushed servomotor, the rotor includes the armature, commutator assembly and the
stator includes permanent magnet and brush assemblies. When current flows through the
windings of the armature, it sets up a magnetic field opposing the field setup by the
magnets. This produces a torque on the rotor. As the rotor rotates, the brush and
commutator assemblies switch the current to the armature so that the field remains

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opposed to the one setup by the magnets. In this way, the torque produced by the rotor is
constant throughout the rotation.
 The types of DC servomotor are:
 Series type
 Split series type
 Shunt control type
 Permanent magnet shunt type
 The series type motor has high starting torque, it draws large current, has poor speed
regulation.
 The split series motor is a DC series motor with split field, which can be operated as a
separately excited field – controlled motor. Its torque decreases rapidly as the speed is
increased.
 The shunt control motor has two separate windings viz. field winding placed on stator,
armature winding placed on rotor. The difference between conventional DC shunt motor
and shunt control servomotor is that in conventional motor the two windings are
connected in parallel to a common DC supply, but in servomotor, they are driven by
separate DC supplies.
 Permanent magnet shunt motor is a fixed excitation shunt motor where the field is
actually supplied by a permanent magnet.
 For a DC servomotor, the relation between torque and armature current is given by:
 The speed – torque characteristics of DC servomotor is a linear one as shown in fig.8.

Torque
Speed
Fig.8. Torque – speed characteristics of DC servomotor
2.1.3.3 AC Servo Motors

 AC servomotors are best suited for low power applications.
 An AC servomotor is basically a two – phase induction motor except for some special
design features. The basic difference between them is that in ac servomotor, the
conducting bars are thinner and hence the motor resistance is higher.
 There are two types of AC servomotor:
 Drag – cup rotor servomotor and
 Shaded – pole type servomotor
Drag – cup Rotor Servomotor

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 This type is used for low inertia applications.
 Here the rotor construction is squirrel cage or drag cup type. The rotor core is stationary
here and only the light weighted cup rotates.
 There are two windings viz. main winding (fixed or reference winding) and control
winding. The voltages applied to these windings are separated by 90°. Usually one
winding is excited with a fixed voltage, while the other is excited by control voltage from
servo amplifier.
 The magnitude of output torque is proportional to the control voltage and the direction of
torque depends on the polarity of control voltage.
Shaded – pole type servomotor
 This motor employs a phase – sensitive relay to actuate those contacts which produce a
short circuit of the shaded pole winding to produce rotation in the desired direction.
 One main drawback of this motor is that it responds only when the amplifier error signal
is of adequate magnitude to cause the relay to operate.
2.1.4 Power Transmission Systems

 As mentioned already, one drawback of electric actuators as compared to the pneumatic
& hydraulic actuators is that they require some kind of mechanical power transmission
system as the output of electric motors cannot be directly fed to the robot.
 A power transmission system usually performs two functions:
 Transmit power at a distance and
 Act as power transformer
 Mechanical power transmission can be performed by belts & pulleys, chains & sprockets,
gears, transmission shafts and screws.
 The commonly used power transmission in robots is by gears. Gears transmit rotary
motion from one shaft to another.
 For transmission between parallel shafts, spur gears are used.
 A two gear spur gear train is shown in fig.
 The driving gear is known as pinion and the other gear is
driven gear.
 The gear ratio is given by:
 The relation between input and output speed is:
 The relation between input and output torque is:
2.1.5 Determination of Horse Power (HP) of motor

The Horse Power (HP) of motor is given by the formula:

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2.2 Sensors
 For a robotic manipulator to operate effectively and intelligently and to enable it to work
in an unstructured environment, sensors are required.
 A sensor is a transducer used to measure physical variables.
2.2.1 Function of Sensors / Need of Sensors

The functions of sensor in robotics are:
 Status sensors
 Environment sensors
 Quality control sensors
 Safety sensors and
 Workcell control sensors
Status Sensors:
 The function of status sensors is to sense the position, velocity, acceleration, torque /
force at each joint of the manipulator.
 These sensors form an essential part of the basic or internal closed – loop control systems
and are hence called internal sensors or state sensors or status sensors.
 The degree of accuracy achievable by the manipulator depends on the resolution and
accuracy of these internal sensors.
 Since internal sensors are required for each axis / joint of a manipulator, they should be
cost effective.
Environment Sensors:
 The function of environment sensors is to sense the objects in the workcell and the
surrounding of the robot.
 These sensors help the robot to modify or adapt to a given situation.
 Since these sensors are placed in the environment of the robot or are external to the
manipulator, they are called external or environment sensors.
 Some functions of environment sensors are:
 Detecting the presence of workpiece
 Determination of position and or orientation of the workpiece and of the objects
to be handled.
 Identification of workpiece
 Determination of workpiece properties such as size, shape and so on.
 Detect, identify obstacles in the environment and provide information about their
size, shape, location, speed and so on.
 Provide information about the surrounding temperature, humidity etc.
 The accuracy requirement of these sensors is more than those of internal sensors.
 The information obtained from external sources should be processed by computer in real
time to guide the manipulator for executing the work effectively.
Quality Sensors:
 These sensors are used for inspection and quality control purpose.
 The faults and failures in the finished products can be detected using these sensors.
 Vision sensors, ultrasonic sensors and other sensors are usually used for this purpose.

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Safety Sensors:
 These sensors are used for safety and hazard monitoring.
 These sensors ensure the safety of workers, other equipment and manipulator. For
example, in case of power failure, the manipulator may fall due to gravity and injure a
human or machine. Sensor can be provided to sense the power failure and ensure that
manipulator doesn’t fall.
Workcell Control Sensors:

 These sensors are used to implement interlocks in workcell.
 These sensors are used where a sequence of tasks is to be performed, where in the
completion of a task must be ensured before proceeding to the next task. For example, a
part must arrive on the conveyor before the gripper can pick it.
2.2.2 Types / Classification of Sensors

 The sensors in robotics are broadly classified as:
 Internal Sensors and
 External Sensors
 Internal sensors are those that measure the internal state of the robot (i.e. position,
velocity, acceleration, force etc.).
 External sensors are used to learn about the robot’s environment. They are further
classified as contact type and non – contact type.
 The classification of sensors is shown in fig.9 below:
Fig.9. Classification of sensors used in robotics
2.2.2.1 Position Sensors

 Position sensors are used to measure the position of each joint (joint angles). Using the
joint angles, the position and orientation of the end effector can be found.
 The various position sensors used in robotics are Encoder, Potentiometer, LVDT,
Synchros and resolver.

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1) Encoder:
 Encoder is a digital optical device that converts motion into a sequence of digital
pulses.
 Encoders are of two types:
 Incremental Encoder
 Absolute Encoder
Incremental Encoder
Fig.10. Incremental Encoder

 This is used to measure linear displacement / position.
 This device has a transparent glass scale with opaque grating.
 One side of scale is provided with a light source and a condenser lens. On the other
side, there are light sensitive cells.
 The resistance of light – sensitive cells decreases whenever a beam of light falls on
them. Thus a pulse is generated each time a beam of light is intersected by opaque line.
This pulse is fed to the controller, which updates a counter.
 The drawback of incremental encoder is that there is a chance of missing a pulse at
higher speeds.
Absolute Encoder
Fig.11. Absolute Encoder

 The principle is same as the incremental encoder, except that here absolute value of
distance covered at any time is obtained. So the chance of missing a pulse is less.
 The scale here is marked in a sequence of opaque and transparent strips as shown in
fig.11. An example of how the reading is taken is also shown in fig.11.
2) Potentiometer:
 A potentiometer is an electromechanical device containing an electrically conductive

wiper that slides against a fixed resistive element according to the position or angle of

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an external shaft. Hence a potentiometer can be used to measure either linear or
angular displacement.
 Potentiometers are based on the principle that “Application of displacement to the
wiper attached to the potential divider arrangement causes a change in the output
voltage”.
 Depending on the motion of the wiper, the potentiometers can be classified as:
 Linear potentiometer or translational potentiometer
 Rotational potentiometer and
 Helical potentiometer or Helipot
 In case of translational potentiometer or linear potentiometer, the motion of the wiper
is translational. These can be used only for the measurement of linear displacements.
 In case of rotational potentiometer, the motion of the wiper is rotational. These can be
used only for the measurement of angular displacements.
 In case of helical potentiometer or Helipot, the motion of the wiper can be either
translational or rotational. These can be used for the measurement of both linear and
angular displacements.
 The construction of translational and rotational potentiometer is shown in fig.12.
Shaft
Wiper Displacement
Mandrel Resistive Wire
+ − e0
ei
(a) (b)
Fig.12. (a) Linear Potentiometer (b) Angular Potentiometer

 The electrical circuit of potentiometer is as shown in fig.13.
Linear
Potentiometer
Output Voltage, e0
ei
Sliding Contact
L
xi e0
Displacement, xi
Fig.13. Electric circuit of potentiometer and its relation between input & output
 The relation between input displacement and output voltage is

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3) Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):

 The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is an inductive transducer based
on the variation of mutual inductance with displacement.
 These are based on the principle that depending on the position of the core, flux linking
with the coils and hence voltages induced in them varies.
 The construction of LVDT is shown in fig.14.
Secondary Primary Secondary
winding (S1) winding (P) winding (S2)
Former
Soft Iron Core

Displacement
Fig.14. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

 The LVDT consists of a single primary winding (P) and two secondary windings (S1 &
S2) wound on a cylindrical former.
 The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on either
side of the primary winding.
 A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former.
 The equivalent circuit of LVDT is as shown in fig.15.
A.C
excitation
Primary
Winding
Soft Iron Core

Displacement
Secondary
Windings
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑠
𝐸 𝐸𝑠 − 𝐸𝑠
Fig.15. Equivalent circuit of LVDT
 The primary winding excited by an A.C source induces an alternating magnetic field,
which in turn induces A.C voltages in the two secondary windings.
 The output voltage Es1 and Es2 from the two secondary windings is converted into a single
voltage signal E0 by connecting them in series opposition as shown in fig.15. Hence the
output voltage is the difference of the two voltages.
−

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2.2.2.2 Velocity Sensors

 Velocity sensors are used to measure the velocity of movement of the robot arm.
 The various velocity sensors used in robotics are Tachometers, Hall Effect sensors &
various position sensors.
1) Tachometers:
Fig.16. Tachometers
 Tachometers are based on Fleming’s rule, which states that the voltage produced is
proportional to the rate of flux linkage.
 Here a permanent magnet is attached to the rotating element (shaft), which rotates in the
presence of current carrying core. As the speed of the shaft increases, the rate of flux
linkage increases and hence the voltage produced at the coil terminal also increases.
2) Hall Effect Sensor:
Fig.17. Hall Effect Sensor

 Hall Effect sensors are based on the Hall Effect, according to which “if potential
difference is applied on opposite faces of a flat piece of conductor material and magnetic
field is applied at right angles to the conductor, a voltage is generated on the two other
perpendicular faces.
 Higher the field value, higher is the voltage level.
 If a ring magnet is provided, the voltage produced is proportional to the speed of rotation
of the magnet.
3) Using Position Sensors:

These sensors are based on determining the position using a position sensor and then finding
the velocity using the relation

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2.2.2.3 Acceleration Sensors

Though acceleration can be found by dividing the velocity by time, this technique is
generally not preferred. Instead, acceleration is found using the value of force found from
force sensor and dividing it by the mass.
2.2.2.4 Force Sensors
1)Strain Gauge Based:

 Strain is the change in dimensions of a solid body when subjected to a force or stress.
 The force to be measured when applied to strain gauge, causes changes in dimensions.
 Strain gauges are based on the principle that “Whenever a metal conductor is stretched or
compressed, its resistance changes since both its length and diameter change. There is
also a change in resistivity of the conductor when strained and this property is called
piezoresistive effect.
2) Piezo – electric Based:
Piezoelectric transducers are based on piezoelectric effect. According to the piezoelectric
effect, when a piezoelectric material is subjected to mechanical stress or force, an electric
potential appears across certain surfaces of the crystal on account of change in dimensions of
the crystal. Hence when the force to be measured is applied to piezo – electric element, an
electrical voltage is produced proportional to the force applied to it.
2.2.2.5 Tactile Sensors
 In robotics, tactile (touch) sensors are used to obtain information associated with the
contact between manipulator hand and the objects in the workspace.
 Tactile sensors are of two types:
 Touch sensor and
 Force sensor / stress sensor
 Touch sensors provide a binary output signal indicating whether or not a contact has been
made with the object.
 Force sensors indicate not only that contact has been made with the object but also the
magnitude of contact force between the object and the fingers of the robot.
Touch Sensors
 They just indicate whether contact has been made or not. The output is binary in nature.
 Usually limit switches and micro-switches act as touch sensors.
 Touch sensors are usually used in interlock systems in robotics (i.e. to sense the presence
of object before picking it). Touch sensors can also be used for inspection purpose.
 A micro-switch used as touch sensor in shown in fig.18 below.
Fig.18. Micro – switch based touch sensor

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Force Sensors
 Force sensors indicate the contact force between the finger and the object.
 Force sensors aid the robot in performing various tasks such as:
 Capability to grasp parts of different sizes in material handling, machine loading
and assembly work.
 In assembly applications, force sensing is used to determine if the screws have
become cross – threaded or if the parts or jammed.
 Force sensing is usually achieved in three ways in robotics:
 Using force – sensitive wrist
 Joint sensing technique and
 Tactile array sensors
1) Force – Sensitive Wrist:

 In force – sensitive wrist, a special load cell is mounted between the gripper and the wrist.
 The purpose of force – sensitive wrist is to provide information about the three
components of force (Fx, Fy and Fz) and the three moments (Mx, My and Mz) beings
applied at the end effector.
 A force – sensitive wrist is as shown in fig.19 below.
Fig.19. Force – sensing wrist

 The force – sensing wrist consists of a metal bracket fastened to a rigid frame. The frame
is mounted to the wrist of the robot and the tool is mounted to the centre of the bracket.
The figure shows the reaction of sensors when a moment is applied to the bracket due to
the forces & moments on the tool.
 Since the forces are usually applied to the wrist in combinations, it is necessary to first
resolve the forces and moments into their six components. Based on these values, the
robot controller can obtain the required information of the forces and moments being
applied at the wrist. This information can be used in a number of applications. For
example, consider an insertion operation in assembly application, where a peg is to be
inserted into a hole. This application requires that no side forces be applied to the peg
during insertion operation. A technique called force accommodation is followed, wherein
certain forces are set to zero while others are set to specific values.
 Force – sensing wrists are usually very rigid devices so that they will not deflect
undesirably while under load.
 A force sensitive wrist must be sufficiently rugged to withstand an occasional crash of the
robot arm and at the same time it must be sensitive enough to detect small forces. This
design problem is solved by using a physical stop device such as overtravel limit which
prevents the force sensor from deflecting so far that it would get damaged.
2) Joint Sensing Technique:

 In joint sensing technique, the torque exerted by each joint is measured.
 To measure the torque, the motor current for each of the joint motors is to be measured.

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 Current is measured because for robots using DC servomotors, the torque exerted by the
motors is proportional to current flowing through armature.
 The simple technique to measure this current is to measure the voltage drop across a
small precision resistor in series with the motor.
 Though this technique is very simple, the drawback is that the measurements are made in
joint space, while the forces of interest are applied by the tool in tool space. Hence the
measurements not only indicate the force applied at the tool, but also the forces and
torques required to accelerate the links of the arm and to overcome the friction and
transmission losses of the joints.
 However this technique would be very useful in direct – drive robots, where the drive
motors are located at the joints of the manipulator. So, the transmission and friction losses
are reduced.
3) Tactile Array Sensors:

 A tactile array sensor is a special type of force sensor composed of a matrix of force –
sensing elements.
 The force data provided by tactile array sensors if combined with pattern recognition
techniques can be used to describe the following characteristics:
 Presence of object
 Object’s contact area, shape, location and orientation
 Pressure and pressure distribution
 Force magnitude and location
 A tactile array sensor is as shown in fig.20.
Fig.20. Tactile Array Sensor

 A tactile array sensor is composed of an array of conductive elastomer pads. As each pad
is squeezed by the contact between it and the object, its electrical resistance changes. The
change of electrical resistance is proportional to the deflection in the pad, which in turn is
proportional to the applied force. By measuring the resistance of each pad, information
about the shape of the object against the array of sensing elements can be determined.
2.2.2.6 Proximity and Range Sensors

 Proximity sensors generally provide a binary output and indicate the presence of an object
within a specified distance of travel.
 Range sensors are used to measure the distance between the object and the sensor.
 Generally, proximity and range sensors are located on the wrist or end – effector of the
robot.

18
Types of Proximity Sensors

 Contact Type
 Non – contact type
 Optical Sensors
 Ultrasonic Sensors (Acoustic Sensors)
 Eddy Current Sensors
 Inductive Sensors
 Hall – effect Sensors
 Capacitive Sensors
 Pneumatic Sensors
 Fibre – optic Sensors and
 Laser Sensors
1) Contact – type Proximity Sensor:
Fig.21. Contact – type proximity sensor

 It consists of a rod that protrudes from one end and a switch or linear position –
monitoring element (sensor) located within the body of the sensor.
 When the robotic manipulator moves, the sensor becomes active as soon as the rod comes
in contact with the object or obstacle. This causes change in the state of the switch (on –
off or off – on), which is monitored by the robot interface, causing appropriate action to
take place.
2) Acoustic / Ultrasonic Proximity / Range Sensor:

 Acoustic or ultrasonic sensors are commonly used for a wide variety of non – contact
presence, proximity, distance measuring or navigation applications.
 An ultrasonic sensor is as shown in fig.22
Fig.22. Ultrasonic Sensor

19
 Most ultrasonic sensors use a single transducer to transmit the sound pulse and receive the
reflected echo, typically operating at frequency of (40 – 250) KHz.
 Acoustic sensors typically transmit a short burst of ultrasonic sound towards the
workpiece, which reflects the sound back to the sensor.
 The system then counts the time for the echo to return to the sensor and calculates the
distance of the workpiece using the speed of sound in the medium.
 If there is no workpiece in the vicinity then the counter value reaches a fixed maximum
value and is detected by the peak detector. This stops the transmitting of further ultrasonic
waves.
An acoustic sensor is shown in fig.23.
Microphone Acoustic
Emitter
Closed end of
Object cylindrical
chamber
Fig.23. Acoustic Sensor

 An acoustic proximity sensor uses a cylindrical open – ended chamber with an acoustic
emitter at the closed end of the chamber. The emitter sets up a pattern of standing waves
in the cavity, which is altered by the presence of an object near the open end. A
microphone located in the wall of the chamber is used to sense the change in sound
pattern.
3) Eddy Current type Proximity Sensor:

 Eddy current sensors are used as proximity switch and for determining the accuracy and
repeatability of robot manipulators.
 They can be used to detect non – magnetic but conductive materials.
 The concept of eddy current type sensors are that when a coil is supplied with an
alternating current, an alternating magnetic field is produced. If there is a metal object in
close proximity to this alternating magnetic field, then eddy currents are induced in it.
The eddy currents themselves produce a magnetic field, which distort the magnetic field
already existing. This change in flux density indicates the presence of an object.
 The basic form of eddy current type proximity sensor is shown in fig.24.
Fig.24. Basic Eddy Current Proximity Sensor

 There are two coils namely sensor coil and reference coil. As the proximity sensor is
brought close to the conducting object (target), magnetic field in the sensor coil changes,
whereas the field of reference coil remains unchanged. This change in field values is an
indication of the presence of object (target).
20
 Another type of eddy current proximity sensor is the killed oscillator type shown in
fig.25.
Fig.25. Killed Oscillator type eddy current proximity sensor

 The presence of a metal target near the coil in the sensor’s probe causes the amplitude of
oscillator to drop since the induced currents represents a loss mechanism and thus causing
damping or killing of the sinusoidal waveform.
 A demodulator (integrator) responds to such a change by producing a smaller DC output.
 The level detector sees changes in DC level and changes switch state.
 In proximity switch applications, a thresholding circuit is used to detect when the level
drops below a predetermined value, and the switch state is changed. By adjusting the
threshold value, a robot manipulator can be stopped at a desired distance from an object.
 The advantages of eddy current type proximity sensor are:
 High flexibility
 High sensitivity to small displacements
 Smaller size
 Less expensive
 The disadvantages of eddy current type proximity sensor are:
o Must be calibrated for the type of metal used for the target
o Size of sensor depends on effective linear measuring range (larger distances
require larger probes)
4) Magnetic type Proximity Sensor:

 It is made using a reed switch and permanent magnet.
 The permanent magnet can be either made a part of object being detected or can be part
of the sensor device.
 In either case, the presence of object in the region of the sensor completes the magnetic
circuit and activates the reed switch.
 The advantages of these sensors are:
 Simple construction
 No external power supply is required.
5) Laser Proximity Sensor / Ranging Sensors:

Two types of laser proximity sensors can be used as proximity sensors. They are:
 Pulsed Laser type
 Time of flight type

21
Pulsed Laser type Proximity / Ranging Sensor
Fig.26. Pulsed Laser proximity sensor

 The pulsed laser proximity sensor consists of:
 Laser light source
 Two mirrors, one of which is rotated by AC motor and
 Lens – photo receiver assembly
 The light beam from the laser (He – Ne) falls on a mirror and then is directed onto a
motor driven triangular mirror. For one rotation of motor, light falls on the rotating mirror
thrice. This is done to get pulsed laser. This pulsed laser is directed onto the surface of
object to be detected.
 The light falling on the object is reflected. To acquire the light getting reflected from one
point of the surface, a lens is used. The light from the lens is received by the photo –
receiver.
 When the light leaves the source, the voltage is zero at the photo – receiver side. As the
light reaches the photo receiver, voltage increases. The time from when the voltage is
zero till it increases is an indication of the distance between object and light source.
 If the object is present nearer to the light source, then the time is less. If the object is far
then the time is more.
 Generally time is not calculated. Instead the number of clock pulses is counted. The clock
pulses start generating from the time the voltage is zero till the voltage starts to increase.
Thus the number of clock pulses is an indication of the distance between light source and
the object to be detected.
Time of flight type Proximity / Ranging Sensor

In this type, the time it takes for an emitted pulse of light to return coaxially i.e. along the
same path from a reflecting surface (object to be detected) is used to estimate the distance.
The relation between distance and time of flight is given by:
Where,
l is the distance between light source and object
C is the velocity of light
tpt is the pulse transit time

22
6) Fibre – Optic Proximity Sensors:

There are three configurations of this sensor:
 Opposed / Beam Break configuration
 Retro reflective configuration and
 Diffuse configuration
Opposed Configuration
Fig.27. Opposed Configuration

 In the opposed configuration or beam break configuration the object is detected when it
actually interrupts the beam of light.
 This configuration is only suitable for opaque objects.
 Using this configuration, the robot can only be informed regarding the presence / absence
of the object and not about the position of the object.
 The alignment of the receiver – fibre bundle is critical here as wrong alignment may lead
to errors.
Retro reflective Configuration
Fig.28. Retro reflective Configuration

 In this configuration, a reflective target is placed at some distance from the body of the
unit.
 An opaque object entering the area between the end of the fibre bundle and the target is
sensed, since the reflected light from the object and the reflected light from target passing
through object are both attenuated.
 Here a bifurcated fibre bundle is used so that the incident and reflected lights are carried
by the same fibre, thus eliminating the problem of alignment which was present in
opposed configuration.

23
Diffuse Configuration
Fig.29. Diffuse Configuration

 This configuration also uses a bifurcated fibre but doesn’t need a retro reflective target.
 This sensor can be used for detecting objects up to a few centimetres away from the fibre
bundle.
 This configuration can be used to detect transparent and translucent objects since most
materials reflect some light.
 This configuration is most commonly used because:
 It is self – contained (no reflective target is required)
 Rugged in construction
 Less weight
 Inexpensive
2.2.2.7 Range Sensing Techniques

The range sensing techniques are:
 Triangulation technique
 Structured lighting approach
 Time – of – flight range finder
Triangulation Technique:
Fig.30. Triangulation Technique

If the light source, detector and object are arranged such that they form a right angled triangle
as shown in fig.30, then from trigonometry,
Where l is the distance between the source and the object, d is the distance between light
source and detector, α is the angle.
24
Structured lighting approach:

 In this technique, a light pattern is projected on to a set of objects and the range is
calculated by using the distortion of the pattern.
 One of the most popular light patterns is a sheet of light generated through a cylindrical
lens or narrow slit.
 The intersection of the sheet with objects in the workspace yields a light stripe which is
viewed through a television camera placed at some distance from the light source. The
stripe pattern is easily analysed by a computer to obtain range information.
Time – of – flight range finder:

These methods involve the use of laser and ultrasonic waves. The time it takes for an emitted
pulse of light (laser) to return coaxially i.e. along the same path from a reflecting surface
(object to be detected) is used to estimate the distance. The relation between distance and
time of flight is given by:
Where,
l is the distance between light source and object
C is the velocity of light
tpt is the pulse transit time
2.2.3 Selection of Sensor

The following parameters must be considered for selecting a sensor for robotics applications:
Range / Span:
It is a measure of the difference between the minimum and maximum values of input that can
be measured by the sensor. For example, a strain gauge used to measure force in robotics has
a range of (0.1 to 10) N.
Sensitivity:
It is the ratio of change of output to change in input. For example, if a movement of 0.025mm
in a linear potentiometer causes an output voltage of 0.02 V, then the sensitivity is
. It is desired that the sensitivity of the sensor be high.
Linearity:
If the relation between output and input of sensor is linear, analysis and control is easy. Thus
sensors with linear characteristics are usually preferred.
Response Time:
It is the time required for the sensor to respond completely to a change in input. If the
response time of a sensor is high, it affects the response time of the system as a whole. Hence
while selecting a sensor it is to be ensured that the response time of sensor matches the
response time of the system.
Bandwidth:
It determines the maximum speed or frequency at which an instrument associated with a
sensor is capable of operating. High bandwidth implies faster speed of response.

25
Accuracy:
It is a measure of the degree of closeness of measured value to the true value. The sensor for
robots should be highly accurate.
Precision:
It is a measure of the degree of closeness among the readings when repetitive measurements
are made. A sensor should be precise for robotics applications.
Threshold and Resolution:
Threshold is the smallest measurable input and resolution is the smallest detectable input
change.
Hysteresis:
It is the mismatch in the output readings when the system is loaded and unloaded. Sensors
used in robotics should be free from hysteresis.
Nature / Type of output:
Output of a sensor can be in the form of mechanical movement or electric current / voltage or
pressure signal or light intensity or binary or analog / digital in nature. Depending on what is
the nature of signal accepted in the later stages, an appropriate sensor must be used.
Size and Weight:
When the sensor is mounted on the robot hand or arm, it becomes a part of the mass that must
be accelerated / decelerated by the drive motors. So, it directly affects the performance of the
robot. Hence the weight and size should be as small as possible.
Environmental Conditions:
Power requirement and its easy availability should be considered. Environment factors such
as corrosion, temperature, light, dirt accumulation, electromagnetic fields, shocks, vibrations
etc. need to be considered and proper shielding should be provided.
Reliability & Maintainability:
Reliability is a major factor in robotics applications. It can be measured in terms of Mean
Time To Failure (MTTF), which is defined as the average number of hours between failures
that cause some part of sensor to become inoperative.
Maintainability or ease of maintenance is another important factor to be considered while
selecting a sensor. It is measured in terms of Mean Time To Repair (MTTR), which is a
measure of how easily a sensor can be replaced in minimum possible time.
Interfacing:
Interfaces of sensors with signal conditioning devices and the controller of the robot is often a
determining factor in selecting a sensor. Non-standard plugs or requirements of non-standard
voltages and currents make a sensor too complex and expensive. Also signals from sensors
must be compatible with other equipment being used in later stages.
Other Aspects:
Other aspects to be considered are initial cost, maintenance cost, cost of disposal and
replacement, reputation of manufacturer, operating simplicity, ease of availability of sensors
and their spares.
2.3 Machine Vision
 Machine vision (or robotic vision or computer vision) is defined as the process of
acquiring and extracting information from images of a three dimensional world.
 Robotic vision deals with manipulation and interpretation of image and use of this
information in robot operation and control.
 The three functions of robotic vision system are
 Sensing & Digitizing image data
 Image processing and analysis
 Application

26
2.3.1 Components of Robotic Vision System

The various components of robotic vision system are shown in fig.31.
Fig.31. Robotic Vision System
2.3.1.1 Sensing & Digitizing Function

The steps in sensing & digitizing function are:
 Capturing the image using imaging devices under proper lighting conditions
 Digitizing the image using Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
 Image storage & computation using frame grabber
1) Imaging Devices
 Imaging devices are used to capture the image from the three dimensional world.
 There are a wide variety of commercial imaging devices available such as Black & White
Vidicon Tube and Solid State Camera.
 Solid state cameras include devices such as Charge Coupled Devices (CCD), Charge
Injection Devices (CID), Silicon Bipolar Sensor cameras.
Vidicon Tube
 A black & white Vidicon tube for capturing image is shown in fig.32.
Fig.32. Vidicon Tube
 The optical image is formed on the glass faceplate coated with a thin photosensitive
layer. The photosensitive layer is composed of a large number of photo resistive

27
elements. The resistance of these photo resistive elements decreases with increasing
illumination.
 Once the image forms on the face plate, a charge is accumulated which is a function
of the intensity of the impinging light over a specified time.
 The charge built up is read by scanning the photosensitive layer by a focused electron
beam produced by electron gun at the rear end of the tube.
 The scanning is controlled by a deflection coil mounted along the length of the tube.
 The electron beam is made to scan the entire surface typically 30 times/sec, line by
line, consisting of over 500 scan lines for the whole image.
 The scanning by electron beam can be carried out either line by line (30 times/sec) or
carried on alternate lines simultaneously (60 times/sec).
 The scanning process is illustrated in fig.33 below
Start Start
End
End
(a) (b)
Fig.33. (a) Scanning Line by Line (b) Scanning alternate lines at a time
 Fig.33(a) shows the scanning process one line at a time. The drawback with this
technique is flickering of image. To overcome flickering, the scan rate is increased by
scanning even (solid lines) and odd lines (dashed lines) simultaneously as shown in
fig.33(b).
Charge Coupled Devices (CCD)
 A CCD used for capturing image is shown in fig.34.
Fig.34. Charge Coupled Device (CCD)

 It consists of a monolithic array of closely spaced metal oxide semiconductor (SiO2)
forming the photosensitive layer.

28
 The light is absorbed on the photoconductive substrate (Nitride oxide substrate) and
charge accumulates around the isolated wells under control electrodes as shown in
fig.34. Each isolated well represents a pixel of the image.
 Charges are accumulated for the time it takes to complete a single image scan. The
charge built up is proportional to the intensity of image. Once the charge is
accumulated, it is transferred by electrodes line by line to the registers. This process is
shown in fig.35.
Fig.35. Registers in CCD

 As show in fig.35, register A accumulates the pixel charge produced by the light
image. Once accumulated for a single picture, the charges are transferred line by line
to register B. The pixel charges are read out line by line through a horizontal register
C to an output amplifier. During readout from register C, register A starts
accumulating new pixels.
2) Lighting Techniques
 Proper lighting is very essential for vision systems as good lighting reduces the
complexity of image processing algorithms in later stages.
 Poor lighting produces low – contrast images, shadows and noise.
 The various categories of lighting devices used in machine vision are:
 Diffuse Surface Devices like fluorescent lamps and light tables
 Condenser Projectors which transform expanding light source into condensing
light source
 Flood or Spot Projectors like flood lights and spot lights which illuminate the
surface areas
 Collimators which are used to provide parallel beam of light on the object
 Imagers such as slide projectors and optical enlargers which form image of target
on object plane.
 There are basically two illumination techniques. They are:
 Front Lighting and
 Back Lighting
 In front lighting, the light source is on the same side of the scene as the camera. Here the
reflected light is used to create the image viewed by camera.
 In back lighting, the light source is directed at the camera and is located behind the object
of interest. The image seen by the camera is a silhouette (shadow or outline) of the object
under study.

29
3) Analog to Digital Conversion

 Analog to digital conversion is required to convert an analog picture signal from the
camera into digital form that is suitable for processing by a computer or processor.
 Analog to digital conversion involves three processes:
 Sampling
 Quantization and
 Encoding
Sampling
 The analog signal obtained from camera is sampled periodically to obtain a series of
discrete time analog signal as shown in fig.36.
Fig.36. (a) Sampling of analog signal (b) Digital approximation of analog signal
 The selection of sampling rate is an important criterion here. The sampling rate should
be at least twice the highest frequency of the signal so that the reconstruction happens
without any losses at the receiving end.
Quantization
 Each sampled discrete time voltage level is assigned to a finite number of defined
amplitude levels.
 The number of quantization levels is given by 2n, where n is the number of bits of
ADC.
 More the number of bits, more precisely the signal can be represented.
 For example, in a 4 bit converter only 24=16 quantization levels can be used, whereas
in a 8 bit converter, 28=256 quantization levels can be used.
Encoding
 Encoding converts the quantized amplitude levels into a digital code.
 In encoding, an amplitude level is represented by a binary digit sequence.
 The ability of the encoding process to distinguish between various amplitude levels is
a function of spacing of each quantization level.

30
4) Image Storage & Computation

 A frame grabber is a hardware device which is an image storage and computation device
that stores a given pixel array.
 The capability of a frame grabber varies from simple storage of image to more powerful
computation facilities such as thresholding, windowing, calculations for histogram
modification.
2.3.1.2 Image Processing and Analysis

 The visual information obtained from the camera is voluminous and hence processing
becomes slow. Image processing aims at filtering out the unwanted data (noise &
irrelevant data) and retaining only the useful information from the acquired image.
 The various image processing techniques are:
 Image Data Reduction
 Segmentation
 Feature Extraction and
 Object Recognition
1) Image Data Reduction
 The objective here is to reduce the volume of data.
 The commonly used data reduction techniques are:
 Digital Conversion
 Windowing
 Digital conversion reduces the number of grey levels used by the machine vision system.
For example an 8 bit register used for each pixel would have 28=256 grey levels. Instead,
if 4 bits are used to represent the pixel, only 24=16 grey levels are sufficient.
 Windowing involves using only a portion of total image stored in the frame buffer for
processing and analysis. This portion is called the window. For example, for inspection of
PCB, one may wish to inspect and analyse only one type of component on the board. A
rectangular window can be chosen and only pixels within the window can be analysed.
2) Segmentation
 The objective of segmentation is to group areas of an image having similar characteristics
or features into entities representing parts of the image. For example, boundaries (edges)
or regions (areas) represent two natural segments of any image.
 The various image segmentation techniques are:
 Thresholding
 Region Growing and
 Edge Detection
Thresholding
 It is a binary conversion technique in which each pixel is converted into a binary
value, either black or white. This is usually accomplished by utilizing a frequency
histogram of the image and establishing what intensity (grey level) is to be the
border between black and white. Histogram is the plot of the number of pixels
versus the grey level.
 Thresholding is the most widely used technique for segmentation in industrial vision
applications, because it is fast and easily implemented.
Region Growing
 In this technique, pixels are grouped in regions called grid elements based on their
attribute similarities.
 For example consider the image shown in fig.37.
31
Fig.37 (a) Image pattern with Grid (b) Segmented Image

 To differentiate between the object and background, assign 1 for any grid element
occupied by an object and 0 for background elements. It can be noted that here hole in
the key couldn’t be identified. If distance between the grid points is reduced, this
problem can be resolved.
 For complex images, the procedure of region growing is as follows:
 Select a pixel that meets the criteria for inclusion in a region. (white pixel is to
be assigned a value of 1)
 Compare the pixels selected with all adjacent pixels. Assign an equivalent
value if attribute match occurs.
 Go to equivalent adjacent pixels and repeat the process until no equivalent
pixels can be added to the region.
Edge Detection
 Edge detection considers the intensity change that occurs in the pixels at the
boundaries or edges of a part.
 This technique is illustrated in fig.38.
Fig.38. Edge Detection

 For the pixel within the region, turn left and step, otherwise turn right and step. The
procedure is stopped when the boundary is traversed and the path has returned to the
starting pixel.
3) Feature Extraction
 In machine vision, it is often necessary to distinguish one object from another, which is
usually accomplished by means of features that uniquely characterize the object.
 Some features that can be used in machine vision are area, diameter and perimeter.
 Using these features, one object can be distinguished from another object.
4) Object Recognition
 The next step in image data processing is to identify the object the image represents.
 The categories of object recognition techniques used in industry are:
 Template matching technique and
 Structural techniques

32
 In template matching technique, the object is matched with a stored pattern feature set
defined as model template. The model template is obtained during the training procedure
in which the vision system is programmed for known prototype objects. This technique is
applied if there is not a requirement for a large number of model templates. Here the
features of the object in the image (area, diameter & perimeter) are compared to the
corresponding stored values.
 The structural techniques of object recognition consider the relationship between
features or edges of an object. For example, if the image of an object can be subdivided
into four straight lines connected at their end points, and the connected lines are at right
angles, then the object is a rectangle.
2.3.1.3 Application
A vision controlled industrial robot can be deployed for a number of different applications
viz. Presence, object location, pick & place, object identification, visual inspection and visual
guidance.
Presence:
The presence or absence of an object at specific location can be found using vision system.
Though proximity or touch sensors can also be used for this purpose, the usage of vision
system gives more accurate and versatile information.
Object Location:
The parts or obstacles can be located accurately and their position and orientation can be
determined with precision using the vision system.
Pick & Place:
The manipulator can be easily guided to pick parts from specific location after its presence
has been detected or from any imaged location in the workcell and place it at desired
location. Picking a conveyor from a moving conveyor is also easy using vision system.
Object Identification:
Vision systems are very useful in sorting process as objects captured in an image can be
identified and distinguished from each other easily.
Visual Inspection:
Automated quality control using robots can be achieved by using vision systems. This can
help in sorting good or bad parts and also control the manufacturing process based on
measured values of parameters.
Visual Guidance:
The image of the scene can be used for accurate specification of relative positions of the
manipulator and the object / part in the scene as well as their relative movements. This is very
useful in assembly operations and in guiding the manipulator through stationary or mobile
obstacles in the environment of the robot.
End of unit-2

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Unit 2

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Unit 2 Actuators & Sensors

Fig.1. Components of a hydraulic actuator

 A simplified hydraulic circuit is as shown in fig.2.

Fig.2. Hydraulic Circuit

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

Fig.3. Pneumatic Actuator Circuit

2.1.3 Electric Actuators

2.1.3.1 Stepper Motors

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

Fig.4. Stepper motor schematic

The relation between resolution and step angle is given by:

Where, n is the resolution and A is the step angle.

Fig.5. Torque – speed characteristics of stepper motor

Fig.6. Permanent magnet stepper motor

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

2.1.3.2 DC Servo Motors

 DC motors used in closed loop position control are called servomotors.

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

 The speed – torque characteristics of DC servomotor is a linear one as shown in fig.8.

Fig.8. Torque – speed characteristics of DC servomotor

2.1.3.3 AC Servo Motors

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

2.1.4 Power Transmission Systems

 The relation between input and output speed is:

 The relation between input and output torque is:

2.1.5 Determination of Horse Power (HP) of motor

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

2.2.1 Function of Sensors / Need of Sensors

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

Workcell Control Sensors:

2.2.2 Types / Classification of Sensors

Fig.9. Classification of sensors used in robotics

2.2.2.1 Position Sensors

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

Fig.10. Incremental Encoder

Fig.11. Absolute Encoder

 A potentiometer is an electromechanical device containing an electrically conductive

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

Mandrel Resistive Wire

Fig.12. (a) Linear Potentiometer (b) Angular Potentiometer

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

3) Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):

Soft Iron Core

Fig.14. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Soft Iron Core

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

2.2.2.2 Velocity Sensors

2) Hall Effect Sensor:

Fig.17. Hall Effect Sensor

3) Using Position Sensors:

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

2.2.2.3 Acceleration Sensors

2.2.2.4 Force Sensors

1)Strain Gauge Based:

Fig.18. Micro – switch based touch sensor

1) Force – Sensitive Wrist:

Fig.19. Force – sensing wrist

2) Joint Sensing Technique:

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT

3) Tactile Array Sensors:

Fig.20. Tactile Array Sensor

2.2.2.6 Proximity and Range Sensors

EI402 Robotics & Automation IV EIE SNSCT