Unit 4 Robot Dynamics

4.1 Robot Dynamics

 The robot dynamics deals with the mathematical formulation of the dynamic equations of
the robot arm motion. It gives a relation between forces and torques to the position,
velocity and acceleration of the manipulator.
 The dynamic equations can be used to compute the required forces and torques to attain a
given position, velocity and acceleration of the manipulator, which is very useful in
manipulator control.
 The dynamic equations can also be used to calculate the position, velocity and
acceleration in response to given force and torque values, which is useful in computer
simulation of robot arm motion.
 Robot dynamics can be obtained by the following approaches:
 Lagrange – Euler formulation
 Newton – Euler formulation
 The Lagrange – Euler (LE) formulation is energy based, wherein the energy balance is
utilized to obtain the dynamic model.
 The Newton – Euler (NE) formulation is force based, wherein the force balance is
utilized to obtain the dynamic model.
4.2 Lagrangian Mechanics
A scalar function called Lagrange function or Lagrangian L is defined as the difference
between the total kinetic energy K and the potential energy P of a mechanical system.

Dynamic model can be found for any manipulator from this Lagrange function L using the
relation
( )
̇
Where is the joint displacement and ̇ is the joint velocity of the ith joint.
4.3 Dynamic Model of a 2 DOF Manipulator based on Lagrangian Mechanics

Fig.1. A 2-DOF Manipulator arm

For the manipulator, the coordinate frames {0} and {1}, joint variables θ1 and θ2, link lengths
L1 and L2, and mass of links m1, m2 and moment of inertia I1, I2 respectively are shown in
fig.1. The mass of each link is assumed to be a point mass located at the center of mass of
each link. The linear and angular velocities are v1, v2, ̇ ̇ respectively.
To calculate the Lagrangian function, the kinetic energy (K) and potential energy (P) of each
link is to be calculated.

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For Link1
The potential energy is given by:

The kinetic energy is given by:

Where,
̇
̇

Substituting in (2), we get

( ̇ ) ( ) ̇

̇ ̇

̇ ̇

For Link2
The potential energy is given by:

For Link2, the Cartesian position coordinates (x2, y2) of the center of mass of link are:

Differentiating (5), we get,

̇ ̇ ( ̇ ̇ )

̇ ̇ ( ̇ ̇ )

The velocity at the end of the link 2 can be found using the relation

̇ ( ̇ ̇ )
̇ ( ̇ ̇ ) ̇

( ̇ ̇ ) ̇ ( ̇ ̇ )

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̇ ( ̇ ̇ ) [ ]
̇ ( ̇ ̇ )[ ]

̇ ( ̇ ̇ ) ̇ ( ̇ ̇ )

̇ ( ̇ ̇ ) ( ̇ ̇ ̇ )

The kinetic energy is given by:

Where,

̇ ̇

Substituting (6) and above equations in (7), we get,

{ ̇ ( ̇ ̇ ) ( ̇ ̇ ̇ )}

( )( ̇ ̇ )

̇ ( ̇ ̇ ) ( ̇ ̇ ̇ )

( ̇ ̇ )

̇ ( ̇ ̇ ) ( ̇ ̇ ̇ )

Calculation of Lagrangian

The Lagrangian is given by:

Substituting (1), (3), (4) and (8) in above equation, we get,

̇ ̇ ( ̇ ̇ ) ( ̇ ̇ ̇ )

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Rearranging the above we equation, we can write it as

( ) ̇ ( ̇ ̇ ) ( ̇ ̇ ̇ )

( )

The torque can be found from the Lagrange function using the relation

( )
̇

From (9),

( )

( ) ̇ ( ̇ ̇ ) ( ̇ ̇ )
̇

( ) {( ) ̇ ( ̇ ̇ ) ( ̇ ̇ )}
̇

[( ) ] ̈ [ ] ̈

̇ ̇ ̇

Substituting (11) and (12) in (10), we get

[( ) ] ̈ [ ] ̈

( ̇ ̇ ) ̇ ( )

Similarly,

[ ] ̈ ̈ ̇

(13) and (14) represent the equations of motion (dynamic model) of a 2-DOF manipulator
arm. It can be observed that this technique is complex just for a simple 2-DOF manipulator.
Finding the dynamic model for higher DOF manipulator arm would be even more complex.
Hence a generalized approach called Lagrange Euler Formulation is followed.

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4.4 Lagrange – Euler (LE) Formulation

The Lagrange – Euler formulation is a systematic procedure for obtaining the dynamic model
of an n-DOF manipulator. The LE formulation establishes the relation between the joint
positions, velocities, accelerations and the generalized torques applied to the manipulator.
The characteristics of LE formulation are:
 It is systematic and describes motion in real physical terms
 The equations of motion obtained are analytical and compact
 The matrix-vector form of equations is appealing for calculations and control system
design
 The model is computationally intensive and is not amenable to online control.

4.4.1 The Lagrange Euler (LE) Dynamic Model Algorithm

The LE dynamic model algorithm is as follows:
Step 1: Assign frames using the Denavit – Hartenberg notation.

Step 2: Obtain the link transformation matrix for each link and from these matrices
compute product matrices and so on using the formula

Step 3: Define a 4X4 matrix Qj depending on whether the joint is revolute or prismatic as
follows:

[ ]

[ ]

Step 4: For each link i, determine the inertia tensor Ii w.r.to frame {i} using the relation

[ ]
Step 5: compute dij for i, j = 1, 2, 3, …….n using the relation

Step 6: Compute the inertia coefficients Mij for for i, j = 1, 2, 3, …….n using the relation

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Unit 4 Robot Dynamics

∑ [ ]

Step 7: Compute the velocity coupling coefficients hijk for for i, j,k = 1, 2, 3, …….n using the
relations

( )
∑ * +

( )
{

Step 8: Compute gravity loading terms Gi for each link i = 1, 2, 3, …….n using the relation

Step 9: Substitute all the coefficients in below equation to formulate the ith equation for
torque τi.

∑ ̈ ∑∑ ̇ ̇

4.5 Manipulator Control

For a robot to perform any task, its end effectors should be moved accurately and repeatedly.
Manipulator control ensures that the end effector moves as desired to perform a task. The
manipulator control system accepts the joint – location time history as input and causes the
manipulator to track a desired trajectory.

4.5.1 Manipulator Control System

The block diagram of manipulator control system is as shown in fig.2.

Desired Task
(Position & Orientation
of end effector)
Actuator
Commands
𝑞
τ 𝑞̇
Manipulator
Trajectory 𝑞̇
Planner Control System Manipulator 𝑞 Actual Joint /
𝑞̈ end-effector
location,
𝑞̇ 𝑞 velocity etc.
Control set-points Feedback

Fig.2. Manipulator Control System Block Diagram

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The manipulator control can be open loop or closed loop. If the dotted section (feedback) is
removed from the fig.2, it becomes open loop control. In presence of dotted line (feedback),
the control is closed loop.
In case of open loop manipulator control, depending on the desired task, the trajectory
planner gives the position, velocity and acceleration set-points to the manipulator control
system. The manipulator control system gives commands to actuators of manipulator to
achieve the desired task.
In case of closed loop manipulator control, depending on the desired task, the trajectory
planner gives the position, velocity and acceleration set-points to the manipulator control
system. The actual manipulator parameters like position, velocity and acceleration are also
fed back via the feedback element to the manipulator control system. The manipulator control
system then gives commands to actuators of manipulator to achieve the desired task.
Typical robot control architecture for n-DOF manipulator is shown in fig.3.

Joint 1 Manipulator 𝑞 𝑞̇
Controller Joint 1 model

Joint 2 Manipulator 𝑞 𝑞̇
Joint Control Controller Joint 2 model
System
.
.
.

Joint n Manipulator 𝑞𝑛 𝑞𝑛̇

Controller Joint n model

Fig.3. Robot control architecture for n-DOF manipulator

As can be seen in fig.3, the architecture consists of a master control system to control and
synchronize n joints. This master control (joint control system) is responsible for sending set-
point commands to each of the joint controllers (joint1, 2, 3, ….n controllers). Each joint
controller in turn controls the joint attached to it. In this case too, open loop or closed loop
control can be achieved either by including or excluding the feedback path shown by dotted
lines.
The components of manipulator control are shown in fig.4.

Power
Comparator Controller Actuator Manipulator Sensors
Amplifier

Feedback
Elements

Fig.4. Components of Manipulator control

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The manipulator parameters (position, velocity and acceleration) are measured by sensors and
fed back to the input side by the feedback elements. The actual manipulator parameters are
compared with the set values of parameters in the comparator. The error is given to the
controller, which decides action to be taken. The control action from the controller is
amplified using a power amplifier and fed to the actuator. The actuator causes changes in
manipulator to bring the parameters close to set values. This process is repeated until the set
and actual values of manipulator are equal.

4.5.2 Manipulator Control Problem

The manipulator control problem is stated as “Find the joint actuator torques τi(t) required to
produce a planned trajectory, i.e. location, velocity, acceleration and / or planned force /
torque at the end effector, for the entire work cycle such that planned task is performed as
specified.”
Depending on the control law used to compute the joint torques, control schemes can be
classified as either linear control schemes or nonlinear control schemes. Linear control
schemes are based on approximate linear model of the manipulator.

4.5.3 Linear Control Schemes

Some linear control strategies are:
 On – Off control
 Proportional (P) Control
 Integral Control (I) Control
 Derivative (D) Control
 PI, PD, PID Control
 Partitioned PI (PPI), Partitioned PD (PPD), Partitioned PID (PPID) Control
Linear control schemes are valid only for those systems whose behavior can be
mathematically modeled by linear differential equations. However the manipulator is a highly
nonlinear system. So linear approximation of the manipulator is carried out and then linear
control schemes are applied.
The manipulator control problem is Multi Input Multi Output (MIMO) problem,
involving many joints. To simplify the problem, each joint is considered to be independent
and separately controlled. Hence the n-DOF manipulator is modeled as n-independent linear
second order systems and is controlled by n-independent Single Input Single Output (SISO)
control systems.
The linear approximated model of the manipulator is given by:
̈ ̇
Where,
Ieff is effective inertia and Beff is effective damping given by

Ia is the inertia of rotor of the actuator

Ba is viscous friction coefficient at actuator bearings
η is the gear ratio
M and B are the mass and friction coefficient of Load

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4.5.3.1 Partitioned PD (PPD) Control Scheme

The basic difference between a conventional PD Control scheme and Partitioned PD (PPD)
control scheme is that in PPD control, the controller is partitioned into two parts: a model
based potion and a servo portion, whereas in conventional PD control no such partition is
done. The PPD control scheme can be applied to more complex systems than the
conventional PD control scheme.
In PPD control, the controller is partitioned such that the joint parameters appear only
in model – based portion. Usually the model – based portion is the physical system, whereas
the servo portion is implemented in a computer or micro controller.
The block diagram of PPD controller is shown in fig.5.

Servo-based Model-based

𝜏𝑎 𝑠 𝜏𝑎 𝑠 𝜃𝑎 𝑠
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑆 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆

𝐾𝑑 𝑆 𝐾𝑝 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆

𝐸 𝑠
𝜃𝑑 𝑠

Fig.5. PPD Control for trajectory control of a rotary joint

From the model based portion of the block diagram,

[ ]

Also from the model based portion,

Comparing (1) and (2), we get,

(3) represents a system with unit inertia. Thus the model based portion is reduced to unit
inertia system. The servo portion is based on error, which is given by:

From the servo based portion,

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( )

Substituting (3) in (5), we get,

( )

( )

( ) ( )

( )

(6) represents a second order system characteristic equation.

Comparing (6) with standard equation of second order system , we

get the natural frequency and damping ratio as follows

√ (7)

Also,

But √

(8)
√

Thus it can be observed that with proper choice of Kp and Kd, any desired response of the
system can be obtained.
From (7),

(9)

It is generally desired that the system should be critically damped, for which substitute
in (8)

(10)

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Effect of External Disturbance on PPD Control

Servo-based Model-based
𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑠
𝜏𝑎 𝑠 𝜃𝑎 𝑠
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜏𝑎 𝑠
𝑆 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆

𝐾𝑑 𝑆 𝐾𝑝 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆

𝐸 𝑠
𝜃𝑑 𝑠

Fig.6. PPD Control with External Disturbance

The above fig. shows the PPD control in presence of a disturbance .

In presence of disturbance, the equation is given by

( )

Let us assume that the disturbance is a step function of magnitude K, for which

( )

( )

( )

( )

The steady state error is given by

( )

( )

For the steady state error to be zero, the gain Kp should be infinite, which is impossible. So in
the presence of disturbance, the manipulator does not exactly reach the desired position.
Hence to ensure that the effect of disturbance is minimum on the system, the steady state

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error ess should be very small, which is possible by setting a high value of Kp. The value of Kp
should be increased to a limit such that it does not cause oscillation of the system.

4.5.3.2 Partitioned PID Control (PPID) Scheme

It was observed in the previous section that using a PPD control, the steady state error can be
made minimum but not equal to zero. To make the steady state error zero, Partitioned PID
(PPID) control is preferred. The introduction of integral term makes the steady state error
equal to zero.
The block diagram of PPID controller is shown in fig.7.

Servo-based Model-based

𝜏𝑎 𝑠 𝜏𝑎 𝑠 𝜃𝑎 𝑠
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑆 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆

𝐾𝑑 𝑆 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑖 𝑆 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆

𝐸 𝑠
𝜃𝑑 𝑠

Fig.7. PPID Control for trajectory control of a rotary joint

From the model based portion of the block diagram,

[ ]

Also from the model based portion,

Comparing (1) and (2), we get,

(3) represents a system with unit inertia. Thus the model based portion is reduced to unit
inertia system. The servo portion is based on error, which is given by:

From the servo based portion,

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( )

Substituting (3) in (5), we get,

( )

( )

( ) ( )

Effect of External Disturbance on PPID Control

Servo-based Model-based
𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑠
𝜏𝑎 𝑠 𝜃𝑎 𝑠
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜏𝑎 𝑠
𝑆 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆

𝐾𝑑 𝑆 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑖 𝑆 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑆

𝐸 𝑠
𝜃𝑑 𝑠

Fig.8. PPID Control with External Disturbance

The above fig. shows the PPID control in presence of a disturbance .

In presence of disturbance, the equation is given by

Let us assume that the disturbance is a step function of magnitude K, for which

( )

( )

( )

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( )

The steady state error is given by

( )

Hence the PPID controller eliminates the error completely. Hence the manipulator reaches
the desired target position even in the presence of disturbance.

End of unit-4

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