Control System Lab

PRESTIGE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH INDORE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Subject: Control Systems

Enrollment No.__________________ Date: ___________
Remarks if any, Signature of Professor
EXPERIMENT NO. ____
OBJECTIVE:
Study of Error Detectors.
a) Potentiometer Error Detector.
b) Synchro Error Detector.
THEORY:
a) Potentiometer Error Detector:
All feedback control systems operate from the error signal which is generated by a comparison
of the reference and the output. Error detectors perform the crucial task of comparing the reference and
output signals. In a purely electrical system where the reference and output are voltages, the error detector
is a simple comparator.
In some other systems with non-electrical outputs, the output signal is converted into electrical
form through a measurement or transducer block, and then error detection is performed on the electrical
signals. A position control system, with both input and output variables as mechanical positions (linear or
angular), may however consist of two potentiometers - reference and output, which function as an error
detector. Other devices which could be used in similar applications include synchro sets (for a.c. systems),
sine-cosine potentiometers, hall effect-potentiometers etc.
The Potentiometer Error Detector consists of two identical potentiometers electrically
connected in parallel and supplied by a voltage source as shown in figure 1a.
Figure1a: Basic Circuit Diagram
The symbolic circuit representation of a potentiometer error detector is shown in figure 1b below.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

Figure1b: Circuit Diagram of Potentiometer Error Detector
The input shaft is coupled to the potentiometer marked A, and is held fixed at the desired
angular position say θ0 while the output shaft is coupled to the potentiometer marked B and the position is
indicated as θ0. The potential difference between the variable points of potentiometers A and B is
proportional to the angular difference (θr-θ0) Therefore; the error is given by,
e ( r   0 )
 e  K e ( r   0 ) ------- (1)
Or e  K 
e e ------- (2)
Where  e  ( r   0 ) ------- (3)
Where, Ke is known as the gain of error detector, and expressed in V/rad. The Laplace transforms of the
equation (1) & (2) are,
E ( s )  K e [ r ( s )   0 ( s )] ------- (4)
E ( s )  K e e ( s ) ------- (5)
The block diagram, relating the output E(s) and the input θr(s) is drawn and shown in figure 2.
Figure 2: Block Diagram of Potentiometer error detector
And the transfer function is given as
E (s)
 Ke -------
 e (s)
(6)
E (s)
Or  Ke -------
( r ( s )   o ( s ))
(7)
Synchro Error Detector:
Note:- Students have to derive & write the Transfer Function of the Synchro Error Detector

EXPERIMENT NO. ____

OBJECTIVE:
Determination of Transfer Function of DC Motor.
a) Armature Controlled DC Motor.
b) Field Controlled DC Motor
THEORY:
Write DC motor description covering following points
1. Construction and principle of working
2. Types and their characteristics, applications.
Derivation of Transfer Function:-

(a) Armature Controlled DC Motor.
The following assumptions are made while deriving the transfer function.
(1) Air gap flux is proportional to the field current.
(2) Armature reaction is negligibly small.
(3) The back emf is proportional to motor speed.
(4) Field current is constant.
Figure 1 shows armature controlled motor,
Figure 1: Armature Controlled DC Motor

Let, Ra = Armature resistance
La = Armature inductance
J = Total moment if inertia of the rotor.
Θ = Shaft position t
Ia = Armature current of viscous friction.
The voltage equation of motor is given by,
dI a
V a  E b  I a R a  La ------- (1)
dt
Where, Eb= back emf.
Taking Laplace Transform of both sides,
Va ( s )  Eb ( s )  I a ( s )[ Ra  sLa ]
Va ( s )  E b ( s )
Or I a (s)  -------
Ra  sLa
(2)
Now, torque developed by motor is proportional to product of air gap flux and armature current,
TmI a
Or Tm  K m I a (φ constant) ------- (3)

Where, Km is constant having unit N-ω/Amp of armature current.
Tm ( s )  K m I a ( s ) ------- (4)
The load torque is given by,
Jd 2 d
Tl  2
F ------- (5)
dt dt
Or Tl ( s )  ( Js 2  Fs ) ( s ) ------- (6)
Equating (4) and (6) we get,
K m I a ( s )  ( Js 2  Fs) ( s ) ------- (7)
Put Ia(s) from equation (2),
 V ( s )  Eb ( s ) 
K m  a   ( Js 2  Fs) ( s )
 R a  sLa 
Or K m [Va ( s )  Eb ( s)]  ( Js 2  Fs)( Ra  sLa ) ( s ) ------- (8)
But, the back emf is proportional to motor speed
d
i.e. E b
dt
d
Or Eb  K b ------- (9)
dt
where, Kb = constant having v/rad/sec.
E b ( s )  sK b ( s ) ------- (10)
Substituting this value of Eb(s)
K m [Va ( s )  sK b ( s )]  ( Js 2  Fs)( Ra  sLa ) ( s)
On solving,
 ( s) Km
 ------- (11)
Va ( s ) [( Js  Fs )( Ra  sLa )  sK b ]
2
is the required transfer function.

The unknown quantities in above equation are Kb or Km (it can be shown Km=Kb) Ra, La, J and F, out of
these Ra and La can be found by bridge methods J is found by retardation test. The only unknowns now
are Kb and Kf.
(b) Field Controlled DC Motor:-
Note:- The procedure of deriving Transfer function is similar to Armature Controlled DC Motor.
Students have to derive & write the transfer function of Field Controlled DC Motor.


EXPERIMENT NO. ____

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the Time Response of 1st and 2nd order system using MATLAB Simulink.
THEORY:
Whenever any standard known test signal is applied to the systems, it responds according to design
and nature of the system. This response is the function of time and may be divided into two main parts:
(i) Transient Response: - This occurs just after the switching or after any abnormal condition
(due to fault or sudden change of load). This is the function of system Transfer Function. This
response is mainly due poles of the system.
(ii) Steady State Response: - When the system becomes settled and starts its normal working, that
response is known as steady state response and is the function of input. The portion of the
response is mainly due to the poles of the input or Forcing function.
Time Response of First Order Systems for Unit Step Input:-
Figure 1: Block Diagram representation of a 1st order system
A general expression of a 1st order system is given as,

C ( s) 1
 -------
R ( s ) sT  1
(1)
1
 C ( s)  R( s ) -------
sT  1
(2)
1
For unit step input, R ( s ) 
s
1 1
Put R(s) in equation (2), C ( s) 
s sT  1
Take partial fraction,
1 T 1 1
C (s)    
s sT  1 s s  1 / T
Take inverse Laplace Transform,

c (t )  1  e  t / T -------
(3)

Figure 2: Time Response of 1st order system for Unit Step input
Error, e(t )  r (t )  c (t )  1  (1  e  t / T )
 e t / T -------
(4)
Steady State error, ess  Lim e  t / T  0

t 
Time Response of Second Order Systems for Unit Step Input:-

A general expression of a second order system is given as,
C (s)  n2
 ------- (5)
R( s ) s 2  2 n s   n2
Figure 3 Block Diagram of 2nd order Control System

For unit step function R(s) =1,
1  n2
C (s)  2
s s  2 n s   n2
Take Partial fraction,
1 s  2 n
C (s)   2
s s  2 n s   n2
1 s  2 n
Or C (s)   ------- (6)
s ( s   ) 2   n2 (1   2 )
Put  d   n (1   2 ) ,
1 s  2 n
C (s)   ------- (7)
s ( s   ) 2   d2
Rearranging above equation,

1 s  n  d
C ( s)    n
s ( s   )   d  d ( s   ) 2   d2
2 2
Take inverse Laplace transform

 n  t
c(t )  1  e n t cos  d t  e sin  d t
n
-------
d
(8)
Since,  d   n (1   2 )
 n
c(t )  1  e nt cos  d t  e nt sin  d t
 n (1   ) 2
e nt
 1 [ (1   2 ) cos  d t   sin  d t ] ------- (9)
(1   ) 2
Put sin   (1   2 ) and cos   
e nt
c(t )  1  [sin  cos  d t  cos  sin  d t ]
(1   2 )
e nt
c(t )  1  [sin( d t   )] -------
(1   2 )
(10)
Since  d   n (1   2 )
e n t   (1   2 ) 
c(t )  1  sin( n (1   2 )t  tan 1  
------- (11)
(1   2 )    
 
Now, e(t)=r(t)-c(t) where, r(t)=1,
e nt   (1   2 )  
e(t )  sin( n (1   2 )t  tan 1  
------- (12)
(1   2 )    
 
Steady state error,

  t   (1   2 )  
 e n sin( n (1   2 )t  tan 1     0
e ss  Lim 
t   (1   )
2
    
    

------- (13)
Case-I:   1 ; (Underdamped Response)

Case-II:   0 ; (Undamped Response)
From equation (11),
e ont   (1  0 2 )  
c (t )  1  sin( n (1  0 2 )t  tan 1  
(1  0 2 )   0 
 
 1  sin( n t  tan 1 )
 1  sin( n t   / 2)
c(t )  1  cos( n t ) ------- (14)
Case-III:   1 ; (Critically damped Response)

From equation (10)
 e nt 
c (t )  Lim 1  [sin( n (1   2 )t )   )]
 1
 (1   2 ) 
 e nt 
c (t )  Lim 1  [sin( n (1   2 )t ) cos   cos( n (1   2 )t ) sin  )]
 1
 (1   2 ) 
------- (15)
Now, cos    and sin   (1   2 )
 e nt 
c(t )  Lim 1  [sin( n (1   2 )t )  cos( n (1   2 )t ) (1   2 ) )]
 1
 (1   2 ) 
------ (16)
Now,
 
Lim sin( n (1   2 )t )   n (1   2 )t
 1


Lim cos( n (1   2 )t )  1
 1

Put, in equation (16)
 e nt 
c(t )  Lim 1  [ n (1   2 )t  1  (1   2 ) )]
 1
 (1   2 ) 
 e  nt 
 Lim 1  (1   2 ) ( n t  1)]
 1
 (1   2 ) 
c(t )  1  e nt (( n t  1)
Case-IV:   1 ; (Overdamped Response)
MATLAB PROBLEMS:-
1) 1st Order Systems
(i) Plot the Unit Step Response of the systems having Transfer Function G(s) =
1 1 1
a) b) c)
s 1 s2 s5
(ii) Plot the Unit step response of previous problem in 1 graph.
(iii) Plot the Unit step response of
1 2 5
, ,
s 1 s  2 s  5
2) 2nd order systems
Plot the Time response of the system-
1
(i) ;   0.5
s  s 1
2
1
(ii) ;  1
s  2s  1
2

1
(iii) ;  0
s 1
2
1 4
(iv) , 2 ;   0 ,  n  1,2
s 1 s  4
2
(v) State the difference between time response of,

1 1
;  1 & 2 ;   1 .5
s  2s  1
2
s  3s  1


EXPERIMENT NO. ____
OBJECTIVE:
Draw the Root Locus of a system using MATLAB.
THEORY:
Root locus analysis is a graphical method for examining how the roots of a system change with
variation of a certain system parameter, commonly the gain of a feedback system. The stability of a
control system is determined from the roots of the characteristic equation 1+G(s)H(s)=0. For a system to
be stable the roots of the characteristic equation should be located in the left half of the s-plane.
The characteristic equation of the system is given by,
1+G(s)H(s)=0 ------ (1)

Any root of equation satisfies following two conditions,
1  G(s) H (s)  0 ------
(2)
G ( s ) H ( s )  ( 2k  1)180  ------ (3)
Where k=0, 1, 2 …
The root locus method of analysis is a process of determining the points in the s plane satisfying
equation (2) and (3). Usually forward path gain K is considered as an independent variable and the roots
of the equation 1+G(s)H(s)=0 as dependent variables, the roots are plotted in s-plane with K as variable
parameter. Form the location of the roots in s-plane the nature of the time response and system stability
can be ascertained.
The Procedure for plotting Root Locus:-

The stepwise procedure for plotting the root locus for a given open loop transfer function is
given below.
1. Starting Points:- The root locus starts (K=0) from the open loop poles.
2. Ending Points:- The root locus terminates (K=) either on the open loop zero or infinity.
3. Number of branches:- The number of branches of the root locus are,
N=P, if P>Z
=Z, if Z>P
4. Existence on real axis:- The existence of root locus on a section of real axis is confirmed if
the sum of open loop poles and zeros to the right of the section is odd.
5. Break away points:- On the root locus between two open loop poles the roots move
towards each other as the gain factor K is increased till they are coincident. At this point,
the value of K is maximum as far as the portion of root locus between the two open loop
poles is concerned. Any further increase in K, breaks the root locus in two parts. The
breakaway point can be determined by rewriting the characteristic equation and therefrom
solving for the value of s from the equation below,

dK
0
ds
6. The angle of asymptotes:- For higher values of K the root locus branches are
approximated by asymptotic lines making an angle with the real axis given by,
(2k  1)  180 
Where k=0, 1, 2 …upto (P-Z)-1
PZ
7. Intersection of asymptotes on real axis:- The asymptotes intersects at point x on the real
axis is given by,
x
 Poles   Zeros
PZ
8. Intersection points on the Imaginary axis:- The value of K and the point at which the
root locus branch crosses the imaginary axis is determined by applying Routh criterion of
the characteristic equation. The roots at the intersection points are imaginary.
9. The angle of departure from the complex pole:- The angle of departure from the
complex pole is given by,
 d  180   ( p   z )
Where  p is the sum of all angles suspended by remaining poles.

and  z is the sum of all zeros suspended by zeros.
The angle of departure is tangent to the root locus at complex pole.
10. The angle of arrival at complex zeros:- The angle of arrival at the complex zero is given
by,
 a  180   ( z   p )
Where  z is the sum of all angles suspended by remaining zeros.

and  p is the sum of all zeros suspended by poles.
The angle of arrival is tangent to the root locus at complex zero.
MATLAB PROBLEMS:-
1. Sketch the root locus for the open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system,
Determine (i) The value of K at s=-4

(ii) The value of K for =0.5
(iii) Obtain the closed loop transfer function for K=1.66.
2. Sketch the root locus plot for the system when the open loop transfer function is given by

Determine (i) The breakaway points.
(ii) The angle of departure from the complex pole.
(iii) The stability condition.
Note:-
 First solve the problem on the paper and attach it with the Practical.
 Using MATLAB draw the root locus & compare it with your result.
 Take print out of the result and attach it with the practical.


EXPERIMENT NO. ____
OBJECTIVE:
Draw the Nyquist Plot of a system using MATLAB.
THEORY:
Nyquist Criterion: - Nyquist criterion is used to identify the presence of roots of characteristic
equation of a control system in a specified region of s plane. From the stability view point the specified
region being the entire right hand side beyond the imaginary axis of complex s-plane.
Procedure for mapping from s-plane to G(s)H(s)-plane:-
The first step to understand the application of Nyquist criterion in relation to determination of
stability of control systems is mapping from s-plane to G(s)H(s)-plane. “s” is considered as independent
complex variable and the corresponding value of G(s)H(s) being the dependent variable plotted in another
complex plane called G(s)H(s)-plane.
Thus for every point in s-plane there exists a corresponding point in G(s)H(s)-plane. During the
process of mapping the independent variable “s” is varied along a specified path in “s” plane and the
corresponding points in G(s)H(s)-plane are joined. This compltes the process of making from s-plane to
G(s)H(s)-plane.
Application of Nyquist Criterion to determine the stability of closed Loop systems:-
The overall transfer function of a closed loop system is given by,
C (s) G (s)
 ------
R ( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s)
(1)
G ( s ) H ( s ) is the open loop transfer function and C is the characteristic equation. For a system to be
stable the zeros of the characteristic equation should not have positive real part. In order to investigate the
presence of any zero of 1  G ( s ) H ( s)  0 in the right half of the s-plane, let us chose a contour which
completely encloses this right half of the s-plane.
The closed path is ab  bc  cd  da starting at a( s   j 0) through b( s   j) , along a
semicircular arc bc of infinite radius, c ( s   j) , d ( s   j 0) and finally from d to a semicircular arc of
radius r in anticlockwise direction in such a manner that r  0 .
On traversing the closed path for independent variable s in s-plane as above, the corresponding
point to point values of G ( s ) H ( s ) are plotted in G ( s ) H ( s ) plane and change in argument of
G ( s ) H ( s ) is noted. A number indicating the zeros of G ( s ) H ( s ) which are located in right half of s-
plane is calculated by the relation:
AugG ( s ) H ( s )  2 ( P  Z )
Where P is the number of poles of G ( s ) H ( s ) having positive real part and is a known quantity.
Note that the change in argument of G ( s ) H ( s ) is measured w.r.t. origin (0, 0) in G ( s ) H ( s )
plane. This procedure calculates the number of zeros of G ( s ) H ( s )  0 and not the zeros of
1  G ( s) H ( s)  0 .
However, from the plot of G ( s ) H ( s ) the number of zeros of 1  G ( s) H ( s)  0 which have

+ve real part can also be determined if the origin of G ( s ) H ( s ) plane is shifted to the point (-1+j0) and

the change in argument of G ( s ) H ( s ) plot is measured w.r.t. the point (-1+j0) in G ( s ) H ( s ) plane. The
number of zeros thus calculated is also the number of roots of characteristic equation 1  G ( s) H ( s)  0 .
As the s-plane region wherein only poles and zeros of 1  G ( s) H ( s)  0 with +ve real part is
under investigation, the expression relating the number of poles and zeros present in the R.H.S. of s-plane
is written as,
AugG ( s ) H ( s )  2 ( P  Z  )
AugG ( s ) H ( s
Or )  ( P  Z  )
2
Or N  ( P  Z  )
Where ,
N = Number of encirclements of the point (-1+j0) by G ( s ) H ( s ) plot. The positive direction of
encirclement being anticlockwise.
P+ = Number of poles of G ( s ) H ( s ) with +ve real part.
Z+ = Number of zeros of 1  G ( s) H ( s)  0 with +ve real part.
For a stable system Z+ =0, therefore, the condition for a control system to be stable is
N  ( P  0)
N  P
For most of the control system P  0 , therefore for such cases the condition of stability be,
N=0
The closing of Nyquist plot from s=-j0 to s=+j0 is given the following table according to type of
G( s) H ( s) :
Angle through which Nyquist plot Magnitude of

n Type of G(s)H(s) G ( j ) H ( j )
is to be closed from =-0 to =+0
The points =-0 & =+0
0 0 0
are coincident
1 1 - 
2 2 -2 
3 3 -3 
“ ‘ ‘ ‘
“ ‘ ‘ ‘
n N -n 
Note:-
-n= clockwise rotation;
n= type of transfer function;
MATLAB PROBLEMS:-
1. Draw the Nyquist plot for the open loop transfer function given below and comment on the
closed loop stability.

2. The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given below
Determine the closed loop stability by applying Nyquist Criterion.
NOTE:-
 Using MATLAB draw the Nyquist plot & compare it with your result.


EXPERIMENT NO. ____

OBJECTIVE:
Draw the Bode Plot of a system using MATLAB.
THEORY:
Bode Plot:
The Bode plot method gives a graphical procedure for determining the stability of a control system
based on sinusoidal frequency response. The transfer function of a system for sinusoidal input response
can be obtained by substituting j in place of Laplace operator “s”. Therefore, if the open loop transfer
function of a system is G ( s ) H ( s ) , the corresponding sinusoidal open-loop transfer function is
G ( j ) H ( j ) which can be expressed in the form of magnitude and phase angle.
The variation of the magnitude of sinusoidal transfer function expressed in decibel and the
corresponding phase angle in degrees being plotted w.r.t. frequency on a logarithmic scale (i.e. log 10) in
rectangular axes. The plot thus obtained is known as Bode Plot. The logarithmic Bode Plot has an
advantage of being approximated by asymptotic straight lines.
Relative stability of a closed loop control system can be determined by plotting its open loop
transfer function by Bode Plot method. The Gain Margin and Phase Margin is determined directly from
Bode Plot.
Bode Plot for Transfer Functions:-
The open loop transfer function of a closed loop transfer function can be expressed as:
K [(1  sT1 )(1  sT2 )....] n2
G( s) H (s)  N ------
s [(1  sTa )(1  sTb )......( s 2  2 n s   n2 )]
(1)
The sinusoidal form of transfer function (1) is obtained by substituting s  j , therefore

K [(1  jT1 )(1  jT2 )....] n2
G ( j  ) H ( j )  ------
( j ) N [(1  jTa )(1  jTb )......(( n2   2 )  2 n  )]
(2)
In decibel equation (2) can be expressed as:
20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j )  20 log10 K  20 log10 1  jT1  ..........
.....  20 N log10 j  20 log10 1  jTa ..........
 n2   2 ( j 2 n )
.....  20 N log10  ------
 n2  n2
(3)
And for phase angle,
G ( j ) H ( j )  tan 1 T1  tan 1 T2  ......  N90   tan 1 Ta  tan 1 Tb

 (2  ) 
....  tan 1  2 n 2  ------ (4)
 ( n   ) 
The bode plot is a graph obtained from equation (3) and (4) consisting of two parts as follows:
I. Magnitude of G ( j ) H ( j ) in decibel
II. Phase angle of G ( j ) H ( j ) versus log10
Procedure for drawing Bode Plot:-
1. Identify the corner frequencies.
2. Draw the asymptotic bode plot. The slope will change at each corner frequency by
+20db/dec for zero and -20db/dec for pole. For complex conjugate pole and zero the slope
will change by db/decade.
3. (i) For type zero system draw a line upto first (lowest) corner frequency having 0db/dec
slope.
(ii) For type one system draw a line having slope -20db/dec upto =K. Mark first (lowest)
corner frequency.
(iii) For type two system draw a line having slope -40db/dec upto   K and so on. Make
first corner frequency.
4. Draw a line upto second corner frequency by adding the slope of next pole or zero to the
previous slope and so on.
5. Calculate phase angles for different values of  and join all points.
6. Obtain Gain Margin and Phase Margin from the Bode Plot.
MATLAB PROBLEMS:-
1. Sketch the bode plot for the transfer function given below:
From the bode plot determine:

(a) The phase crossover frequency (b) The gain crossover frequency
(c) Gain Margin (d) Phase Margin
2. The open loop transfer function of a system is given below
Determine
(a) Gain Margin
(b) Phase Margin
(c) Closed loop stability
3. Draw the Nyquist plot for the open loop transfer function given below and comment on the
closed loop stability.
NOTE:-
 Using MATLAB draw the Bode plot & compare it with your result.

EXPERIMENT NO. ____
OBJECTIVE:
Determination of State Space Model for classical transfer function using MATLAB.
THEORY:
State Space Analysis:-
The procedure for determining the state of the system is called state variable analysis. The state of
a dynamic system is the smallest set of variables such that the knowledge these variables at t=t 0 with the
knowledge of input at tt0 completely determines the behavior of the system for any time tt0. This set of
variables is called as State variables.
Advantages of State Space system:-
1. This approach can be applied to linear or nonlinear, time variant or time invariant systems.
2. It is easier to apply where the Laplace Transform cannot be applied.
3. nth order differential equations can be expressed as ‘n’ equations of first order whose solutions are
easier.
4. It is a time domain approach.
5. This method is suitable for digital computer computation because this is a time domain approach.
6. The system can be designed for optimal conditions w.r.t. given performance indices.
State Space representation of Systems:-

The nth order differential equation is given as,
dny d n 1 y
 a1  .....  a n y  u (t ) ------ (1)
dt n dt n 1
It is noted that the input u(t) and the initial conditions
dy (0) d n 1 y (0)
y (0), ,..... at t=0 are given.
dt dt n 1
The dynamic behavior of differential equation (1) van be determined completely from the knowledge of
.
u(t), y (t ) , y(t).
.
The terms y(t), y (t ) ,……… y n1 (t ) can be considered as a set of n state variables.
Let, y  x1
.
y  x2 ------ (2)



y n 1  x n
The set of equations (2) can be written as,

.
x1  x 2
.
x 2  x3 ------ (3)


. n 1
x  xn
.
x n   a n x1  a n 1 x 2  .......... ..  a1 x n 1  u
A general representation of set of equations (3) can be expressed in the form of state equation,
.
x  Ax  Bu
Where,
 x1   0 1 .. 0 0 0 
x   0  0 
 2  0 .. 1 0
 
:  0 0 0 
     
x : ; A  0 0 0 1  ; B  :
:  : : : : :
     
:  : : : : :
x   a  a n 1 0 
a1  1
 n  n  
Where x=state vector (n1) u=control (scalar)

A=Matrix (nn) B=Matrix (n1)
The output equation is given as,
 x1 
x 
 2
y  1 0 0 .. 0  :  ------ (4)
 
 : 
 x n 
Or y=Cx
Where C  1 0 0 .. 0 , y= output (scalar), C=matrix (1n)
MATLAB Problems:-
Q.1) Obtain the state model for the transfer function given below:

Q.2) The transfer function of a system is given below,
Determine the state model

Q.3) Write MATLAB script to determine the state transition matrix for
Note:


EXPERIMENT NO. ____

OBJECTIVE:
Study of Lead and Lag Compensator.
THEORY:
If the performance of the control system is not upto expectations as per desired specifications, then
it is required that some change in the system is needed to obtain the desired performance. The change can
be in the form of adjustment of the forward path gain or inserting a compensating device in control
systems.
The gain adjustment improves the steady state accuracy of the system at the cost of driving the
system towards instability. However, improvement in steady state performance of a control system by gain
adjustment is possible in cases where the system is found to be within the desirable stability limit even
after altering forward path gain. In such a cases a compensation network is introduced in the system.
The compensation network can be introduced in the system as shown below,
Figure 1 Arrangements for introducing compensation network in a control system
The compensation network introduces additional poles/zeros in the original system thereby altering
its original transfer function. The effect of adding zero to an unstable system results in making the system
stable as shown in root locus plots of Figure 2.

Figure 2 Unstable system made stable by adding a zero
Figure 2 shows the root locus plot of an unstable system for higher-path gain. Addition of a zero to
the system transfer function changes the shape of root locus as shown below, which indicates the stable
system for all values of forward path gain.
The networks used for cascade compensation are described below.
Phase Lead Compensation:-
Figure 3 shows a phase lead network wherein the phase of output voltage leads the
phase of input voltage for sinusoidal input.
Figure 3 Phase-Lead Network

The Transfer function of a phase lead network shown above is given by,
E o ( s )  (1  sT )
 ------ (1)
Ei ( s ) (1  sT )
Where, <1
R2
 and T  R1C
R1  R 2
The transfer function given by equation (1) can be expressed in sinusoidal form as
E o ( j )  (1  jT )
 ------ (2)
Ei ( j ) (1  jT )
The pole zero configuration and bode plot for transfer function (2) is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Pole-zero configuration and Bode Plot for phase-lead network

The two corner frequencies are
1
 ; Lower corner frequency
T

1
 ; Upper corner frequency
T
The maximum phase-lead m occurs at mid frequency m between upper and lower corner frequencies.
1 1  1 
 log10  m  log10    log 10  
2 T   T  
1
 m  ------ (3)
T
The phase angle E o ( j ) / E i ( j ) can be calculated as,
E o ( j )
  tan 1 (T )  tan 1 (T )
E i ( j )
1
At   m  the phase angle is m,
T
 1 
  m  tan 1  T   tan 1 (T )
 T 
 1 
 m  tan 1    tan 1 (  )
 
 1 
   
  m  tan 1   
 1 
1 
  
1
Or tan  m  ------ (4)
2 
1
and sin  m  ------ (5)
1
From pole-zero configuration of phase lead network, it is observed that the zero is nearer to origin as
compared to pole, hence the effect of zero is dominant, therefore, the phase lead network, when introduced
in cascade with forward path transfer function, the phase shift is increased.
The bode plot of phase lead network reveals that the lead network allows to pass higher
frequencies and low frequencies are attenuated.
Phase-Lag Network:-
Figure 5 shows a phase lag network wherein the phase of output voltage lags the phase of input voltage for
sinusoidal inputs.
Figure 5 Phase-Lag Network

The Transfer function of a phase lead network shown above is given by,
E o ( s ) 1  sT
 ------ (6)
Ei ( s ) 1  s T
R1  R2
Where, >1 and   , T  R2 C
R2
The transfer function given by equation (6) can be expressed in sinusoidal form as
E o ( j ) 1  jT
 ------ (7)
E i ( j ) 1  jT
The pole zero configuration and bode plot for transfer function (7) is shown in Figure 6. The two corner
frequencies are
1
 ; Upper corner frequency
T
1
 ; Lower corner frequency
T
Figure 6 Pole-zero configuration and Bode Plot for phase-lag network

The maximum phase-lag m occurs at mid frequency m between upper and lower corner frequencies.
1  1   1 
 log 10  m  log 10    log 10  
2  T   T 
1
 m  ------ (8)
T
The phase angle E o ( j ) / E i ( j ) can be calculated as,
E o ( j )
  tan 1 (T )  tan 1 (T )
E i ( j )
1
At   m  the phase angle is m,
T
1 
tan  m  ------ (9)
2 
1 
and sin  m  ------ (10)
1 

Note. As   1 , (1   ) /(1   ) is negative indicating that m is negative which means that the phase
angle is lagging.
Phase Lead-Lag Compensation:-

Introduction to phase-lead network in a control system shifts the gain crossover point to a higher
value and, therefore, the bandwidth is increased thus improving the speed of response and overshoot is
reduced but the steady state error does not show much improvement.
The use of phase lag compensation network in a control system shifts the gain crossover frequency
point to a lower value thus decreasing the bandwidth and improvement in steady state error is noted but
speed of response is reduced.
The speed of response and, steady state error can be simultaneously improved, if both phase-lag
and phase-lead compensation is used. However instead of using two separate lag and lead network, a
single network known as phase-lag-lead network shown in Figure is used which combines the effect of
both lag and lead networks.
Figure 7 Phase-Lag-Lead Network
The Transfer function of phase-lag-lead network is given as,

E o (s) (1  sT1 ) (1  sT2 )
 ------ (11)
E i ( s ) (1  sT1 ) (1  s T2 )
Lead Lag
Where, T1  R1C1 , T2  R 2 C 2 , <1, >1 and =1.
The Transfer function given by (11) can be expressed in sinusoidal form as

E o ( j ) (1  jT1 ) (1  jT2 )

E i ( j ) (1  jT1 ) (1  jT2 )
------ (12)
The pole zero plot and bode plot for the transfer function (12) is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Pole-zero configuration and Bode Plot for phase-lag-lead network


EXPERIMENT NO. ____
OBJECTIVE:
Study of Open Loop and Closed Loop System.
APPRATUS REQUIRED:
 Kit ST2451
 Patch Chords
THEORY:
Open Loop Systems:
Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control action are called open loop
control systems. In other words, in an open loop control system the output is neither measured nor fed
back for comparison with the input. Thus, to each reference input there corresponds a fixed operating
condition; as a result, accuracy of the system depends upon calibration. In the presence of disturbances, an
open loop control system will not perform desired task. Open loop system can be used only if the
relationship between input and output is known and if there are neither internal nor external disturbances.
Note that any system that operates on time basis is open loop.
Figure 1: Open Loop System

Closed-loop systems:
Feedback control systems are often referred to as closed loop control systems. In practice,
the terms feedback control and close loop control are used interchangeable. Let us start with the concept
of a closed-loop feedback system. An amplifier is presented with signals from a summing junction. Output

voltage is modified by a factor B, subtracted from the input voltage, and the result is the signal that the
amplifier is given to amplify.
Figure 2: Closed Loop System
Then:
V2  AV1
V1  Vin  BV2
Substituting,
V2  A(Vin  BV2 )
Rearranging,
V2 (1  BA)  AV in
A
V2  Vin
BA  1
V2 A
Or 
V10 BA  1
Op amp gains (A) are typically 50,000 to 100,000, at least at DC. Note, therefore, that the gain of this
block is quite insensitive to A. For B = .01,
V1 10000
A=10,000   99.01
Vin 100  1
V1
If A=100,000  99.90
Vin
The term A (which could include other terms in addition to the gain of the amplifier as will be
shown) changed by a factor of 10 but the overall gain changed by 0.9% This is the fundamental
relationship for feedback control systems, and it's very powerful. Note that in general, A and B are
differential equations or Laplace transforms that describe the behavior of these functions with frequency
and time. Because the transfer function above is a ratio of polynomials, (A could be in series with some
function G rather than just a gain block) and since the time and frequency nature of networks can similarly
be described as ratios of polynomials in s (Laplace transforms), many functions can be realized with this
structure. Oscillators, filters, amplifiers, impedance changers, negative-impedance blocks comprise just a
few. For now we'll confine ourselves to a simple DC case.
Because A is large and BA is therefore large compared to 1, the transfer function can often be simplified to
V1 1

Vin B
Note that if other functions are in series with A, their transfer functions could be lumped with A and would
cancel out as they did above. This means that you can cancel or minimize the effects of functions you
cannot control simply by including them "inside the loop" - i.e., in series with A.

Procedure (Open Loop System):
Connections for open loop system are as shown in the figure 3.

1. Here set voltage is given to error detector (ground the PV terminal) and the error signal given to P
block with Kp at minimum position, output of P block given to adder with rest terminals grounded
and measure the output of summer block Σ on digital voltmeter given on board.
2. Ground PV and inputs of summing block which are not in use.
3. After making, all required connection on board which on the power supply and start the
experiment.
4. By controlling the knob of set point, we can set + 10V at its output, and can find out relationship
between output and input variables.
5. After finding the relationship between input & output amplitude of system measure the overall
gain of the system abnd gain of proportional block Kp. 6. Set +10V at output in such a manner so
that the reading of the output is comfortable value, for instance 1V with best possible accuracy.
6. Now note the value of + 10V at its output to which output at summer block Σ is 1V, repeat the
measurement varying input so that output is 2V.
7. Again, determine input voltage required for this second output.
8. The chain amplification defines the ratio of the output difference to input difference.
9. Collect result for more values (+10 is saturation limit) in tabular form and find out the relationship
between input & output.
Figure 3: Study of Open Loop System
Procedure (Closed Loop System):
Connections for close loop system are as shown in the figure 4.

1. Here output of summer block Σ is feedback to the error detector with feedback block, so that if
output variable varies about the required signal, due to any change, the variation affects the input,
through the feedback path. This gives more stable output then open loop system.
2. Ground inputs of summing block which are not in use.
3. After making, all required connection on board switch on the power supply and start the
experiment.
4. Adjust the reference signal so that an output signal is obtained that is far from the saturation
limits.
5. Measure closed loop gain, of the system for different values of the feedback rate. The feedback
rate changes by different position of the knob in the feedback block.
6. To set the feedback rate first apply 2V at the input of feedback block and measure the output of
that block, set position of knob such that output should give 1V, that means feedback rate is 0.5.
Repeat the observation for different feedback rate like 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.
7. Set 1V at set point +10V output and observe the output of summer block Σ with feedback rate of
0.25. Then note the changes for different feedback rate.
8. Calculate the value of the closed loop gain through the formula:
G = A/ (1 + BA)
Where: A - gain KP, B – V2/V1,
V1 is input voltage of feedback block & V2 is output voltage of feedback block
9. With this, compare the calculated values with the measured values.
Figure 4: Study of Closed Loop System
Result:


EXPERIMENT NO. ____

OBJECTIVE:
Systems with Proportional, Integral and Derivative Controls.
APPRATUS REQUIRED:
 Kit ST2451
 Patch Chords
THEORY:
The Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID):
PID stands for Proportional, Integral, and Derivative. Controllers are designed to eliminate the
need for continuous operator attention. Cruise control in a car and a house thermostat are common
examples of how controllers are used to automatically adjust some variable to hold the measurement
(or process variable) at the set point.
The set point is where you would like the measurement to be. Error is defined as the difference
between set point and measurement.
(Error) = (set-point) - (measurement)
The variable being adjusted is called the manipulated variable, which usually is equal to the
output of the controller. The output of PID controllers will change in response to a change in
measurement or set point. Manufacturers of PID controllers use different names to identify the three
modes
Proportional Band:
With proportional band, the controller output is proportional to the error or a change in
measurement (depending on the controller).
(Controller output) = (error)*100/ (proportional band)
With a proportional controller offset (deviation from set point) is present. Increasing the
controller gain will make the loop go unstable. To reduce un-stability integral action included in
controllers to eliminate this offset.
The mathematical representation is,
mv
 k (Laplace domain)
e( s )
Or
mv(t) mvss kc e(t) (time domain)

The proportional mode adjusts the output signal in direct proportion to the controller input
(which is the error signal, e). The adjustable parameter to be specified is the controller gain, kc. This is
not to be confused with the process gain, Kp. The larger kc the more the controller output will change
for a given error. For instance, with a gain of 1 an error of 10% of scale will change the controller
output by 10% of scale. Many instrument manufacturers use Proportional Band (PB) instead of kc.1
Integral:
With integral action, the controller output is proportional to the amount of time the error is
present. Integral action eliminates offset.
Controller Output = (1/Integral) (Integral of) e (t) d (t)
Notice that the offset (deviation from set-point) in the time response plots is now gone. Integral
action has eliminated the offset. The response is somewhat oscillatory and can be stabilized some by
adding derivative action.
Integral action gives the controller a large gain at low frequencies that results in eliminating
offset and "beating down" load disturbances. The controller phase starts out at –90and increases to
near 0 at the break frequency. This additional phase lag is what you give up by adding integral action.
Derivative action adds phase lead and used to compensate for the lag introduced by integral action.
Derivative:
With derivative action, the controller output is proportional to the rate of change of the
measurement or error. The controller output is calculated by the rate of change of the measurement
with time.
Controller Output = Derivative dm / dt
Where m is the measurement at time t.
Some manufacturers use the term rate or pre-act instead of derivative. Derivative, rate, and pre-
act are the same thing.
Derivative = Rate = PRE ACT
Derivative action can compensate for a changing measurement. Thus, derivative takes action to
inhibit more rapid changes of the measurement than proportional action. When a load or set point
change occurs, the derivative action causes the controller gain to move the "wrong" way when the
measurement gets near the set point. Derivative is often used to avoid overshoot.
Derivative action can stabilize loops since it adds phase lead. Generally, if you use derivative action,
more controller gain and reset can be used.
A proportional + integral:
The integral action corrects for the offset that characterizes the proportional action. The
effective result of the composite P+I action is equivalent to manual adjustment or resetting of set point
after each load change.
mv( s )  1   1 
e( s )
 k c 1 

 or mv(t ) mv ss  k c e(t ) 
Ti s   Ti  e(t )dt 
The additional integral mode (often referred to as reset) corrects for any offset (error) that may
occur between the desired value (set point) and the process output automatically over time2. The
adjustable parameter to be specified is the integral time (Ti) of the controller.
Where does the term reset come from?
Reset is often used to describe the integral mode. Reset is the time it takes for the integral
action to produce the same change in mv as the P modes initial (static) change. Consider the following
Figure.

The response of a PI algorithm to a step in error
(Figure 3) shows the output that would be obtained from a PI controller given a step change in
error. The output immediately steps due to the P mode. The magnitude of the step up is K ce. The
integral mode then causes the mv to ‘ramp’. Over the period 'time 0 to time TI' the mv again increases
by Kce.
Integral wind-up:
When a controller that possesses integral action receives an error signal for significant periods
of time the integral term of the controller will increase at a rate governed by the integral time of the
controller. This will eventually cause the manipulated variable to reach 100% (or 0%) of its scale, i.e.
its maximum or minimum limits. This is known as integral wind-up.
A sustained error can occur due to a number of scenarios, one of the more common being
control system ‘override’. Override occurs when
another controller takes over control of a particular loop, e.g. because of safety reasons. The original
controller is not switched off, so it still receives an error signal, which through time, ‘winds-up’ the
integral component unless something is done to stop this occurring. There are many techniques that
may be used to stop this happening. One method is known as ‘external reset feedback. Here, the signal
of the control valve is also sent to the controller. The controller possesses logic that enables it to
integrate the error when its signal is going to the control value, but breaks the oop if the override
controller is manipulating the valve.
Proportional + Derivative:
Proportional Integral Derivative algorithm
mv( s )  1   1 de(t ) 
e( s )
 k c 1 
 Ti s
 TD s  or mv(t )mv ss  k c e(t ) 
  Ti  e(t )dt  T D
dt 

Derivative action (also called rate or pre-act) anticipates where the process is heading by
looking at the time rate of change of the controlled variable (its derivative). TD is the ‘rate time’ and
this characterizes the derivative action (with units of minutes). In theory, derivative action should
always improve dynamic response and it does in many loops. In others, however, the problem of noisy
signals makes the use of derivative action undesirable (differentiating noisy signals can translate into
excessive mv movement).
Derivative action depends on the slope of the error, unlike P and I. If the error is constant,
derivative action has no effect.
PID algorithms can be different:
Not all manufactures produce PID’s that conform to the ideal 'textbook' structure. So before
commencing tuning it is important to know the configuration of the PID algorithm! The majority of
‘text-book’ tuning rules are only valid for the ideal architecture. If the algorithm is different than the
controller parameters suggested by a particular tuning methodology will have to be altered.
Ideal PID:
The mathematical representation of this algorithm is:
mv( s )  1 
 k c 1   TD s 
e( s )  Ti s 
One disadvantage of this ideal 'textbook' configuration is that a sudden change in set point (and
hence e) will cause the derivative term to become very large and thus provide a “derivative kick” to the
final control element this is undesirable. An alternative implementation is
 1 
mv( s )  k c 1   e( s )  TD SCV ( s )
 Ti s 
The derivative mode acts on the measurement and not the error. After a change in set point the
output will move slowly avoiding "derivative kick" after set point changes. This is therefore a standard
feature of most commercial controllers.
Series (interacting) PID:

The mathematical representation of this algorithm is:
mv( s )  1 
 k c 1  TD s
e( s )  Ti s 
As with the ideal implementation, the series mode can include either derivative on the error or
derivative on the measurement. In which case, the mathematical representation is,
mv( s )  1 
 k c 1   where e( s )  SP  TD SCV ( s )
e( s )  Ti s 
Result:

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PRESTIGE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH INDORE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Subject: Control Systems

Remarks if any, Signature of Professor

EXPERIMENT NO. ____

Figure1a: Basic Circuit Diagram

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

Figure 2: Block Diagram of Potentiometer error detector

And the transfer function is given as

Synchro Error Detector:

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

Remarks if any, Signature of Professor

EXPERIMENT NO. ____

Derivation of Transfer Function:-

Figure 1: Armature Controlled DC Motor

Or Tm  K m I a (φ constant) ------- (3)

is the required transfer function.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

PRESTIGE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH INDORE

Subject: Control Systems

Remarks if any, Signature of Professor

EXPERIMENT NO. ____

Figure 1: Block Diagram representation of a 1st order system

A general expression of a 1st order system is given as,

Take inverse Laplace Transform,

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

Steady State error, ess  Lim e  t / T  0

Time Response of Second Order Systems for Unit Step Input:-

Figure 3 Block Diagram of 2nd order Control System

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

Take inverse Laplace transform

Put sin   (1   2 ) and cos   

Now, e(t)=r(t)-c(t) where, r(t)=1,

Steady state error,

Case-I:   1 ; (Underdamped Response)

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c(t )  1  cos( n t ) ------- (14)

Case-III:   1 ; (Critically damped Response)

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c(t )  1  e nt (( n t  1)

Case-IV:   1 ; (Overdamped Response)

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

(v) State the difference between time response of,

PRESTIGE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH INDORE

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

Remarks if any, Signature of Professor

EXPERIMENT NO. ____

1+G(s)H(s)=0 ------ (1)

The Procedure for plotting Root Locus:-

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Where  p is the sum of all angles suspended by remaining poles.

Where  z is the sum of all angles suspended by remaining zeros.

The angle of arrival is tangent to the root locus at complex zero.

Determine (i) The value of K at s=-4

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

PRESTIGE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH INDORE

Subject: Control Systems

EXPERIMENT NO. ____

However, from the plot of G ( s ) H ( s ) the number of zeros of 1  G ( s) H ( s)  0 which have

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

Angle through which Nyquist plot Magnitude of

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

Determine the closed loop stability by applying Nyquist Criterion.

PRESTIGE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH INDORE