Lab Experiment

University of Basrah
College of Engineering
Department of Computer Engineering
Electrical Circuits Lab.

Year One
Prepared by:
1. Dr. Haroutuon Hairik
2. Mohammed Kata Jodah
3. Khalid Ali Abbass
Part 1 -Ohm’s law
Fig. (1)
Assuming Rx = 1250 Ω
Power Voltage Current Calculated

Supply across the passing Rx
Voltage resistor through (Ω)
(V) (V) resistor
(Amp.)
1 0
2 2
3 4
4 6
5 8
6 10
7 12
8 14
9 16
10 18
-1-
Part 2- CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:
Fig. (2)
OBSERVATION TABLE:
-2-
Part 3- CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:
Fig. (3)
OBSERVATION TABLE:
-3-
College of Engineering-Department of Computer Engineering
First Year Electrical Circuit Lab.
Experiment No. 2
Delta -Star and Star –Delta Transformation
Aim of experiment:
To study the properties of delta-star and star –delta transformation.
Introduction:
In solving networks (having considerable number of branches) by the application of Kirchhoff's
Laws, one sometimes experiences great difficulty due to the complexity of the network and the
large number of simultaneous equation that have to be solved. However, such complicated
networks can simplify by successively replacing delta connected resistors by an equivalent star
connected resistors and vice versa. To convert a delta network to an equivalent star network
we need to derive a transformation formula for equating the various resistors to each other
between the various terminals.
(a) Delta to Star Transformation
The equivalent resistance seen between the two terminals of the delta connected resistors are
given as:
(𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 )𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = [(𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 ) ⁄⁄ 𝑅𝐶 ] = … … (1)
(𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 )
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = [(𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 ) ⁄⁄ 𝑅𝐶 ] = … … (2)
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = [(𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 ) ⁄⁄ 𝑅𝐶 ] = … … (3)
1
While the equivalent resistance seen between the two terminals of the star connected resistors
are given as:
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) … … (4)
𝑅𝐵𝐶 = (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) … … (5)
𝑅𝐶𝐴 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) … … (6)
If the two configurations are equivalent, then:

Equation 1 = Equation 4, Equation 2 = Equation 5, Equation 3 =Equation 6
So
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐶
𝑅1 = … … (7)
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶
𝑅2 = … … (8)
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
𝑅3 = … … (9)
Assuming RA, RB, and RC are known, we can calculate R1, R2, and R3.
(b) Star to Delta Transformation:
Also, If the two configurations are equivalent, then:
Equation 1 = Equation 4, Equation 2 = Equation 5, Equation 3 =Equation 6
Rearranging for the unknowns we can show that:
R1 R 2 + R1 R 3 + R 2 R 3
𝑅A = … … (10)
R2
R1 R 2 + R1 R 3 + R 2 R 3
𝑅B = … … (11)
R1
R1 R 2 + R1 R 3 + R 2 R 3
𝑅C = … … (12)
R3
Now, assuming that R1, R2, and R3 are known we can calculate RA, RB, and RC.
2
Apparatus used:
1. Set of wires.
2. Two DC Power supplies.
3. Digital mustimeters.
4. Three-decade box resistances.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (1).
2. Measure "I1, I2, I3 " and V1, V2, V3 , .
3. Record your results in the Table (1).
4. By using delta-star conversion equations derived above, find the equivalent star
connected resistances R1, R2, R3 theoretically.
5. Now, connect the circuit shown in Fig. (2), using the values of resistances (R1, R2, R3)
calculated in the previous step.
6. Measure "I1, I2, I3 " and V1, V2, V3, .
7. Record your results in the Table (1).
Fig. (1)
3
Fig. (2)
Table (1)
Delta I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) VAB(volt) VBC (volt) VCA(volt)
Connection
(Measured
Values)
Delta
Connection
(Calculated
Values)
Star I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) VAB(volt) VBC (volt) VCA(volt)

Connection
(Measured
Values)
Star
Connection
(Calculated
Values)
4
Discussion :
1. Comment on your results.
2. Compare between the experimental and the calculated results.
3. Comment on step 2 and step 6
4. Find IT and RT for the circuits shown below
5
Experiment No. 3
Wheatstone Bridge
Aim of experiment:
To study the use of Wheatstone Bridge for precise measurements of unknown resistances.
Introduction:
A bridge is a special class of circuits that can be used for measuring resistance, capacitance,
or inductance. A resistance bridge is especially useful when a very accurate measurement of a
resistance is required. The Wheatstone bridge or four arm bridge, invented by C. Wheatstone
in 1843, is the most widely used resistance bridge for measuring resistance values above 1 Ω.
Commercial Wheatstone bridges are accurate to about 0.1 percent, making the values of
resistance obtained far more accurate than values obtained from many types of meters. For
resistances below 1 Ω, a Kelvin Bridge can be used.
A Wheatstone bridge consists of a voltage source and two parallel voltage dividers, as shown
in figure 1. The bridge is said to be balanced when v12=0. For the balanced condition, the
voltage v3 is divided in the path containing resistors Ra and Rb in the same ratio as in the path
containing resistors Rc and Rx, which allows the unknown resistance Rx to be determined in
terms of Ra, Rb and Rc.
1
We can find Rx in terms of Ra, Rb and Rc as follows. Using the voltage divider relation,
For the balanced condition, v1=v2., or v12=0. Equating the above expressions for v1 and v2 gives
Multiplying both sides by (Rx + Rc) and (Rb + Ra) gives Rb(R x+ Rc)=Rx (Rb + Ra). Subtracting
RbRx from both sides and solving for Rx gives
In order to achieve balance for a specific unknown resistance Rx, let Ra and Rc have fixed,
known values, and let Rb be a calibrated (adjustable) resistor. The procedure is to adjust Rb until
v12=0, and then use the expression derived above to determine Rx.
Apparatus used:
1- Four-decade resistance boxes
2- One unknown resistance. (Given by the supervisors in the Lab.)
3- Galvanometer or a digital voltmeter.
4- Digital mustimeter.
5- DC power supply
6- Set of wires
Procedure:
1- Construct the Wheatstone bridge shown in figure 1. Use resistor values Ra=1kΩ, Rc=10kΩ,
and Rs=10kΩ Use a decade resistance box for Rb and a DC power supply adjusted to 5
volts, as shown in figure 2.
2- Adjust the value of Rb using the decade resistance box, in steps as shown in Table 1, and
measure v12 using the digital voltmeter, for each step and record the values in the table.
2
1 kΩ 10 kΩ
3- Using the tabulated measured values indicate the balanced condition then calculate the
value of the unknown resistance.
Table (1)
Experimental Results
No. Rb(Ω) V12 (Volt) IT (mA)
1 100
2 200
3 300
4 400
5 500
6 600
7 700
8 800
9 900
10 1000
11 1100
12 1200
13 1300
14 1400
15 1500
3
Discussion:
1- Perform a sample of calculation then fill the table shown below (show only one sample
of calculations)
Calculated values
No. Rb(Ω) V12 (Volt) IT (mA)
1 100
2 200
3 300
4 400
5 500
6 600
7 700
8 800
9 900
10 1000
11 1100
12 1200
13 1300
14 1400
15 1500
2- Calculate the unknown resistance.
3- What is the effect of Rs on the balance condition of the bridge?
4
Experiment No. 4
Superposition Theorem
Aim of experiment:
To verify experimentally the Superposition theorem which is an analytical technique of
determining currents in a circuit with more than one emf source.
Introduction:
Superposition principle states that the output of a linear resistive circuit can be expressed as the
linear combination of the input.
Consider a circuit having two voltage sources (VS1 and VS2), two current sources (IS1 and IS2)
and resistors (Fig.1).
Fig. 1
The output VO can be expressed as

VO = a1VS1 + a2VS2 + b1IS1 + b2IS2
When all sources are set to zero except VS1, then
VO = a1VS1= VO1 if VS2 = 0 V, IS1 = IS2 = 0 A
Similarly, other components can be obtained in a similar manner:
VO = a2VS2= VO2 if VS1 = 0 V, IS1 = IS2 = 0 A
VO = b1IS1 = VO3 if VS1 = VS2 = 0 V, IS2 = 0 A
VO = b2IS2= VO4 if VS1 = VS2 = 0 V, IS1 = 0 A
Then overall output voltage is just simple addition (superposition) of the previously obtained
results corresponding to individual inputs as
VO = VO1 + VO2 + VO3 + VO4
1
Setting any voltage source to zero means replacing the voltage source with a short circuit, and
setting any current source to zero means replacing the current source with an open circuit.
Consider the circuit given in Fig.2. containing two voltage sources.
Fig. 2
Assume the output voltage VO is measured over R3. Several different methods can be applied
to determine the output voltage. For this circuit, superposition provides a simple approach to
get VO.
The superposition method says that for this circuit having two voltage sources VS1 and VS2 as,
VO = a1VS1 + a2VS2
To determine the first term, VS1 is kept and VS2 is short circuited (Fig.3a). The output voltage
Vo1 is determined then. Similarly, for the second term, VS2 is kept and VS1 is short circuited
(Fig.3b). The output voltage Vo2 is then determined.
Fig. 3
2
The overall output voltage is then,
Which implies
Apparatus used:
1- Three-decade resistance boxes
2- One digital voltmeter.
3- One digital multimeter.
4- Two DC power supplies of suitable voltage and current ratings.
5- Set of wires
Procedure:
1. Set up the network (circuit) as in Figure 4 with circuit parameters as indicated.
2. Keeping both sources active in the circuit.
Measure Vo the three currents I1, I2, and I3 and put the measured values in Table (1).
Circuit Parameters
VS1 12 V
VS2 10 V
R1 4.7 kΩ
R2 5.6 kΩ
R3 10 kΩ
3
Table. (1)
Measured Values
For circuit No 4 For circuit No.5 For circuit No.6
I1 (mA)
I2 (mA)
I3 (mA)
Vo (volt)
3. Keeping only VS1 active in the circuit

Measure Vo the three currents I1, I2, and I3 shown in Fig. 5 and put the measured values
in Table (1).
Short circuit
Fig.5
4. Keeping only VS2 active in the circuit

Measure Vo the three currents I1, I2, and I3 shown in Fig. 6 and put the measured values
in Table (1).
Short circuit
Fig.6
4
Discussion:
1. Fill your calculated values in Table 2. Shown below.
Table. (2)
Calculated Values
For circuit No 4 For circuit No.5 For circuit No.6
I1 (mA)
I2 (mA)
I3 (mA)
Vo (volt)
2. Perform the following calculations for both the measured and calculated values then
check the equality
I1. (For circuit No 5) + I1. (For circuit No 6) = I1. (For circuit No 4)
Vo. (For circuit No 5) + Vo. (For circuit No 6) = Vo. (For circuit No 4)
3. Compare between the experimental and valculated results then comment on your
results.
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Experiment No. 5
Thevenin’s Theorem
Aim of experiment:
To verify experimentally the Thevenin's theorem.
Introduction:
In this lab you will become familiar with one of the most important theorems in circuit
analysis, Thevenin’s Theorem.
Thevenin’s Theorem can be used for two purposes:
1. To calculate the current through (or voltage across) a component in any circuit, or
2. To develop a constant voltage equivalent circuit which may be used to simplify the analysis
of a complex circuit. Let “a,b” be two terminals coming out of any network composed of power
supplies and resistances, as indicated by the box in Fig. (1). THEVENIN’S THEOREM says
that, as far as the voltage and current in any external load resistance, RL, is concerned:
The entire network, inside the box, can be replaced by a single voltage source whose voltage
is equal to the open-circuit voltage appearing between a and b, and whose internal resistance
is equal to the resistance seen looking back into the open-circuited terminals, with all power
supplies removed and replaced with resistances equal to their internal resistances.
Fig. (1)
The equivalent single voltage source is called the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage VTH, and it’s
internal resistance is called the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance RTH (See Fig.2).
1
Procedural Steps for finding Thevenin's Equivalent Circuit

Referring to Fig.2
1. Remove the resistance (called load resistance RL) whose current is to be measured.
2. Find the open-circuit voltage Voc that appears across the two terminals from where
resistance has removed. It also called Thevenin’s voltage VTH.
3. Using the ohmmeter measure the resistance of the whole network as looked into from
these two terminals after all sources of e.m.f. have removed. It is called Thevenin’s
resistance RTH.
RTH =(R1.R2)/(R1+R2)
4. Replace the entire network by single voltage source whose voltage is VTH and whose
internal resistance is RTH.
5. Connect RL back to its terminals where it was connected.
6. Finally, calculate the current flowing through RL by using the equation,
I = VTH / (RTH + RL)
Apparatus used:
1- Three-decade resistances + one black-box resistance as a load.
4- One DC power supply of suitable voltage and current ratings.
5- Set of wires
2
Procedure:
1- Connect the circuit shown in Fig 3.
Fig. (3)
2- Measure all voltages and currents and arrange the values in Table. 1 shown below.
Table 1
Measured (Experimental) Calculated (Theoretical )
values values
IT (mA)
Iab (mA) = IL
Icd (mA)
Vab (volt)
Vcd (volt)
3- Disconnect the power supply and replace it in circuit of Fig.3 by a short circuit as shown
in Fig.4-a.
Fig. (4-a)
Then, remove the load resistance RL and measure the total resistance, (The open circuit
resistance ROC or Thevenin’s resistance RTH), between terminals a and b Rab.
3
4- Connect the circuit shown in Fig. 4.b, and measure the voltage across terminals a,b when
the load RL is removed. This measured value is the open-circuit or Thevenin’s voltage VTH
across terminals a,b.
VTH
Fig. (4-b)
5- Construct and connect the circuit shown in Fig.5 using the values obtained in step 4 and
the load resistance RL.
6- Measure Iab and Vab. Record the measured values in Table 2.
Fig. (5)
Table 2
Measured Calculated
(Experimental) (Theoretical )
values values
Iab (mA)
Vab (volt)
4
Discussion:
1. Compare between the experimental and measured values then comment on your results.
2. What is meant by the word "equivalent" in Thevenin’s Equivalent circuits?
3. For the following circuit, use Thevenin’s theorem to find the current through R. Show
the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit you used and the values of RTH and VTH you obtained.
Fig.6
5
Experiment No. 6
Max. Power Transfer Theorem
Aim of experiment:
In this experiment the student will investigate the circuit requirements for the transfer of
maximum power from the power source to the resistive load in DC circuits.
Introduction:
The circuit shown in Figure 1, uses an ideal voltage source in series with a sourcing resistance
to approximate a practical voltage source in which the terminal voltage drops with increasing
load current. In a resistive circuit like this, the resistive load receives maximum power when
the load resistance is equal to the source resistance (RL=RS). The maximum power can be
calculated using the expression
The laboratory experiment will verify, for several sourcing resistors, that maximum power
transfer is achieved when the load resistance is selected as established above.
1
Current passing through the circuit shown above is given by:

VS
I
RS  R L
The power dissipated in the load resistance is:
2
 VS  VS2
PL  I RL  
2
 RL  2
 R  R  RS
S L  2 RS  R L
RL
Differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to RL we get:
To get the maximum value:
Now, equating the derivative to zero we get:

-RS2/RL2+1=0
or
so
RL=RS
Finally, calculate the current flowing through RL by using the equation,

I = VTH / (RTH + RL)
2
Apparatus used:
1- Three-decade resistance + one black-box resistance as a load.
4- One DC power supply of suitable voltage and current ratings.
5- Set of wires
Procedure:
1- Connect the circuit shown in Fig 3.
Fig. (3)
2- Measure all voltages and currents and arrange the values in Table. 1 shown below.
Table 1
Measured (Experimental) Calculated (Theoretical )
values values
IT (mA)
Iab (mA) = IL
Icd (mA)
Vab (volt)
Vcd (volt)
3- Disconnect the power supply and replace it in circuit of Fig.3 by a short circuit as shown
in Fig.4-a.
3
Fig. (4-a)
4- Remove the load resistance RL and measure the total resistance, (The open circuit
resistance ROC or Thevenin’s resistance RTH), between terminals a and b Rab.
5- Connect the circuit shown in Fig. 4.b, and measure the voltage across terminals a,b when
the load RL is removed. This measured value is the open-circuit or Thevenin’s voltage VTH
across terminals a,b.
6- Construct and connect the circuit shown in Fig.5 using the values obtained in step 4 and
the load resistance RL.
7- Measure Iab and Vab. Record the measured values in Table 2.
4
Fig. (5)
Table 2
Measured Calculated
(Experimental) (Theoretical )
values values
Iab (mA)
Vab (volt)
8- Connect the circuit shown in Fig.6.
Fig. (6)
5
9- For R1=800 Ω, change RL according to the values given in Table 3, and record the required
measured values in this table.
Table .3
Theoretical values Measured values
RL (Ω) VRL (volt) PL (watt) VRL (volt) PL (watt)
(VRL)2/RL (VRL)2/RL
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
10- Draw dissipated power in load PL versus RL on a graph paper using a proper scale, hence
find the Max. power point.
11- Repeat the previous steps for R1=400 Ω.
6
Discussion:
1. Compare between the experimental and measured values then comment on your results.
2. Find RL for the maximum power transfer in the circuit shown.
3. What is the field of application of this theorem?

4. What is the reason that terminal voltage is less than emf?
7
Experiment No. 7
The Oscilloscope and the Function Generator
Introduction:
Have you ever found yourself troubleshooting a circuit, needing more information
than a simple multimeter can provide? If you need to uncover information like
frequency, noise, amplitude, or any other characteristic that might change over time,
you need an oscilloscope.
Fig.1 Oscilloscope
oscilloscopes are an important tool in any electrical engineer’s lab. They allow you
to see electric signals as they vary over time, which can be critical in diagnosing why
your 555 timer circuit isn’t blinking correctly, or why your noise maker isn’t reaching
maximum annoyance levels.
Basics of Oscilloscopes:
The main purpose of an oscilloscope is to graph an electrical signal as it varies over
time. Most scopes produce a two-dimensional graph with time on the x-axis and
voltage on the y-axis.
1
Fig.2 An example of an oscilloscope display. A signal (the sine wave in this case) is
graphed on a horizontal time axis and a vertical voltage axis
Controls surrounding the scope’s screen allow you to adjust the scale of the graph,
both vertically and horizontally – allowing you to zoom in and out on a signal. There
are also controls to set the trigger on the scope, which helps focus and stabilize the
display.
What Can Scopes Measure:
In addition to those fundamental features, many scopes have measurement tools,
which help to quickly quantify frequency, amplitude, and other waveform
characteristics. In general, a scope can measure both time-based and voltage-based
characteristics:
Timing characteristics:
 Frequency and period – Frequency is defined as the number of times per
second a waveform repeats. And the period is the reciprocal of that (number of
seconds each repeating waveform takes). The maximum frequency a scope can
measure varies, but it’s often in the 100’s of MHz (1E6 Hz) range.
 Duty cycle – The percentage of a period that a wave is either positive or
negative (there are both positive and negative duty cycles). The duty cycle is a
ratio that tells you how long a signal is “on” versus how long it’s “off” each
period.
2
 Rise and fall time – Signals can’t instantaneously go from 0V to 5V, they have
to smoothly rise. The duration of a wave going from a low point to a high point
is called the rise time, and fall time measures the opposite. These
characteristics are important when considering how fast a circuit can respond
to signals.
Voltage characteristics:
 Amplitude – Amplitude is a measure of the magnitude of a signal. There are a
variety of amplitude measurements including peak-to-peak amplitude, which
measures the absolute difference between a high and low voltage point of a
signal. Peak amplitude, on the other hand, only measures how high or low a
signal is past 0V.
 Maximum and minimum voltages – The scope can tell you exactly how high
and low the voltage of your signal gets.
 Mean and average voltages – Oscilloscopes can calculate the average or mean
of your signal, and it can also tell you the average of your signal’s minimum
and maximum voltage.
When to Use an oscilloscope:

The oscilloscope is useful in a variety of troubleshooting and research situations,
including:
 Determining the frequency and amplitude of a signal, which can be critical in
debugging a circuit’s input, output, or internal systems. From this, you can tell
if a component in your circuit has malfunctioned.
 Identifying how much noise is in your circuit.
 Identifying the shape of a wave – sine, square, triangle, saw tooth, complex,
etc.
 Quantifying phase differences between two different signals.
Anatomy of an oscilloscope:
While no scopes are created exactly equal, they should all share a few similarities
that make them function similarly. On this page we’ll discuss a few of the more
common systems of an oscilloscope: the display, horizontal, vertical, trigger, and
inputs.
3
 The Display
An oscilloscope isn’t any good unless it can display the information you’re trying to
test, which makes the display one of the more important sections on the scope.
Fig.3 The display of the oscilloscope.
Every oscilloscope display should be crisscrossed with horizontal and vertical lines
called divisions. The scale of those divisions are modified with the horizontal and
vertical systems. The vertical system is measured in “volts per division” and the
horizontal is “seconds per division”. Generally, scopes will feature around 8-10
vertical (voltage) divisions, and 10-14 horizontal (seconds) divisions. Older scopes
(especially those of the analog variety) usually feature a simple, monochrome
display, though the intensity of the wave may vary. More modern scopes feature
multicolor LCD screens, which are a great help in showing more than one waveform
at a time. Many scope displays are situated next to a set of about five buttons – either
to the side or below the display. These buttons can be used to navigate menus and
control settings of the scope.
 Vertical System
The vertical section of the scope controls the voltage scale on the display. There are
traditionally two knobs in this section, which allow you to individually control the
vertical position and volts/div.
Fig.4 – The vertical system control panel.
4
The more critical volts per division knob allows you to set the vertical scale on the
screen. Rotating the knob clockwise will decrease the scale, and counter-clockwise
will increase. A smaller scale – fewer volts per division on the screen – means you’re
more “zoomed in” to the waveform.
The display, for example, with an 8 vertical divisions, and the volts/div knob can
select a scale between 2mV/div and 5V/div. So, zoomed all the way in to 2mV/div,
the display can show waveform that is 16mV from top to bottom. Fully “zoomed
out”, the scope can show a waveform ranging over 40V. (The probe, as we’ll discuss
below, can further increase this range.) The position knob controls the vertical offset
of the waveform on the screen. Rotate the knob clockwise, and the wave will move
down, counter-clockwise will move it up the display. You can use the position knob
to offset part of a waveform off the screen. Using both the position and volts/div
knobs in conjunction, you can zoom in on just a tiny part of the waveform that you
care about the most. If you had a 5V square wave, but only cared about how much it
was ringing on the edges, you could zoom in on the rising edge using both knobs.
 Horizontal System
The horizontal section of the scope controls the time scale on the screen. Like the
vertical system, the horizontal control gives you two knobs: position and seconds/div.
Fig.5 – The horizontal system control panel.
The seconds per division (s/div) knob rotates to increase or decrease the horizontal
scale. If you rotate the s/div knob clockwise, the number of seconds each division
represents will decrease – you’ll be “zooming in” on the time scale. Rotate
counterclockwise to increase the time scale, and show a longer amount of time on the
screen.
Using for example a display which has 14 horizontal divisions, and can show
anywhere between 2nS and 50s per division. So zoomed all the way in on the
horizontal scale, the scope can show 28nS of a waveform, and zoomed way out it can
5
show a signal as it changes over 700 seconds. The position knob can move your
waveform to the right or left of the display, adjusting
the horizontal offset. Using the horizontal system, you can adjust how many periods
of a waveform you want to see. You can zoom out, and show multiple peaks and
troughs of a signal, or you can zoom way in, and use the position knob to show just
a tiny part of a wave.
 Trigger System
The trigger section is devoted to stabilizing and focusing the oscilloscope. The trigger
tells the scope what parts of the signal to “trigger” on and start measuring. If your
waveform is periodic, the trigger can be manipulated to keep the display static and
unflinching.
The trigger section of a scope is usually comprised of a level knob and a set of buttons
to select the source and type of the trigger. The level knob can be twisted to set a
trigger to a specific voltage point.
A series of buttons and screen menus make up the rest of the trigger system. Their
main purpose is to select the trigger source and mode. There are a variety of trigger
types, which manipulate how the trigger is activated:
 An edge trigger is the most basic form of the trigger. It will key the oscilloscope
to start measuring when the signal voltage passes a certain level. An edge
trigger can be set to catch on a rising or falling edge (or both).
 A pulse trigger tells the scope to key in on a specified “pulse” of voltage. You
can specify the duration and direction of the pulse. For example, it can be a
tiny blip of 0V > 5V > 0V, or it can be a seconds-long dip from 5V to 0V, back
to 5V.
 A slope trigger can be set to trigger the scope on a positive or negative slope
over a specified amount of time.
 You can also usually select a triggering mode, which, in effect, tells the scope
how strongly you feel about your trigger. In automatic trigger mode, the scope
can attempt to draw your waveform even if it doesn’t trigger. Normal mode
will only draw your wave if it sees the specified trigger. And single mode looks
for your specified trigger, when it sees it it will draw your wave then stop.
6
Fig.6 – The trigger system control panel.
 The Probes
An oscilloscope is only good if you can actually connect it to a signal, and for that
you need probes. Probes are single-input devices that route a signal from your circuit
to the scope. They have a sharp tip which probes into a point on your circuit. The tip
can also be equipped with hooks, tweezers or clips to make latching onto a circuit
easier. Every probe also includes a ground clip, which should be secured safely to a
common ground point on the circuit under test.
Fig.7– The probe.

While probes may seem like simple devices that just latch onto your circuit and carry
a signal to the scope, there’s actually a lot that goes into probe design and selection.
7
Aim of experiment:
The aim of this experiment is to become familiar with the basic operation of the
oscilloscope and the function generator and to use the oscilloscope to measure voltage
and time.
Procedure:
1. Connect the oscilloscope to the function generator, making sure that the polarity
of the connection is correct. Set the function generator for a sine wave output with
any amplitude and a frequency of about 1 kHz. Adjust the oscilloscope controls to
display several cycles of this waveform on the screen.
2. Switch the input coupling of the oscilloscope to DC. The sine wave displayed on
the screen should not change. Switch the input coupling of the oscilloscope to
GND. What happens to the sine wave?
3. Switch the input coupling of the oscilloscope back to DC. Turn on the DC OFFSET
on the generator and watch what happens to the oscilloscope display as the DC
OFFSET voltage is varied in the positive direction. Switch the input coupling of
the oscilloscope back to AC. What happens to the voltage display?
4. Turn off the DC OFFSET of the generator and set the input coupling of the
oscilloscope to AC. Change the output of the function generator to a triangular
waveform and adjust the amplitude to 2 volts peak-to-peak, as measured on the
oscilloscope. Set the frequency control on the generator to the maximum possible
value with a multiplier of 1kHz.
5. Determine the period and the fundamental repetition frequency of this triangular
waveform as accurately as possible with the oscilloscope.
8
9
Experiment No.8
Transient Response of an RC Circuit
Aim of experiment:
 To study the step response of first order circuits.
 To understand the concept of the time constant.
First-order transient circuits are described by a first order differential equation. First order
circuits contain a resistor and only one type of storage element a capacitor, i.e. RC circuits.
Introduction:
A capacitor has the ability to store an electrical charge and energy. The voltage across the
capacitor is related to the charge by the equation V=Q/C for steady state values, or expressed
as an instantaneous value, dv=dq/C
By definition i = dq/dt or dq = idt.
Therefore
The derivation of the transient responses of both the capacitor current and voltage in an RC
circuit when a source voltage is suddenly applied to that circuit is shown below. Note that the
time constant (t = τ = RC).
The step response of an RC circuit can be analyzed using the following circuit:
Vs
Fig.1- RC Circuit
------------ (1)
Immediately after the switch closes, KVL requires that- If we differentiate (1) with respect to
t, we get
1
The other two terms drop out because they are constants. Now divide thru by R-
The voltage across the capacitor at t = 0 (Vo) will be zero because there cannot be an
instantaneous change in voltage across the capacitor. Therefore, the initial current in the circuit
will be as follows:
plotting Normalized current = i(t)/Io, versus Normalized time = t/RC.
Fig.2- RC Charging current.

Note that the time constant (t = τ = RC) occurs at 36.8% of Io or 0.368 Vs/R. We also know
that
On substituting for current values in the last equation and putting in limits and simplifying
gives:
2
Then
Capacitor voltage at any time t when charging from
zero
Capacitor voltage at any time t when discharging to

zero
Plotting normalized voltage ( Vc /VS ) versus normalized time ( t/RC )
Fig.3-RC Charging voltage.
Note that the time constant (t = τ = RC) occurs at 0.632 VS
Apparatus used:
1- One-decade resistance box.
2- One-decade capacitance box.
3- Oscilloscope.
4- Function generator,
5- Set of wires
Procedure:
1- Construct the circuit shown in Figure 4. Set the function generator to create a square
wave with a fundamental frequency of 12 - 13 kHz and a peak to peak voltage of 10V.
The exact frequency does not matter as long as the capacitor can be fully charged during
one half of the square wave cycle. Use channel one of the oscilloscope to display the
voltage at point "a". Confirm the frequency and amplitude of the square wave.
3
Fig.4
2- Connect channel one of the oscilloscope to point "b" such that the voltage across the
capacitor is displayed on the screen. Adjust the time scale to 5ps per division. Adjust the
oscilloscope controls such that one charging cycle is displayed, using as much of the
vertical height of the screen as is practical. Align the leading edge of the charging cycle
with the intersection of a vertical and a horizontal line on the screen such that screen
divisions can be conveniently counted.
3- Use the oscilloscope display to determine the capacitor voltage for time values of:
0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0, 12.5, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 microseconds. Record these values.
4- Reverse the polarity of the source and repeat step 3 for the resistor voltages.
5- Create a table containing the nominal and measured capacitor and resistor values.
6- Use your measured component values to calculate the circuit time constant.
7- Calculate the resistor voltages and the capacitor voltages for the time values shown in
step 3 of the procedure.
8- Create a table containing time, the measured and calculated capacitor voltages, and the
measured and calculated 5.1 KΩ resistor voltages.
9- Use your measured values to create a t graph of capacitor voltage versus time.
10- Identify the point on your graph that represents 63% of the maximum capacitor voltage.
4
Experiment No.9
RC and RL series circuits
Aim of experiment:
To study the characteristics of AC circuits.
(i) RC Series Circuit
(ii) RL Series Circuit and
Introduction:
Impedance: the impedance of a two terminal network may be expressed as:
Z=V/I (ohms)
where
Z = complex impedance
V= complex voltage
I complex current
The complex impedance is also expressed as:
Z=R+jX in Cartesian form
Z=│z│eiφ in polar form.
A- THE SERIES RC CIRCUIT:

Fig 1 illustrate a series RC circuit connected to an AC voltage source. The applied voltage can
be expressed as:
v(t)=Vm sinɷt =IR +(1/C) ∫ 𝑖𝑑t
The solution of this differential equation results in.

i(t)=IM sin(ɷt+φ)
This equation shows that current i(t) leads voltage v(t) by φ The impressed voltage we can
expressed form as:
V=VR-jVC
Which can be expressed as (see phasor diagram):
1
Fig. 1(a) -Series RC circuit and waveforms.
Fig. 1(b) -Series RC circuit phasor diagram.
2
B- THE SERIES RL CIRCUIT:

Fig.2 illustrate a series RL circuit to which a sinusoidal voltage v(t)=VM sin ɷt is impressed.
Applying K.V.L, one gets:
v(t)=i(t)R-Ldi/dt
Solving the given equation above for i(t), one gets
i(t)=IM sin(ɷt-Ф)
Thus the current i(t) lags the voltage v(t) by Ф.
From phasor diagram, one express:
Fig. 2(a) -Series RL circuit and waveforms.
3
Fig. 2(b) -Series RL circuit phasor diagram.
Apparatus used:
1- Dual beam oscilloscope.
2- Function generator.
3- Resistance box.
4- Capacitance box.
5- Inductance box.
6- Coaxial cable.
7- Connecting wires.
Procedure:
Series RC circuit
i. Connect the circuit shown in Fig 1. Let C=500pF.
ii. Set the input sinusoidal voltage at 5VP.P, 300Hz
iii. Vary R from 0 to 1 kΩ in increments of 100 Ω. Use Table 1.
iv. For each value of R, measure the R.M.S. voltage across the capacitor.
v. For each value of R, measure the R.M.S. voltage across the resistance.
vi. For each value of R, measure the phase-shift between the current i(t) and the applied
voltage v(t) by using oscilloscope.
vii. When R=1kΩ, plot the current waveform i(t) (How?) and the supply voltage waveform
v(t) on a graph paper.
viii. Calculate the phase angle theoretically.
ix. When R=1kΩ, draw the phasor diagram of the circuit.
4
Table 1.
Impedance measurements in the RC circuit.
R (Ω) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
VC (volt)
VR (volt)
I (Amp.)
Φ (deg)
Series RL circuit
i. Connect the circuit shown in Fig 2. Let L=200 mH.
ii. Set the input sinusoidal voltage at 5VP.P, 800Hz
iii. Vary R from 100 to 1 kΩ in increments of 100 Ω. Use Table 2.
iv. For each value of R, measure the R.M.S. voltage across the inductance.
v. For each value of R, measure the R.M.S. voltage across the resistance.
vi. For each value of R, measure the phase-shift between the current i(t) and the applied
voltage v(t) by using oscilloscope.
vii. When R=1kΩ, plot the current waveform i(t) (How?) and the supply voltage waveform
v(t) on a graph paper.
viii. Calculate the phase angle theoretically.
ix. When R=1kΩ, draw the phasor diagram of the circuit.
Table 1.
Impedance measurements in the RLC circuit.
R (kΩ) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VC(volt)
VL (volt)
VR (volt)
I T(Amp.)
Φ (deg)
5
Discussion
1. Explain why the phasor and the impedance have the same angle.
2. At what condition the following results obtained?
a. Phase angle equal zero
b. The applied voltage lead the current by 90°.
c. The average power equal to zero.
3. In general, how would the phasor diagram of Figure 1(b) change if the frequency was
raised?
4. In general, how would the phasor diagram of Figure 2(b) change if the frequency was
lowered?
6
Experiment No.10
RLC series circuits
Aim of experiment:
To study the characteristics of RLC series AC circuits.
Introduction:
A series RLC circuit is illustrated in Fig.1, as obvious from the figure the effect of XL and XC
are opposite. VL leads the current by 90° while VC lags the current by 90° thus the voltage
across capacitor and inductor are out of phase by 180°. If the magnitude of these voltages are
equal, they cancel each other and the total reactance in the circuit
XL-XC=0
The impedance of the circuit is
Z=R+jXL-jXC
And the phase angle Ф is given by
Ф=tan-1((VL-VC)/VR)
=tan-1((XL-XC)/ R)
If
i. XL= XC the circuit is resistive.
ii. XL> XC the circuit is inductive.
iii. XL< XC the circuit is capacitive.
Fig.1-(a) Series RLC circuit (b) phasor diagram.

1
Z2=R2+(XL-XC)2
Fig.2. Impedance triangle of RLC circuit
Apparatus used:
3- Resistance box.
4- Capacitance box.
5- Inductance box.
6- Coaxial cable.
Procedure:
Connect the circuit shown in Fig.1. Let R= 100Ω, L= 100mH.
Vary C in steps shown in Table 1.
Set the input voltage at 4 VP.P , 200Hz
Measure VR, VL, VC and IT, for each value of C.
Measure the phase shift between input voltage and total current for each value of C.
Calculate the phase angle theoretically.
2
Table 1.
Measurements in RLC circuit.
C (μF) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30
VC (volt)
VR (volt)
VL (volt)
IT (Amp.)
Φ (deg)
Discussion:
1) Is the phase relationship between circuit voltages and the current in a series RLC- AC
circuit?
2) Based on measurements, do KVL apply to the tested circuit (show work)?
3) In general, how would the phasor diagram of Fig.2, change if the frequency was raised?
4) In general, how would the phasor diagram of Fig. 2, change if the frequency was
lowered?
3
Experiment No.11
Resonance in Series RLC Circuits
Aim of experiment:
To study series resource in AC circuit and to investigate resonance in RLC circuits by
• Determining the theoretical parameters of series and parallel networks,
• Comparing the theoretical results to experimental results.
Introduction:
Resonance in AC circuits implies a special frequency (called the RESONANT
FREQUENCY) determined by the values of the circuit elements. This frequency is designated
fr in Hertz and ωr in radians/second, and is the frequency at which the series resonant circuit
will exhibit minimum impedance and the parallel resonant circuit will exhibit a very large
impedance. If capacitors and inductors were ideal (i.e., no series or parallel resistance) the
definition of resonant frequency would be much simpler. In most applications the primary
concern with capacitors is the parallel resistance which gives rise to a parallel leakage current.
However, if the capacitor is properly chosen, this resistance will be 100 MΩ or more, and will
cause little difficulty. In addition to inductance, inductors will have a series resistance and
possibly a parallel capacitance of concern. The series resistance is simply the resistance of the
wire used to wind the inductor and may significantly increase at frequencies in the MHz range
as a result of the SKIN EFFECT. The parallel capacitance is due to the distributed capacitance
between the windings and is also of greater concern in higher frequency applications. For the
purposes of this experiment we will assume the capacitor and inductor are ideal.
In addition to the resonant frequency, resonant circuits also exhibit lower and upper half-
power frequencies or break frequencies designated as f1 and f2, respectively. These are the
frequencies below and above the resonant frequency at which the power absorbed by the
network falls to 50% of its maximum value. At these frequencies, the magnitude of the current
into a voltage-driven, series-resonant network and the magnitude of the voltage across a
current-driven, parallel-resonant network is 0.707 of their maximum value. This 0.707 value
results from the fact that both current and voltage are proportional the square-root of power
and the square-root of 0.5 is 0.707. Since 3dB is equivalent to half- power, these frequencies
are also referred to as the 3 dB frequencies. The difference between the upper and lower half-
power frequencies is the bandwidth (BW).
1
SERIES RESONANCE
The resonance of a series RLC circuit (Fig.1) occurs when the inductive and capacitive
reactance are equal in magnitude but cancel each other because they are 180 degrees apart in
phase. The impedance of an RLC series circuit at resonance is simply R.
Fig.1-Series RLC circuit
2
Apparatus used:
3- Resistance box.
4- Capacitance box.
5- Inductance box.
6- Coaxial cable.
Procedure:
(i) Calculate at home the (a) resonant frequency fR, the (b) current at resonance Ip-p, and
the (c) equivalent impedance Zeq, at resonance.
(ii) Connect the circuit shown in Fig.1. Let R= 200 Ω, L= 25 mH and C=0.1 μF.
Maintaining 8V(p-p) at the input to the circuit, record the voltage VR(p-p) for the
frequencies appearing in Table 1. Make sure to check constantly that V S = 8V(p-p)
with each frequency change.
Table 1.
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
3
(iii) Turn off the supply and interchange the positions of C and R in the circuit shown in
Fig.1. Measure VC(p-p) for the same range of frequencies. Again, turn off the supply
and interchange the positions of L and R in the circuit shown in Fig. 1, and measure
VR(p-p) for the same range of frequencies.
(iv) Complete Table 1 by computing the current Ip-p and the total impedance Zeq. Plot the
total impedance Zeq versus frequency and clearly label the curve.
(v) Describe in a few sentences how the total impedance of a series resonant circuit varies
with frequency.
(vi) Plot the current Ip-p versus frequency and clearly label the curve.
(vii) Describe in a few sentences how the current of a series resonant circuit varies with
frequency.
(viii) Plot the voltages VL(p-p), VC(p-p), and VR(p-p) versus frequency on the same graph.
Label each curve clearly.
(ix) At what frequency are VR, VL, and VC a maximum?
Discussion:
4
College of Engineering‐Department of Computer Engineering

Experiment No.12
Resonance in Parallel RLC Circuits
Aim of experiment:
To study parallel resonance in AC circuit and to investigate resonance in parallel RLC circuits
by
• Determining the theoretical parameters of parallel RLC circuit.
• Comparing the theoretical results to experimental results.
Introduction:
The parallel resonant circuit has the basic configuration of fig (1) This circuit is often called
the tank circuit due to the storage of energy by the inductor and capacitor, a transfer of energy
similar to that discussed for the series circuit also occurs in the parallel resonant circuit. In the
ideal case (no radiation losses, and so on), the capacitor absorbs energy during one half-cycle
of the power curves at the same rate at which it is released by the inductor, during the next half-
cycle of the power curves, the inductor absorbs energy at the same rate at which the capacitor
releases it, the total reactive power at resonance is therefore zero. And the total power factor is
1.
Fig. (1) Ideal parallel resonant network

For the network of fig. (1)
YT=1/ZT
YT=1/R+j(1/XC -1/XL)
or
YT=G+j (WC – (1/ WL))
or
YT= G+j(BC - BL)
or
1


YT =G+JB
At resonance, the reactive component must be zero as defined by:
1/XC – 1/XL=0
or
WC=1/WL
Therefore:
Y= 1/R or Y=G
Hence
WO =1/√𝐿𝐶
and
fp=1/2π LC
Fig. (2) Admittance vs angular frequency (ω)
The inductive branch is no longer a pure inductive but an inductance and resistance in series
fig. (3)
2


Fig. (3) Practical parallel L-C network.

Hence the resonant frequency is equal to:
THE QUALITY FACTOR QP:

The quality factor of the parallel resonant circuit continues to be determined by the ratio of the
reactive power to the real power. That is,
Since XL=XC
The effect of R, L, and C on the shape of the parallel resonance curve, as shown in Fig. (4) for
the input impedance, is quite similar to their effect on the series resonance curve. to their effect
on the series resonance curve.
3


Fig. (4) effect of R , L & C on the parallel resonance curve
The ZT versus-frequency curve of fig. (5) clearly reveals that a parallel resonant circuit exhibits
maximum impedance at resonance, unlike the series resonant circuit which experiences
minimum resistance levels at resonance.
Fig. (5) ZT versus frequency for the parallel resonant circuit.
Apparatus used:
1- Dual beam oscilloscope and a digital voltmeter
3- Resistance box.
4- Capacitance box.
5- Inductance box.
6- Coaxial cable.
4


Procedure:
1-connect the circuit as shown in fig. (6).
Fig. (6) The circuit used and connected in the experiment.
2-Set the function generator freq. to 200 Hz and voltage 8 V ( r.m.s)

3-Vary the frequency of generator from 200 Hz to 1 KHz in step of 50 Hz take readings of
circuit currents (I) ,(VR), (VL) ,(VC) and find the frequency at which the impedance is maximum
(at resonance).
4-Tabulate your results in table as shown in table (1)
Table (1)
Frequency Total circuit current Voltage across the parallel Zin = Vi/I
(Hz) (I) connected elements (Ohms)
(milliamps) Vo (volts)
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
…
…
…
…
…
…
1000
5


Requirements:
1- Draw(Zin) versus frequency (fp)
2- Discuss the plot of Zin you obtained in the previous step.
3- What is the value of (fp) which obtained experimentally, calculate the theoretical of(fp) and
find the error between the two values.
4- You have the following equation
Prove that:
where (f1&f2) the cut off frequency

Discussion:
1- Comment on your result.
2- Given the parallel network of Fig. (7) composed of “ideal” elements:
a. Determine the resonant frequency fp.
b. Find the total impedance at resonance.
c. Calculate the Quality factor, Bandwidth, and Cutoff frequencies f1 and f2 of the system.
Fig. (7)
3-find the parallel equivalent network of a series R.L. combination in fig(8).
6


Fig. (8) Series and parallel combination of a coil.

Review:
a) fr = f0 = fp = Resonance frequency in parallel circuit.
b) Band (cutoff, half-power, corner) frequencies that define the points on the resonance
curve that are 0.707 of the peak current or voltage value. In addition, they define the
frequencies at which the power transfer to the resonant circuit will be half the maximum
power level.
c) 3-Bandwidth (BW) The range of frequencies between the band, cutoff, or half-power
frequencies.
d) Quality factor (Q) A ratio that provides an immediate indication of the sharpness of the
peak of a resonance curve. The higher the Q, the sharper the peak and the more quickly
it drops off to the right and left of the resonant frequency.
e) Resonance A condition established by the application of a particular frequency (the
resonant frequency) to a series or parallel R-L-C network. The transfer of power to the
system is a maximum, and, for frequencies above and below, the power transfer drops
off to significantly lower levels.
7

Lab Experiment

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University of Basrah

Electrical Circuits Lab.

Power Voltage Current Calculated

𝑅𝐵𝐶 = (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) … … (5)

𝑅𝐶𝐴 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) … … (6)

If the two configurations are equivalent, then:

Star I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) VAB(volt) VBC (volt) VCA(volt)

The output VO can be expressed as

The overall output voltage is then,

3. Keeping only VS1 active in the circuit

4. Keeping only VS2 active in the circuit

Procedural Steps for finding Thevenin's Equivalent Circuit

Current passing through the circuit shown above is given by:

To get the maximum value:

Now, equating the derivative to zero we get:

Finally, calculate the current flowing through RL by using the equation,

8- Connect the circuit shown in Fig.6.

3. What is the field of application of this theorem?

When to Use an oscilloscope:

Fig.3 The display of the oscilloscope.

Fig.4 – The vertical system control panel.

Fig.5 – The horizontal system control panel.

Fig.6 – The trigger system control panel.

Fig.7– The probe.

plotting Normalized current = i(t)/Io, versus Normalized time = t/RC.

Fig.2- RC Charging current.

Capacitor voltage at any time t when discharging to

Plotting normalized voltage ( Vc /VS ) versus normalized time ( t/RC )

Fig.3-RC Charging voltage.

Note that the time constant (t = τ = RC) occurs at 0.632 VS

A- THE SERIES RC CIRCUIT:

The solution of this differential equation results in.

Fig. 1(a) -Series RC circuit and waveforms.

Fig. 1(b) -Series RC circuit phasor diagram.

B- THE SERIES RL CIRCUIT:

Fig. 2(a) -Series RL circuit and waveforms.

Fig. 2(b) -Series RL circuit phasor diagram.

Fig.1-(a) Series RLC circuit (b) phasor diagram.

Fig.2. Impedance triangle of RLC circuit

Fig.1-Series RLC circuit

Fig. (1) Ideal parallel resonant network

Fig. (2) Admittance vs angular frequency (ω)

Fig. (3) Practical parallel L-C network.

THE QUALITY FACTOR QP:

Fig. (4) effect of R , L & C on the parallel resonance curve

Fig. (5) ZT versus frequency for the parallel resonant circuit.

Fig. (6) The circuit used and connected in the experiment.

2-Set the function generator freq. to 200 Hz and voltage 8 V ( r.m.s)

where (f1&f2) the cut off frequency

3-find the parallel equivalent network of a series R.L. combination in fig(8).

Fig. (8) Series and parallel combination of a coil.

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