Accepted Manuscript

On the assessment of fatigue life of marine diesel engine crankshafts

M. Fonte, P. Duarte, V. Anes, M. Freitas, L. Reis

PII: S1350-6307(15)00145-4
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2015.04.014
Reference: EFA 2562

To appear in: Engineering Failure Analysis

Received Date: 30 October 2014

Revised Date: 31 March 2015
Accepted Date: 20 April 2015

Please cite this article as: Fonte, M., Duarte, P., Anes, V., Freitas, M., Reis, L., On the assessment of fatigue life of
marine diesel engine crankshafts, Engineering Failure Analysis (2015), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.
2015.04.014

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 Sixth International Conference on Engineering Failure Analysis, ICEFA VI

On the assessment of fatigue life of marine diesel engine crankshafts

M. Fonte1, P. Duarte1, V. Anes2, M. Freitas2, L. Reis*2
1
Escola Superior Náutica (ENIDH), Portugal; 2IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
luis.g.reis@ist.utl.pt

Abstract. The fatigue strength and its correct assessment play an important role in design and maintenance of marine
crankshafts to obtain operational safety and reliability. Crankshafts are under alternating bending on crankpins and
rotating bending combined with torsion on main journals, which mostly are responsible for fatigue failure. The
commercial management success substantially depends on the main engine in service and of its design crankshaft, in
particular. The crankshaft design strictly follows the rules of classification societies. The present study provides an
overview on the assessment of fatigue life of marine engine crankshafts and its maintenance taking into account the
design improving in the last decades, considering that accurate estimation of fatigue life is very important to ensure
safety of components and its reliability. An example of a semi-built crankshaft failure is also presented and the probable
root case of damage, and at the end some final remarks are presented.

Keywords: marine diesel engine; crankshafts failure; fatigue strength assessment; fatigue life.

1. Introduction

Marine main engines are largely used in ship propulsion and are required to have higher power outputs with smaller
sizes. The engines power is raising from year to year with the increasing of deadweight in new ships construction. The
engines commonly are of two-strokes and have low speeds (90-120 rpm) with considerable height. The increasing size of
ships has resulted in a demand requirement for high powers, but at the same time a low engine speed results into a low
consumption and thus also a low cost of fuel. The vital and main component of a marine diesel engine is the crankshaft,
which transforms reciprocating motion of pistons into rotary motion, and experiences a large number of loading cycles
during its service life. As it is well known, a mechanical component subjected to a repetitive stress probably will fail with
a stress much lower than that required to cause fracture on a single load application. Therefore fatigue failures occur and
generally after a long period of service conditions. It is estimated that the fatigue failure accounts for at least 85 % of all
service failures due to mechanical causes.
Crankshafts are power shafts subjected to multiaxial fatigue under complex loading conditions and are also one of
most critically loaded components of internal combustion engines. The main source of loading comes from the gas
pressure due to combustion process, which can reach hundreds of tons transmitted to each crankpin by the connecting
rods. These forces vary according to angle of thrust applied by the connecting rod and the cylinder firing pressure but are
greatest at about 10° either side of top dead center (TDC). Crankshafts are subjected to, during one revolution, both
maximum and minimum bending stresses combined with torsion. If the main bearings are in misalignment the bending is
increased. Any rotating power shaft will be also subject to torsional vibrations at the natural frequency of the shaft
resulting from the compression and firing forces applied to the crankpin through the piston and connecting rods. To
absorb these types of vibrations some main engines has a damper.
Crankshafts normally have either integral or attachable counterweights. These counterweights counteract the
centrifugal force created by each individual crankpin and crankwebs when whole crankshaft is rotated about the main
journal axis. In absence of counterweights, the crankpin masses tend to bend and distort the crankshaft causing excessive

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edge-loading in the main bearings. Therefore, each half crankweb is generally extended in the opposite direction of the
crankpin, to counterbalance the effect of crankpins.
A crankshaft has three main components as is shown in Fig. 1: the crankpin journal, which receives the force from the
connecting rod; the main journals, which are supported by the main journal bearings on the bedplate; the crankwebs,
which connect two main journals to the crankpin.
What is the root cause of main diesel engine failures? Some factors influencing the fatigue life of marine crankshafts
are [1]: loss of effective lubrication; over speeding of engines or eventually an operation in critical or forbidden
revolution range; faulty crankshaft damper designed to eliminate excessive vibration from the crankshaft; engine power
imbalance, as result of deficient maintenance or wrong power monitoring; misalignment of journal bearings; improper
design and manufacture of crankshaft; overloading of main engine; grounding of the vessel and damage or fouling of
propeller; bearing shells suffering considerable metal loss due to sudden or gradual wear.

crankpin-web fillet crankpin crankweb main journal

Fig. 1. Crankshaft type 90 half built-up crankshaft of low-speed 2-stroke marine diesel engine [2].
Most of crankshaft failures occur due to high stress concentration originated by the changing of cross-section at the
crankpin-web or main journal fillets, or yet at the lips of lubrication bores. Another important root cause is the engine
running with heavy vibration especially torsional vibrations. The abnormal wear of main journals or shell bearings can
originate a significant misalignment of crankshaft and will cause a higher oil clearance. Regular inspections to the
damper and screws tightening, measurement of crankthrow deflections, can also prevent future damages.
For estimating fatigue life there is several methods which are used nowadays such as stress life (S-N), strain life (ε-N)
and Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM). The S-N method is based on nominal stress life using a rain flow cycle
counting and an accumulation damage rule, generally Miner´s rule. The LEFM assumes that crack is already present in
the component and can be detected, being the crack growth analysis based on the stress intensity factor (SIF) K. The
classical calculation method has limitations to be used for the strength analysis whereby the Finite Element Method
(FEM) is a numerical calculation method that is largely used for the fatigue failure analysis of components and structures.
However the Finite Element Method (FEM) and testing laboratories have contribute significantly to anticipate and avoid
catastrophic failures, being that the probability of a catastrophic failure of marine crankshafts to occur is very low due to
rigorous rules of design and periodic surveys [3]. For assessment of a crankshaft fatigue life is mainly necessary to
determine the stress levels at the geometrical critical zones. Nowadays, with the increasing of computer efficiency, Finite
Element Analysis (FEA) is largely used for stress state determination in crankshafts and is an advanced modelling
technique that can help to predict the magnitude of stress on individual components within complex assemblies and under
complex loading service conditions. The aim of this work is point out the main issues regarding fatigue life assessment of
marine diesel engine crankshafts, design improving and manufacturing, presenting also an example of a semi-built
crankshaft failure.

2. Design and manufacturing considerations

New crankshafts manufacturing has been developed in the last decades. Crankshafts can be manufactured by
assembly parts or by forging. Nowadays, the more common marine crankshafts manufacturing are: (i) assembled
crankshafts, where the crankpin journal, main journal and crankwebs are manufactured separately and then fitted together
using a shrink fitting method; (ii) semi-built crankshaft where webs and main journals and/or crankwebs and crankpin
journals are forged as one piece and shrink fitted together, being the most common for large marine main engines, as is
shown in Fig. 2 (a) and (b); (iii) fully forged crankshaft that is built from an entire forged. However crankshafts are
generally classified into two categories: built-up for 2-cycle marine diesel engines with cylinder bore diameters larger
than about 400 mm and fully forged for 4-cycle diesel engines [4]. In the condition of assembly parts the crankshaft is
designed by semi-built. A built-up type crankshaft is manufactured by shrink fitting parts called journals to other parts

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called crankthrows, which are made of forged steel. Crankthrows are made of either cast or forged steel although the cast
has the advantage in productivity over ones made of forged steel. A rigorous quality control is needed during the
manufacturing process. The web bore and pin readings are approved before the shrink fit process by the Class, and
should be trustworthy. Each crankshaft design presents advantages and advantages, being the option mainly based on
economic decisions and type of ship. However, any design regarding this type of component is always under rigorous
rules and supervision of the Classification Societies, which are non-governmental organizations that establish and
maintains technical standards for the construction and operation of ships and offshore structures.

crankpin
crankweb

fillet

fillets

(a)
(b)

Fig. 2. (a) Close-up of a built-up type crankshaft where is shown a crankthrow (2 webs + pin)
and (b) a crankthrow drawing with the main dimensions referenced.

The primary role of the Society is to classify ships and validate that their design and calculations are in accordance
with the published standards. It also carries out periodical survey of ships to ensure that they continue to meet the
parameters of set standards. Dedicated to safe ships and clean seas the International Association of Classifications
Societies (IACS) makes a unique contribution to maritime safety and regulation through technical support, compliance
verification and research and development. More than 90% of the world's cargo carrying tonnage is covered by the
classification design, construction and through-life compliance Rules and standards set by the thirteen Member Societies
of IACS [5, 6]. Classification Rules have been developed over many years by each society through extensive research
and development and service experience, and are subject to constant refinement. In addition, Unified Requirements have
been agreed by IACS Members and transposed into the individual Members’ Rules.
Semi-built crankshafts for many engines of ships have to be constructed in accordance with the International
Association of Classification Societies (IACS), Unified Requirement no. UR-M53, and therefore the tolerances of shrink
fits are very well controlled taking into account the minimum and maximum oversized of the shrink fit, which is defined
by the maximum torque to be transmitted and by the mechanical properties of the crankshaft material.
When a crankshaft design involves the use of surface treated fillets, or fatigue parameter influences are tested, the
relevant documents with calculations/analysis need to be submitted to Classification Societies in order to demonstrate
equivalence to the Rules. The Rules apply only to solid-forged and semi-built crankshafts of forged or cast steel, with one
crankthrow between main bearings. The crankshafts design is based on an evaluation of safety against fatigue in the
highly stressed areas. The calculation is also based on the assumption that the areas exposed to highest stresses are fillet
transitions between the crankpin and webs as well as between the main journal and webs, and outlets of crankpin oil
bores. Laboratorial testing of crankshaft steel alloys and the use of advanced FEM has significantly improved the lifetime
of these components.
The working conditions of marine diesel engine crankshafts are complex and constitute one important challenge for
engineering designing. Since the fatigue fracture initiated near the fillets is one of the primary failure mechanisms, fillet
rolling processes have been used to improve the crankshaft fatigue lives [7]. The annealed parts are also subject to
straightening after quenching and tempering for correcting deformations due to heat treatment. Additional annealing is
then performed to remove the residual stresses generated during straightening. In the machining stage, parts are turned
and ground to obtain the required dimensions and tolerances. Induction surface hardening is followed by stress annealing
if the depth of the surface hardening is smaller than the depth of the damaged layer, and, after induction surface
hardening, the magnitude and distribution of residual stresses should be such that they contribute to improving the fatigue
strength of the material.
Fillet rolling has traditionally been used to induce compressive residual stresses at the crankshaft fillets. The
compressive residual stress generated at this critical area increases fatigue life of the component. Fillets in the crankshaft

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act as stress raisers and endure the highest level of stress under service loading. They are the critical locations where
cracks can nucleate at a fillet surface due to combined cyclic bending and torsion.
The marine diesel engines require higher fatigue strengths of crankpin-web fillets and also an improving gripping
strength of the shrink fit journals. The influence of the residual stresses induced by the fillet rolling process on the fatigue
process of a ductile cast iron crankshaft section under bending using the fracture mechanics approach was studied [7]
before and after the rolling process in an elastic-plastic finite element analysis with consideration of the kinematic
hardening rule. A linear elastic fracture mechanics approach was employed to understand the fatigue crack propagation
process by investigating the stress intensity factors of cracks initiating from the fillet surface.
Methods used to improve the fatigue strength are by applying external forces to the material on fillet regions or by
cold rolling, which causes work hardening and compressive residual stress on the material surface. All the cast
crankthrows produced nowadays are processed by cold rolling and this is one of the most commonly used techniques
because this ensures high dimensional precision since it does not involve heating, which tends to cause deformation on
the part/component.

3. A semi-built crankshaft failure case

The crankshaft fatigue process may also appear as a consequence of a sudden torsion overload, e. g. caused by
external factors, such as main engine overloads in operation, or by propeller overloads, which may worthwhile to be
further investigated by perusal of the main engine performance in service conditions and duration of voyages by the
vessel.
The semi-built crankshaft shrinkage assembling is of capital importance and the geometric tolerances should be
strictly taken into account. A recent example of a crank throw failure of a semi-built crankshaft is here presented, Fig. 3.
The main diesel engine is an in-line 2 stroke, single acting 7 cylinders, 7 crankthrows, 28,000 HP at 110 rpm, with a time
service about 13,000 hours. The damage was on the crankthrow nº 6. The material is the 42CrMo4 structural steel and the
crankshaft parts are assembly by shrinkage. For the shrinkage a minimum and maximum oversize, in diameter, is 1.91
mm and 1.99 mm, with a tolerance of 0.08 mm. It is well-known that semi-built crankshafts, when subjected to heavy
overload in operation, may fail in their shrinkages. If this situation occurs, crankthrows are slipping over the main pin
journals.

main journal

connecting rod

crankpin crankweb
main bearing fractured crankweb
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3. (a) Connecting rod head; (b) sketch of semi-built crankweb with the crack zone, and (c) the fractured crankweb.

Fig. 3 (a) shows a schematic representation of connecting rod acting on the crankpin, in Fig. 3 (b) is shown the crack
zone developed from the web bore under the effect of torsion loading, and Fig. 3 (c) shows the main pin coupled to the
fractured web bore. The crack growth process has left clear marks of slipping on the cylindrical surface of main pin.
Fig. 4 (a) shows the surface crack morphology of the crankweb nº 6, which shows two distinct zones of the fracture
surface: one produced by fatigue process and other one by fast fracture. The fatigue process was developed by cycling
torsion moment originated by the connecting rod head acting on crankpin, which is coupled to the web and main pin. The
crack had initiated approximately 7.5 mm inside the shrink fit crevice. Fig. 4 (b) shows the surface crack with the semi-
elliptical beachmarks, and the crack initiation site with a slant short crack, which can be an indication of fretting
phenomenon. In Fig. 4 (c) is shown the surface main pin with an “imprint” zone of fretting close to the interface of the
crack initiation. The main pin shows fretting marks produced by mutual movements between web bore and main pin. The

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fatigue crack has grown larger and larger thereby releasing some of the shrink fit forces. This fretting may be a result of
loss of shrink fit forces as the main crack has grown deeper and longer.
crack initiation pin fretting
zone

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4. (a) Surface crack morphology of the fractured crankweb; (b) surface crack with beachmarks;
(c) main pin surface showing the slipping and fretting zone.

3.1. Probable damage root cause

It is clearly that the nº 6 crankthrow web has failed by fatigue. As it is well-known crack initiation takes time to
develop, i.e. needs a certain number of cycles to start, afterwards the nucleation period, crack grows with a certain fatigue
crack growth rate and the history of the crack growth can be seen through the arrest lines or beachmarks if they
eventually exist at the fatigue surface. The knowledge of the engine operating conditions, in order to identify the
beachmarks left on the fatigue crack surface, see Fig. 4 (b), was necessary to identify the arrest lines related to the
departures and arrivals of the vessel on ports, as well as the operating hours among them, starting from the last fatigue
arrest line (immediately before de catastrophic failure). Therefore, the searching event can eventually lead to the root
cause of the crack initiation and if there were sudden external loads from the propeller. It is also clearly shown the point
or focus where the crack was initiated, Fig. 4 (b). This fatigue crack initiation could be caused by a material defect such
as an inclusion, a microcrack due to the shrink process, or a microscopic geometric defect where the stress level can be
enough high due to a sudden overload or a high local stress, although a latent defect or inclusion are not enough to
nucleate a crack, if the stress does not overtake the fatigue threshold. Additional metallographic, optical and microscopic
SEM tests were carried out but did not show any evidence of physical defects or inclusions.
The beachmarks (or arrest lines) present on the fatigue crack surface, Fig. 4 (b), correspond to events on the main
engine operation. The crack opening is due to the torque produced by the connecting rod head acting on the crankpin
through the webs nº 6 connected to the journal pin. Due to a non-uniform torsion stress between the main pin and web
bore, or a deficient assembling of the main pin into the crankweb bore, a local sliding and fretting process can appear. In
addition when the crack initiation is by fretting the fatigue strength can be reduced to at least 4 times of that value. The
initial slanted 45º crack path, see Fig. 4 (b) pointed by the arrow, suggests that the crack initiation can be by fretting
fatigue. The fatigue process could have started due to some local loosening or over tightening due to deficient geometric
tolerances between web bore and journal pin. Shrink fitting normally results in circumferential tensile stresses into the
bore surface. Due to the relieve tightening of the shrink probably there was a fretting fatigue phenomenon which could
lead to a premature fatigue crack initiation. The fracture surfaces have the typical appearance of fatigue cracks under
Mode I loading with semi-elliptical beachmarks (arrest lines or beach marks) radiating from the crack initiation zone near
the corner in the web bore. If the wrong tolerances are pointed as the main root cause of the fracture, it means that the
fatigue process has been initiated at the time of the crankshaft manufacturing introduced in the crank web bore no. 6. The
web bore material suffered an overstressing after cooling and this resulted in a permanent yielding of the crank web
throw.
The shaft and bedplate alignments, being with specified limits and journal bearings showing no abnormal wear, the
fatigue process was caused by transferring of torsion loads between crankthrow nº 5 and 6. When the final rupture

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occurred the shrink fit was released and the shaft started to twist, stopping after some 90 degrees as the friction welding
in the sliding faces has shown. Regarding the crank web deflections and alignment readings data these ones show to be
under the acceptable limit values, which lead to conclusion that the fracture was not caused by external influences.
The crack initiation zone clearly shows a fretting fatigue process as is shown close to the crack initiation, se Fig. 4
(c). The crack started with 45º inclination for the first initial period, i.e. fatigue short crack occurred. Therefore, in the
beginning of the crack initiation some sliding contact existed due to a stress release between the main pin and the local
web bore surface. Thus, a crack sliding process for the fatigue crack propagation was initiated and developed. This
fatigue crack initiation mechanism differs from normal fatigue process in alternating tensile stress without fretting.

4. Marine main engine crankshafts and its maintenance

Marine main engines of large ships generally work at low medium speeds and experience a large number of load
cycles during their service life. All rotating machinery systems experiences torsional oscillations of some degree during
the startup, shutdown, and continuous operation.
Crankshaft of a marine engine is a massive component, which is supported by a set of main shell bearings on the
engine bedplate. The crankshaft is aligned in a straight line drawn from the center of the crankshaft ends. However,
during time service conditions, the straight line may deviate, but with a certain degree of misalignment, which must not
exceed the imposed limit by the manufacturer; the crankshaft weight can also produce some misalignment. If the limit
value goes beyond that rated by the manufacturer this may lead to fatigue damage or a catastrophic failure. Over a period
of time as the engine keeps running, the wear at the bearings may not be uniform across the entire length of the
crankshaft. This means that the crankshaft will not remain in the initial straight line position but will get bent either
upward or downwards to a slight degree, which may not be visible with the naked eye but could be sufficient to cause
dangerous levels of fatigue at the crankwebs. Fig. 5 shows an example of main engine deflexion readings of a crankshaft
with 8 crankthrows. The crankthrow nº 4 shows an indication of misalignment, which must deserve attention.

Fig. 5. Deflection readings of a crankshaft of 8 cylinder in-line.

Several factors can contribute for misalignment of marine crankshafts: damage or wipe-out of main bearings;
deformation of ship’s hull; loose engine foundation bolt leading to vibration; loose main bearing bolt which can
damage the main bearings; high bending moment on the crankshaft due to excessive power from the pistons; grounding
of ship; cracks in the bearing saddles; bearing pockets cracked or bedplate deformed; tie bolts slack or broken; etc.
An excessive torsional vibration of rotary components like crankshafts is an important matter in defining the
operational reliability of rotary equipment. The design and maintenance are of paramount importance for the safety and
lifetime improvement of crankshafts. Counterweight crankshaft balancing is also important because there are high
dynamic forces that exist in a running engine, which can rise for highest levels. Dampers are needed because the torsional
vibrations can cause serious damages on crankshaft and bedplate. Crankshaft bending failures are frequently related with
the misalignment, aggravated by deterioration of the foundation. The current industry approach to document crankshaft
alignment is to measure static web deflections. Deflection measurements at each crankweb are until now an empirical

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process to assess and control the misalignment of crankshafts [8 -10], as is shown in Fig. 5. These measurements are
carried out at regular crank angles during a complete rotation of crankthrow. The obtained values should be compared
with the last readings in order to find some trend or any sudden abnormality of deflections. This is until now an effective
method to assess the misalignment of crankshafts, regularly used by the ship maintenance crew. It is of utmost
importance obtaining these measurements taking into account the recommendations of manufacturer and the Ship
Classification Society.
The lubricating system deserves also special and care attention. Low oil pressure and abnormal wear of shell bearings
will cause a higher oil clearance, which can lead a misalignment of crankshaft. Inspections to the damper and special
attention to screws tightening of main engine, with the specific torque applied, can prevent premature damages. Failures
can also occur due to improper engine operating and deficient maintenance. Some of these damage sources include oil
absence or defective lubrication on journals, disequilibrium of pressures in the cylinders, inadequate clearance between
journals and bearings, crankshaft vibrations, etc.

5. Final remarks

A review on the assessment of fatigue life of marine diesel engine crankshafts was presented. The main issues
associated to the fatigue strength of marine diesel engine crankshafts are addressed, and these ones are similar to the
other diesel engines. An example of catastrophic failure was presented and the root cause seems to be related with the
shrinkage assembly of the semi-built crankshaft. Crankshaft design and its maintenance have a paramount importance on
these dynamic components lifetime. The rules of Register of Shipping Society and Ship Classification Societies, as well
as the FEA are mandatory. Regular deflections measurements and the comparison with the last readings can significantly
improve the lifetime of crankshafts as well as the rules and recommendations of manufacturers.

References

[1] Archer S. Some factors influencing the life of marine crankshaft. INE – Trans 1964;76 (4).
[2] DHHI: http://www.dhidcw.com/dhidcw/english/web/qz.html.
[3] Yu Gongzhi, Yu Hongliang, Duan Shulin. Crankshaft dynamic strength analysis for marine diesel engine. 3rd Int.
Conf. on Measuring Technology and Mechatronics Automation (2011).
[4] Haruyshi K, Hiroyuki M. Technical developments and recent trends in crankshaft materials. Kubelco Technology
Review, 26, Dec. 2005.
[5] IACS Publication, UR M53, Calculation of Crankshafts for I.C Engines, Rev.1 2004, Rev. II, 2011.
[6] IACS–International Association of Classification Societies Ltd.; http://www.iacs.org.uk/
[7] Chien WY, Pan J, Close D, Ho S. Fatigue analysis of crankshaft sections under bending with consideration of
residual stresses. International Journal of Fatigue (2005), Vol. 27, pp. 1-19.
[8] Fonte M, de Freitas, Marine main engine crankshaft failure analysis: A case study. Eng Failure Analysis 2009;
16:1940-47.
[9] B. Kareem, Evaluation of failures in mechanical crankshafts of automobile based on expert opinion. Engineering
Failure Analysis 3 (2015) 25–33.
[10] Kakade, P and Pasarkar, M. D., Analyzing and Identifying Various Approaches for Crankshaft Failures. Journal of
Multidisciplinary Engineering Science and Technology (JMEST), Vol. 2 Issue 2, February – 2015.

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Highlights:

Marine diesel engine crankshafts and its design and manufacturing.

Assessment of fatigue life of marine diesel engine crankshafts.

Failure mode analysis of marine diesel crankshafts.

Recommendations to improve the lifetime of marine crankshafts.