January 19, 2010 Which method used by Native Americansresistance or acculturationwas more successful in grappling with the westward

migration of white Americans?

The relationships shared between Anglo-Americans and Native Americans, in retrospect, are known to be long, complicated, and unique. Throughout history, however, Native Americans have proven their ability to defend their heritage. Prior to the arrival of European parties in 1492, Native American civilizations flourished across the continent. While Americans, fueled by Manifest Destiny, pursued their desires for westward movement, the Native Americans grew defensive of their homelands. The plans of the American System and the Native Americans reactions to its implementation in the 19th century have created modern American society. Had the Native Americans been feeble-spirited and uncommitted to their heritage, it is possible that their culture would not be incorporated in modern America. Today, historians like Gregory Evans Dowd and Theda Perdue question whether Native American resistance or acculturation was more beneficial overall in handling the westward expansion of the United States. In order to answer this question and to further understand Anglo-Indian relations, it is necessary to compare the outcomes of Indian resistance versus acculturation. The acculturation of Native Americans to American society, ultimately, was a more successful method used for grappling with the Americans than resistance, because it provided greater security for Indians against U.S. forces, paved the way for economic success, and expanded Indian knowledge towards improved methods of social and political organization. As resistance proved to be a failure against American forces in warfare, accommodation to American policies was necessary to ensure Native American security from the power of the United States government. In complying with the Jacksonian plan for a speedy removal,

Native American tribes such as the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Cherokee were able to relieve themselves from all the evils, real or imaginary, present or prospective, with which they may be supposed to be threatened. (Andrew Jackson's State of Union Adress: December 6, 1830). While many Native American groups were forced into Oklahoma territory, there were some who chose to sign treaties with the Americans prior to the removal from their homelands. Accommodation to the Indian Removal Act of 1830 was not only important for the Americans who sought westward expansion, but it was vital for the Indians who were undoubtedly at risk of extermination by ambitious American authorities. The benefits in doing so, according to Jackson, would put a stop to all possible danger of collision between the authorities of the General and State Government on account of the IndiansIt will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way (Andrew Jackson's State of Union Adress: December 6, 1830) . In essence, agreeing to westward movement ensured the Native Americans protection from stronger American forces and possible utter annihilation (Andrew Jackson's State of Union Adress: December 6, 1830) . Furthermore, in accepting to move from their homelands, Native American tribes were compensated with the revenue from the sale of eastern territories. The Cherokee nation held $2,716,979 in the United States trust; the Choctaw nation had $975,258; the Chickasaw held $206,695; the Creek had $2,275,168; and the Seminole had $2,070,000.00 by the end of 1894 (Indian Removal Act of 1830). In complying with the policies of expansion enforced by the United States, Native Americans were able to form a more favorable relationship with the Americans and reap the benefits of land, money, and protection. One significant illustration of successful Native American acculturation is found in economic success achieved through trade relations, the implementation of farming skills, and

technological advancements. After moving west, there were several Native American tribes that acquired knowledge of different aspects of the economy, and they were able to prosper from that knowledge. The Potawatomis, for example, exploited their generations of knowledge of the fur trade along with the resources available to them in the west to become successful entrepreneurs. Those who farmed and raised livestock eventually sold their produce, cornmeal, lumber, meat, and horses to travelers. Those farmers who were especially successful shipped surplus crops to the east. The Potawatomis established routes of transportation in the west through streams and rivers as they pursued better means of trade (Relocation and Acculturation of Native Americans). The use of technological innovations allowed for more efficient farming, and, therefore, added to Native Americans economic success. Washington, who encouraged commercial agriculture in the Cherokee reservations, recommended the use of the plow to increase production (Purdue 221). The Cherokees, who utilized many of the resources provided by Americans dominated Cherokee economic and political life as well as Cherokee history. Firearms were used to enhance hunting skills, especially in the Plains, where buffalo was an object of competition. (Relocation and Acculturation of Native Americans). During a time when economic success seemed unlikely for Native American minorities, those who were able to adapt to American ways of revenue thrived. While trade success provided the key for economic survival, Native American accommodation contributed to the growth of Indian communities through religious and educational enlightenment. As American missionaries flocked into various Indian civilizations, cooperation with the American civilization program became a requirement for survival. Since most Indian tribes were strongly devoted to their own spiritual practices, the influence of Christianity was sparse. The Shawnees, however, found great political reward in professing

Christianity. After suffering much social distress at the hands of the whites, the Shawnees found refuge in the form of religious acculturation. Powerful missionaries and federal agents expressed favoritism towards Native Americans who embraced their teachings. By the late 1840s, they converted approximately one-quarter of the Kansas Shawnee population to Christianity. Throughout the early 1800s, schools were established in Choctaw, Cherokee, and Seminole districts as a means of ensuring survival for posterity. One Shawnee Chief, Black Hoof, declared, education was an evil that must be endured so that Shawnee children would learn to survive in their rapidly changing world (Relocation and Acculturation of Native Americans). In addition to establishing education systems for their children and Christian institutions, modern political systems were used by acculturated Native Americans. The Cherokees, for example, still carry out similar government policies that were used in their first organized government. The Chickasaw and Choctaw tribes used electoral governments for the welfare of the tribe (Indian Removal Act of 1830). By establishing Christian institutions, public schools and modern government systems, the Native Americans would be able to secure a more positive connection with the United States while creating firm foundations for communities that would keep Native Americans in synch with the ever-changing world around them. From the colonial era to present-day America, the clashing of white and Indian societies has been the catalyst for many historical events that are noted today. The displacement of Native Americans and their acculturation was just one of these events. Native American acculturation was extremely important for both the survival of Indian civilizations in the 19th century and the creation of modern American society. While acculturation may be frowned upon as an act of relinquishing ones culture, it proved to accomplish just the opposite through enriching the Native American heritage and causing the accrual of Indian nationalism. It allowed the Native

Americans to become a part of Americas social knitting, while maintaining their cultural roots and some ancient practices. Today, Native Americans are nestled in modern society; however, they have maintained many of their ancient practices, and teach us the importance of devotion to ones heritage. While some stay in their reservations, there are many American Indians who have grown in prominence as famous writers, athletes, and government officials. Had all of the Native Americans resisted, it is likely that the majority of their tribes would have been wiped out by belligerent American forces. Instead, the Indians found that their peaceful approach to removal was productive of greater advantages to their nation than most sanguine hopes could lead them to expect from oppersition. (William Clark Enters into Diplomacy with Native People (1806)). While acculturation was the more successful alternative to resistance, it could not relinquish Anglo-Indian tensions that would bring about conflicts in the late 19th century.

Works Cited

"Andrew Jackson's State of Union Adress: December 6, 1830." 2008. Teaching American History. 16 January 2010 <http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1230>. Dowd, Gregory Evans and Theda Purdue. "Westward Movement, the Market Revolution, and Indian Removal." Major Problems in American History Vol I: to 1877. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 196-227. "Indian Removal Act of 1830." 2010. Studyworld. 16 January 2010 <http://www.studyworld.com/indian_removal_act_of_1830.htm>.

"Native Americans in U.S. History." 2010. ABC-CLIO: American History. 16 January 2010 <http://www.americanhistory.abcclio.com/Search/Display.aspx?categoryid=23&entryid=263244&searchtext=native+americans&t ype=simple&option=all>. "Relocation and Acculturation of Native Americans." 2010. ABC-CLIO: American History. 16 January 2010 <http://www.americanhistory.abcclio.com/Search/Display.aspx?categoryid=23&entryid=1349035&searchtext=native+american+a cculturation&type=simple&option=all>. "William Clark Enters into Diplomacy with Native People (1806)."