SYNOPSI

S
Mat
terWav
es(
de-
Brogl
ieWav
es)
Accordingtode-Brogl
ieamovi
ngmat eri
alpar
ticl
esomet i
mesactsasawav eandsometimesasaparti
cle.
Thewav eassoci
atedwit
hmov i
ngparti
clei
scal l
edmatterwaveorde-
Brogl
i
ewav eanditpropagat
esi
nthe
f
orm ofwav epacket
swi t
hgroupvel
oci
ty.
(1)de-Brogl
iewavelengt
h:Accordi
ngtode-Brogli
etheory
,thewavel
engt
hofde-Brogl
i
ewav eisgiv
enby

Whereh=Plank'
sconst
ant
,m =Massofthepar
ti
cl v=Speedoft
e, hepar
ticl
e,E=Ener
gyoft
hepar
ti
cle.
Thesmal
lestwavel
engt
hwhosemeasur
ementispossibl
eist
hatof -
rays.
Thewavel engt
h ofmatterwavesassoci
ated wi
ththe mi
croscopi
cpar
ti
clesl
ike el
ect
ron,pr
oton,
neutr -
on, part
i eet
cl c.i
soft
heorderof m.
(2)de-Br
ogliewavel
engt
hassociat
edwiththechargedpar
ticl
es:Theenergyofachargedparti
cle
accel
erat
edt
hroughpot
ent
ial
dif
f enceVi
er s

Hencede-
Brogl
i
ewav
elengt
h

Å, Å,

Å, Å

(
3)de-
Brogl
iewav
elengt
hassoci
atedwi
thunchar
gedpar
ti
cles:ForNeut
ronde-
Brogl
i
ewav
elengt
his
gi
venas

Ener
gyoft
her
mal
neut
ronsator
dinar
ytemper
atur
e
; eT=Absol
wher utet
emper
atur
e,k=Bol
tzman'
sconst
ant= Joul
e/kel
vi
n,

So,

(
4)Rat
ioofwav
elengt
hofphot
onandel
ect
ron:Thewav
elengt
hofaphot gyEi
onofener sgi
venby

Whi
l
ethewav
elengt
hofanel
ect
ronofki
net
i gyKi
cener sgi
venby .Ther
efor
e,f
ort
hesame

ener
gy,

t
her
ati
o

Char
act
eri
sti
csofMat
terWav
es
(
1)Mat
terwav
erepr
esent
sthepr
obabi
l
ityoff
indi
ngapar
ti
clei
nspace.
(
2)Mat
terwav
esar
enotel
ect
romagnet
ici
nnat
ure.
(
3)de-Brogi
l
eormat t
erwav ei
sindependentoft
hechargeonthemater
ialpar
ti
cle.I
tmeans,mat
terwav
e
ofde-
Brogl
iewav ei
sassoci
atedwit
heverymov i
ngpart
icl
e(whet
herchar
gedoruncharged)
.
 (4)Practi
calobservat
ionofmat
terwav
esi
spossi
bleonl
ywhent
hede-
Brogl
i
ewav
elengt
hisoft
heor
derof
t
hesizeoftheparti
cles.
(
5)El
ect
ronmi
croscopewor
ksont
hebasi
sofde-
Brogl
i
ewav
es.
(
6)Thephasev
eloci
tyoft
hemat
terwav
escanbegr
eat
ert
hant
hespeedoft
hel
i
ght
.
(
7)Mat
terwav
escanpr
opagat
einv
acuum,
hencet
heyar
enotmechani
cal
wav
es.
(
8)Thenumberofde-
Brogl
i
ewav
esassoci
atedwi
thnthor
bit
alel
ect
r sn.
oni
(
9)Onlythosecircul
arorbi
tsaroundthenucleusarestabl
ewhoseci
rcumf
erencei
sint
egr
almul
ti
ple
ofde-Br
ogl
iewavelengthassoci
atedwit
ht heor
bitalel
ect
ron.
Davi
sionandGer merExperiment
(1)Iti
susedt ostudythescatt
eringofel
ectr
onfrom asol i
dort ov er
if
ythewav enatur
eofelect
ron.A
beam ofelectr
onsemi t
tedbyelect
rongunismadet ofal
lonnickelcry
stalcutal
ongcubical
axisatapar
ti
cular
angle.Nicr y
stalbehavesl i
keat hreedimensi
onaldif
fract
iongr at
ingandi tdif
fract
stheelectr
onbeam
obtainedf
rom elect
rongun.
F El
ect
ron
gun

Det
ect
or
I
ncidentbeam
ofelect
rons
 Di
ff
ractedbeam

 ofelect
rons

Ni
ckel
cry
stal
Fi
g.25.
13

(2)Thediffr
actedbeam ofelect
ronsisrecei
vedbyt
hedet
ect
orwhichcanbeposit
ionedatanyangl
eby
rot
atingitaboutthepointofi
ncidence.Theenergyoft
hei
nci
dentbeam ofel
ect
ronscanalsobevari
edby
changingtheappli
edvolt
agetotheelect
rongun.
(3)Accor di
ngtoclassi
calphysics,t
heintensi
tyofscat
ter
edbeam ofelect
ronsatallscat
ter
ingangl
ewi l
l
besamebutDav i
ssonandGer mer,foundthattheint
ensi
tyofscat
ter
edbeam ofelect
ronswasnott hesame
butdi f
ferentatdif
fer
entanglesofscat ter
ing.Itismaximum fordi
ffr
act
ingangle50°at54v ol
tpotent
ial
di
fference.
dentbeam
nci

50o
I

54V

Fi
g.25.
14
 (4)Ift
hede-
Brogli
ewavesexi
stforelect
ronsthentheseshoul
dbedi
ff
r edasX-
act ray
s.Usi
ngt
heBr
agg'
s
f
ormula ,wecandet
erminethewav el
engthofthesewav
es.

ed=di
wher stancebet
weendi
ff
ract
ingpl
anes, =gl
anci
ngangl
efori
nci
dentbeam =Br
agg'
s

angl
e.

=65° =50°

D

d

At
omi
cpl
anes

Fi
g.25.
15

Thedi
stancebet
weendi
ff
ract
ingpl nNi
anesi -cr
yst
alf
ort
hisexper
i sd=0.
menti 91Åandt
heBr
agg'
sangl
e
=65o.Thi
sgi
v orn=1,
esf Å

Nowt
hede-
Brogl
i
ewav
elengt
hcanal
sobedet
ermi
nedbyusi
ngt
hef
ormul
a .Thus

t
hede-
Brogl
i
ehy
pot
hesi
sisv
eri
fi
ed.
(
5)TheBr
agg'
sfor
mul
acanber
ewr
it
teni
nthef
orm cont
aini
ngi
nter
atomi
cdi
stanceDandangl
e

Usi
ng

  Dsi
n=

Hei
senber
gUncer
tai
ntyPr
inci
ple
(
1)Accor
dingt
oHeisenber
g'suncert
aint
ypr
inci
ple,i
tisi
mpossi
blet
omeasur
esi
mul
taneousl
ybot
hthe
posi
ti
onandthemoment
um ofthepart
icl
e.
2)Letxandpbet
( heuncer
tai
ntyi
nthesi
mul
taneousmeasur
ementoft
heposi
ti
onandmoment
um of
t
he par
ti
cle,t
hen ;wher
e 63  10–34 J-
and h = 6. sist
he Pl
anck'
s const
ant
.
 Amor
eri
gor
oust
reat
mentgi
ves .

( fx=0t
3)I henp=andi
fp=0t
henx=
i.
e.,
ifwear
eabletomeasuretheexactposi
ti
onofthepart
icl
e(sayanelect
ron)t
hentheuncer
taintyi
nt he
measurementoft
helinearmomentum ofthepart
icl
eisi
nfi
nit
e.Simi
lar
ly,i
fweareablet
omeasur et heexact
l
inearmomentum oft
heparti
clei
.e.
,p=0, t
henwecannotmeasur etheexactposi
ti
onofthepart
icleatthat
t
ime.

Vi
ewer

I
nci
dent Refl
ected
phot
on photon

Or
igi
nalmomentum
ofel
ect
ron
Fi
nalmomentum
ofel
ect
ron
Fi
g.25.
16

Anel
ect
roncannotbeobser
vedwi
thoutchangi
ngi
t'
smoment
um
(
4)Uncer
tai
ntypr
inci
plesuccessf
ull
yexpl
ains
(
i)Non-
exi
stenceofel
ect
ronsi
nthenucl
eus
(
ii
)Fi
nit
esi
zeofspect
ral
li
nes.
(
5)TheHei
senber
guncer
tai
ntypr
inci
plei
sal
soappl
i
cabl
etoener
gyandt
ime,angul
armoment
um and
angul
ardi
spl
acement
.Hence and

(
6)I
fther
adi
usoft
henucl srt
eusi hent
hepr
obabi
l
ityoff
indi
ngt
heel
ect
roni
nsi
det
henucl sx=2r
eusi
anduncer
tai
ntyi
nmoment
um i
s

Phot
on
Accor
dingt
oEienst
ein'
squant
um theor
yl i
ghtpr
opagat
esi
nthebundl
es(
packet
sorquant
a)ofener
gy,
eachbundl
ebei
ngcall
edaphotonandpossessi
ngenergy
.
(
1)Ener
gyofphot
on:Ener
gyofphot
oni
sgi
venby

ec=Speedofl
wher i ,h=Pl
ght ank'
sconst 610–34 J-
ant=6. sec, =Fr nHz,=
equencyi

Wav
elengt
hofl
i
ght
.
I
nel
ect
ronv
olt 

(
2)Massofphot
on:Act
ual
l
yrestmassoft
hephot
oni
szer
o.Buti
t'
sef
fect
ivemassi
sgi
venas
  .Thi
smassi
sal
soknownaski
net
icmassoft
hephot
on

(
3)Moment
um oft
hephot
on
Moment
um

(
4)Numberofemi
tt
ed phot
ons :The numberofphot
ons emi
tt
ed persecond f
rom a sour
ce of
monochr
omat
icr
adi
ati
onofwav
el handpowerPi
engt sgi
venas eE=ener
;wher gyofeach
phot
on
(
5)I
ntensi
tyofl
i I
ght():Ener
gycr
ossi
ngperuni
tar
eanor
mal
l
ypersecondi
scal
l
edi
ntensi
tyorener
gyf
lux

i
.e.

Atadi
stancerf
rom apoi ceofpowerPi
ntsour ntensi
tyi
sgi
venby 

(
6)Numberofphot
onsf
all
i n):I
ngpersecond( fPi
sthepowerofr
adi
atonandEi
i stheener
gyofaphot
on
t
hen

Phot
o-El
ect
ri
cEf
fect
Thephoto-el
ect
ri
ceffecti
stheemi ssi
onofelect
rons(cal
l
edphoto-
elect
ronswhenli
ghtst
ri
kesasurf
ace.
Toescapef r
om thesur
face,t
heelect
ronmustabsorbenoughenergyfr
om theinci
dentr
adi
ati
ontoov
ercome
theatt
ract
ionofposi
ti
veionsint
hemat eri
aloft
hesurface.
Thephot
oel
ect
ricef
fectwasf
ir
stobser
vedbyHei
nri
chHer
tzandi
twasi
nvest
igat
edi
ndet
ailbyWhi
l
elm
Hal
l
wachsandPhi
l
ippLenard.
Thephot
oel
ect
ri
cef
fecti
sbasedont
hepr
inci
pleofconser
vat
ionofener
gy.
(1)Wor kf
unct
ion(
orthr
eshol
denergy)(W0):Themini
mum energyofinci
dentr
adi
ati
on,
requi
redt
oej
ect
t
heelect
ronsfr
om met
all
i
csurf
aceisdef
inedasworkfunct
ionoft
hatsur
face.

0=Thr
eshol
dfr
equency
;

0=Thr
eshol
dwav
elengt
h
Wor
kfunct
ioni
nel
ect
ronv
oltW0(
eV)

Tabl
e25.
2:Wor
kfunct
ionofsev
eralel
ement
s
El
ement Work El
ement Work
f
uncti
on f
uncti
on
eV)
( eV)
(
Pl
ati
num 6.
4 Al
umi
num 4.
3
Gol
d 5.
1 Si
l
ver 4.
3
 Ni
ckel 5.
1 Sodi
um 2.
7
Car
bon 5.
0 Li
thi
um 2.
5
Si
l
icon 4.
8 Pot
assi
u 2.
2
m
Copper 4.
7 Cesi
um 1.
9

(2)Threshol
df r
equency(0):Theminimum frequencyofi
nci
dentr
adi
ati
onsr
equi
redt
oej
ectt
heel
ect
ron
f
rom metalsur
faceisdef
inedast hr
eshol
dfrequency.
I
finci
dentf
requency<0 Nophot
oel
ect
ronemi
ssi
on
Formostmetalsthethr
esholdfr
equencyisint
heult
rav
iol
et(cor
respondi
ngtowavel
engt
hsbetween200
and300nm),butforpot
assium andcesi
um oxi
desi
tisi
nthevi
sibl
espectr bet
um ( ween400and700nm)
(
3)Thr
esholdwavelengt
h(0):Themaximum wav el
engthofinci
dentr
adi
ati
onsr
equi
redt
oej
ectt
he
el
ectr
onsf
rom amet
all
icsurf
aceisdef
inedast
hreshol
dwavelengt
h.
I
finci
dentwav
el h>0 Nophot
engt oel
ect
ronemi
ssi
on
(4)Einst
ein'sphotoel
ect
ri
cequati
on:Accor
dingt
oEinst
ein,
phot
oel
ectr
icef
fectist
her
esul
tofonet
oone
i
nel
asti
ccoll
isionbetweenphotonandel
ect
roni
nwhichphot
oniscompl
etel
yabsorbed
E=h0 E=h

K.
E.=max.
K.
E.=0
e–
e–
Met
al

Fi
g.25.
17

Ei
nst
ein'
sphot
oel
ect
ri
cequat
i sE=W0+Kmax
oni
wher
e maxi
mum ki
net
icener
gyofemi
tt
edel
ect
rons.

Exper
iment
alSet
upf
orPhot
oel
ect
ri
cEf
fect
(
1)Twoconduct
ingel
ect
rodes,t Q)andcat
heanode( P)ar
hode( eencl
osedi
nanev
acuat
edgl
asst
ubeas
shown
 –
e– e
P e– e– Q

V
mA

Fi
g.25.
18

(2)Thebat
ter
yorot
hersour
ceofpot
ent
ialdi
ff
erencecr
eat
esanel
ect
ri
cfi
eldi
nthedi
rect
ionf
rom anode
t
ocathode.
(
3)Lightofcert
ainwavelengthorfrequencyf
all
i
ngont
hesur
faceofcat
hodecausesacur
renti
nthe
ext
ernal
cir
cui
tcal
ledphot
oelectri
ccur
rent.
(
4)Aspot
ent
ial
dif
fer
encei
ncr
eases,
phot
oel
ect
ri
ccur
rental
soi
ncr
easest
il
lsat
urat
ioni
sreached.
(5)Whenpol
ari
tyofbatt
eryi
srev
er i
sed(.
e.pl
ateQ i
satnegat
ivepot
ent
ialw.
r.
t.pl
ateP)el
ect
ronsst
art
mov
ingbackt
owardsthecat
hode.
(6)Ataparti
cularnegat
ivepot ent
ialofpl eQ noel
at ectr
onwi l
lreachthepl
ateQ andt
hecurrentwil
l
becomezero,t
hisnegativ
epot enti
aliscall
edstoppingpotenti
aldenotedbyV0.Maxi
mum ki
net
icenergyof
photoel
ect
ronsi
nt ermsofstoppingpotenti
alwil
lther
efor
ebe
Ef
fectofI
ntensi
tyandFr
equencyofLi
ght
(1)Ef f
ectofintensi
ty:Ifthei nt
ensit
yofl
ighti
sincr
eased(whi
lei
t'
sfrequencyi
skeptthesame)t
he
currentlevel
soffatahi ghervalue,showingt
hatmoreelect
ronsar
ebeingemi t
tedperuni
tti
me.Butt
he
stoppingpotent
i V0doesn'
al tchangei.e.
I
ntensi
tyno.ofi
nci
dentphot
onno.ofemi
tt
edphot
oel
ect
ronpert
imephot
ocur
rent

i
2I
=const
ant
I

–V0 O V

Fi
g.25.
19
 (
2)Eff
ectoffrequency:Iff
requencyofinci
dentl
ightincreases,(
keepi
ngi
ntensi
tyi
sconst
ant
)st
oppi
ng
pot
enti
ali
ncr
easesbutthei
risnochangeinphotoel
ect
riccurrent
2>1 i I=const
ant

2
1

–V02 –V01O V
Fi
g.25.
20

I
mpor
tantFor
mul
aef
orPhot
oel
ect
ri
cEf
fect
(
1) and

(
2) 

(
3)

(
4)

(
5)

(
6)

Compt
onEf
fect

(
1)Thescat
ter
ingofaphot
onbyanel
ect
roni
scal
l
edCompt
onef
fect
.
(
2)Theener
gyandmoment
um i
sconser
ved.
(3)Scatt
ered phot
onwi
l
lhav
elessener
gy(
mor
ewav
elengt
h)ascompar
etoi
nci
dentphot
on (
less
wav
elengt
h).
(
4)Theener
gyl
ostbyt
hephot
oni
stakenbyel
ect
ronaski
net
icener
gy.
(
5)The change i
n wav
elengt
h due t
o Compt
on ef
fecti
s cal
l
ed Compt
on shi
ft
.Compt
on shi
ft

f=0o,
I =0
=90o,
 (
cal
l
edCompt
onwav
elengt
h)

Compt
onscat
ter
ing
–
Tar
getel
ect
ron
Recoi
l

h atr
est

– el
ect
ron

i h
I
nci
dentphot
on
f
Scat
ter
edphot
on

Fi
g.25.
21
 X-
Ray
s
(
1)X-ray sweredi scov er
edbysci enti
stRontgent hat
swhyt heyarealsocal
ledRontgenray
s.
–3
(
2)Ront gendi scov eredthatwhenpr essur
ei nsi
deadi schargetubeiskept10 mm ofHgandpot ent
ial
di
ff
erencei skept25kV, thensomeunknownr adiati
ons(X-r
ays)areemi t
tedbyanode.
(
3)Ther ear ethr
eeessent i
alrequir
ement sfortheproducti
onofX- r
ays.
(
i)Asour ceofel ectron
(
ii
)Anar r
angementt oacceleratetheelectr
ons
(
ii
i)At argetofsui tablemat eri
alofhighatomi cweightandhi ghmel t
ingpoi
ntonwhi chthesehi
ghspeed
el
ectr
onsst rike.
Cooli
dgeX-RayTube
(
1)I tconsi
stsofahi ghlyevacuatedgl asstubecontaini
ngcathodeandt ar
get(al
soknownasfil
amenttype
X-
rayt ube).Thecat hodeconsi stofat ungstenf i
l
ament .Thefil
amenti scoatedwit
hoxidesofbari
um or
st
ronti
um t o hav eanemi ssi
onofel ectronsev enatl ow temperatur
e.Thef il
amentissurr
ounded bya
molybdenum cy l
inderkeptatnegativepotentialw.
r.t
.thetarget
.
(
2)Thet arget(Iti
samat erialofhighat omicwei ght,hi
ghmel t
ingpointandhighther
malconducti
vi
ty)
madeoft ungstenormol ybdenum isembeddedi nacopperbl ock.
(
3)Thef
aceoft
het
ar ssetat45ot
geti othei
nci
dentel
ect
ronst
ream.
V
Lead
chamber Anode
C
Wat
er
T

F
Fi
l
ament W
Tar
get
Wi
ndow X-r
ays

Fi
g.25.
22

(4)Thefil
amenti sheat edbypassi ngt hecurrentt hroughi t
.Ahi ghpot enti
al dif
ference(10kVt o80kV)i s
appli
edbetweent het argetandcat hodet oacceleratetheel ectr
onswhi chareemi tt
edbyf i
lament .Thestream
ofhighl
yener geti
cel ectronsar efocussedont hetarget .
(5)Mostoft heener gyoft heel ectr
onsi sconv er
tedi ntoheat( above98%)andonl yaf ractionoftheener gy
oftheelect
rons( about2%)i susedt opr oduceX- rays.
(6)Duringt heoper ationoft het ube,ahugequant it
yofheati spr oducedi nt hi
st arget,thisheati s
conductedthrought hecopperanodet ot hecoolingf insfrom wher ei ti
sdissipatedbyr adiationandconv ect i
on.
(7)Controlofi ntensityofX- r
ay s:I ntensi
tyimpl iesthenumberofX- r
ayphot onsproducedf r
om t hetarget.
Thei nt
ensi
tyofX- raysemi t
tedisdi rectlypropor t
ionalt otheel ectronsemi ttedpersecondf rom thefil
ament
andthiscanbei ncr easedbyi ncr
easi ngt hefi
lamentcur rent.SointensityofX- raysFi l
amentcur rent
(8)Controlofqual i
tyorpenet rat onpowerofX-
i r ays:Qual i
tyofX- raysimpl i
est hepenet rati
ngpowerofX-
ray
s,whichcanbecontr
oll
edbyvary
ingt
hepot
ent
ial
diff
erencebetweent
hecat
hodeandt
hetar
get.
Forlargepot
enti
aldif
fer
ence,ener
gyofbombardingelect
ronswil
lbelargeandhencelar
geri
sthe
penetr
ati
onpowerofX-r
ays.

Tabl
e25.
3:Ty
pesofX-
ray
s
Har
dX-
ray
s Sof
tX-
ray
s
More penet
rat
ion Less penet
rat
ion
power power
Morefr
equencyoft
he Lessfrequencyoft
he
19 16
derof10 Hz
or orderof10 Hz
Lesser wav
elengt
h More wavelengt
h
range(
0.1Å–4Å) r
ange(4Å–100Å)

Pr
oper
ti
esofX-
Ray
s
(
1)X-
ray
sar
eel
ect
romagnet
icwav
eswi
thwav
elengt
hrange0.
1Å–100Å.
(2)Thewavel
engt
hofX-
ray
si sverysmalli
ncompari
sont
othewav
elengt
hofl
i
ght
.Hencet
heycar
rymuch
mor
eenergy(Thi
sist
heonl
ydi
fferencebet
weenX-ray
sandli
ght
)
(
3)X-
ray
sar
einv
isi
ble.
(
4)Theyt
rav
eli
nast
rai
ghtl
i
newi
thspeedofl
i
ght
.
(
5)X-
ray
sar
emeasur
edi
nRont
gen(
measur
eofi
oni
zat
ionpower
).
(
6)X-
ray
scar
rynochar
gesot
heyar
enotdef
lect
edi
nmagnet
icf
iel
dandel
ect
ri
cfi
eld.
(
7)
(
8)Theyusedi
nthest
udyofcr
yst
alst
ruct
ure.
(
9)Theyi
oni
segases
(
10)X-
ray
sdonotpasst
hroughheav
ymet
alsandbones.
(
11)Theyaf
fectphot
ogr
aphi
cpl
ates.
(
12)Longexposur
etoX-
ray
sisi
njur
iousf
orhumanbody
.
(
13)Leadi
sthebestabsor
berofX-
ray
s.
(
14)ForX-
rayphot
ogr
aphyofhumanbodypar
t BaSO4i
s, sthebestabsor
ber
.
(
15)Theypr
oducephot
oel
ect
ri
cef
fectandCompt
onef
fect
(
16)X-
ray
sar
enotemi
tt
edbyhy
drogenat
om.
(
17)Thesecannotbeusedi
nRadarbecauset
heyar
enotr
efl
ect
edbyt
het
arget
.
(
18)Theyshowal
lthei
mpor
tantpr
oper
ti
esofl
i
ghtr
aysl
i
ke;r
efl
ect
ion,r
efr
act
ion,i
nter
fer
ence,di
ff
ract
ion
andpol
ari
zat
ionet
c.
Absor
pti
onofX-
Ray
s
X-
ray
sar
eabsor
bedwhent
heyi
nci
dentonsubst
ance.
 I
ntensi
t gentX-
yofemer ray
s
Soi
ntensi
tyofabsor
bedX-
ray
s
ex=t
wher hicknessofabsor
bingmedi =absor
um, pti
oncoef
fi
cient

I
0 Emergent
X-
rays

I
I
nci
dentX-
ray
s

Fi
g.25.
23

=Wav
elengt
hofX-
ray
)
Fr
equencyofX-
ray
)
At
omi
cnumberoft
arget
)
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofX-
Ray
s
I
nX- r
aytube,whenhi
ghspeedel ectr
onsstr
ikest hetar
get
,theypenetr
atethet
arget.Theylosest
heir
kineti
cenergyandcomestorestinsi
det hemetal.Theelect
ronbefor
efinal
lybei
ngstoppedmakesseveral
colli
sionswit
htheatomsint
het arget.Ateachcolli
siononeofthefoll
owingtwotypesofX-ray
smayget
formed.
(
1)Cont
inuousX-
ray
s
(
2)Char
act
eri
sti
cX-
ray
s
Cont
inuousX-
Ray
s
Asanelect
ronpassescloset otheposi
ti
venucleusofat
om ofthet
arget,
theel
ectr
oni
sdef
lectedfr
om i
t'
s
pathasshowninfigure.Thi
sr esul
tsindecel
erat
ionoftheel
ectr
on.Thelossinener
gyoft
heelectr
ondur
ing
decel
erat
ioni
semittedintheform ofX-r
ays.

X-
rayphot
on
e–
+

Fi
g.25.
24

TheX-
rayphot
onssoemi
tt
edf
ormt
hecont
inuousX-
rayspect
rum.
 (
1)Mi
nimum wav
elengt
h:Whent
heel
ect
ronl
ooseswhol
eofi
t'
sener
gyi
nasi
ngl
ecol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
om,
anX-
rayphot
onofmaxi gyhmaxi
mum ener semi
tedi
t .e.

ev=v
wher el
ocit
yofelect
ronbeforecol
l
isi
onwi
tht
ar om,V =pot
getat ent
ialdi
ff
erencet
hroughwhi
ch
8
el
ectr
onisaccel
erat
ed,c=speedofl
ight=310 m/s
Maxi
mum f
requencyofr
adi
ati
ons(
X-r
ays)

Mi
nimum wav
elengt
h=cutof
fwav
elengt
hofX-
ray

(2)Int
ensi
tywavelengt
hgraph:Thecont inuousX- r
ayspectraconsi
stofal
lthewavel
engt
hsoveragiven
r
ange.Thesewavel
engthareofdiff
erentintensit
ies.Fol
lowingfi
gureshowsthei
ntensi
tyv
ari
ati
onofdi
ff
erent
wavel
engthsf
orvar
iousaccel
erat
ingvoltagesappl i
edtoX-raytube.
Y
t
ensi
y
nt

30kV
I

20kV
10kV
min Wav
elengt
h
Fi
g.25.
25

Foreachv
olt
age,thei
ntensi
tycur
vest
art
satapar
ti
cul
armi
nimum wav
elengt
h(min)
.Ri
sesr
api
dlyt
oa
maxi
mum andt
hendropsgr
aduall
y.
Thewavel
engt
hatwhichthei
ntensi
tyi
smaxi
mum dependsont
heaccel
erat
ingv
olt
age,
bei
ngshor
terf
or
hi
ghervol
tageandv
ice-
ver
sa.
Char
act
eri
sti
cX-
Ray
s

Fewofthefastmov i
ngelect
ronshavi
nghi ghvel
oci
typenet
ratethesur
faceatomsoft
hetar
getmater
ial
andknockoutt
het i
ghtl
yboundelect
ronsevenf r
om t
heinnermostshel
lsoftheat
om.Nowwhentheel
ectr
on
i
sknockedout,
av acancyi
screat
edatthatplace.
 e–

X-
rayphot
on
e–
e–
+
K
L
M

Fi
g.25.
26

Tof il
lthi
svacancyelectr
onsfr
om highershel
lsjumptofil
lthecreatedvacancies,weknowt hatwhenan
electronj umpsfrom ahigherener
gyor tE1 t
bi olowerenergyorbitE2,i
tradi
atesener gy(E1 –E2)
.Thusthi
s
ener gydiffer
enceisradi
atedinthefor
m ofX-raysofverysmallbutdefi
nitewavelengthwhichdependsupon
thet argetmateri
al.TheX-r
ayspect
rum consi
stsofsharpl
inesandiscall
edcharacterist
icX-
rayspectr
um.
(1)K,L,M,……ser ies:I ftheelect
ronstri
ki
ngthetargetejectanelectr
onfrom theK- shelloftheatom,a
vacancyiscreat
edintheK- shell
.Immediatel
yanelectr
onf r
om oneoft heoutershel
l,sayL- shel
ljumpst othe
K-shell
,emit
ti
nganX- r
ayphot onofenergyequaltotheenergydiff
erencebetweenthet woshel ls.Si
milarl
y,i
f
anelectronf
rom theM- shel
ljumpst otheK-shel
l
,X-r
ayphot onofhigherenergyisemitted.TheX- rayphotons
emittedduetothejumpofel ect
ronfr heL,M,
om t NshellstotheK-shell
sgivesK,K,Klinesoft heK-seri
es
ofthespectr
um.
O n=5
N n=4
M M
M n=3
M-
ser
ies
L L L
L n=2
L-
ser
ies
K K K
K n=1
K-
ser
ies
Fi
g.25.
27

Ift
heelectr
onst
ri
ki
ngthetar
getej
ectsanelect
ronfr heL-
om t shel
lofthetar
getatom,
anel
ect
ronf
rom t
he
M,
N…. .shel
lsj
umpstotheL-
shel
lsothatX-
ray
sphot onsofl
esserenergyareemit
ted.
Thesephotonsfor
mtheL-
ser
iesoft
hespect
rum.I
nasi
mil
arwayt
hef
ormat
ionofM ser
i Nser
es, ieset
c.
maybeexpl
ained.
(2)Int
ensi
ty-
wavelengt
hgr
aph:Atcert
ainsharplydef
inedwav
elengths,t
heint
ensi
tyofX-
ray
sisv
erylar
ge
asmarkedK,K….asshowni
nfi
gure.TheseX-r
ay sareknownascharacter
ist
icX-
ray
s.Atot
herwav
elengt
hs
t
hei
ntensi
tyv
ari
esgr
adual
l
yandt
heseX-
ray
sar
ecal
l
edcont
inuousX-
ray
s.
I
ntensi
ty K

K
L
L L
K-
ser
ies

L-
ser
ies

min Wav
elengt
h

Fi
g.25.
28

Mosl
ey'
sLaw
Mosl
eystudiedthecharacter
ist
icX-r
ayspect
rum ofanumberofaheavyel
ementsandconcl
udedthatt
he
spect
raofdif
ferentelementsarev er
ysimil
arandwi t
hincr
easi
ngatomicnumber
,thespect
rall
inesmerel
y
shi
ftt
owardshigherfr
equencies.
Heal
sogav
ethef
oll
owi
ngr
elat
ion
k
k

Z
Fi
g.25.
29

where=Fr equencyofemitt
edl ne,Z =At
i omi
cnumberoft
ar ,a=Pr
get opor
ti
onal
i
tyconst ,b =
ant
Scr
eeningconst
antorShi
eldi
ngconst
ant.
Z–b)=Ef
( fect
iveat
omi
cnumber
aandbdoesn'
tdependont
henat
ureoft
arget
.Di
ff
erentv
aluesofbar
easf
oll
ows
b=1 f
or K-
ser
ies
b=7.
4 f
or L-
ser
ies
b=19.
2 f
or M-
ser
ies
 (
1)Mosl
ey'
slawsuppor
tedBohr
'st
heor
y
(
2)I
texper
iment
all
ydet
ermi
nedt
heat
omi Z)ofel
cnumber( ement
s.
(
3)Thi
slawestabl
i
shedt
hei
mpor
tanceofor
der
ingofel
ement
sinper
iodi
ctabl
ebyat
omi
cnumberandnot
byatomi
cweight
.
(
4)GapsinMosel
ey'
sdat
aforA=43,61,72,75suggest
edexi
stenceofnewel
ement
swhi
chwer
elat
er
di
scover
ed.
(
5)Theat
omi sofCu,
cnumber AgandPtwer
eest
abl
i
shedt
obe29,
47and78r
espect
ivel
y.
(6)Whenav acancyoccursintheK-shel
l,thereisst
il
loneelectr
onremaini
ngi heK-
nt shel
l
.Anel
ectr
onin
theL-shel
lwil
lfeelaneffect
ivechargeof(Z–1) edueto+Zef rom t eusand–ef
henucl r
om ther
emai ngK-
ni
shel
l el
ect
ron,becauseL-shel
lorbi
tiswelloutsidetheK-
shell
orbit
.

(
7)Wav
elengt
h ofchar
act
eri
sti
c spect
rum and ener
gy ofX-
ray r
adi
ati
ons.

(
8)I
ftr
ansi
ti
ont
akespl
acef
rom n2=2t
on1=1(
K-l
i
ne)

(
i)

(
ii
)

(
ii
i)I
ngener
alt
hewav
elengt
hofal
ltheK-
li
nesar
egi
venby en=2,
wher 3,4,
….

Whi
l
eforK l
i
ne

(
iv)

UsesofX-
Ray
s
(
i)I
nst
udyofcr
yst
alst
ruct
ure:
Str
uct
ureofDNAwasal
sodet
ermi
nedusi
ngX-
raydi
ff
ract
ion.
(
ii
)Inmedi
cal
sci
ence
(
ii
i)I
nradi
ogr
aphy
(
iv)I
nradi
other
apy
(
v)I
nengi
neer
ing
(
vi)I
nlabor
ator
ies
(
vii
)Indet
ect
ivedepar
tment
(
vii
i
)Inar
tthechangeoccur
ri
ngi
nol
doi
lpai
nti
ngscanbeexami
nedbyX-
ray
s.

RUTHERFORDALPHASCATTERI
NG

1. Di
stanceofcl
osestappr
oach I
tan-
par
ti
cl
eofmassm andv
eloci
tymov
edi
rect
lyt
owar
dsa
nucl
eusofatomicnumberZ,t
henatt
hedistanceofcl
osestappr
oach(
r0)
,
I
niti
alK.
E.of-
part
icl
e=P.E.of-
par
ti
cleandthenucl
eus
 

2. I
mpactpar
amet
er Theper
pendi
cul
ardi
stanceoft
hev
eloci
tyv
ect
oroft
he-
par
ti
clef
rom t
hecent
reof
t
henucl
eus,
wheni
tisf
arawayf
rom t
heat
om i
scal
l
edi
mpactpar
amet
er.

3. Numberofal
phapar
ti
clesscat
ter
edatanangl
e

RADI
ATI
ONFORCEANDPRESSURE
Cases:1)Fort
henor
mali
nci
dence

2)I
fther
adi
ati
oni
nci
dentnor
mal
l
yist
otal
l
yref
lect
ed

3)I
fther
adi
ati
oni
nci
dentnor
mal
l
yist
otal
l
yabsor
bed

Discover
yofposi
ti
ver
ayshel
psi
ndi
scov
eri
ng
ofi
sotopes.
Thede-Br
ogl
iewavelengt
hofelect
ronsinf
ir
st
Bohrorbi
tofanatom i
sequaltoci
rcumfer
enceof
orbi
t.
Aparti
clehavi
ngzerorestmassandnonzer
o
energyandmoment um musttr
avel
swit
haspeed
equaltospeedofl
ight
.
de-
Brogl
i
ewav
elengt
h associ
ateswi
th gas
mol
ecul
esi
sgi
venas (
Ener
gy

ofgasmol
ecul
esatt
emper
at eTi
ur s )

A phot
on i
snotamat
eri
alpar
ti
cle.I
tisa
quant
aofener
gy.
When a part
icl
e exhi
bit
s wave natur
e,itis
associ
ated wi
th a wave packet
,ratherthen a
wave.
Bycoati
ngthemet alsurf
acewit
hal ay
erof
bar
ium ox
ideorst
ront
ium ox
ideit
'
sworkf
unct
ioni
s
l
ower
ed.
Wemustr ememberthatintensi
tyofinci
dent
l
ightradi
ati
on isinv
ersel
y proporti
onaltot he
squar
eofdi st
ancebetweensour ceofli
ghtand
phot
osensi
ti
vepl
atePi
.e.
, so )

Thephot oel
ect
ri
ccurrentcanbei ncreasedby
fi
l
li
ngsomei ner
tgasli
keAr gonintothebulb.The
photoelect
ronsemit
tedbycat hodeioni
set hegas
bycolli
sionandhencethecurrenti
sincreased.
Compton ef
fect shows t
hat phot
on hav
e
moment
um.
Product
ion of X-ray is t he r
ever
se
phenomenonofphot
oel
ectr
icef
fect
.
Thet
hicknessofmedi
um atwhi
chi
ntensi
tyof
emer
gentX-
ray fi
sbecomeshal .
e. i
scal
l
ed
hal
fval
ue t
hi x1/2)and i
ckness ( tis gi
ven as
.