Safety Engineering of Process Plants (CH 404)

Module V
 Fire Hazard
 Fire hazards are an important concern.
 Two main kinds of fire hazard.
 One is that from very flammable materials, which may give rise quickly to a dangerous fire or
explosion.
 The other is that from fires in buildings, which may trap people by the spread of fire or smoke.
• The thermal radiation intensity and the time duration of fires often are used to estimate injury (severity of burns)
and damage due to a fire.
• Effect of fire : Skin burns due to thermal radiation
• Human skin can withstand a heat radiation intensity of 10 kW/m2 for approximately 5 seconds and that of 30
kW/m2 for less than 0.4 seconds before pain is felt.
 Fire
• Fire is the combining of oxygen and fuel in proper proportions and at the proper temperature to sustain combustion.
• Combustion is the process in which a substance chemically reacts with fuel and oxygen at a rapid rate, producing light
and heat.
• Combustion or fire, is a process involving rapid oxidation at elevated temperatures accompanied by the evolution of
heated gaseous products of combustion, and the emission of visible and invisible radiation.
• To produce fire, four conditions must coexist:
1. Enough oxygen to sustain combustion,
2. Enough heat to raise the material to its ignition temperature,
3. Some sort of fuel or combustible material, and
4. The chemical, exothermic reaction that is fire.
• If one of these conditions is missing, combustion may not take place, and if one condition is altered during combustion,
the fire may become extinguished.

Elements of Fire
• Elements of Combustion (Fire Triangle)
• All required for a fire to occur.
• Trend is to include “Chemical Reaction” as fourth element (Fire Tetrahedron).
 Fire Triangle/Tetrahedron

 Theoretically, fire extinguishers put out fire by taking away one or more
elements of the fire tetrahedron.
 Fire safety, at its most basic, is based upon the principle of keeping fuel
sources and ignition sources separate.
 FIRE PROPERTIES & CHEMISTRY
Combustion or fire, is a process involving rapid oxidation at elevated temperatures accompanied by the evolution
of heated gaseous products of combustion, and the emission of visible and invisible radiation.

Combustion Modes
The combustion process occurs in two modes:
1. Flaming
2. Non-flaming, smouldering or glowing embers.

• For the flaming mode it is necessary for solid and liquid fuels to be vaporised.
• It is this volatile vapour from the solid or liquid fuels that we see actually burning in the flaming mode.
• This gas or vapour production emitted from the fuel is referred to as pyrolysis.
• Once a flame has been established, heat transfer from the flame to the fuel surface continues to drive off more
volatile gases and perpetuates the combustion process.
• Continued burning in the flaming mode requires a high burning rate, and the heat loss associated with transfer
of heat from the flame area by conduction, convection, and radiation must be less than the energy output of
the fire.
• If the heat loss is greater than the energy output of the fire, the fire will extinguish.
• Both modes, flaming and non-flaming, can occur separately or in combination.
• Flammable liquids and gases only burn in the flaming mode. Wood, straw, and coal are examples where both
modes may exist simultaneously.
 Stages of a Fire
 There are four generally recognized stages to a fire.
 The incipient stage,
 Smoldering stage,
 and flame stage.
 Decay stage
The incipient stage is a region where preheating, distillation and slow pyrolysis are in progress.
Gas and sub-micron particles are generated and transported away from the source by diffusion, air movement,
and weak convection movement, produced by the buoyancy of the products of pyrolysis.
The smouldering stage is a region of fully developed pyrolysis that begins with ignition and includes the initial
stage of combustion. Invisible aerosol and visible smoke particles are generated and transported away from the
source by moderate convection patterns and background air movement.
The flaming stage is a region of rapid reaction that covers the period of initial occurrence of flame to a fully
developed fire. Heat transfer from the fire occurs predominantly from radiation and convection from the flame.
 FIRE Definitions

• Flash Point: The flash point of a liquid hydrocarbon is the temperature to which it must be heated
to emit sufficient flammable vapor to flash when brought into contact with a flame.
• Fire point: The fire point of a hydrocarbon liquid is the higher temperature at which the oil vapors
will continue to burn when ignited.
• Flammability limits (or explosion limits) Flammability limit can be defined as the limit or range of
the composition of gases in fixed temperature and pressure conditions within which gaseous
vapors can catch fire or an explosive condition is reached when an external source of ignition is
introduced.
 UFL and LFL
• The flammability limits are functions of
• Ignition energy
• Ignition pressure
• Ignition temperature of the mixture or substance
• Inert gas concentration
• Relative humidity of the mixture or substance

• Flammable Range (Lean/Rich)

• Defined as the difference between the UFL and LFL.
• This difference provides an indication of how wide the flammability limits of a chemical are.
• Generally, the wider the range, the more hazardous the chemical may be considered from a fire standpoint.

• Ignition Temperature
• Minimum temperature at which the material will ignite without a spark or flame being present.
• It gives an indication of the relative flammability of the chemical.
• It is sometimes called the "autoignition” temperature.
• Flammable vs. Combustible liquids
• Flammable Liquids: Defined as liquids having closed cup flash points below 100°F (37°C) and vapor pressures not
exceeding 40 psi (276 kPa) (2.76 bar) at 100°F (37°C).
• Combustible Liquids: Defined as liquids having closed cup flash points at or above 100°F (37°C)
Classes of fire
According to international
standards
  Classes of fire
Class A Fires.
• Which occur in highly flammable solid materials such as wood, cellulose, paper.
• Extinguished by bringing the burning materials below their ignition temperatures with the quenching and cooling
effects of water.
 Under certain circumstances, these fires may be extinguished by the blanketing or smothering effects of dry
chemical and carbon dioxide fire extinguishers.

Class B Fires.
 Those that occur in the vapor-air mixture overlying the surface of flammable liquids
 such as oil, greases, alcohol, kerosene, and gasoline, varnishes, paints.
 Most successfully extinguished by limiting the air that supports combustion.
 Dispersing of dry chemicals, carbon dioxide, foam, halogenated hydrocarbon agents, and fog streams of water.
  Classes of fire

Class C Fires.
• Involving gaseous substance under pressure.
• It is necessary to dilute the burning gas at a very fast rate with an inert gas or powder.
 water, carbon dioxide

Class D Fires.
• The last classification is reserved for fires occurring in combustible metals
• Such as magnesium, lithium, sodium, and aluminum.
 Dry powder agents are the best solution for smothering the flames and limiting damage to property or people..

Class K fires
• involve flammable liquids, similar to Class B fires, but are specifically related to food service and the restaurant
industry. These common fires start from the combustion of liquid cooking materials including grease, oils, and
vegetable and animal fats.
 Because they can spread quickly and be difficult to manage, Class K fires are some of the most dangerous. Water
can make the situation worse, but smothering the flames or using a wet agent fire extinguisher is effective.
 Hazards due to Fire-Pool fire
A pool fire can occur when a volatile liquid fuel is accidentally released on ground or
water to form a fluid reservoir, and ignites
 If a flammable liquid at a temperature above its flash point spills, a part of the
liquid will vaporize.
 The resulting vapor above the liquid pool may form a flammable mixture.
 If the vapor ignites, the result will be a diffusion flame on the surface of the pool,
which is known as a pool fire.
 A pool fire can be confined or unconfined.
 Burns and damage due to heat radiation or flame contact.

 Big pool fire is very hazardous and disastrous to control it.

 This type of fire is prominent in tank farm areas and in bulk depots of
petroleum products where petrol, diesel are stored.
 Hazards due to Fire-Pool fire
 A steadily burning fire is rapidly achieved as the flame vapor to sustain the fire is provided by evaporation of
liquid by heat from the flames.
 The maximum burning rate is function of the net heat of combustion and heat required for its vaporization.

 Examples of pool fires are are flames on ground pools and flames on tanks.
 The rate of evaporation and dispersion of a spreading pool of liquid affects the burning rate of a liquid.
 A typical liquid burning rate ranges from 0.75 to 1.0 cm/min.
 Flash fire
 A flash fire is a sudden, intense fire caused by ignition of a mixture of air and a dispersed
flammable substance such as a solid (including dust), flammable or combustible liquid
(such as an aerosol or fine mist), or a flammable gas.
 The speed of burning is function of the concentration of the flammable component in
the cloud and the wind speed.
 Within a few second of ignition the flame spreads both upwind and downwind of the
ignition source.
 Initially the flame is contained with in the cloud due to premixed burning of the regions
within the flammable limits.
 Subsequently the flame extends in the form of a fire plume above the cloud.
 The downwind edge of the flame starts to move towards the spill point after consuming
the flammable vapor downwind of the ignition source.
Marietta, Ohio based Eureka-
 The duration of this fire is very short (3 seconds or less), and the damage is caused by
Hunter.
• Thursday, April 11, 2013, in thermal radiation and oxygen depletion.
Wick near Middlebourne
 Flash fire
• In a flash fire, a gas cloud or plume forms and moves in a downwind direction.
• Subject to contact with an ignition source, a wall of flame will flash back to the vapor source, sometimes with explosive
force.
• The behavior of flash fire flames is not well documented.
• It is generally assumed that a flash fire will spread throughout the vapor cloud emitted and that it can be calculated by
gas outflow dispersion.
• It is generally assumed that the fire is lethal to anyone within the contours of the cloud who is not wearing special
protective gear.
 Jet Fire
 A jet fire occurs when a flammable liquid or gas is ignited after its release from a pressurized,
punctured vessel or pipe.
 The pressure of release generates a long flame, which is stable under most conditions.
 A flash flame may take the form of jet flame on reaching the spill point.
 The duration of the jet fire is determined by the release rate and the capacity of the source.
 Flame length increases directly with flow rate.
 Typically, a pressurized release of 8kg/s would have a length of 35m.
 The cross winds also affects the flame length.

• 06 July 1988, a series of explosions ripped through the Piper Alpha platform in the North Sea.
• Engulfed in fire, over the next few hours most of the oil rig topside modules collapsed into
the sea.
• 167 men died and many more were injured and traumatized.
• The world’s biggest offshore oil disaster affected 10% of UK oil production
 Jet Fire
• Tanks, cylinders, and pipelines that contain gases under pressure (e.g., liquefied gases) may discharge gases at a high
speed if they are somehow punctured or broken during an accident.
• Subject to an ignition source, a flammable gas can produce a flame jet of considerable length (possibly hundreds of feet
from a hole less than a foot in diameter).
 Explosion
An explosion is defined as an event in which energy is released over a sufficiently small period and in a sufficiently small
volume to generate a pressure, wave of finite amplitude traveling away from the source.

Many types of processes can lead to explosions in the atmosphere.

 Accidental explosions
 Such as condensed phase explosions with or without confinement (liquids),
 Combustion explosions in enclosures (gases and dusts),
 Explosions in pressure vessels,
 Boiling liquid-expanding vapor explosions (BLEVEs),
 and Unconfined vapor cloud explosions (UVCEs).
 Unconfined vapor cloud explosions (UVCEs).
• Unconfined vapor cloud explosions (also known as vapor cloud explosions) in open air often result when accidental
releases of vapors or gases to the atmosphere are ignited.
• Astonishingly high pressure can result from an unconfined vapor cloud explosion; 70 kPa (10 psi) or so may occur at the
outer edge of the exploding cloud, with still higher pressures near the center of the blast.

 Releases of liquefied dense gases have caused many of the reported UVCEs.
 Such heavy gases tend to hug the ground with limited dispersion in
ambient air;
 this condition results in accumulation of these gases where they can
cause maximum casualties to people and damage to property, if
ignited.

• Notwithstanding, releases of huge amounts of compressed natural gas from

ruptured pipelines have caused vapor cloud explosions.
 Unconfined vapor cloud explosions (UVCEs).
• In assessing the hazard of a UVCE or in investigating a UVCE it is often necessary to (1) estimate the maximum
distance to the lower flammable limit (LFL) and (2) determine the amount of gas in a vapor cloud above the LFL.
• Maximum concentrations probably occur near 1 m/s. The volume of fuel from the LFL up to 100 percent may be
estimated by

Vf = 0.64 • Q • xL/u

where Vf = volume of fuel (no air) from the LFL up to 100%, m3 at 25°C
Q = continuous dense vapor emission rate, m3/s at 25°C xL = distance to momentary LFL in centerline of cloud,
u = wind speed, m/s
xL should not exceed 300 m (984 ft).

The reason for selecting 100 percent, instead of the upper flammable limit (UFL), in the equation for Vf is that in an
incipient explosion vapor above the UFL may be mixed with additional air and, thereby, contribute to explosion pressure.
 Boiling liquid-expanding vapor explosion

 An explosion caused by the rupture of a vessel containing a pressurized liquid that has reached temperatures above its
boiling point. Because the boiling point of a liquid rises with pressure, the contents of the pressurized vessel can
remain liquid so long as the vessel is intact. If the vessel's integrity is compromised, the loss of pressure and dropping
boiling point can cause the liquid to rapidly convert to gas and expand extremely rapidly.
 If the gas is combustible as well, as is the case e.g. with hydrocarbons and alcohols, further damage can be caused by
an ensuing fire.
 If the vessel contains non-flammable liquid (such as a steam boiler), a BLEVE will occur, but the vapors will not ignite.

 Heat does not have to be present for a BLEVE to occur. Mechanical damage or overfilling can also cause the vessel to
explode.
• A second-stage BLEVE can occur if a vessel releases combustible vapor into an area where it then mixes with air in the
presence of a source of ignition.
• Then, the explosion can stress the heated vessel and cause it to rupture, resulting in an explosion of the vapor.
• Forming a fireball and possibly a fuel-air explosion, also termed a vapor cloud explosion (VCE)
 Boiling liquid-expanding vapor explosion

 BLEVE occurs for vessel which is containing superheated liquid.

 Common problems of BLEVE is caused by external fire
 External fire causes the liquid to boil, and vapor raises the pressure.
 Since liquid boils, liquids level decrease, thus vessel wall temperature raise rapidly due to the poor heat transfer
between vessel wall and vapor. High wall temperature also causes superheating of vapor.
 Exposed by fire, vessel wall become weak and tears, and resulting a sudden failure of vessel.
 BLEVE caused overpressure blast wave, fireball thermal radiation, and the potential fragments vessel which may be
propelled like missile
BLEVE PREVENTION

• The complete rupturing of a vessel can be prevented by incorporating a sort of vent mechanism to let vapors eject directly
up into the atmosphere.
• If the vapor is not able to be ejected straight up, the pressurized vessel should be kept in an enclosure that can withstand
any explosion pressure and control the blast.
• Provide external cooling
 Toxic release

 In general, a toxic emission can be either continuous or instantaneous

 Continuous releases usually involve low levels of toxic emissions, ,which are regularly monitored and/or
controlled.
 Such releases include continuous stack emissions
 and open or aerated chemical processes in which certain volatile compounds are allowed to be
stripped off into the atmosphere through aeration or agitation.

o Instantaneous release, which is usually the result of an uncontrolled process.

o Most of these incidents are the result of a highway or railway accident or a fire, windstorm, or other natural accident.
o However, the cause can sometimes be linked to the breakdown of normal safeguards in plants, factories, mines, or
chemical storage facilities.
o Whatever the cause, the result is often a significant potential threat to life, property, and/or the environment.
 The accident at Bhopal is an excellent example of all instantaneous release, in ,which a chemical process malfunction
seems to have led to an uncontrolled toxic release.
 CHEMICAL EXPOSURE LIMITS
 Recommend or mandotary occupational exposure limits (OELs) have been developed in many countries for airborne
exposure to gases,vapours and particulates.

 The most widely used limits,called threshold limit values (TLVs),are those issued in the USA by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygenists (ACGIH)

Occupational Exposure Limits

Runaway reactions
• Runaway reactions are a major source of
industrial accidents.

• Runaway Reaction is a thermally unstable

reaction system, which shows an accelerating
increase of temperature and reaction rate. A
reaction that is out of control because the rate
of heat generation by an exothermic chemical
reaction exceeds the rate of cooling available.
 Runaway Reaction

 A typical runaway scenario involves reactants being charged into a reactor at room temperature and heated with
stirring until the reaction temperature is reached.

• Temperature is held constant to optimize cycle time and yield.

• On completion, the reactor is cooled and emptied.
• However, if no provision is made in the process to account for cooling failure at reaction temperature
• e.g., due to power failure or operator error (forgot to start the stirrer), etc.

• Unconverted material still present in the reactor may react at an uncontrollable rate proportional to the
amount of unreacted material.

• This may lead to over-pressure in the vessel and subsequent rupture by virtue of the normal reaction exotherm.
• Alternatively, a secondary decomposition reaction may be initiated and the heat so produced may lead to yet a
further increase in temperature and eventual runaway conditions.
 Runaway Reaction
The prime causes of runaways are associated Causes

with • Instrumentation malfunction

– process chemistry
 Many products are manufactured according to very precise processes,
– inadequate design
and the proper functioning of these processes requires strict
– substandard operational procedures
supervision.
– lack of training
 Any drift in any one of these parameters could trigger a loss of process
– raw-material quality control
control. • Human error
– temperature control
– agitation  significant source of loss of control incidents.
– mischarging of reactants
– maintenance
– human factors
 Circumstances

 Start-up and shutdown phases make up a significant portion of the

circumstances leading to the loss of process control.

 However, others, such as substance transfers, pumping and demolition

which can also lead to the loss of process control and upset maintenance
periods.

Consequences
The loss of process control often provokes a violent chemical reaction with a range of potential consequences:
• Explosion or fire involving equipment (reactor, tank, distillation column, etc.) or released substances, if they are either
flammable or explosive;
• Injuries of varying severity, or even death, from intoxication due to toxic substances escaping into the air, fire smoke or from
falling equipment or other property damage;
• Pollution of the natural environment following the dispersion of hazardous substances being released or generated;
• Property damage, encompassing equipment deformation, broken devices, even destruction of the production building and its
surroundings.
Fire pyramid

Makes up about 21% if the air

that we breathe. To sustain a
Oxygen
fire, a ratio of 16% oxygen or
greater is needed
Can be combustible or
Fuel flammable material, and may
be solid, a liquid or a gas
Is needed both to initially ignite
Heat the fire and also to sustain the
fire.
 FIRE EXTINGUISHING TECHNIQUES
• Starvation
• Removing the fuel or combustibles materials from the fire. (eg. Pump oils from tanks exposed to a fire)
• Smothering
• Reduce the supply of oxygen necessary for continuance of fire.
• A reduction of oxygen in the burning atmosphere from 21% to less than 15% will extinguish most fires.
• Inert gases of vapors can be used to displace air surrounding a fire.
• Blanketing
• Is also a smothering technique.
• Especially valuable in oil and other flammable liquid fires. Foam is usually used for this purpose, which
excludes air and cut off the flames from the burning surface.

• Cooling
• Most important method of extinction.
• The purpose is to reduce the temperature of the fire to below that necessary for combustion to sustain.
• It is a matter of abstracting the heat from the fire at a greater rate than it is generated. Thus, the fire is
progressively cooled and ultimately extinguished
 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

• A fire extinguisher, flame extinguisher, or simply an extinguisher, is an active fire protection device used to
extinguish or control small fires, often in emergency.
• It is not intended for use on an out-of-control emergency situations.
• Typically, a fire extinguisher consists of a handheld cylindrical pressure vessel containing an agent which can be
discharged to extinguish a fire.

• Fire extinguishers contains two different substances inside:

1. Fire fighting agent (can be solid, liquid or gas)
2. Propellant - a pressurized chemical that makes the fire fighting substance come out
when the extinguisher handle is pressed
Components of fire extinguishers
• Cylinder - Holds extinguishing agent and
expelling gases
• Handle - Used to carry and hold extinguisher
• Trigger - When pressed, releases extinguishing
agent through hose and nozzle
• Nozzle or Horn - Agent expelled through these
items
• Pressure Gauge - Shows pressure of the
extinguishing agent being stored in the
cylinder. The indicator should be in the green
area. CO2 extinguishers do not have a
pressure gauge.
Operating Procedure
PASS Procedure
• P ull the Pin - This unlocks the operating lever
and allows the agent to discharge from the
extinguisher
• A im Low - Point the nozzle at the base of the fire
• S queeze the Lever - Discharge the agent from the
extinguisher. If you release the lever, the
discharge stops.
• S weep from Side to Side - Move carefully toward
the fire, keeping the extinguisher aimed at the
base of the fire. Sweep back and forth until the
fire is out.
Methods of operation
There are two main types of fire extinguishers based on the type of pressure provided

• Stored pressure

• Cartridge-operated.

Stored pressure units

• extinguishing agent is stored under high pressure by mixing with air.

• No additional cartridge is provided

• With dry chemical extinguishers, nitrogen is typically used; water and foam extinguishers
typically use air.

• Stored pressure fire extinguishers are the most common type.

 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

• Cartridge-operated extinguishers contain the

expellant gas in a separate cartridge that is
punctured prior to discharge, exposing the
propellant to the extinguishing agent.
• They have the advantage of simple and prompt
recharge, allowing an operator to discharge the
extinguisher, recharge it, and return to the fire
in a reasonable amount of time.
• Stored pressure extinguishers have the compressed nitrogen gas that is used as the propellant for
the dry chemical agent stored in the same canister as the dry chemical.
• Side cartridge operated units store the dry chemical in a non-pressurized container and the
compressed nitrogen gas in a separate cartridge.
• Fire extinguishers are further divided into handheld and cart-mounted, also called wheeled
extinguishers.

• Handheld extinguishers weigh from 0.5 to 14 kilograms (1 to 30 pounds), and are hence,
easily portable by hand.

• Cart-mounted units typically weigh 23+ kilograms (50+ pounds).

• These wheeled models are most found at construction sites, airport runways, docks etc.
Types of fire extinguishers
Water extinguishers- Class A fire only
• Water stored under air pressure - 2.5 gallon cylinder
• Discharge approximately 1 minute, with a range of 10 20 feet
• Extinguishes the fire by removing heat and All water extinguishers have a red label.
• There are four different types of water extinguishers: water jet, water spray, water with additives and
water mist or fog.
• Water jet extinguishers work by spraying a jet of water at the burning materials, cooling them and
preventing re-ignition. They should not be used on live electrical equipment.
• Water spray extinguishers use a very fine spray of water droplets, each droplet is surrounded by air
which is non-conductive.
• Water extinguishers with additives are water extinguishers with foaming chemicals added. The water
loses its natural surface tension meaning that it can soak into the burning materials more effectively.
Adding the chemicals to the water means that a smaller extinguisher can produce the same fire rating
as a larger, water only, extinguisher.
• Water mist, or fog, extinguishers apply water in the form of mist, or fog, the droplets are much smaller
than those from the water spray extinguisher. The smaller the droplet, the larger its surface area in
relation to its size, the quicker the droplet evaporates which absorbs the heat energy faster.
 • APW stands for "air-pressurized water."
• APWs are large, silver extinguishers that are filled about two-thirds of the way with ordinary tap water, then pressurized
with normal air.
• In essence, an APW is just a giant squirt gun.
• APWs stand about 2 feet tall and weigh approximately 25 pounds when full.

• APWs are designed for Class A (wood, paper, cloth) fires only.
• Never use water to extinguish flammable liquid fires. Water is extremely
ineffective at extinguishing this type of fire, and you may, in fact, spread
the fire if you try to use water on it.
• Never use water to extinguish an electrical fire. Electrical equipment must
be unplugged and/or deenergized before using a water extinguisher on it.
• APWs extinguish fire by taking away the "heat" element of the fire
triangle.
Foam extinguishers
• Foam fire extinguishers can be used on Class A and B fires. They are most suited to extinguishing liquid fires
such as petrol or diesel and are more versatile than water jet extinguishers because they can also be used on
solids such as wood and paper. The foam extinguishes liquid fires by sealing the surface of the liquid,
preventing flammable vapour reaching the air and starving the fire of fuel. They are not suitable for use on
free flowing liquid fires.
• Foam extinguishers have a cream label.

• AFFF :(aqueous film forming foam), used on A and B fires and for vapor suppression.

• The most common type in portable foam extinguishers.

• It contains fluoro hydrocarbon which can be accumulated in the human body.

• AR-AFFF: (Alcohol-resistant aqueous film forming foams), used on fuel fires containing alcohol.

• Forms a membrane between the fuel and the foam preventing the alcohol from breaking down the
foam blanket.
• FFFP (film forming fluoroprotein) contains naturally occurring proteins from animal by-products and
synthetic film forming agents to create a foam blanket that is more heat resistant than the strictly synthetic
AFFF foams.

• FFFP works well on alcohol-based liquids and is used widely in motorsports.

• CAFS (compressed air foam system) Any APW style extinguisher that is charged with a foam solution and
pressurized with compressed air.

• Generally used to extend a water supply in operations.

• Used on class A fires and with very dry foam on class B for vapor suppression.
 CO2 EXTINGUSHER
• Carbon Dioxide extinguishers are filled with nonflammable carbon dioxide gas under extreme pressure.
• CO2 cylinders are red and range in size from 5 lbs to 100 lbs or larger.
• In the larger sizes, the hard horn will be located on the end of a long, flexible hose.
• CO2 are designed for Class B and C (flammable liquid and electrical) fires only.
• Use only in well ventilated areas.
• Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers (CO2) have a black label.

• Carbon Dioxide is a non-flammable gas that extinguishes fire by displacing oxygen or

taking away the oxygen element of the fire triangle.
• The carbon dioxide is also very cold as it comes out of the extinguisher, so it cools the fuel
as well.
• CO2 may be ineffective at extinguishing Class A fires because they may not be able to
displace enough oxygen to successfully put the fire out.
• Class A materials may also smolder and re-ignite.
• All CO2 extinguishers must undergo hydrostatic testing and recharge every five years.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - Class B & C fires
• CO2 stored under pressure
• Discharge approximately 8 to 15 seconds, range 3-5 feet
• Extinguishes fire by reducing the amount of oxygen around the fire
• WARNING: CO2 can cause severe chemical burns and freezing of body parts. DO NOT HOLD THE
HORN - grip the handle part of the extinguisher
• WARNING: CO2 can reduce the percent of oxygen in air when in a confined area.
Dry Powder (Sodium Chloride/Sand) - Class D
fires
• This agent can be stored in both extinguishers and storage bins.
• The agent is applied gently at a sufficient amount to cover the burning metal
• Extinguishes fires by forming a crust over the burning metal, thus smothering it
• Powder extinguishers are a good multi-purpose fire extinguisher because they
can be used on Class A, B and C fires.
• They can also be used on fires involving electrical equipment however, they do
not cool the fire so it can re-ignite.
• Powder extinguishers can also create a loss of visibility and may create breathing
problems.
• They are not generally recommended for use inside buildings unless there is
absolutely no alternative.
• Powder extinguishers have a blue label.
Dry Chemical - Class A, B & C fires
• Discharge approximately 8 to 15 seconds, with a range of 6-15 feet
• Extinguishes fire by removing the oxygen through smothering
• Dry chemical fire extinguishers are suitable for labs, but can cause tremendous
mess.
• Dry chemical powder can infiltrate sensitive electrical equipment and ruin optics,
mirrors and other laboratory equipment
 DRY CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHERS (DCP)
• Dry Chemical Extinguishers come in a variety of
types.
• You may see them labeled:
• DC short for "dry chem"
• ABC indicating that they are designed to extinguish
class A,B, and C fires, or
• BC indicating that they are designed to extinguish
class B and C fires.
• ABC fire extinguishers are filled with a fine yellow
powder.
• The greatest portion of this powder is composed
of monoammonium phosphate.
• Nitrogen is used to pressurize the extinguishers.
 Monoammonium phosphate
• Also known as "tri-class", "multipurpose" or "ABC" dry chemical, used on class A, B, and C fires.
• It receives its class A rating from the agent's ability to melt and flow at 177 °C (350 °F) to smother the fire. More
corrosive than other dry chemical agents.
• Pale yellow in color.
 Sodium bicarbonate:
• Generally used on class B and C fires, was the first of the dry chemical agents developed.
• In the heat of a fire, it releases a cloud of carbon dioxide that smothers the fire.
• That is, the gas drives oxygen away from the fire, thus stopping the chemical reaction.
• This agent is not generally effective on class A fires because the agent is expended and the cloud of gas dissipates
quickly, and if the fuel is still sufficiently hot, the fire starts up again.
• While liquid and gas fires usually doesn't store much heat in their fuel source, solid fires do.
• White or blue in color.
 Potassium bicarbonate (Purple-K):
• Class B and C fires.
• About two times as effective on class B fires as sodium bicarbonate, it is the preferred dry chemical agent of the oil and
gas industry.
• Violet in color.
 Potassium bicarbonate & Urea Complex :
• Class B and C fires.
• More effective than all other powders due to its ability to breaks up into smaller particles and get into the flame zone
creating a larger surface area for free radical inhibition.
• Grey in color.
 Potassium Chloride, or Super-K :
• Dry chemical was developed to create a high efficiency, protein-foam compatible dry chemical.
• Not as popular as other agents since, being a salt, it was quite corrosive.
• For B and C fires, white in color.
 Graphite:
• Dry graphite that smothers burning metals.
• First type developed, designed for magnesium, works on other metals as well.
• Unlike sodium chloride powder extinguishers, the graphite powder fire extinguishers can be used on very hot burning
metal fires such as lithium.
• Like copper extinguishers, the graphite powder acts as a heat sink as well as smothering the metal fire
 WET CHEMICAL
• Extinguishing agent is aqueous solution of inorganic salts.
• Wet chemical extinguishers are suitable for use on Class F fires involving cooking oils and fats,
such as lard, olive oil, sunflower oil, maize oil and butter.
• Wet Chemical (potassium acetate, carbonate, or citrate) extinguishes the fire by forming a soapy
foam blanket over the burning oil and by cooling the oil below its ignition temperature.
• Seals the surface and prevents re-ignition.
• Generally used in class A ,B, and “K” fires.
• Extinguishes by cooling and forming foam blanket to prevent reignition.
• Wetting Agents :Detergent based additives used to break the surface tension of water and
improve penetration of Class A fires.
• Wet chemical extinguishers have a yellow label
FIRE EXTINGUISHER SUMMARY
 Types of built-in extinguishing systems

• Gas System – FM200

• FM-200™ is a colorless, compressed liquefied gas (HFC) used to

extinguish fires and is a popular replacement for Halon fire
suppression systems.
• FM-200™ fire suppression systems are pressurized with nitrogen,
waterless, and upon activation, FM-200™ discharges as a gas to
suppress the fire
• This type of system is best suited to data rooms, switch rooms or
communication rooms. • Disadvantages
 Advantages • FM200 does not travel well (because of the pressure)
• Stored as a liquid so takes up less space.
• Is rarely cost effective over inert gases
• Easy to install because the cylinder is usually in the
• You need to store the cylinders as close to the
same room.
application as possible.
• No reduction of oxygen so it’s safe for humans on
discharge.
 Types of built-in extinguishing systems

• Kitchen Fire Suppression – Chemical Foam

• Kitchen fire suppression systems can be designed to protect a wide

variety of kitchen appliances, such as stoves or deep fat fryers.
• The nozzles for the fire suppression system are installed in the
kitchen hood exhaust.
• That way, the wet chemicals will be discharged directly over the
source of the fire.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Easy to use • Some kitchens take hours to cool down, the install usually has
• No damage taken place late at night when the kitchens are not working.
• No electronics/electrical work on most systems • Expensive & can take longer to clean up compared to water
mist
• Must use stainless steel pipe-work and fittings
How Does a Kitchen Hood Suppression System Work?

• A fire needs three things to thrive: oxygen, heat, and fuel. Once the system
detects a fire, the nozzles above the appliance will discharge wet
chemicals. These wet chemicals are engineered to quickly put out fires by
covering the flames and starving them of oxygen. As soon as the system
trips, the gas line to the appliance will also be immediately cut off,
depriving the fire of fuel.
• This two-pronged approach quickly puts out a kitchen fire without affecting
other cooking stations. This means that you don’t lose all of the food being
prepared in your kitchen, just the food that was burned in the fire. Since
fires produce a lot of smoke, the hood automatically turns on to remove
the smoke from your kitchen. Kitchen hood suppression systems respond
automatically to fires, which minimizes loss.
 Types of built-in extinguishing systems

• Water mist System

• Water mist systems are commonly replacing sprinklers in big

data rooms, other large areas and local applications.
• Used for flammable liquids and electrical rooms,
• the mist evaporates and causes a starving of oxygen
effect rather than cooling.

• Advantages

• Agent is cheap / free so it’s not expensive to cover a large area

• Quick and easy to replace after discharge. • Disadvantages
• No mess and flooding • No Standards
• No large water storage or pump power requirements. • Still not widely recognized as an alternative to sprinkler
and gas.
Water mist consists of very small water droplets. The superior fire suppression capability of water mist is
based on evaporation: when tiny water mist droplets turn into vapor, a great amount of energy is absorbed
from the fire. This makes water mist an excellent choice for fire protection.

Water mist fights fire in three ways

Cooling the heat
The cooling effect of water mist takes place when the water mist droplets absorb the heat radiation from the
fire. This prevents and reduces damage to people and property.
Wetting the fuel
Wetting the fuel and the area around the fire is an effective way to suppress fires involving solid fuel, and it
also prevents the fire from spreading to other areas.
Displacing the oxygen
The oxygen displacement happens at the heart of the fire when the water mist droplets turn into vapor and
take oxygen from the fire.
 Foam Deluge System

• Deluge systems deliver large quantities of water, over a large area, in a

relatively short period of time.
• A deluge valve is a type of system actuation valve that is opened by a
detection system
• Foam deluge systems are mainly suitable for large applications where
you cannot use water or gas.
• These tend to be external such as transformers, oil tanks and oil storage
silos.
• A simple sprinkler type application disperses a foam concentrate mixed
with the water to provide the typical expanding agent Disadvantages
• Wet agent so you to need to consider the electrical
Advantages
•Good for external areas. risk.
•Covers large areas. • Messy – clean up required.
•Protects flammables liquids – airports, aircraft hangers, oil storage.
• Pneumatic Heat Detection Tube
• An extinguisher with a valve and a length of heat detection tube which acts
as the detection and propellant feed for the agent.
• When the temperature reaches a certain level around the pipe it blows a
small pressurized hole in the pipe, which then propels the agent directly
onto the risk.
• This suppression system is ideal for boats, vehicles, small machinery,
electrical switch cabinets and fume cupboards.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Cannot guarantee it will work if the fire is large

• Small amount of agent required
• No standards to design/install to
• Low install and maintenance cost – no moving or electrical
• Not a high spec solution
parts, no pipe work and only a small amount of agent required
• Difficult to cover large area (high ceilings, rooms)
• Can install in small intricate areas such as machinery
• Mobile – can take out and install elsewhere
 FIXED FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS.
• Fixed fire extinguishing/suppression systems are commonly used to protect areas containing valuable or critical
equipment such as data processing rooms, telecommunication switches, and process control rooms.
• Main function is to quickly extinguish a developing fire and alert occupants before extensive damage occurs by filling the
protected area with a gas or chemical extinguishing agent.

 Fixed System is a complete installation piped from a central foam/water station.

Typical elements and components include:

1. Discharge Nozzles
Discharge nozzles are used to disperse the extinguishing agent into the protected area.

2. Piping
The piping system is used to transport the extinguishing agent (carbon dioxide, halon, argon, etc) from its
storage container to the discharge nozzle.

3. Control Panel
The control panel integrates all devices and displays their operational status and condition.

4. Discharge or Warning Alarm(s)

Electronic devices that provide an audible or visual alarm when detected.
5. Hazard Warning or Caution Signs
Hazard warning signs must be posted at the entrance to, and inside, areas protected by fixed
extinguishing systems.

6. Automatic Fire Detection Device(s)

A device that detects fire and causes an alarm signal to be generated.

7. Manual Discharge Station(s)

A device that provides a way to manually discharge the fire extinguishing system.

8. Storage Container(s) & Extinguishing Agent

The storage system discharges agent into the piping and through the discharge nozzles when activated
by a manual or automatic device.
 FIXED FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS- DESIGN

 Require:
• Precise and early detection
• Efficient localization of fire
• Activation at right time

 Advantage
• Avoids spreading of fire
• Improved accessibility of the fireplace
• Better protection of Infrastructure
• Slow down the fire development
• At any time functionable
• Easy to install and to use
 Firefighting Techniques
• Every person needs to be able to at least have the basic knowledge of firefighting techniques.

WARNING PLACARDS
 Firefighting Techniques
• Each fire is unique in the sense that their causes and how they spread are different.
• Different techniques that are unique to each of these scenarios.
Direct Attack Technique

• Perhaps the most widely known technique – this suffocates the flames as the water is aimed at the base of the fire.
• Aiming the stream of water at the base of the fire, this technique works best using a concentrated, powerful jet of water
that suffocates the flames.
• In order for this to work effectively, the firefighters must have a clear and direct line of sight to the fire.
• If this method is used on a fire in a non-vented area, then there will be less steam and the fire will be extinguished faster.
 Fog Attack Technique

Wide Spray techniques/Pulsing/Gas cooling/Painting

• The hose uses a fog setting to extinguish a fire – ideal for closed compartment fires where there is no wind.

• This technique works by using the fog nozzle of the hose, rather than a jet to extinguish the fire.
• This technique can be very effective in non-ventilated spaces, but where there is wind, its effectiveness is greatly
reduced.
 Indirect Attack Technique

• This technique is most effective in closed compartment fires, such as high rise environments.
• The theory behind the indirect attack is to aim the stream of water ( 30 degree or less pattern) at the ceiling or wall
and allow the droplets of water to rain down on the fire.
1. The water cools the ceiling and walls thus disrupting the thermal balance.
• Some of the water will vaporize into steam thus absorbing energy.

2. The rest will fall like rain. Some will fall on the main body of fire to assist extinguishing the fire

 Technique will inevitably create a large amount of steam and steam will scald fire fighters and reduce visibility.

 If the fire has vented in the room of origin, you may be able to push the heat and smoke and steam out the vent
(window).
 The Combination Attack Technique

 Combination of both Direct and Indirect Fire fighting

 Highly effective way of dealing with high rise compartment fires

 This technique involves applying a narrow-coned spray or jet into a compartment in a swirling spiral motion, thus
hitting the upper gas layers and projecting water onto the fire itself.

 One of the main benefits of this technique is that it simultaneously combats the overhead gases, as the indirect
method does, whilst directly attacking the fire itself, extinguishing it quickly and minimising the risk of it spreading.
 The “Two Lines In” Technique

• This uses two hoses and two teams, combining a fog nozzle and a solid stream of water – used only for fires that are
subject to high winds.
• This technique is used only for fires in high energy (wind driven) situations.
• One team operates a low pressure/high fog nozzle, and the other uses a nozzle with a solid, concentrated stream.
• As long as the two teams work in tandem and communicate well, this method can be very effective.
• One team should focus on attacking the flame directly, while the other should concentrate on preventing any
advancing flame from spreading.
Flame proof equipments
• Flameproof equipment refers to an apparatus designed to ensure that internal
ignition within a flammable atmosphere will not transmit outside the protective
enclosure.
• In other words, flameproof equipment prevents the ignition of surrounding
flammables in the hazardous area.
• Flameproof is a preferred protection method when electrical equipment
potentially contains high energy arcing or sparking components in standard
operation. Furthermore, these high-energy components form explosions that are
difficult to avoid.
• Flameproof is one of many explosion protection techniques extensively used for
light fittings, JBs, and motors in hazardous areas.
 Flame Proof Equipment's
 The equipment is simply contained in a heavy protective enclosure, usually made of die cast steel, aluminium or GRP
plastic.
 The heat or sparks from faulty equipment are contained within the enclosure.
 Advantage - simple to design the system
 Disadvantage - equipment becomes extremely heavy & expensive

 The principles of the flameproof protection concept are:

• No external hot surfaces above temperature class.

• Design of enclosure joints must comply with the requirements of the standard.
• Plastic and cemented parts contributing to the flameproof properties of the enclosure undergo high temperature
and humidity testing.
• Parts fitted inside an enclosure may include sparking contacts, semi-conductor devices and batteries.
• Rotating parts (operating rods or motor shafts can also be permitted, subject to design restraints.
• Flexible enclosure walls or elements of enclosure walls are not permitted.
 Flame Proof Equipment's

 The terms 'explosion proof' and 'flameproof' are interchangeable

• Explosion proof
An explosion proof component is capable to keep an internal explosion of a specific flammable
air-vapor mixture within the component enclosure without releasing burning or hot gases to the
external environment which may be potential explosive.

• The explosion proof equipment must also operate below safe temperatures.
 The potentially sparking parts are encapsulated in a special house which is
designed to prevent explosions by
 preventing the entry of hazardous material in potentially hazardous
concentrations encapsulate potential hazardous materials in an encapsulation
chamber capable to contain any explosion or fire,
 preventing to spread outside the chamber causing secondary explosions
• Primary explosion protection

Primary explosion protection aims at substituting something else for the flammable substances or the atmospheric
oxygen or reducing their quantities to the point where there is no danger of an explosive mixture forming.

 Increased air circulation, air flushing through ventilation can be achieved by structural measures

• Secondary explosion protection

 If, despite primary explosion protection measures,

 the ignition of this hazardous, potentially explosive atmosphere must be
effectively prevented.
 All possible sources of ignition are evaluated,
 and the appropriate protective measures applied.
• Tertiary explosion protection

 If the primary and secondary explosion protection measures are not enough, additional protective measures must
be taken.
 The purpose of these is to limit the impact of an explosion and/or to reduce it to a non-hazardous level.

 Explosion-resistant design: containers, apparatus, pipelines are built to be pressure shock resistant in order to withstand
an explosion inside.

 Explosion relief: bursting discs or explosion flaps are deployed which open in a safe direction if an explosion occurs and
make sure that the plant is not subjected to strain over and above its explosion resistance.

 Explosion suppression and preventing propagation of the explosion: Explosion suppression systems prevent attainment
of the maximum explosion pressure by rapidly injecting extinguishing agents into containers and plant.
 Explosion decoupling restricts possible explosions to individual parts of the plant