The HumanBody (Lalumière, Marc Bourbonnière, Josée Roth Etc.)

THE VISUAL GUIDES
Understanding
The
Human Body
QA INTERNATIONAL
The human
body
Publisher Jacques Fortin Reviewers Dr Alain Beaudet
Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery
Editorial Director François Fortin McGill University
Executive Directors Stéphane Batigne Dr Amanda Black
Serge D’Amico Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology
Illustrations Editor Marc Lalumière Queen’s University
Art Director Rielle Lévesque Dr Richard Cloutier
Département de dermatologie
Graphic Designer Anne Tremblay Centre hospitalier universitaire de Québec
Writers Stéphane Batigne Dr Luisa Deutsch
Josée Bourbonnière KGK Synergize
Nathalie Fredette
Dr René Dinh
Computer Graphic Artists Jean-Yves Ahern Dr Annie Goyette
Pierre Beauchemin Département d’ophtalmologie
Maxime Bigras Centre hospitalier universitaire de Québec
Yan Bohler Dr Pierre Duguay
Mélanie Boivin
Dr Vincent Gracco
Jocelyn Gardner School of Communication Sciences
Danièle Lemay and Disorders
Alain Lemire Faculty of Medicine
Raymond Martin McGill University
Annie Maurice Dr Pierre Guy
Anouk Noël Orthopedic Trauma Service
Carl Pelletier McGill University Health Centre
Simon Pelletier Dr Michael Hawke
Claude Thivierge Department of Otolaryngology
Michel Rouleau Faculty of Medicine
Frédérick Simard University of Toronto
Page Layout Véronique Boisvert Dr Patrice Hugo
Geneviève Théroux Béliveau Dr Ann-Muriel Steff
Procrea BioSciences Inc.
Researchers Kathleen Wynd
Jessie Daigle Dr Roman Jednak
Anne-Marie Villeneuve Division of Urology
The Montreal Children’s Hospital
Copy Editor Jane Broderick
Dr Michael S. Kramer
Translation Käthe Roth Departments of Pediatrics and of
Production Mac Thien Nguyen Hoang Epidemiology and Biostatistics
Faculty of Medicine
Prepress Kien Tang McGill University
Karine Lévesque
Dr Pierre Lachapelle
Department of Ophthalmology
McGill University
Dr Denis Laflamme
Dr Maria Do Carmo
MD Multimedia Inc.
Dr Claude Lamarche
Faculté de médecine dentaire
Université de Montréal
Dr Sheldon Magder
Faculty of Medicine
McGill University
The human body was created and produced by Dr Nelson Nadeau
QA International Dr Louis Z. G. Touyz
329, rue de la Commune Ouest, 3e étage Faculty of Dentistry
Montréal (Québec) H2Y 2E1 Canada McGill University
T 514.499.3000 F 514.499.3010 Dr Teresa Trippenbach
Department of Physiology
©2007 QA International. All rights reserved.
McGill University
No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or Dr Martine Turcotte
by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and
recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without Dr Michael Wiseman
written permission from the Publisher. Faculty of Dentistry
McGill University
ISBN 978-2-7644-0892-6
Printed and bound in Slovakia.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 04 03 02 01
www.qa-international.com
The human
body
QA INTERNATIONAL
Table of
41 The movements of the hand

40 The action of the skeletal
muscles
38 The muscles of the head
36 Muscle tissue
34 The skeletal muscles
32 The joints 72 Smell
30 The hand and the foot 70 Taste receptors
28 The spine 68 Taste
27 The head 67 Balance
26 Types of bones 66 Perception of sound
24 The human skeleton 64 The organ of hearing
22 Bone growth 62 Sight
20 Bone structure 60 The eye
18 The skin 58 Touch
6 | The body’s 16 | The architecture 42 | The nervous system 56 | The five senses
building blocks of the body 44 Neurons
8 The human cell 46 The central nervous system
10 Chromosomes and DNA 48 The brain
12 Cellular activity 50 The cerebrum
14 Body tissues 52 The peripheral
nervous system
54 The motor functions
of the nervous system
4
contents
110 The liver, pancreas,
and gallbladder
109 The intestines
108 The stomach
106 The teeth
104 The digestive system
102 Speech
100 Respiration
98 The respiratory system
74 | Blood circulation 96 |Respiration and 112 | Reproduction 124 | Glossary

76 Blood nutrition 114 The male genital organs 126 | Index
78 The cardiovascular system 116 The female genital organs
80 Arteries and veins 118 Fertilization
82 The heart 120 The life of the embryo
84 The cardiac cycle 122 Maternity
86 The lymphatic system
88 Immunity
90 The endocrine system
92 The hypothalamus and
the pituitary gland
94 The urinary system
5
What is the human body made of? Although our bodies are very complex, they are composed of fundamental units
that are very similar to each other. These microscopic basic components are
assembled to form the different tissues that form all the body’s organs. Cells are also the sites of intense and
constant activity: they manufacture living matter, consume energy, and continually reproduce
themselves.
The body’s building blocks
8 The human cell
The body’s basic component
10 Chromosomes and DNA

The code of life deep within cells
12 Cellular activity
Cell division and protein synthesis
14 Body tissues
Groupings of cells
The human cell
The body’s basic component
The human body contains about 60 billion human cells. These cells, the basic
components of the human body, are invisible to the naked eye, as their diameter
generally is less than a few hundredths of a millimeter. Although they take many
forms, depending on their location and their function, they always have a well-
defined structure: an exterior membrane, a nucleus, and a number of internal
elements floating in a gelatinous medium, the cytoplasm.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLS
The human body contains a great many types of cells, which are differentiated
according to their function. Despite their different sizes and shapes, all have the
same general structure.
Cytoplasm, which fills the

intracellular space, is a jelly-
The rods of the retina contain like substance composed of
light-sensitive pigments. water, proteins, lipids, ions,
and glucose.
Lysosomes contain enzymes

that perform intracellular
digestion.
The nucleus of the neutrophil
has several lobes.
Microtubules, which form the

Erythrocytes (red blood cells) skeleton of the cell, make it
color the blood red. easier for organelles to move
within the cytoplasm.
Made mainly of lipid molecules,

the cell membrane forms a
selective water-insoluble barrier.
The ovum is the largest cell in

the human body.
Enveloped in a double
Spermatozoids have a long membrane, mitochondria
flagellum. produce and store energy.
Enzymes enclosed in
Neurons (neural cells) can be up peroxisomes perform
to 1 meter in length. oxidization.
Cilia, formed of a group of microtubules

covered by the cellular membrane, can propel
The irregular shape of osteocytes the cell or move a substance outside the cell.
(bone cells) enables them to lodge in Large cilia are called flagella.
very narrow cavities of bony tissue.
8
THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN CELLS
Human cells (like those of all higher orders of life) are called eukaryotes – that is, their genetic material is
enclosed in a nucleus defined by a nuclear membrane. The rest of the cell is composed of cytoplasm, a semi-
liquid medium structured by a network of microtubules and microfilaments. The organelles that float in the
cytoplasm (mitochondrion, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome) perform different cellular

functions, such as storing energy, synthesis and transportation of proteins, and digestion of foreign bodies.
Chromatin, the main component of the nucleus,

is a filament formed of DNA and proteins.
The nuclear membrane has Ribosomes are made in the nucleolus,

a large number of pores. in the center of the nucleus.
free ribosome
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), located near
the nucleus, consists of a network of membranous
pockets and canals. The rough ER is covered with
ribosomes that synthesize proteins, while the
smooth ER does not have ribosomes and produces
other types of substances.
The Golgi apparatus resembles a series

of membranous sacs attached to the
rough ER. It collects the proteins
synthesized by the ribosomes, sometimes
changes them by adding carbohydrates,
then releases them into vacuoles.
Microfilaments are made of a protein,

actin. With the microtubules, they
form the cytoskeleton, which gives
the cell its shape.
Vacuoles, small liquid-filled vesicles,

move from the Golgi apparatus
to the cellular membrane, where
they release the proteins that
they contain.
TRANSPORT OF PROTEINS IN THE CELL

Protein synthesis, one of the main functions of the cells,
is performed in small particles called ribosomes. There are
two types of ribosomes: free ribosomes, which secrete
their products directly into the cytoplasm, and ribosomes
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, which release
Each cell has two centrioles, formed their proteins outside the cell. Proteins move through
of bundles of microtubules placed at the network of membranous sacs in the endoplasmic
a right angle to each other. They play reticulum, are processed by the Golgi apparatus, and then
a role in cell division. migrate toward the cellular membrane inside a vacuole.
9
Chromosomes and DNA
The code of life deep within cells
Each cell in our body has a nucleus. Although nuclei are only a few microns
in diameter, they are the site of fundamental mechanisms, such as cell division
and protein synthesis. The substance responsible for these phenomena,
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is in the form of very long helicoidal molecules in
constant motion. During the process of cell division, these filaments twist around
on themselves to form chromosomes.
DNA molecules are unique in that they are formed of two strands linked by several
billion successive bonds. The sequence of these components constitutes a code
that is capable of commanding the production of a large number of specific
proteins and also replicating itself.
nucleolus The nucleus is separated from

the cytoplasm by a porous
nuclear membrane.
sister chromatids
centromere
The chromosomes float in a gelatinous

substance, the nucleoplasm.
Human cells have 46 chromosomes, except for sexual cells,

which have only half this number. Chromosomes cannot be
observed except during cell division. At that time, they divide
into two sister chromatids that remain attached to each other
for a short time by a central zone, the centromere.
INSIDE THE NUCLEUS

With the exception of red blood cells, all cells in the body contain a nucleus. Some, like the muscle cells,
even have several. The nucleus of a cell contains one or several nucleoli and filaments of chromatin floating
in the nucleoplasm. Chromatin, which generally looks like a string of beads, is composed of long DNA
molecules wound around proteins called histones. When cells divide, this filament rolls up into a spiral,
becomes condensed, and is organized to form characteristic small rods, the chromosomes.
10
THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF DNA
DNA is a polymer – that is, its molecule is formed by the grouping together of a large
number of simpler molecules. It can be visualized as a very long, twisted ladder whose
two uprights are linked by billions of rungs, each of which is composed of two smaller
molecules, nitrogenous bases. There are only four different nitrogenous bases in DNA:

adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. These molecules are linked up not at
random but according to a strict rule resulting from their molecular structure: adenine
can link only with thymine, and cytosine only with guanine. These bases are called
complementary.
The nucleotide is the basic component of the

DNA molecule. It is composed of a phosphate
group and a sugar, deoxyribose, to which one
of the four bases attaches. Adenine can link up
only with thymine.
deoxyribose
phosphate group thymine
The nitrogenous base, linked to deoxyribose,

links up with its complementary base to form
a rung in the DNA molecule.
guanine
Cytosine is the
complementary base
for guanine.
chromatin
Each chromosome has a single
DNA molecule, 2 millionths of
a millimeter wide but several
centimeters long.
THE GENETIC HERITAGE AND HEREDITY

All of the cells in an individual’s body have resulted from
the division of a single initial cell, and so they all contain
absolutely identical DNA filaments. The sequence of
nitrogenous bases is always different from one human
being to another; the DNA composition of each human
being is therefore unique.
When the DNA molecule wraps around Much of our genetic heritage is linked to our belonging to
eight histone molecules, it forms a mass, the human race: all humans, for instance, have the same
the nucleosome, which supports it. organs. However, other, more specific, genetic characteristics
(physical features, predisposition to certain diseases) are
transmitted from one generation to the next at the time
the sexual cells merge. This mode of transmission is called
heredity.
11
Cellular activity
Cell division and protein synthesis
Like more complex living organisms, the cells in our bodies are born and die.
Different cells have very different life spans: a few hours for white blood cells,
four months for red blood cells. When they die, most cells are replaced by
identical cells. Their life can thus be described as a cycle during which they
prepare for and complete their reproduction by cellular division.
phase M The cell cycle comprises four successive stages: the three phases of the
phase G2
interphase (phases G1, S, and G2) and phase M. Phases G1 and G2 are
phases of growth and intense metabolic activity. G1 is the longest and
most variable phase (from 10 hours to several months, depending on
phase S the cell; even an entire life for neurons). Phase G2 lasts one to two
hours. Phase S, which can last from four to eight hours, is the period
during which replication of DNA takes place. Phase M corresponds to
cell division itself and lasts only a few minutes.
phase G1
REPLICATION OF DNA
An essential step in cell division consists of
copying the cell’s genetic material, its DNA.
To do this, the two strands of the double
helix separate and become matrices for the
nucleotide synthesis of two new strands according to
the principle of base pairing. When the DNA
molecule has completely replicated, the cell
has two absolutely identical molecules.
DNA matrix newly synthesized

molecule strand cytoplasm
chromosome
Q
pair of
centrioles
nucleus
CELL DIVISION W
Cell division, or mitosis, comprises several distinct steps. The DNA
molecules, deployed as chromatin during the interphase, coil and
thicken during the prophase Q, which makes the chromosomes mitotic
visible. The nucleolus disappears and the two pairs of centrioles spindle E
move apart and migrate to opposite ends of the cell, while a system
of microfilaments, the mitotic spindle, forms between these two
poles. Gradually, the nuclear membrane disintegrates and the
chromosomes move along the filaments of the mitotic spindle. R
During the metaphase W, the chromosomes line up at the center new
of the cell. When their centromeres divide, the anaphase begins E: nucleus
the chromatids, which have become complete chromosomes, are
drawn to one or the other end of the cell. In the telophase R a T
new nucleus forms at each end of the cell. The chromosomes uncoil
to become chromatin once more, while a new nuclear membrane is
formed. The mitotic spindle disappears and the cytoplasm begins
to separate during a phase called cytocinesis T. At the end of the
process, the original cell is replaced by two new identical cells Y. Y
12
SYNTHESIS OF PROTEINS
Proteins are large molecules formed by the grouping together of several amino acids. Some proteins play
specific roles in the body’s functioning (hormones, antibodies, enzymes), while others constitute its living
material. The synthesis of proteins, which is one of the cell’s main functions, is performed according to
instructions coded in genes, segments of various lengths of the DNA molecule. Each gene is distinguished
by a particular sequence of nitrogenous bases. The synthesis of a protein consists of transcribing this
sequence onto a messenger molecule, then translating it into the sequence of amino acids that form the
protein.
The bases of the messenger RNA molecule

are complementary to those of the gene nucleotide
that produces it.
The messenger RNA molecule is
composed of the same bases as
DNA, except that uracil replaces
thymine.
DNA
molecule W
0
E
0
Q
0
pore
codon
matrix ribosome R
0
nuclear membrane T
0
amino acid Y
0
TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION

The first phase in the process of synthesis of proteins,
transcription, takes place in the cell nucleus. When
a gene is activated, its two strands separate, and one
of them serves as the matrix Q for a molecule of
messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA-m) W. Once formed,
this molecule leaves the nucleus through one of its
pores E and attaches itself to a ribosome R, where
it is translated. RNA-m
Translation consists of converting the molecule of
RNA-m into a sequence of amino acids. The bases of
the RNA-m are processed not one by one, but in
groups of three, called codons T, which serve as
matrices for specific amino acids. As the codons are
processed, the amino acids Y are assembled in the
order defined by the sequences of the gene’s bases.
When the RNA-m molecule has been completely
U
0 protein
translated, the sequence of amino acids forms a
protein U.
13
Body tissues
Groupings of cells
In the human body, cells do not function separately. They are grouped together in
different tissues that compose the organism’s organs. There are four types of tissues
in the human body: epithelial tissues, which form the covering of many parts of the
body; connective tissues, which play a support role; muscle tissues; and nerve
tissues. Aside from cells, the tissues contain extracellular liquid, in which
substances needed by the body to function (such as hormones, proteins, and
vitamins) circulate and dissolve.
microvilli EPITHELIAL TISSUE

The epithelium (or epithelial tissue) covers most
of the internal and external surfaces of the body,
including skin, mucus, blood vessels, glands, and
cavities of the digestive system. The epithelial cells
are cubical, columnar, or squamous (flat) and are
tightly packed against each other to form coverings
that can include one or more layers. They sit on a
basement membrane that connects them to the
underlying vascularized tissues. On the outside of
the body they are impermeable, but on the inside
they play a role of absorption and secretion within
the organism, due to the microvilli that cover certain
basement nucleus of an epithelial cells.
membrane epithelial cell
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Unlike the epithelium, connective tissue has relatively few cells, floating in a very abundant intercellular matrix
composed mainly of fibers and a semi-liquid substance. Connective-tissue cells fall into two primary categories:
fibroblasts and macrophages. The intercellular matrix of connective tissue involves mainly three types of fibers
formed of proteins: collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers. The density and positioning of these
fibers, as well as the presence of other, more specific cells, gives connective tissue very different aspects.
Cartilage, bone tissue, blood, and most of the tissues that make up the organs are connective tissues.
Reticular fibers form solid Elastic fibers are able to return to their
branched networks. original length after being stretched.
Collagen fibers, made of

bundles of fibrils, are very
strong. They make the
matrix flexible and rubbery.
Macrophages destroy
undesirable elements
(foreign bodies,
Fibroblasts make debris, dead cells).
tissue fibers.
14
MUSCLE TISSUE
The tissues that form muscles are distinct because of
the way their cells are bundled. There are three types
of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and
Muscle cells are called fibers, but they
smooth visceral muscle.

should not be confused with the protein
fibers present in connective tissue.
Skeletal muscle tissue is formed of very elongated

multinuclear fibers. These cells look striated due to
the alternation of the two types of filaments that
compose them.
cell nucleus
The fibers of cardiac muscle tissue are also striated,

but they are differently organized, with numerous,
tight ramifications.
Smooth muscle tissue includes shorter, spindle-shaped

cells. These fibers have only one nucleus and are not
striated.
NERVE TISSUE
The brain, the spinal cord, and nerves are formed of nerve tissue, which consists of a dense tangle of cells.
There are two categories of cells in nerve tissue: neurons, which are the true nervous cells, and glial cells
(astrocytes, oligodentrocytes, microgliocytes, Schwann cells, etc.). Glial cells are ten times more numerous and
generally smaller than neurons. They do not play a direct role in nerve functions but support, protect, and
nourish the neurons. They are also capable of dividing by mitosis, which neurons cannot do.
Neurons are highly specialized cells that transport

and transmit nerve impulses by establishing
innumerable connections between each other.
Tiny microgliocytes rid nerve tissue

of foreign bodies and dead cells.
neuron
The axon is the main
extension of the neuron.
Oligodendrocytes are the

most common glial cells.
They have extensions that
coil around the axons of
the neurons of the central
nervous system.
The many extensions of the astrocytes

finish in “feet” that form barriers, called
hemato-encephalic barriers, between the
neurons and blood capillaries.
15
From the phalanges to the bones of the skull, the 206 bones that make up the human skeleton play
an essential supportive and protective role. But the architecture of the human body is not determined solely by its skeleton:
our organism also has more than 600 muscles with which we control our limbs and move around. This strong,
efficient basic structure could not function without the protective envelope that covers it. The skin,
with 1.5 m2 of total surface area, is the largest organ of the human body.
The architecture of the body
18 The skin
The body’s protective envelope
20 Bone structure
Flexible yet strong tissues
22 Bone growth
From cartilage to bone tissue
24 The human skeleton

The bony structure of the body
26 Types of bones
Form determined by function
27 The head
A grouping of flat and irregular bones
28 The spine
The central axis of the body
30 The hand and the foot

The extremities of the limbs
32 The joints
The junctions between the bones
34 The skeletal muscles

Motion generators
36 Muscle tissue
Bundles of contractile cells
38 The muscles of the head

An infinite variety of movements
40 The action of the skeletal muscles

From contraction to movement
41 The movements of the hand

Incredible dexterity
The skin
The body’s protective envelope
We may not think of it this way, but the skin is the largest organ in the human
body: an adult’s skin covers an area of 1.75 m2 and represents 7% of total body
mass. This envelope is composed of a superficial layer, the epidermis, and a
deeper layer, the dermis. With the different types of cells that it contains
(keratinocytes, melanocytes, sensory receptors), the skin fulfills a number of
important functions that protect us against the external environment.
THE LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS
The epidermis is an epithelial tissue composed essentially of keratinocytes. These cells are formed in
the deepest layer of the epidermis (the basal layer) and then are pushed toward the spinous layer by
younger cells. As they migrate, the keratinocytes become impregnated with a fibrous protein,
keratin, which gradually replaces their cytoplasm. By the time the cells reach the outer layer (the
horny layer), their nuclei have completely disintegrated. These dead, flattened keratinous cells
make the skin impermeable.
The dead cells that make up the horny layer spinous pore
are constantly sloughed off to make room layer
for new cells.
Although it is very thin (0.1 mm), the

epidermis plays a major role in body
defense, forming a physical barrier.
The cells of the basal layer are

constantly multiplying through mitosis.
Different types of tactile receptors
detect the stimuli of touch, pressure,
and temperature.
The dermis is composed of connective

tissue rich in blood vessels and nerves.
blood vessel
nerve
The hypodermis, located under the dermis,

contains mainly adipose (fatty) tissue.
The perspiration produced by the sweat glands

exits the skin via tiny orifices, the pores.
adipose tissue
THE SKIN’S DEFENSES
Human skin has many means of defending itself against various assaults. The epidermis contains two
proteins: keratin, which makes it impermeable, and melanin, which blocks ultraviolet rays. Perspiration
protects against certain bacteria, cools the skin, and evacuates certain substances. Sebum, released by
sebaceous glands attached to hair follicles, is a fatty substance that keeps the skin from drying out and
protects it from bacteria. When sensory receptors detect injuries, the central nervous system is able to react.
18
cortex
Hairs, made by the hair follicles in the dermis, grow over
most of our skin. They have sebaceous glands, which coat
medulla

them with sebum; arrector muscles, which pull them
upright when necessary (cold or fright); and nerve receptors,
which detect the lightest touch.
cuticle
PIGMENTS FOR SUN PROTECTION

The deepest layer of the epidermis contains specialized cells called
melanocytes. Activated by melanocyte-stimulating hormone produced
by the pituitary, melanocytes produce melanin, a dark-brown pigment.
Melanin molecules released by the cellular extensions of melanocytes
enter the keratinocytes and settle over cell nuclei to protect them
from potentially carcinogenic ultraviolet rays.
melanin
keratinocyte
Melanocytes comprise 8% of the epidermic

cells. The color of the skin depends not
on the number of melanocytes, but on
their size and degree of activity.
Sebaceous glands produce sebum, a substance

that coats the hairs and skin with oil.
arrector muscle of hair

hair follicle
HOW THE SKIN FORMS SCARS

When the skin sustains a deep injury Q, down to the dermis or even the
hypodermis, a substance generated by blood coagulation, fibrin W, rapidly
forms a clot at the bottom of the wound. When the clot dries up, it creates a
crust E, which has to be eliminated so that the cells of the epidermis can
migrate to form a new epidermis. At the same time, fibroblasts (young
cells) R and capillaries (small blood vessels) of the dermis multiply to
reconstruct the tissues T. As tissues grow, they push the crust toward the
normal surface of the epidermis, where a small swelling, or scar, may form Y.
epidermis dermis fibrin crust scar

Y
0
E
0
T
0
0
W
0
Q
R
0
deep wound fibroblasts reconstructed tissue
19
Bone structure
Flexible yet strong tissues
A bone is six times as strong as a bar of steel of the same weight. This remarkable
strength comes from the nature of the bone tissues. All bones are composed of
groupings of compact and spongy (or cancellous) tissues in different proportions
and positions depending on the type of bone. These tissues contain collagen, a
protein that gives bones their flexibility, and mineral salts (calcium, phosphorus),
which are responsible for their solidity.
Long bones, such as the femur, are composed of a hollow cylindrical
central portion, the shaft, and two bulges at the ends, the epiphyses.
Between the shaft and the epiphyses are the metaphyses.
proximal epiphysis
metaphysis
The epiphyses are composed mainly
of spongy tissue covered with
articular cartilage. They contain
red marrow, a tissue that produces
several types of blood cells.
shaft
metaphysis
distal epiphysis
SPONGY BONE TISSUE

In adults, the interior of the epiphyses and metaphyses
is formed of spongy bone in an irregular honeycomb
formation. This structure gives the bone its lightness.
trabecula The cavities between the trabeculae The shaft and metaphyses are completely
are filled with marrow, blood vessels, covered by a fine vascularized membrane,
and nerves. the periosteum.
20
COMPACT BONE TISSUE
The outer layer of bones is formed of compact bone tissue, which is very dense and remarkably resistant to
pressure and shocks. Compact tissue is composed mainly of osteons, small cylinders made of a number of
concentric layers of hard matrix. Osteons are packed tightly together and are connected by longitudinal canals
(haversian canals) and transversal canals (Volkmann’s canals), which contain lymphatic and blood vessels.

In spite of its density and hardness, compact bone tissue is alive. Tiny cavities (lacunae) and canals
(canaliculi) between the lamellae are filled with osteocytes, mature bone cells responsible for providing
nutrition to the bone tissue.
lamella
The lacunae of the osteon are connected

by tiny canals, canaliculi, where extensions
of the osteocytes are lodged.
The lacunae are filled

with osteocytes.
An osteocyte is a bone cell completely
surrounded by matrix. Its many
periosteum extensions carry nutrient elements.
At the core of every osteon is a

osteon
haversian canal, through which
circulate blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves.
Volkmann’s canals connect The concentric lamellae of an osteon

the haversian canals to the are composed of collagen fibers.
periosteum and medullary
canal.
The shafts of long bones are frequently

subjected to great pressure. They are
made mainly of compact bone tissue.
The medullary canal, in the center

of the shaft, contains rich in fat yellow
bone marrow.
Bone growth
From cartilage to bone tissue
Bone formation starts during the embryonic stage, but many parts of the skeleton
are still made of cartilage at birth. Bones do not reach their final size until
adulthood. This growth takes place through a process called ossification:
cartilaginous cells multiply, die, and are replaced by bone cells.
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
The embryo’s skeleton is formed of cartilage When the fetus is about three months old, blood
models that approximate the shape of the bone. vessels begin to penetrate the calcified model and
Starting in the sixth week of pregnancy, cartilage a primary ossification center appears. Osteoblasts
cells in the center of the model grow, explode, and deposit bone tissue on the calcified cartilage and
die, which causes calcification. At the same time, form bony trabeculae. As the process extends toward
osteoblasts (cells that produce bone tissue) the epiphyses, the trabeculae at the center of the
multiply on the perichondrium. shaft are gradually destroyed by other cells, which
enables the bone to remain lightweight.
The model is formed

of hyaline cartilage. The epiphysis remains
completely cartilaginous
up to birth.
The cartilage is covered
by a membrane, the
perichondrium.
Calcified cartilage is
transformed into bone
When the osteoblasts begin tissue by osteoblasts.
to make bone tissue, the
perichondrium is transformed bony trabecula
into periosteum.
Osteoblasts located under
calcified cartilage the periosteum produce
compact bone tissue.
penetrating artery
GROWTH OF THE HAND BONES

At birth Q, the wrist is made of cartilage. The bones of the fingers (phalanges) and the palm (metacarpal
bones) are still incomplete. At around four years of age W, the carpal cartilage begins to ossify to form the
wrist, while the metacarpal bones and phalanges develop. By puberty E, most of the bones in the wrist are
formed. The bones in the palm and fingers continue to lengthen. By adulthood R, all the bones in the hand
and wrist have finished growing.
phalanx
metacarpal bone
Q wrist W carpal bone E R
22
At birth, the shaft has a central cavity (the The destruction of cartilage and its replacement
medullary canal) surrounded by a cylinder of with bone tissue leave a thin cartilaginous layer,
compact bone tissue. Arteries penetrate the articular cartilage, on the surface of the epiphysis.
epiphyses, which causes secondary ossification Meanwhile, the epiphysis and the shaft continue
centers to appear. The process of bone formation to be separated by growth plates, which allows

is similar to that for the diaphysis, except that ossification to continue and the bone to grow
the bony trabeculae are not destroyed. Thus, longer. In adulthood, this band of cartilage finally
the shafts do not contain a medullary canal but ossifies, but it remains visible as an epiphyseal line.
are filled with spongy bone tissue rich in red
bone marrow.
spongy bone tissue

articular
A secondary ossification center cartilage
allows for bony development of
the epiphysis.
hyaline cartilage
growth
plate
epiphyseal
artery
spongy bone
tissue
Blood vessels are essential to

ossification, since bone tissue,
unlike cartilage, is vascularized.
compact bone
tissue compact
bone tissue
During childhood, the

medullary canal contains
red bone marrow.
REPAIR OF A BROKEN BONE

When a bone is fractured, the blood vessels that it contains are broken. Blood flows into the injury, and after
a few hours it forms a plug called a hematoma Q. In a few weeks, a soft tissue made of specialized cells
(fibroblasts and chondroblasts), a fibrocartilaginous callus W, replaces the plug and fuses the two parts of the
bone. The fibrocartilaginous callus is gradually invaded by osteoblasts, which convert it into bony callus E.
After several months, the compact bone tissue is totally reconstructed and only a thickening R of the bone
remains at the site of the fracture.
fibrocartilaginous
hematoma callus bony callus thickening
Q
0 W
0 E
0 0
R
blood vessel
23
The human skeleton
The bony structure of the body
Like other vertebrates, human beings have an internal skeleton that supports
the different muscles in the body and protects the vital organs. The positioning
and articulation of the bones of the skeleton also determine the nature of the
body’s movements.
The adult human skeleton contains about 206 bones, but this number can vary
slightly from individual to individual: some people, for example, have an extra
pair of ribs. The bones of the human body are part of the axial skeleton (the bones
of the skull and the face, the vertebrae, the ribs, and the sternum) or the
appendicular skeleton, formed of the upper and lower limbs and the limb girdles
(the bones of the shoulders and the hips) that attach them to the axial skeleton.
THE PELVIC GIRDLE OF MEN AND WOMEN

Although the woman’s skeleton is generally smaller than the man’s, they are fundamentally the
same; only the pelvis is noticeably different. Seen from the front, the woman’s pelvis appears
wider, though less massive, than a man’s. The woman’s ischia are also more spread out,
leading to the pelvic outlet, the opening formed by the bones of the pelvis and the sacrum.
This anatomical arrangement facilitates the passage of the baby at childbirth. It also changes
the orientation of the acetabulum, which has an effect on how men and women walk.
man’s pelvis woman’s pelvis

FRONT VIEW
ilium
sacrum
hip bone
pubis
ischium
obturator foramen
BOTTOM VIEW
sacrum
ilium
coccyx
pelvic outlet
ischium
SIDE VIEW
ilium sacrum
The head of the femur is

articulated in the acetabulum.
ischium
pubis
24
THE UPPER LIMBS
The upper limbs are attached to the axial skeleton by the pectoral
skull
girdle, which comprises the shoulder blades (scapulae) and the
clavicles (collarbones). The humerus is the bone of the upper arm. It
articulates with the shoulder blade at the shoulder and with the bones

of the forearm, the radius and ulna, to form the elbow joint.
mandible The hand is formed of carpal bones, which articulate with the radius at
the wrist, the metacarpal bones, and the phalanges of the fingers.
clavicle
shoulder blade
sternum THE AXIAL SKELETON

humerus The axial skeleton is formed of the 80 bones of
ribcage the skull, the spine, and the thorax. Aside from
their role in protecting the vital organs
(cerebrum, heart, lungs, spinal cord), these
spine bones provide the body with structure, and they
support the bones of the limbs.
hip bone
sacrum
ulna
radius
carpal bones
metacarpal bones
phalanges
femur THE LOWER LIMBS

The pelvis, composed of two hip bones and
the sacrum, attaches the lower limbs to the
axial skeleton. A hip bone results from the
kneecap fusion of three bones: the ilium, the pubis,
and the ischium. The pelvis also protects the
organs of the pelvic cavity (rectum, bladder,
internal genital organs).
tibia The femur, which articulates with the pelvis,
is the longest bone in the human body. At its
fibula lower end, it and the tibia form the knee joint,
which is protected by the kneecap (patella).
The tibia and fibula are bound together by
short, dense ligaments.
The foot is composed of 26 bones. The tarsal
bones structure the ankle and heel, the
metatarsal bones form the sole of the foot,
tarsal bones and the phalanges are the bones of the toes.
metatarsal bones
phalanges
25
Types of bones
Form determined by function
The some 200 bones that form the human skeleton have a variety of shapes.
There are generally four types of bones, classified by their appearance: long, flat,
irregular, and short. This classification highlights the match between a bone’s
shape and its function.
THE FLAT BONES

The flat bones, which are thin and flattened, play two
parietal bones essential roles. Some, such as the pair of parietal
bones, which are part of the skull, protect fragile
organs. Others, such as the shoulder blade, have
a large surface area to which tendons can attach.
shoulder blade
clavicle
humerus
THE LONG BONES
The long bones, such as the humerus
and clavicle, are, as their name implies,
long and thin. Some are quite small,
such as the phalanges of the fingers.
The four limbs of the human body
thoracic vertebra contain mainly long bones, to which
the motor muscles attach.
IRREGULAR BONES
Many of the irregular bones are complex, and they
hip bone have a wide variety of shapes and sizes depending
on their function. The vertebrae are stacked on top
of each other to form a protective channel through
which the fragile spinal cord passes. The pair of hip
bones form the bony pelvis to which the lower limbs
are attached.
kneecap THE SHORT BONES

The short bones are small and more or less cubical in
shape, providing the joints with flexibility. This is the
case for the talus, which enables the ankle to turn.
The kneecap, which is enveloped in a ligament, is a
particular type of short bone called sesamoid, because
talus of its resemblance to a sesame seed.
26
The head
A grouping of flat and irregular bones
If you look closely at a skull, you will notice that it has fine, irregular lines.

These are sutures, rigid joints at the borders of the different cranial bones. The
skull is not a single bone, but is formed of eight different bones that gradually
fuse together during growth. The more numerous bones of the face are irregular
in shape and define the cavities of the mouth, the nasal cavities, the eye sockets
(orbits), and the sinuses.
sphenoid bone The frontal bone forms the front and

top of the eye sockets. It contains
The two parietal bones air-filled cavities, the frontal sinuses.
form most of the skull.
suture lacrimal bone
The two nasal bones

occipital bone
meet along the front
edge of the nose.
The temporal bones are
pierced by the auditory
The two zygomatic bones
meatuses, which link the
are more commonly called
middle ear to the outside.
cheekbones.
auditory meatus
maxilla
The lower jaw (mandible)
is the only jointed bone
in the head.
INTERIOR OF THE HEAD BOTTOM OF THE HEAD
The palatal bone is the

The sphenoid bone is
back part of the upper jaw
attached to all the other
(maxilla).
bones in the skull.
sphenoid bone
frontal sinus
The ethmoid bone, a The carotid artery

light bone with complex passes through the
shapes, has several holes carotid canal to join the
through which the heart to the cerebrum.
olfactory nerves pass.
The brain stem passes through the
foramen foramen magnum to connect the skull
magnum The vomer forms the back
to the spine.
of the nasal partition.
parietal bone
THE SKULL OF A NEWBORN fontanels

At birth, the bones of the skull are not completely fused
together. They are linked by membranes with wide areas frontal bone
called fontanels. The skull bones therefore have a
degree of mobility, which enables the head to deform
during childbirth and then for the skull to adapt to
growth of the cerebrum during the child’s early years.
27
The spine
The central axis of the body
The spine, also called the vertebral column, is the central axis of the human body.
It extends from the back of the skull to the pelvis and is made of a chain of small
bones, the vertebrae, which house the spinal cord and serve as points of
attachment for the ribs and muscles.
THE VERTEBRAE
Human beings have 33 vertebrae, which anatomists divide into five categories: cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
sacral, and caudal. Although they have slightly different proportions, all vertebrae have a similar structure: a
body to which bony prominences, the processes (or apophyses), are attached. The column contains a central
channel, the spinal foramen, through which the spinal cord passes.
The first vertebra, the atlas, is articulated CERVICAL VERTEBRAE

with the occipital bone. spinous process
The seven cervical

vertebrae are the most The vertebral arterial
mobile in the spine. foramen provides a
vertebral body passageway for blood
vessels and nerves.
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
The 12 thoracic vertebrae, transverse process

which are larger than the
cervical vertebrae, also have
longer apophyses, which The spinal foramen
attach to the ribs. houses the spinal cord.
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
The spinous process

provides a point of
The five lumbar vertebrae attachment for the
form a massive body muscles of the back.
capable of supporting the
weight of the abdomen.
vertebral body
SACRUM AND COCCYX

The five sacral vertebrae fuse The sacral wing is formed by the fusion of the
together in late adolescence transverse processes of the sacral vertebrae.
to form a single bone, the
sacrum, which is joined to
the bones of the pelvis. The sacral foramens are
passageways for sacral
The coccyx is formed when nerves.
the four atrophied caudal
vertebrae fuse at between 20
and 30 years of age.
coccyx
28
ARTICULATION OF THE VERTEBRAE
Except for those that form the sacrum and the coccyx, all
vertebrae are mobile. They are articulated with each other via
small prominences, the inferior and superior articular processes.
The body of each vertebra rests on an intervertebral disk, a

gelatinous mass that serves as a shock absorber. This unique
structure makes the spine both strong and very flexible.
superior articular
transverse process process
spinous process
inferior articular
process
The spinal nerves run

body
through the vertebral
foramens.
intervertebral
disk
THE RIBCAGE
The thorax, which is the upper part of the human trunk, contains the lungs and the heart. These vital organs
are protected by the ribcage, a bony cage formed by 12 pairs of ribs articulated with the thoracic vertebrae
and the sternum. The 10 top pairs of ribs are attached to the sternum by costal cartilage, which is flexible
enough to allow the ribcage to change shape during respiration. The two lowest pairs of ribs, which are not
attached to the sternum, are called floating ribs.
clavicle
shoulder blade
thoracic The head of the rib articulates

vertebra with the vertebra through its
two facets.
rib
costal cartilage
The sternum is a
head of the rib
long, flat bone, rich
rib in red marrow.
sternum
thoracic
vertebra
The costal cartilage links

floating
the rib to the sternum. ribs
29
The hand and the foot
The extremities of the limbs
As the human species has evolved, the function of the hands and feet has become
very differentiated: the hands are used to grasp, while the feet provide stability
and mobility for the body. In spite of these functional differences, the hand and
foot have very similar skeletons. In both, there are five digits formed of
phalanges, a central part composed of five long bones, and a back part composed
of short bones that join them to the limb. Our two hands and two feet contain a
total of 106 bones, more than half of all the bones in the human skeleton.
THE BONES OF THE HAND

The palm of the hand is formed of the five metacarpal bones, each of which is extended by phalanges that
form the bones of the fingers. Each finger has three phalanges (proximal, middle, and distal), except for
the thumb, which has only two (proximal and distal). A complex grouping of eight carpal bones makes up
the wrist. Two of these, the scaphoid and the lunate, articulate with the radius.
distal finger
phalanx
middle
phalanx
palm of
the hand
proximal
phalanx wrist
phalanges
(fingers)
little finger
ring finger
middle finger
metacarpals
(palm)
index finger
trapezoid
carpals
trapezium (wrist)
hamate
capitate
triquetral thumb
scaphoid
pisiform
radius lunate
ulna back of the hand
30
horny layer of THE NAILS
the epidermis
Each finger and toe has a nail at the end. This small protective
plate consists of horny epidermal cells produced by a matrix
located over the distal phalanx. Nails are hard because of their
matrix very high concentration of the protein keratin.

The base of the nail is protected by a fold in the skin,
the cuticle.
The fingernail grows an average of a tenth of a millimeter

every day. Therefore, a completely new fingernail grows in
about every six months.
distal phalanx
tibia
THE BONES OF THE FOOT
The skeleton of the foot has a structure similar to that of the
hand. A group of seven bones composes the tarsus, which
forms the ankle and articulates with the tibia and fibula.
It is followed by the five bones of the metatarsus, which
fibula
form the foot itself, then the phalanges. Like the fingers of
the hand, each toe has three phalanges (proximal, middle,
and distal), except for the big toe, which has only two.
lateral
The epiphysis of the tibia forms malleolus
ankle a bony projection called the
medial malleolus.
medial tarsus
malleolus
The lateral malleolus
is formed by the end
of the fibula.
metatarsus
toe
big toe
phalanges
The talus is the central bone of the ankle.

Tucked behind the ends of the tibia and fibula,
it distributes the body’s weight between the scaphoid bone
calcaneus and the scaphoid bone.
The calcaneus, the heel bone, supports

much of the body’s weight. It is also
where the Achilles’ tendon attaches.
31
The joints
The junctions between the bones
The points of contact between the bones are essential for the mobility and
solidity of the skeleton. The nature of the tissue that forms the joint between two
or more bones determines, in large part, the amplitude of the movement
associated with that joint. Fibrous and cartilaginous joints have very little
mobility, while synovial joints allow a wide variety of movements. However, the
nature of the movement also depends very much on the shape of the bones.
first rib
FIBROUS AND CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
synchondrosis
Certain bones, like those of the skull, are connected by very dense
fibrous tissue. These fibrous joints, also called sutures, render bones
immobile so that they perform a protective function.
When two bones are linked by cartilaginous tissue, the joint permits
very limited movement. This is the case for the joint between the
first rib and the sternum, called the synchondrosis, and the joints
between the bones of the pubis, known as the symphysis.
sternum
synovial fibrous
membrane capsule
middle phalanx SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Most joints are mobile – they allow bones to move in
relation to others, in some cases with great amplitude.
These joints are contained in a fibrous capsule solidly
attached to the periosteum. The membrane that lines
the interior of the capsule produces synovial fluid,
which fills the synovial cavity; it lubricates the joint
and nourishes the cartilage that covers the end of
the bones.
synovial articular
cavity cartilage
distal phalanx
LIGAMENTS
Most bones are connected to each other by ligaments, fibrous tissues that stabilize and reinforce the
synovial joints. The knee joint has several types of ligaments. On either side of the leg, the collateral
ligaments join the femur to the tibia and fibula and prevent the knee from moving from side to side.
The patellar ligament strengthens the joint in the front, while the cruciate ligaments limit the knee from
moving front to back.
KNEE JOINT KNEE JOINT

collagen bundle (FRONT VIEW) (BACK VIEW)
femur
kneecap
lateral collateral cruciate
The ligaments are formed of ligament ligaments
connective tissue with a uniform patellar
structure: several layers of collagen ligament
bundles overlap to make the tissue medial collateral
fibula ligament
elastic and strong.
tibia
32
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
The synovial joints are divided into six categories according to the nature of the movements they permit: gliding,
hinge, pivot, ball, ellipsoidal, and saddle.

Gliding joints permit only small lateral movements. They are
found between the vertebrae and the ribs, in the carpus and
tarsus, and between the navicular bone and the cuneiform
bones.
The elbow is a hinge joint (or trochlear joint) that

navicular bone allows flexion and extension along a single axis.
The convex projection of the humerus turns
first cuneiform within the hollow of the ulna.
bone
humerus
second cuneiform bone
tibia
fibula
ulna
A pivot joint (or trochoidal joint) allows a bone whose end

is inserted in a bony or ligament ring to pivot on its
longitudinal axis. This is the case for the fibula, whose head
articulates with the tibia.
lunate bone
radius
bone
A ellipsoidal joint (or condyloid joint) is
bi-axial, as it allows movements on two scaphoid
bone
different axes. The wrist joint, in which the
scaphoid and lunate bones turn in the cavity
of the radius, belongs in this category.
humerus
The hip and shoulder joints are ball joints, which allow movements
along three axes. By turning in the glenoid cavity of the shoulder
blade, the humerus can also make a circumduction movement – a
complete circle.
omoplate
trapezium
A saddle joint resembles an ellipsoidal joint, but it

allows movements of greater amplitude because the two
bony ends have convex and concave surfaces. The
joint between the metacarpal bone of the thumb and
the trapezium is a good example.
first metacarpal bone
33
The skeletal muscles
Motion generators
There are muscles in every part of the human body – more than 600 in all,
everywhere from the face to the limbs to the viscera. Together, they represent
almost half of our body mass. Most of our muscles are attached to the bones of
the skeleton; these are called skeletal muscles. They contract when they receive
messages via nerve impulses, bringing their ends closer together, which causes
bones to pivot in their joints and generates movements that can be very
complex. They are also responsible for maintaining body tonus and posture.
ilium zygomatic muscle frontal muscle
The sartorius is the longest muscle in the

body (50 cm). It is attached to the ilium and
inserts into the tibia after spanning two joints masseter
(the hip and the knee). It causes the thigh to sternocleidomastoid
flex and rotate.
trapezius
femur
deltoid
Contraction of the greater
pectoral enables a number
of arm movements.
biceps of
anterior serratus arm
abdominal rectus
tibia
external oblique brachioradial
radial flexor of
tensor of fascia wrist
lata
aponeurosis
sartorius
internal abdominal long
oblique muscle adductor vastus lateralis
rectus of thigh vastus medialis
long peroneal muscle

The abdomen is protected by several layers of muscles
whose fibers are oriented in different directions. The external anterior tibial muscle
oblique muscle, which is the external layer, covers the
extensor muscle
internal abdominal oblique muscle, which in turn rests on of toes
the transverse abdominal muscle. These three muscles
have a membranous part (an aponeurosis) at the center of
the abdomen, where they join to the abdominal rectus.
34
origin of the origins of BETWEEN MUSCLE AND BONE: THE TENDON
shoulder blade the humerus A skeletal muscle spans one or several joints and is attached to the
bone by whitish fibrous bundles called tendons. Contraction of a
muscle generally makes only one bone move, while the other stays
immobile. The point of attachment on the immobile bone is called

the origin of the muscle; the one on the mobile bone is called the
insertion. The central fleshy part of the muscle is called the belly.
Some muscles have several origins and, therefore, several bellies.
Depending on the number of their tendons, they are called biceps,
bellies of the triceps, or quadriceps.
triceps of arm
tendon
insertion on
the ulna
hip bone
Movements of the shoulder
blade are controlled by the sacrum
occipital trapezius.
The largest muscle in the body is the

sternocleidomastoid greatest gluteal: it can weigh up to
1 kg. It is responsible for extension
of the hip and stabilization of the
body in an upright position.
deltoid
infraspinous
femur
broadest of The triceps of arm

back extends the forearm.
The extensor muscle of fingers stretches

the fingers (except for the thumb).
greatest gluteal
semimembranous great adductor

semitendinous ischium
biceps of thigh
femur
The biceps of thigh, which is on the

back of the thigh, links the ischium
gastrocnemii to the femur at the head of the fibula
and to the tibia. It controls flexion
of the leg.
The Achilles’ tendon, capable

of supporting a weight of
tibia
450 kg, is the strongest
tendon in the human body. fibula
35
Muscle tissue
Bundles of contractile cells
When the fibers that compose the skeletal muscles are examined under a microscope,
long filaments can be seen within the cells. These myofibrils have very specific
colored striations that are intimately connected to the mechanism of contraction of
the fibers.
THE ANATOMY OF SKELETAL MUSCLES

The skeletal muscles are composed mainly of filiform
muscle fibers with an average length of 3 cm and up
to 50 cm. Grouped in abundantly vascularized bundles,
these cells have long threads, the myofibrils.
Z line
A band I band
The sarcomere, bordered by two Z lines, is the

structural unit of a myofibril. It is composed of
an A band surrounded by two I half-bands.
Myofibrils extend the entire length of

the muscle fiber, but they are no more than
1 to 2 microns in diameter.
A muscle fiber has a number

of nuclei.
Blood capillaries supply the fiber

with oxygen and glucose.
motor neuron
The tendon, made of the same material
as the epimysium, is an extension of
A fiber bundle includes the muscle that attaches it to the bone.
1 to 100 muscle cells.
The epimysium is an envelope of connective tissue

that keeps several muscle-fiber bundles together.
The deep fascia covers the

epimysium and separates
the muscles from each other.
muscle fiber
Each bundle of fibers

is covered with a layer
of connective tissue,
the perimysium.
36
THICK AND THIN FILAMENTS
The characteristic bands that appear along myofibrils are caused by two types of filaments: thick and thin.
The dark-colored A bands are composed of both types of filaments, while the light-colored I bands contain
only thin filaments.
Myosin is the main component in thick filaments. The molecules of this protein, arranged in bundles, face

outward. Thin filaments are composed of three proteins: actin, tropomyosin, and troponin.
The filaments are regularly distributed within the myofibrils:

a thick filament is surrounded by six thin filaments.
thin filament
troponin molecule
actin molecule
thick filament
tropomyosin molecule
head of a myosin molecule
CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLES

In a muscle at rest Q, the thick and thin filaments of myofibrils are loosely interlaced in such a way that
the existing spaces between two consecutive thick filaments form I bands.
When a neuron transmits a nerve impulse to the muscle fiber W, the heads of the myosin molecules are
energized. They connect with the actin molecules of the thin filaments, where they discharge their energy.
This reaction makes the thin filament slide toward the center of the A band, which shortens the sarcomeres:
the muscle fiber contracts.
When the nerve impulse stops, a chemical reaction blocks the interaction between the myosin and the actin,
which returns the thin filaments to their initial position: the muscle relaxes.
Z line thin head of a myosin thick

filament molecule filament
Q
I band A band I band
37
The muscles of the head
An infinite variety of movements
Smiling, blinking, chewing, frowning, and pouting: the movements of the human
face are innumerable and extremely varied. No fewer than 50 muscles, some of them
very small, are always at work under the skin, enabling us to eat, speak, see, move
the head, and express emotions. Facial expressions are a mode of communication in
themselves.
Linked to the occipital muscle by

the epicranial aponeurosis, which
covers the top of the skull, the
frontal muscle wrinkles the skin of
the forehead, raises the eyebrows,
and pulls the scalp forward.
The orbicular of eye controls

the eyelids and the perimeter of
the eye socket.
The dilator of nostril controls

the opening
of the nostril.
nasolabial levator
The origin of the zygomatic

muscles is the cheekbone.
The orbicular of mouth closes the

mouth and is the insertion for a
number of other facial muscles
at the commissures.
The levator of lower lip pushes

out the lower lip and wrinkles
the skin of the chin.
The sternocleidomastoid muscle is

responsible for rotation, forward
flexion, and lateral tilt of the head.
38
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Although they are not very powerful, the facial muscles are capable of controlling small movements of the skin
that change the aspect of the human face, resulting in a wide variety of expressions. Some expressions have
a universally recognized and understood meaning, such as joy, anger, and surprise, while others are more

subtle and personal.
zygomatics triangular of lip corrugator frontal orbicular of

the mouth
MUSCLES UNDER THE SKIN

Most muscles in the head are unusual in that they do not control the movement of a bone but act on the skin
of the face. This is why they are called skin muscles, or mimic muscles. The orbicular muscles of eye and mouth
are particularly important: they are sphincters (ring-shaped muscles) that cause orifices to open or close. On
the other hand, the masseter and temporal muscles are not skin muscles but mastication muscles. Inserted on
the mandible, they control the closing of the jaw.
The top of the skull does not have muscles, but it is

covered by the epicranial aponeurosis, a large tendon
that links the frontal muscle to the occipital muscle.
anterior frontal muscle

auricular
The temporal muscle,
which has its origin in the
superior parietal bone, is involved
auricular in chewing by raising and
retracting the mandible.
pyramidal muscle
occipital
muscle
nasal
posterior The buccinator is

auricular the main muscle in
the cheek.
The masseter is the

The risorius pulls the
main muscle responsible
commissure of the
for chewing.
lips backward.
triangular of lips
sternocleidomastoid
muscle
The platysma pulls the skin
of the chin downward, lowers
the commissure of the lips, and
stretches the skin of the neck.
39
The action of
the skeletal muscles
From contraction to movement
Unlike the actions of the smooth and cardiac muscles, which work involuntarily,
the movements controlled by the skeletal muscles are voluntary: we decide to
walk, talk, or pick up an object. Most movements that we make, however, involve
a number of muscles acting together without us being completely aware of them.
In fact, a single muscle cannot function in isolation, since it is capable of only
one action: contraction.
AGONIST AND ANTAGONIST MUSCLES

Most movements of the skeletal bones are caused by pairs of muscles located on either side of a joint.
The muscle responsible for a movement is called agonist, while the opposed muscle, which resists the
movement, is called antagonist. For the movement to be reversed, the muscles must exchange roles.
This is what happens in the upper arm, which has two main muscles: the biceps, located at the front, and
the triceps, at the back.
triceps of arm
When a nerve impulse is sent to the biceps Q,
it contracts, thus bending the forearm at the
elbow joint, which serves as a pivot. The triceps,
which is relaxed, is stretched by the movement of
the forearm.
Q
0 biceps of arm
W
0
For the forearm to straighten to its
initial position, the triceps W must in
turn contract, while the biceps
automatically relaxes.
THE EYE MUSCLES

Humans can orient their eyeballs very quickly and accurately toward the objects that
they want to look at. This ability is provided by six skeletal muscles that connect
each eye to the eye socket. By coordinating the actions of these muscles, we can
turn our eyes along three axes.
The trochlea is a fibrocartilaginous

pulley through which the tendon of
the superior oblique muscle passes.
medial rectus
The superior rectus muscle

superior oblique
contracts to direct the eye
upward.
eyeball
inferior oblique
inferior rectus
lateral rectus
40
The movements
of the hand
Incredible dexterity

Human beings have an aptitude unique in the animal kingdom: we can grasp and
manipulate objects with great precision. This dexterity is due to the skeletal
structure of the human hand and the complex group of muscles in the forearm,
which enable us to make movements as varied as playing a piano, turning a tap,
and writing.
THE ANTERIOR MUSCLES OF THE HAND AND FOREARM

The muscles responsible for flexion of the wrist, hand, and fingers are located on the anterior face of the
forearm. Most of them originate at the end of the humerus just above the elbow and extend to the metacarpal
bones and phalanges via long tendons. A number of ligaments and a membrane called the palmar aponeurosis
protect these tendons. The hand also contains a number of intrinsic muscles, including the one that provides
the thumb with mobility.
Around the fingers, the tendons transverse

are wrapped in protective metacarpal
ligament
tendon sheaths.
The superficial flexor of the fingers adductor of

thumb
is extended to the phalanges by
tendons.
palmar aponeurosis
abductor of the little finger short abductor

of thumb
human hand The palmar carpal ligaments
short flexor
hold in the tendons of the of thumb
forearm muscles.
long flexor of thumb
The ulnal flexor of wrist superficial flexor

bends the wrist. of fingers
long palmar
chimpanzee hand
radial flexor of wrist
THE OPPOSABLE THUMB

Although there are many similarities, the human The brachioradial
hand is differentiated from the monkey hand by flexes the forearm.
a fundamental trait: mobility of the thumb.
Humans can touch their thumb to any of the pronator teres
other fingers on the hand. This ability enables
them to be very accurate and effective pincers.
41
The cerebrum, a complex and not fully understood organ, is the site of consciousness,
intellectual activity, and emotions. It is also where the various functions of the body are regulated and controlled,
physical stimuli are felt, and voluntary movements are triggered. This role of centralization and
coordination of the entire body is made possible by a vast network of nerves, which
fulfill both motor and sensory functions. Through them, the nerve centers can receive messages from all parts of the
organism and order the needed actions.

The nervous system
44 Neurons
Cells that transmit nerve impulses
46 The central nervous system

The control center for the nerve network
48 The brain
The core of the nervous system
50 The cerebrum
Extraordinary complexity
52 The peripheral nervous system

A network of sensory and motor nerves
54 The motor functions of the nervous system

How the body’s muscles are activated
Neurons
Cells that transmit nerve impulses
The nervous system is based on neurons. These highly specialized cells are unique
The nervous system
in that they can carry electrical signals and transmit them to other cells (nervous,
muscular, glandular, etc.). Every motor, sensory, and association neuron is made of
a cell body and a number of extensions, including dendrites, which receive
electrical impulses, and axons, which transmit these impulses.
Golgi
apparatus
axon hillock
Dendrites are extensions

of the cell body that
receive nerve impulses.
endoplasmic
reticulum
cell
nucleus
mitochondrion
The cell body contains the cell

nucleus and other organelles. cell body
dendrite
axon
terminal
Q
0
axon
DIFFERENT TYPES OF NEURONS
Neurons are classified into three categories, according to their dendrite
function. Motor (or efferent) neurons direct nerve impulses cell body
toward muscles and glands. Sensory (or afferent) neurons
axon
transmit messages from the sensory receptors to the nerve terminal
centers. Finally, association neurons (or interneurons) connect W
0
two other neurons. About 90% of all neurons in the body
are of the last type. axon
Neurons can also be distinguished by their structure. dendrite
Multipolar neurons Q, the most common, have many cell body
dendrites and a long axon. Most are motor neurons and axon
interneurons. Unipolar neurons W, which are always terminal
sensory neurons, have a single extension that divides E
0
into two branches. Finally, bipolar neurons E have
two extensions. axon
44
The myelin sheath
improves the electrical
nucleus of insulation of neurons.
Schwann cell
The nervous system

Schwann cell
THE AXON
The axon, a structure unique to neurons, is a cellular extension
that is attached to the cell body at the axon hillock and is
between 1 mm (in the cerebrum) and 1 m (in the leg) long.
Most axons are covered with myelin, a white fatty substance.
Schwann cells (or oligodendrocytes in the central nervous
system) deposit the myelin in layers to form a sheath, which is
divided into segments by narrow sections called nodes of Ranvier.
Electrical signals propagate

along the axon at a speed
The nodes of Ranvier, which
of up to 400 km/h.
separate Schwann cells,
axonal terminal accelerate propagation of
bouton electrical signals.
Axon terminals have

a branching structure.
SYNAPSES
The nerve message passes from one neuron to
Some neurons are
another at a site called the synapse. Usually,
contacted by up to
two neurons are not in direct contact but are
30,000 synapses.
separated by a very thin cleft, so the electrical
signal must be converted into a chemical
signal in order for transmission to take place.
When a nerve impulse reaches the terminal
bouton, neurotransmitters are released into
In a chemical synapse, a the synaptic cleft from the vesicles that
synaptic cleft separates contain them. When these molecules come into
the two membranes. contact with the receptors of the postsynaptic
neuron, they generate an electrical signal.
axonal
terminal bouton
synaptic
vesicle
neurotransmitter
neurotransmitter
receptor
postsynaptic neuron
The central nervous system
The control center for the nerve network
The nervous system is the main network for communication in and control of the
The nervous system
human body. It is responsible for the actions of organs and muscles, processes
sensory messages from the entire body, and provides psychic and intellectual
activity. These many functions are made possible by coordination between the
peripheral nervous system, which involves all the nerves in the body, and the central
nervous system.
With a weight of between 1.3 and 1.4 kg,

the cerebrum is the most highly developed
part of the central nervous system.
The cerebellum is involved mainly in motor

coordination, maintenance of balance,
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
muscle tone, and posture.
The command, control, and processing
center for nerve information, the central
nervous system is formed of more than The main task of the brain stem is to
100 billion neurons. It is composed of the transmit messages between the spinal
brain (which encompasses the cerebrum, cord, the cerebrum, and the cerebellum.
cerebellum, and brain stem) and the
spinal cord. Housed in the bony canal formed by the
spine, the spinal cord extends from the
brain stem to the second lumbar vertebra.
Its diameter averages 2 cm but is not
uniform; there are two swellings, one
cervical, the other lumbar.
second lumbar vertebra

Each spinal nerve is attached to the spinal
Below the second lumbar vertebra, cord by two roots, one sensory (in the back),
the spinal cord is extended by the the other motor (in the front).
filum terminale, a long filament of
connective tissue.
On each side of the spinal cord, a chain of
sympathetic ganglions controls the
contraction of visceral muscles.
GRAY MATTER AND WHITE MATTER

The spinal cord is composed of two types of substances. Gray matter, which forms
an H shape in the center of the cord, is formed of neuron cell bodies. The dorsal
horns contain the sensory neurons of the spinal nerves, while the ventral horns
are made up of motor neurons.
The gray matter is surrounded by white matter, composed of bundles of ascending
and descending nerve fibers (extensions of neurons). The ascending bundles bring
sensory information received by dorsal horns to the brain, while the descending
bundles transmit motor impulses to the ventral horns.
46
THE SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord provides a link between the brain and the 30 pairs of spinal nerves, which are attached to
it by their sensory and motor roots. It is made of a soft, fragile tissue and is protected by various
membranes and liquids within the spinal canal formed by the vertebrae.
The nervous system

The pia mater, which covers the white matter of the
spinal cord, is a highly vascularized membrane.
The epidural cavity, filled with blood

vessels and fatty tissues, separates the Cerebrospinal fluid, similar
dura mater from the vertebra and plays in composition to blood plasma,
a protective role. circulates slowly throughout
The outermost meninge, the dura the central nervous system.
mater, is fused with the tissue
that covers the spinal nerves.
spinal cord
arachnoid
sensory root
motor root
spinal nerve
vertebral body
motor root
dorsal horn
sensory root
white matter
gray matter The spinal ganglion

contains the cell
bodies of primary
sensory neurons.
ventral horn
pia mater
arachnoid
dura mater
The meninges are membranes that
protect the spinal cord. From the
inside to the outside, they are the
pia mater, the arachnoid, and the
dura mater.
47
The brain
The core of the nervous system
The nervous system
The brain is the central component of the nervous system. It is housed in the
skull and communicates with the rest of the body via cranial nerves and the
spinal cord. It is formed of the brain stem, the cerebellum, and the cerebrum,
which constitutes almost 90% of its volume.
THE SHAPE OF THE BRAIN

longitudinal
fissure The cerebrum is a soft mass measuring about 1,400 cm3,
divided into two hemispheres by a deep groove, the
longitudinal fissure. Other fissures define particular zones,
the lobes, while shallower grooves separate convolutions whose
patterns vary from individual to individual. The cerebellum,
located under the cerebrum and behind the brain stem,
is also divided into two hemispheres.
left right
hemisphere hemisphere
The frontal lobe is responsible for thought, language,
emotions, and voluntary movements.
convolution The parietal lobe is responsible for perception

and interpretation of the sense of touch.
Visual images are processed

fissure in the occipital lobe.
cerebellum
The neurons of the temporal The superior and inferior colliculi

lobe recognize and interpret intervene in visual and auditory
sounds, and help form new brain stem sensations.
memories.
The midbrain is composed of the four

colliculi and two cerebral peduncles.
THE BRAIN STEM

Located deep within the heart of the cerebrum, cerebral
peduncle
the brain stem is the extension of the spinal
cord and has the same histological structure
(white matter covering a core of gray matter). The nerve bundles of the
Its three main parts, the medulla oblongata, pons join the cerebrum to
the pons, and the midbrain, contain the cerebellum and to the
ascending and descending nerve bundles that spinal cord.
link the cerebrum and cerebellum to the rest
of the body. The brain stem also plays an
essential role in the innervation of the head, The medulla oblongata (or spinal
since 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves are bulb) controls some vital functions,
directly attached to it. including respiration, circulation, heart
rhythm, coughing, and swallowing.
spinal cord
48
PROTECTION OF THE BRAIN lateral ventricles
The three meninges of the spinal cord (the dura mater, the arachnoid,
and the pia mater) also cover and protect the brain. These
membranes are themselves covered by several successive
protective envelopes: the bones of the skull, the cranial aponeurosis
The nervous system

(a layer of tendons), and the skin.
In addition, the cerebral material sits in cerebrospinal fluid, which
offers both mechanical and chemical protection. This liquid is formed
inside cavities called ventricles (the lateral ventricles, the third
ventricle, and the fourth ventricle), then circulates throughout
the central nervous system, including the subarachnoid space. third
ventricle
fourth ventricle
In the fissures, the two fibrous

layers of the dura mater separate
skin to form venous sinuses.
Arachnoidal villi allow

aponeurosis for exchanges between
cranial bone the cerebrospinal fluid and
the blood.
dura mater
blood vessel
arachnoid
The subarachnoid space,
pia mater formed by bays in the arachnoid
membrane, contains blood
cortex vessels and cerebrospinal fluid.
fissure
THE CEREBELLUM
Located in the back of the brain, the cerebellum is separated from the occipital lobes by a fold in the
meninges, the tentorium cerebelli. The hemispheres of the cerebellum, connected by a central projection,
the vermis, present a folded surface very different from that of the cerebrum.
The role of the cerebellum is very specific: it regulates and coordinates movements. To do this,
it continually analyzes the messages sent by the sensory receptors and adjusts tension in the muscles
by inhibiting commands issued by the motor area of the cerebrum. Because the cerebellum is linked to
the organs of balance, it also regulates the posture of the body by commanding the involved muscles.
fourth ventricle
cerebellar hemispheres
occipital lobe
tentorium
cerebelli
occipital bone
The white matter is organized

vermis in a branching structure.
cerebellar cortex
The cerebrum
Extraordinary complexity
The human cerebrum bears traces of the different stages of animal evolution.
The nervous system
Thus, most of the vital early functions are provided by components very deep
within it, such as the hypothalamus. Covering this “reptilian” cerebrum is the
limbic system, which controls more highly evolved functions: memory, emotions,
learning. The cerebral cortex, the most recently developed zone, is responsible for
thought, language, voluntary movements, and the conscious representation
of sensations.
INSIDE THE CEREBRUM
Like the spinal cord, the cerebrum is formed of two types of substances. Gray matter, composed of neuron cell
bodies, is found in the cerebral cortex and in certain central bodies such as the thalamus. White matter,
composed of nerve fibers, provides communication between the different parts of the central nervous system.
The cerebrum is covered by a layer of gray matter, The gray central cores are involved white
the cerebral cortex, between 2 and 5 mm thick. with motor functions. matter
This zone plays a fundamental role in interpreting
sensory messages, commanding movements, and
intellectual functions.
The two cerebral hemispheres are linked

by a group of commissures formed of
white matter, the larger of which is the
corpus callosum.
Buried deep within the cerebrum, the

thalamus is composed of two masses located
on either side of the third ventricle. It forms
a relay between the sense organs and the
sensory areas of the cortex.
The hypothalamus is formed of a number of small

masses that control the body’s vital functions: body-
heat regulation, appetite, sexual activity, and so on.
The many neurons of the reticular formation are

interwoven with the brain stem, providing a relay between
the sensory nerve bundles and the cerebrum. They
stimulate the activity of the cortex and maintain it in an cerebellum
alert state.
BRAIN WAVES
Electrodes attached to the scalp can measure
the electrical activity of the cerebrum, which is
then transcribed onto an electroencephalogram.
The frequency and intensity of brain waves vary
according to the state of consciousness. During
deep sleep, the waves have high amplitude and
low frequency; their frequency rises when the
subject is awake but relaxed. In a state of
activity or during dreams, the brain waves have a
higher frequency but a low amplitude.
50
THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
The limbic system, formed of certain parts of the central gray core, including the hypothalamus, parts of the
thalamus, and interconnecting bundles of white matter, is superimposed on the primitive structures of the
cerebrum. It controls our instinctive and emotional reactions (fear, anger, pleasure) and associates them with
the more evolved zones of the cerebral cortex, thus helping to produce complex behaviors. It is also within the
The nervous system

limbic system that memories are formed, through mechanisms that are not yet fully understood. The presence
of olfactory bulbs in this region of the cerebrum also explains our often emotional reaction to smells.
The mamillary bodies, attached to

the hypothalamus, relay olfactory
sensations. front nucleus of
The callosal convolution, which the thalamus
covers the corpus callosum, is
the main cortical zone in the
limbic system.
The fornix is a large bundle of white

matter that allows communication
between the different parts of the
limbic system.
The septal nuclei may be linked

to the sensation of pleasure.
olfactory bulbs
The amygdala is interconnected with the cerebral cortex The hippocampus is

and the hypothalamus and plays a major role in the involved in memory
regulation of emotional reactions. and learning.
The gyrus hippocampi is involved in emotional
reactions such as fear and anger.
GROWTH OF THE CEREBRUM

In the embryo’s first weeks of life, it develops a primitive central nervous system. At 7 weeks Q, three zones
can already be identified: the forebrain, with eye buds, the midbrain, and the hindbrain, where the cranial
nerves begin to grow. At 11 weeks W, the hindbrain is divided into two distinct parts (the cerebellum and
the spinal bulb), while the forebrain has grown considerably. At birth E, the cerebrum is the largest part of
the brain. Convolutions have formed on its surface.
hindbrain forebrain
midbrain cerebrum
forebrain midbrain
cerebellum
eye bud
spinal
bulb
cranial
nerves brain stem
0
Q 0
W 0
E
spinal cord cerebellum
51
The peripheral
nervous system
A network of sensory and motor nerves
The nervous system
The central nervous system communicates with the rest of the body via 43 pairs of
nerves: 12 pairs of cranial nerves directly connected to the cerebrum, and 31 pairs
of spinal nerves linked to the spinal cord. This network, which constitutes the
peripheral nervous system (PNS), branches out to every part of the body.
There are two orders of nerve impulses: sensory and motor. In the former case,
nerve terminals send messages to the central nervous system (CNS). In the latter
case, the CNS commands a muscle to contract. Some nerves perform both types of
tasks: these are mixed nerves.
CRANIAL NERVES
Twelve pairs of nerves (numbered I to XII) are directly linked to the cerebrum. These cranial nerves
innervate mainly the head and neck. Some, such as the optic nerve, the auditory nerve, and the olfactory
nerve, have solely sensory functions, while others perform motor or mixed tasks.
Olfactory sensations are transmitted The optic nerve (II) transmits

by the olfactory nerve (I). sensory impulses from the eye.
II
I III
IV
V
Eye movements are commanded
The trigeminal nerve (V) is a VI by the oculomotor nerve (III),
mixed nerve whose motor the trochlear nerve (IV), and
functions concern mastication. the abducens nerve (VI).
VIII
VII
The facial nerve (VII) commands

The acoustic nerve (VIII)
the facial muscles and gland
transmits nervous impulses
secretions. It is also involved
related to hearing and balance.
in taste.
XI
X IX
XII
The accessory nerve (XI), an The glossopharyngeal nerve
exclusively motor nerve, commands (IX) and the hypoglossal
the movements of the neck. nerve (XII) innervate the
tongue, the salivary glands,
The vagus nerve (X) is linked to the thoracic and and the pharynx and play a
abdominal organs and plays a very important role role in the sense of taste.
in the autonomic nervous system.
52
A sheath of connective tissue THE ANATOMY OF A NERVE
called the perineurium covers In the peripheral nervous system, the axons
each bundle. of neurons, generally covered with myelin,
are grouped in bundles. Several bundles are,
in turn, held together by an envelope of
The nervous system

connective tissue, the epineurium, to form
a nerve.
myelinated axon
A nerve fiber bundle may contain

epineurium both sensory and motor neurons.
blood vessel The brachial plexus branches into three

main nerves (radial, median, and ulnar) that
innervate most of the arm.
THE SPINAL NERVES
The 62 spinal nerves, linked to the spinal cord by a sensory root and a
motor root, are all mixed nerves. They leave the spinal canal by narrow
passages between the vertebrae, the vertebral foramens, divide into a
number of branches (ventral rami, dorsal rami, rami communicantes),
and then join together to form local networks, the plexuses.
The 8 pairs of cervical nerves innervate the head, neck,

shoulders, and upper limbs.
The ventral rami of the 12 pairs of thoracic nerves do

not form plexuses but are aligned between the ribs: they
are called intercostal nerves.
radial nerve
median nerve
The 5 pairs of lumbar nerves serve mainly the abdomen
and the front of the lower limbs.
ulnar nerve
The genital organs, buttocks, and most of the back
of the lower limbs are innervated by the 5 pairs of
sacral nerves.
The two coccygeal nerves are

relatively undeveloped.
The main branch of the sacral plexus is the sciatic nerve, the
largest nerve in the body. It has a number of branches (tibial
nerve, peroneal nerve, plantar nerves) that innervate the back
part of the lower limbs.
The front of the thigh is innervated by the femoral nerve.
peroneal nerve
tibial nerve
The internal and external plantar nerves innervate the bottom

of the foot.
53
The motor functions
of the nervous system
How the body’s muscles are activated
The nervous system
The human body’s skeletal muscles allow it to perform a wide variety of very specific
movements. The motor cortex, an area of the cerebrum located behind the frontal
lobes, is responsible for these voluntary motor functions. The smooth muscles that
contract and relax the internal organs, on the other hand, are commanded by the
autonomic nervous system, controlled mainly by the hypothalamus. Finally, certain
muscular actions are not commanded by the cerebrum but result from reflexive
stimulation of the motor neurons in the spinal cord.
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

From contractions of the heart to the secretion of saliva, the actions of the visceral organs and the body’s
glands are commanded not consciously but through the autonomic nervous system. This system functions
along two distinct paths: the sympathetic system, which goes through the spinal cord and a chain of
ganglions, and the parasympathetic system, which mainly uses the nerve bundles of the vagus nerve
(cranial nerve X).
SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM PARASYMPATHETIC SYSTEM

nasal cavities tear glands
eye
brain
stem
cervical
spinal salivary
segments vagus
glands nerve
lungs
thoracic
spinal
segments
heart
liver
lumbar
spinal stomach
segments
kidneys
sacral spinal
segments
spinal intestines
cord
sympathetic chain rectum
bladder
genital organs
54
VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS
motor cortex
The skeletal muscles in the human body can be contracted
consciously, through a nerve message from the motor
The nervous system

cortex Q. The message reaches the brain stem W, then
Q
0
descends the spinal cord E. It then travels along a spinal
nerve that stimulates the targeted muscle R. The sensory
receptors of the muscle emit a message to control the
movement. This signal returns to the cerebellum T,
which compares the movement made with movements
learned and remembered since childhood. The cerebellum
U
0 sends an inhibiting message Y to the muscle to control
its activity. In parallel, it acts on the motor cortex
through the thalamus U, to adjust the command.
thalamus
Y
0
W
0 T
0 cerebellum
Most of the nerve bundles cross in the brain stem, so that

one cerebral hemisphere controls the movements on the
opposite side of the body.
spinal cord E
0 sensory neuron
motor neurons
R
0
PAIN: REFLEX AND REACTION

When a hand picks up a very hot object Q, receptors in the skin (nociceptors) send a message to the spinal
cord W. In a few hundredths of a second, the spinal cord commands a muscular movement E to release the
object. This is called a reflex. At the same time, other sensory nerves send a message to the area of sensory
processing in the cerebrum R to signal the sensation of touch. One or two seconds later, the nociceptor
impulses arrive in the cortex, which causes the sensation of pain T. Because the limbic system is also
activated, emotions are felt and the sensation is memorized. The cerebrum may then decide to order a
conscious reaction Y, such as blowing on the injury to inhibit the receptors and lessen the pain.
The area of sensory processing

is located in the center of the Pain reaches the cerebrum after
two parietal lobes. the sensation of touching.
R
0 T
0
spinal cord
W
0
E
0
Y
0
Q
0
55
Touch, sight, hearing, taste, and feel. We depend on five complementary perception systems to learn about the
world around us: these are the five senses. Detection of physical stimuli is provided by incredibly
sensitive specialized organs. Transformed into nerve impulses, this information is directed
toward the central nervous system, where it is processed to give us a conscious representation
of our environment.
The five senses
58 Touch
How the skin communicates with the cerebrum
60 The eye
A tool for capturing light
62 Sight
Our most highly developed sense
64 The organ of hearing

Inside the ear
66 Perception of sound
The path of vibration through the ear
67 Balance
A sixth sense?
68 Taste
A limited sense
70 Taste receptors
A chemical process
72 Smell
A little-known sense
Touch
How the skin communicates with the cerebrum
The five senses
Even though the sensation of pain is not pleasant, its role is vital: it draws the
attention of the central nervous system to injuries, burns, and punctures, as well
as to all other mechanical, thermal, or chemical assaults on the organism. Without
this alarm system, we would be at risk of not noticing that our bodies have been
attacked.
When the skin’s specialized receptors detect a tactile sensation, they convert the
information into nerve impulses that transmit the sensation to the cerebrum via
different nerve bundles. It is up to the central nervous system to process the
message and order the actions needed (defense, manipulation, change of
posture, etc.).
TOUCH RECEPTORS
The skin is the site of different types of sensations. Tactile sensations (light
touch, vibration, pressure) tell us about the weight, size, and consistency
of an object; thermal sensations tell us about an object’s temperature; and
painful sensations are produced whenever the skin is injured. These stimuli
are perceived by receptors located in the dermis and epidermis, most of
which specialize in one or a few types of sensations.
epidermis
Located in the lower layer of the epidermis,

Merkel cells are capable of detecting very
light contact. They therefore specialize in
specific kinds of touch and sharp pain.
dermis
nerve fiber
Krause end bulbs respond to

pressure, vibration, and
extreme cold.
Ruffini’s corpuscles are abundant in

the deep dermis of hairy parts of the
body. They are sensitive to strong,
continuous pressure and to heat.
58
THE NERVE PATHS OF TOUCH
Depending on their nature, sensory nerve impulses take one of two different paths to the cerebrum. Specific
touch signals (Meissner’s corpuscles) travel to the brain stem directly and thus reach the somatosensory
cortex very rapidly (within a few hundredths of a second).
On the other hand, pain signals (free nerve endings) and diffuse touch (Pacinian corpuscles) are routed via
The five senses

the spinothalamic tracts: they are analyzed in the gray matter of the spinal cord, which modulates and
integrates them before sending them to the cerebrum. The transmission time is therefore longer: one
second lapses between occurrence of the stimulus and its reception by the cortex.
The somatosensory cortex is the region of the parietal

lobe where tactile sensations become conscious. There, a
mental representation of the region touched and the type
of contact is formed. This mental image is then compared
with previously memorized sensations and integrated
with other types of sensations (visual, auditory).
The nerve bundles converge in the thalamus,

which leads to the somatosensory cortex.
Free nerve endings, abundant at the surface of

the dermis, react to pain: these are nociceptors.
brain stem
Meissner’s corpuscles, which are

sensitive to precise touch, are located in
the upper part of the dermis of the
hands, feet, lips, and genital organs.
spinothalamic
tract
Pacinian corpuscles are located in the

deep dermis and react to vibrations and
strong, continuous pressure.
nerve fiber spinal cord
59
The eye
A tool for capturing light
The five senses
Although it weighs just 7 grams and has an average diameter of only

24 millimeters, the human eye is a biological camera whose complexity and
capacities surpass those of the most advanced optical apparatuses. This highly
evolved optical system includes two lenses and a pupil that are responsible for
deflecting a precise quantity of light rays toward the retina, where more than
130 million photoreceptors convert the light into neural signals that can be
interpreted by the brain.
INSIDE THE EYEBALL
The eye, recessed within a bony socket, is a hollow body filled with a gelatinous substance called the
vitreous body. It is covered with several layers of tunics that form the coat of the eyeball: the retina, the
choroid, and the sclera. At the front of the eye, the sclera becomes perfectly transparent to form the cornea.
Light enters the eye through the cornea Q, which is the principal
ocular lens. It then travels through the opening in the pupil W. retina
Behind the pupil is the crystalline lens E, which converges light
rays toward the retina R.
The choroid is a vascular layer located between

the sclera and the retina. It supplies the retina
with nutritive substances and oxygen.
The sclera, whitish in color, is the

thickest layer of the coat of the eyeball.
It is covered with a mucous layer, the
conjunctiva, and protects the fragile
internal structures of the eye.
vitreous body
Via suspensory ligaments called zonules,

the muscles of the ciliary body pull or
release the lens to change its curvature.
Q
0
The curved shape of the cornea enables
W
0 E
0
it to deflect light at a sharp angle toward
the interior of the eye.
The opening of the pupil changes size to

adapt to the quantity of light rays that
reach it.
The crystalline lens has two

convex curvatures.
The iris is a muscle that dilates or contracts to

determine the size of the opening of the pupil.
Its color varies from individual to individual.
The eyeball has six extraocular muscles that move it

in different directions.
60
THE ROLE OF THE RETINA
Light rays T that reach the retina pass through several layers of cells before reaching the photoreceptor cells Y,
the only cells that have pigments capable of transforming light into electrical impulses. These impulses are
transmitted by intermediary neurons U to the optic nerve I, which carries the information to the brain.
The retina contains two types of photoreceptor cells: cones and rods. There are many more rods (125 million)
The five senses

than cones; although they do not perceive colors, rods are very sensitive to contrasts in light. On the other hand,
cones (6 million) perceive colors perfectly.
Synaptic terminal branches are in The disks on the outer segment of

contact with the intermediary neurons. the cell contain the photosensitive
pigments.
cell nucleus
rod
choroid
cone
retina
trajectory of
light
T
0
U
0 Y
0
R
0
trajectory of
The fovea, composed mainly of neural signal
cones, is the part of the retina
where visual acuity is strongest. The photoreceptors are contained in the
I
0
pigmented epithelium, a cellular layer that
absorbs all light crossing the retina.
One million axons (extensions of neurons) originating

in the retina converge in the optic nerve.
The part of the retina where the nerve fibers converge
to form the optic nerve has no photosensitive cells;
this zone is the blind spot.
THE EYE’S DEFENSES

Tears are constantly being secreted by the lacrimal glands, located above each
eye. Every time the eyelid blinks, it causes this lacrimal liquid to flow over
the surface. This keeps the eye moist and free of dust and microbes. The
eyelids and eyelashes also play a protective role.
upper eyelid
The eyelashes trap outside lacrimal

elements: dust, sweat, and gland
direct rays from the Sun.
Tears are evacuated by the lower

lacrimal duct, which leads eyelid
into the nose.
61
Sight
Our most highly developed sense
Human beings have remarkable visual ability; in fact our sense of sight is vastly
The five senses
superior to our other senses. The perception of shapes, distances, colors, and
movements in our environment is a complex process that uses a chain of optical
and nervous components, from the cornea to the cortex.
HOW THE EYE FOCUSES

Light rays emanating from an object that we look at are first deflected by the cornea to the crystalline lens.
Unlike the curve of the cornea, the curve of the crystalline lens is variable, so it can cause the images of
objects at different distances to converge on the retina. However, the precision of this optical system makes
it particularly fragile: the slightest imperfection in the shape of the eyeball or the curve of the cornea leads
to an imbalance for which the crystalline lens cannot always compensate. In these cases, because the image
is not focused on the retina but in front of or behind it, vision is blurry.
crystalline lens
The image of the
light rays
object is formed on
the retina.
object
cornea
Myopia is a defect in which the image of distant objects is formed in front of the retina. This situation is
corrected with a concave lens, which pushes the point of convergence of the light rays farther back in the eye.
myopic eye concave

lens
In hypermetropia, by contrast, the image is formed behind the retina. To correct this problem, a convex
lens is used to bring the point of convergence forward in the eye.
hypermetropic eye
convex lens
Astigmatism is a defect in the curve of the cornea or the crystalline lens preventing homogeneous
convergence of light rays. An asymmetrical lens can correct this problem.
astigmatic eye asymmetrical

lens
cornea
62
SIGHT, FROM THE CORNEA TO THE CORTEX
When an object Q enters our field of vision, each eye perceives it from a slightly different angle, which enables
us to evaluate its distance and see its shape in three dimensions. Light rays are deflected as they pass through
the cornea and the crystalline lens W so that the object is inverted as it reaches the retina E. The optical image
is then converted by photoreceptor cells into electrical impulses that reach the optic nerve R. The two optic
The five senses

nerves meet in the optic chiasm T, which leads to the lateral geniculate bodies Y, outgrowths of the thalamus.
The information is then transmitted by optic radiation to the visual cortex U, where the image is reconstructed
right side up I.
real object
iris pupil
Q
0
The pupil, which is the
opening at the center of the
iris, can dilate or contract
to adjust to the quantity of
light reaching it. crystalline lens
retina
W
0
E
0
optic nerve R
0
In the optic chiasm, some of the nerve
fibers from each eye cross over to the
opposite cerebral hemisphere. Each
hemisphere thus receives information
from both eyes. T
0
optic tract
The lateral geniculate body of Y

0
the thalamus is a cellular relay.
optic radiation
U
0
In the visual cortex, located in the

occipital lobes, the image of the real
object is reconstructed through a series
of complex mechanisms. reconstructed
I
0 image
63
The organ of hearing
Inside the ear
The five senses
From the delicate tinkling of a needle bouncing on a glass table to the deafening
roar of a plane taking off, our ears enable us to distinguish almost 400,000 sounds.
The organ responsible for hearing is not the visible external ear, but a group of
small, fragile internal structures housed in a bony cavity inside the head.
helix
THE THREE PARTS OF THE EAR

Our auditory system has three parts. The outer
ear is essentially composed of the auricle,
which captures sound vibration and directs it
to the auditory canal. The middle ear, bounded
by a fine membrane (the tympanum), contains
a group of three tiny bones only a few
millimeters long: the hammer, the anvil, and
the stirrup. This chamber is connected to the
nose and throat by a narrow passage,
the eustachian tube. Finally, the inner ear
contains the cochlea, a liquid-filled spiral,
and the cochlear nerve.
The auricle contains many cartilaginous

and cutaneous folds designed to capture
sounds.
The external auditory canal is lined

with hairs and covered with cerumen,
a waxy substance that traps dust.
The hairs of the auditory canal

play a protective role.
The earlobe, a fleshy extension of the

auricle, is not involved in hearing.
outer ear middle ear inner ear
64
THE AUDITORY CORTEX Wernicke’s area
Auditory messages, relayed by the auditory nerve, primary auditory cortex
end up in a zone of the cerebral cortex, the auditory
cortex, which has two areas. Specific sounds are
identified in the primary auditory cortex, while the
The five senses

secondary auditory cortex, which surrounds it,
provides a more diffuse representation of sounds
perceived. These areas are beside Wernicke’s area,
which is involved in language comprehension.
secondary auditory cortex
tympanum
The three semicircular canals

are responsible for balance.
vestibule
The vestibular nerve transmits

messages related to balance.
The cochlear nerve and the

vestibular nerve join in the
inner auditory canal to form
cranial nerve VIII.
The cochlear nerve carries the

nerve signals of hearing.
round window
temporal bone
The eustachian tube enables the pressure

on either side of the tympanum to be
equalized.
The cochlea, filled with liquid, is housed in a cavity of the

temporal bone. A system of membranous and bony partitions
hammer defines three canals that spiral around a central axis. One of
these canals contains the organ of Corti, which is the true
anvil hearing organ and is linked to the cochlear nerve.
stirrup
The ossicles of the middle ear (hammer, anvil, stirrup) are the
smallest bones in the human body. The stirrup is 4 mm long.
65
Perception of sound
The path of vibration through the ear
Our auditory system functions like a complex trap that routes sound vibrations
The five senses
through several successive elements: air in the outer ear, a solid in the middle ear,
and liquid in the inner ear. Only at the end of this series of transmissions does the
real receptor, the organ of Corti, detect the frequency and intensity of sounds.
FROM THE TYMPANUM TO THE COCHLEA

helicotrema
Sound, directed from the auricle through the external auditory
cochlear
canal, makes the tympanum vibrate Q. The ossicles W located tympanic canal
behind this membrane amplify the vibration and transmit it to the canal
entrance to the inner ear, the oval window E. The sound vibration
then travels through the vestibular canal of the cochlea R and
stimulates the organ of Corti. High-frequency sounds are felt at
the base of the spiral and low-frequency sounds at the apex. When
the vibrations arrive at the helicotrema T, they travel up the
tympanic canal and leave the cochlea via the round window Y. T
0
oval
window
ossicles W
0
tympanum Q
0 E
0
R
0
round window Y
0
eustachian tube vestibular canal
vestibular canal
INSIDE THE COCHLEA
cochlear nerve The cochlea is composed of three parallel spiral-shaped
canals filled with liquid. The cochlear canal is bounded by
membranes that separate it completely from the vestibular
tympanic and tympanic canals. These canals are connected by a
ramp
passage called the helicotrema, located at the top of
the cochlea.
Sound waves travel through the vestibular canal and
cause the basilar membrane, against which sits the
organ of Corti, to vibrate. The ciliated cells in the organ
of Corti transform the vibrations into nerve impulses,
which are transmitted to the cerebrum by the cochlear
cochlear
canal nerve. The sound waves leave the cochlea via the
organ of tympanic canal.
Corti
tympanic canal
The stiffness of the basilar membrane

varies from the base of the cochlea to
vestibular canal the apex.
Located between the basilar membrane and

tectorial the tectorial membrane, the hair cells of the
membrane organ of Corti react to the slightest change in
vestibular displacement by generating a nerve impulse.
cochlear
membrane canal
66
Balance
A sixth sense?
Our five senses inform us about our environment, but they do not tell us
The five senses

everything about the position of our body in relation to the space around us.
This information, however, is essential in order for us to keep our balance and to
move effectively. The organ responsible for this “sixth sense” is located in the
inner ear, where it sits beside the auditory organ.
DYNAMIC BALANCE
Three semicircular canals, corresponding to the
three dimensions of space, evaluate the position
of the head when it is in angular movement.
Each canal, filled with endolymph, ends in an superior
ampulla. This swelling contains hair cells whose semicircular canal
cilia are enveloped in a cone-shaped gelatinous
mass, the cupula.
endolymph
posterior
When the head semicircular canal
is still, the cupula
does not move. ampulla
cupula cupula
hair cell
When the head moves,

the cupula moves and
stimulates the hair cells,
which send a nerve
message via the
vestibular nerve. horizontal
semicircular canal
If the movement stops utricle

suddenly, the endolymph
continues to move for a
few moments, causing an
vestibular nerve
imbalance or dizziness.
saccule
STATIC BALANCE
Static balance, which evaluates the position of the head in gelatinous gelatinous
relation to the ground, is obtained through hair cells in the mass mass
utricle and the saccule, two membranous pockets in the inner
ear. The cilia of the hair cells Q are immersed in a gelatinous
mass that contains small particles, otoliths. When the head is
tilted, these particles are subjected to gravity and move the
W
0
gelatinous mass W. As they tilt, the cilia modify the nerve
impulses generated by the cells. This mechanism enables the Q
0
body to detect a variation of 0.5° in the tilt of the head.
otolith cilia
hair cell nerve fiber
67
Taste
A limited sense
The five senses
Food lovers may find it hard to believe, but the extent of our ability to taste is
limited to four basic flavors (sweet, salty, sour, and bitter), and its acuity
is very low. A chemical substance must be 25,000 times more concentrated to
be perceived by taste receptors than by smell receptors.
What we call the “flavor” of a food is often a combination of smell and
taste, perceived by the olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity and the
gustatory receptors in the tongue, palate, and oropharynx. To this
combination of sensations are added the tactile (consistency) and
thermal (temperature) sensations that inform us about the nature of
what we put in our mouths.
The palatine tonsils, located on either side of the posterior base of

the tongue, contribute to immune-system defense by imprisoning
bacteria that penetrate the organism through air or food passages.
The palatoglossal arch is a muscular fold

that links the tongue to the palate.
WHAT DOES SALIVA DO?

Sapid substances (substances that produce a taste)
must be in liquid form for the taste buds to react to
them. Saliva dissolves substances and allows taste to
be perceived. This liquid is produced by three pairs of
major salivary glands (the left and right parotids,
sublinguals, and submandibulars) and by numerous
minor salivary glands located in the mucosae of the
oral cavity. These glands are controlled by
sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves and function
reflexivly when stimulated by various receptors. Many
visual, psychological, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory
stimuli may cause a reflex flow of saliva.
nasal cavity
The palate is the partition between the
mouth and the nasal cavities. It is composed
of a bony part in the front (the vault, or hard
palate) and a musculo-membranous part in
the back (the velum, or soft palate).
tongue
parotid gland
sublingual gland
submandibular gland
The epiglottis is a cartilaginous
appendix that closes the entrance
to the larynx during swallowing.
The lingual tonsils, which sit behind the
The five senses

tongue, contribute to immune defense.
The palatopharyngeal arch joins

the palate to the epiglottis.
The glossopharyngeal
nerve is a mixed nerve
(cranial nerve IX), whose
sensory fibers innervate
the mucosa of the
pharynx and the back of
the lingual mucosa.
terminal sulcus
The back of the tongue has a clearly

visible line of 10 circumvallate papillae
that form a V-shaped row.
The corpus linguae (body of the

tongue) is composed mainly of muscles
covered with a mucosa. Thousands of
filiform papillae on its surface give it a
velvety texture.
fungiform papilla
THE TONGUE
The tongue is the main taste organ. The papillae
located on its surface allow us to perceive four
basic taste modalities (sweet, salty, sour, and
bitter), which when combined form many
nuances of flavor. Contrary to popular belief,
these basic taste modalities are not perceived
differently on different parts of the tongue. All
areas of the tongue, as long as they have taste
buds, can perceive all taste modalities. However,
the ability to perceive tastes is very uneven:
some sweet substances may have to be 10,000
times greater in concentration than a bitter
substance to be sensed with the same intensity.
69
Taste receptors
A chemical process
The five senses
The sense of taste uses a very large number of receptors, housed in the folds of
the taste papillae. Each individual has between 200,000 and 500,000 taste-
receptor cells spread over the top of the tongue, in the throat, on the insides of
the cheeks, on the back part of the palate, and on the epiglottis. These cells are
constantly being replaced, since they decline over about 10 days. With age, the
taste-receptor cells regenerate more slowly, which causes a diminution in the
sense of taste.
The filiform papillae, which are distributed
over almost the entire dorsal surface of the
tongue, have a mainly tactile function.
fungiform papilla
foliate papilla
taste bud nerve fiber

THE LINGUAL PAPILLAE
The top of the tongue has a bumpy surface due to protuberances called lingual papillae. These irregular
projections, some of which are also found on the palate and in the throat, have a number of different shapes,
though they are difficult to differentiate with the naked eye.
The largest papillae, the circumvallate papillae, form a wide V at the back of the tongue, with a groove on
either side. Smaller but more numerous are the fungiform papillae, which look like small red balls scattered
on the top of the tongue. The filiform papillae, which are conical in shape with a ridge at the top, are spread
over the entire top of the tongue. Finally, the foliate papillae are found on either side of the top of the
tongue, where they form series of parallel frond-like grooves. The taste buds are most numerous in the folds
of the circumvallate, much less so among the fungiform papillae.
70
THE TASTE BUDS
The epithelium (the top cellular layer), with its circumvallate and fungiform papillae, contains many gustatory
cells. Grouped into small buds with a maximum diameter of 0.05 mm, these cells have cilia, or microvilli, at
their tips, which protrude from the epithelium and are immersed in saliva. When the terminal ends of the
microvilli come into contact with molecules corresponding to one of the four basic taste modalities, a cascade
The five senses

of biochemical reactions takes place. The gustatory cells then generate a nerve message that is transmitted to
the cerebral cortex where it is interpreted as taste.
A taste bud contains 50 to
100 gustatory cells. gustatory cell
gustatory pore
The gustatory cells terminate

in tiny cilia, microvilli.
circumvallate papilla
epithelium connective tissue
Nerve fibers transmit the taste

message to the cerebrum.
The gustatory area

of the cortex is brain stem
located in the insula.
thalamus
U
0
Y
0
hypothalamus T
0
R
0
salivary gland The papillae are bordered by

a groove filled with saliva.
FROM THE TONGUE TO THE CEREBRUM Q

0 W
0 E
0
Three cranial nerves share transportation of taste sensations:
the lingual nerve, a branch of the facial nerve (VII) Q, the
glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) W, and the vagus nerve (X) E.
These three nerves converge in the brain stem R. After a
preliminary analysis, the nerve impulses are shared between the
hypothalamus T, which regulates appetite, and the thalamus Y,
where a second analysis is conducted. The signals ultimately
reach the cerebral cortex U, where the conscious perception
of tastes and flavors takes place.
71
Smell
A little-known sense
The five senses
Smell is perhaps the most mysterious sense. Its mechanisms are not yet
completely understood, and its organs, hidden within the nose, are usually
invisible. The olfactory epithelium, the cellular layer responsible for detection of
odors, covers an area of 5 cm2 to 10 cm2 of our nasal cavities and contains from
10 million to 100 million receptors.
Although the human sense of smell is not as highly developed as that of other
animals, an adult is able to distinguish more than 10,000 odors. This sensitivity,
which helps us defend ourselves against dangers (such as fire and natural
gas), also enables us to better appreciate the flavors of the foods
we eat.
gland of Bowman
Mucus produced by the glands of Bowman

humidifies the tiny cilia at the tips of the
olfactory cells and dissolves odoriferous
molecules to facilitate chemical reactions.
THE NASAL CAVITIES

The nasal cavities, which communicate with the outside
environment via the two nostrils, constitute the main entrance
for the respiratory system. During respiration, odoriferous
molecules contained in the inhaled air activate the olfactory
receptors of the two nasal cavities, which are separated from the
mouth by the palate but connected to it via the nasopharynx.
Odors from foods reach the olfactory epithelium by this route.
olfactory bulb The cells responsible for detection

of odors are found in a mucosa, the
olfactory epithelium, which covers
the upper part of the nasal cavities.
nasal cavity
The protruding part of the nose

is structured around bony and
cartilaginous elements.
nostril
palate Supporting cells, which form the

bulk of the olfactory epithelium, do
not have a sensory function.
nasopharynx
72
THE NERVE PATHS FOR SMELL
From the olfactory bulbs Q, nerve impulses travel to
the limbic system of the cerebrum, where they come
into contact with the zones assigned to emotions and R
0
E
0
memory, such as the mamillary bodies W. This explains
The five senses

Q
0 W
0
why a simple odor can instantaneously trigger very
strong emotional reactions, provoking a memory or
even influencing sexual behavior. Another part of
the olfactory nerve travels through the thalamus E
to the orbitofrontal cortex R, where a conscious
representation of the perceived odor is created.
olfactory bulb
Mitral cells relay the nerve impulse
to the cerebrum.
ethmoid bone
connective tissue
The axons of the olfactory cells

are grouped in bundles to cross
the ethmoid bone.
Basal cells constantly produce

new olfactory cells.
olfactory epithelium
olfactory cell
The mechanism that converts a

chemical stimulus into a nerve
impulse is located on the
surface of the olfactory cilia.
mucous layer
odoriferous molecule
THE SMELL RECEPTORS

The olfactory cells are neurons whose axons cross the ethmoid
bone and enter the olfactory bulb, where they form a synaptic
connection with interneurons called mitral cells. At their other
end is a dendrite with a dozen sensory cilia. The olfactory cells
are unique in that they are regenerated by the organism; this
occurs for no other neurons. Their life span is about two months.
73
Blood, propelled by regular contractions of the cardiac muscle, plays a
number of very important roles in the organism. As it flows through the vast network of veins,
arteries, and capillaries, it carries oxygen and nutritive elements that are indispensable to cells, and
it drains some waste matter, such as carbon dioxide. It also carries hormones and white blood cells to most parts
of the body.
Blood circulation
76 Blood
A means of transport and defense
78 The cardiovascular system

Two blood circuits
80 Arteries and veins

A closed circuit for irrigation
82 The heart
A tireless pump
84 The cardiac cycle

A remarkably regular rhythm
86 The lymphatic system

Drainage and cleansing of the body’s fluids
88 Immunity
How the body defends itself against infection
90 The endocrine system

Hormones: the body’s chemical messengers
92 The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland

The control centers of the endocrine system
94 The urinary system

How the kidneys filter the blood
Blood
A means of transport and defense
Blood circulation
Blood, which comprises 8% of our body weight, moves through a vast closed
network of arteries and veins. It infuses all the tissues of the body, provides them
with oxygen and nutritive substances, and removes their waste. Blood also carries
white blood cells and hormones.
THE COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

Blood is composed of cells and cell fragments floating in a watery
liquid called plasma. There are two types of blood cells: red blood
cells (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leucocytes). There are
relatively few white blood cells, and they take various forms:
plasma (54%) neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.
Finally, platelets are not true cells but fragments of giant cells.
white blood cells

and platelets (1%)
red blood cells

(45%)
blood vessel
Monocytes are the largest white blood

cells. The blood carries them to the
Plasma is a yellowish liquid tissues, to which they adhere.
that is 90% water. It also
contains proteins, vitamins, Blood platelets (or thrombocytes) are fragments
and other solutes. of megacaryocytes, giant blood cells in the bone
marrow. They have a very short life span (five to
10 days) and are involved in blood coagulation
and promoting the formation of scars.
fibrin red blood cell
COAGULATION
When a blood vessel is damaged, several mechanisms combine to
stop the hemorrhage. First, the platelets stick to each other to plug
small holes. Then the plasma produces a filamentous protein, fibrin,
which forms a net capable of holding red blood cells together to
make a scab.
76
THE FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS
Red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells such as neutrophils all come
from the same type of cell, hemocytoblasts, produced by the red bone marrow.
Lymphocytes and monocytes, which also come from hemocytoblasts, complete
their differentiation in the lymphoid tissues.
Blood circulation
The red bone marrow is located
in flat bones (skull, sternum) and
the epiphyses of long bones. platelet
red blood cell

Stem cells of the bone marrow,
hemocytoblasts, can be transformed
into several types of blood cells.
neutrophil
The neutrophils are white

blood cells that contribute to
The lymphocytes play several roles immune defense by ingesting
in the immune system. There are only bacteria.
red blood cell a small number of them in the blood.
A molecule of oxygen can unite

with an iron ion in a heme. RED BLOOD CELLS
Our bodies contain an average of 25 000 billion red blood cells
globin (or erythrocytes), cells with no nucleus that are capable of
stretching and deforming to pass through the narrowest blood
vessels. Each red blood cell contains about 250 million molecules
heme of hemoglobin, a substance formed of a protein (globin) and four
pigments (the hemes). Hemoglobin plays an essential role in gas
exchanges by transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide through
hemoglobin
molecule the blood. Each heme has an iron ion that oxidizes to give the
oxygenated blood its red color.
BLOOD GROUPS COMPATIBILITY OF

BLOOD GROUPS
Red blood cells carry antigens, substances that can be attacked
by antibodies, on their surface. Among the 100 known antigens, A
two are used to determine different blood types. Types A and B
designate the carriers of the antigens A and B, respectively, while B
donor
type AB designates carriers of both antigens. Finally, type O refers

to those that carry neither. AB
The plasma contains antibodies, which react to antigens that are
normally absent from our blood. In the event of a blood transfusion, O
it is therefore essential that the blood types of the donor and the A B AB O
receiver be compatible in order to prevent rejection. receiver
77
The cardiovascular
system
Two blood circuits
Blood circulation
The blood, continually propelled by the heart, flows through all blood vessels in
the body in one minute, via two distinct circuits: the pulmonary and systemic
bloodstreams. All of the blood vessels, the heart, and the blood constitute the
circulatory, or cardiovascular, system.
A HUGE CLOSED-CIRCUIT NETWORK
The blood vessels in the human body form a vast network with a total length of about 150,000 km.
Blood, pumped by the heart, constantly circulates through the arteries (vessels leading from the heart) and
veins (vessels leading to the heart). The arteries and veins branch off into smaller vessels (arterioles and
venules), which, in turn, branch further into tiny channels, the capillaries.
The internal jugular vein gathers

The carotid artery perfuses blood from the face, neck, and
the head and neck. sinuses of the brain.
axillary artery subclavian vein

aortic arch superior vena cava
pulmonary artery heart
brachial artery cephalic vein

internal thoracic The basilic vein and the
artery cephalic vein are the main
aorta superficial veins in the arm.
renal artery
radial artery inferior vena cava
The aorta divides into two renal vein

iliac arteries at hip level.
iliac vein
femoral vein
In the thigh, the iliac artery is
called the femoral artery. The long saphenous vein is
the longest vein in the body.
The popliteal artery is located popliteal vein

behind the knee joint.
tibial vein
tibial artery
Arteries are generally represented in red In the veins, on the other hand,
because oxygen makes the blood red by the blood is oxygen-poor. It thus
linking with the ferrous pigment of has a darker color, which is depicted
hemoglobin. as the color blue in diagrams.
78
THE TWO CARDIOVASCULAR CIRCUITS
The cardiovascular system is composed of two distinct circuits. The pulmonary bloodstream includes the
pulmonary arteries, veins, and capillaries. The right ventricle of the heart pumps blood to the lungs, where
the blood is oxygenated and the carbon dioxide it contains is removed.
The systemic bloodstream is composed of all the other blood vessels in the body, including the aorta and
Blood circulation
the vena cava. The blood is expelled from the left ventricle and circulates through all body tissues except
for the lungs.
superior vena cava

The pulmonary arteries are
the only arteries that carry The aorta is the main stem
oxygen-poor blood. of all the body’s arteries.
pulmonary In the lungs, the

capillaries blood is oxygenated
and its carbon
dioxide is removed.
The pulmonary veins return left ventricle

the blood oxygenated by the right
ventricle
lungs to the heart.
Oxygen-poor blood flows from Through the systemic capillaries, the

the lower body up to the heart blood supplies oxygen to the tissues
via the inferior vena cava. and takes away carbon dioxide.
When the body is at rest, the systemic

veins and venules contain more than
60% of all the body’s blood.
140
Q
carotid pulse
120
100
80
brachial pulse
E
60
radial pulse
40
W R
20 femoral pulse
0 popliteal pulse
BLOOD PRESSURE
Blood pressure (or tension) is the pressure that the blood
exerts on the walls of the blood vessels. It is measured in tibial pulse
millimeters of mercury. Blood pressure is irregular in the
heart Q, is very high in the arteries W, diminishes Each time the blood is expelled from the heart,
considerably when the blood reaches the capillaries E, it creates a wave, the pulse, perceptible in
and is even lower when it enters certain superficial arteries. The pulse rate varies
the venous system R. according to the amount of physical exertion.
79
Arteries and veins
A closed circuit for irrigation
The blood circulates throughout the human body except for certain very localized
Blood circulation
areas, such as the enamel of the teeth and the cornea of the eye. It moves
through two types of blood vessels, arteries and veins, which are distinguished
both by their anatomy and by their respective roles in the cardiovascular system.
THE ANATOMY OF BLOOD VESSELS

The walls of blood vessels, which must resist variations in blood pressure, are composed of three concentric
layers of tissue called tunicas. The tunica intima (inside layer), composed of the endothelium and a
basement membrane, defines the lumen, the channel within which blood circulates. It is covered by a layer
of smooth muscle and elastic fibers, which forms the tunica media (middle layer), and the tunica adventita
(outside layer), made mainly of collagen fibers.
basement membrane
valve
endothelium
adventice
The tunica media The wide lumen in veins enables

tunica intima contains many them to carry more blood.
elastic fibers.
The thickness of the smooth muscle of arteries The veins have a thinner wall and a wider lumen
enables them to contract to maintain arterial than do arteries. In the lower limbs, some veins
tension and facilitate circulation of blood from have valves that keep the blood from backflowing
the heart. due to gravity when the person is upright.
THE CAPILLARIES
Capillaries, which are formed of a thin layer of endothelial cells covered by a basement membrane, are
very small blood vessels: they measure only 0.3 to 1 mm in length and have a maximum diameter of
0.01 mm. The extreme thinness of their walls encourages exchanges between the blood and the space
around them. Through the capillaries, oxygen and nutritive elements are distributed to the tissues and
carbon dioxide, the product of cellular metabolic activity, is carried away.
basement The metarteriole runs

membrane straight across the capillary
endothelium network to intersect with
the venule.
venule
arteriole
A precapillary sphincter, made of The 30 billion capillaries contained in

muscle fibers, controls the blood the human body form vast networks.
flow at the entrance to a capillary.
80
CAPILLARY CIRCULATION
Blood flow in the capillary networks is based on the tissues’ need for oxygen. A muscle at rest requires less
blood than an active muscle. The precapillary sphincters control blood flow in the capillaries through a
process of contracting or relaxing.
Blood circulation
When the muscle is at rest Q, a series muscle at rest active muscle
of sphincters contract, cutting blood
flow in the capillaries.
Q
0 W
0
contracted sphincter
arteriole
When the precapillary sphincters are

relaxed, blood is free to irrigate the
capillary networks of an active
muscle W.
capillary network
relaxed sphincter
BLOOD CIRCULATION IN THE VEINS

open Blood pools in veins in the lower limbs because the
valve force of gravity creates pressure that distends the
elastic walls of the veins. Skeletal muscles that lie
near the veins facilitate blood circulation from the
lower extremities by contracting, compressing the
venous walls and forcing the valves located above
them to open to let blood flow toward the heart.
The valves located below the muscles keep the
blood from descending, since they can open only in
one direction. This mechanism is called the venous
pump or the muscular pump.
vein relaxed contracted closed

muscle muscle valve
THE SPEED OF BLOOD FLOW

The blood flows more slowly in capillaries than in larger vessels. This slowing makes it possible for exchanges
to occur between the blood and the tissues.
arteriole capillary venule

artery vein
aorta vena
cava
81
The heart
A tireless pump
In spite of its small size, the heart is the most active organ in the body. Its muscle
Blood circulation
fibers contract constantly to propel blood through the body, at an average rate
of 70 contractions per minute, for an entire lifetime. With its complex system
of chambers and valves, the heart is a formidable dynamo that pumps 2.5 million
liters of blood each year.
EXTERNAL SURFACE OF THE HEART

The heart is a small organ (10 to 12 cm in diameter and superior vena cava
weighing an average of 300 g) located in the ribcage,
between the lungs. Its surface is divided by clefts along right pulmonary
which run the coronary arteries and veins that are artery
responsible for blood perfusion of the cardiac muscle.
These clefts mark the boundaries between the atria and
the ventricles.
right atrium
left atrium
right pulmonary
veins
anterior
interventricular
artery
right atrium
left ventricle
anterior
interventricular
vein
tricuspid valve
right
ventricle
right coronary The myocardium contracts to expel
artery
blood. It is thicker around the
ventricles than around the atria.
A relatively inelastic fibrous covering, the pericardium

covers the heart and keeps it in position.
Pericardial fluid is a lubricant that reduces

the friction caused by cardiac pulses.
THE CARDIAC MUSCLE

The heart is composed essentially of the myocardium (or endocardium
cardiac muscle), which forms a thick wall of striated muscle
fibers. The endocardium, the interior surface of the epicardium
myocardium, is lined with a thin layer of cells which are
similar to those covering all blood vessels. The cardiac
muscle is covered with the epicardium, a thin membrane
that is the inside layer of the pericardium. inferior vena cava
82
FOUR CHAMBERS, FOUR VALVES
The aorta is the largest blood vessel The heart has two parts, separated by the septum, that do not
in the human body. Its diameter is communicate directly. Each part has two chambers: an atrium
between 2.5 and 3 cm. and a ventricle. The atrium is the chamber that receives blood
from the veins (venae cavae in the right atrium, pulmonary
Blood circulation
veins in the left atrium), while the larger ventricle expels blood
into the arteries (pulmonary trunk from the right ventricle,
aorta from the left ventricle).
All four chambers have valves designed to impede blood backflow
when the heart contracts. The atrioventricular valves (tricuspid
and mitral) are located between the atria and the ventricles,
and the semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic) are located at
the exits from the ventricles.
pulmonary trunk
left pulmonary
artery
left pulmonary
veins
left atrium
pulmonary valve
When the left ventricle
contracts, the mitral valve
is closed by blood pressure.
The aortic valve closes after blood

is expelled into the aorta.
chordae tendineae
left ventricle
Due to the chordae tendineae, the

papillary muscles keep the tricuspid
and mitral valves from being pushed
into the atria when the ventricles
contract.
The intraventricular septum

separates the two ventricles.
thoracic aorta right ventricle
83
The cardiac cycle
A remarkably regular rhythm
The contractions of the myocardium follow a regular cycle with three distinct
Blood circulation
phases. Each cycle is triggered by particular cells in the cardiac muscle that are
called autorythmic because they are capable of spontaneously generating and
propagating electrical impulses. These cardiac stimulators are essential, since
proper functioning of the cardiovascular system depends on the regularity and
coordination of the heart’s movements.
THE CARDIAC CYCLE

It takes about 0.8 seconds for a stream of 70 ml of blood to enter the heart, pass through it, and be
expelled into the arteries. This cycle includes a rest phase (diastole) and two contraction phases (systoles).
THE DIASTOLE
right A phase of muscular relaxation, the diastole
atrium is marked by generalized dilation. The blood
from the veins enters the atria, then, when the
atrioventricular valves open, it flows directly into
left the ventricles, which fill to 70% of their capacity.
atrium
When the heart is at rest, the atrioventricular

valves are open.
The semilunar valves are closed during diastole

and atrial systole.
ATRIAL SYSTOLE
When the atria contract, they expel the blood that
they contain, which fills the ventricles. This first
muscular contraction is called the atrial systole.
left ventricle
right ventricle
VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE
pulmonary Ventricular systole is the contraction of the
trunk ventricles. The atrioventricular valves close to keep
aorta the blood from flowing back to the atria, while the
semilunar valves open to let the blood flow into
the pulmonary trunk and aorta.
The contraction of the ventricles closes

the atrioventricular valves.
Blood pressure forces the semilunar valves

to open.
84
CARDIAC CONDUCTION
Although nervous or hormonal messages can change the cardiac rhythm, this rhythm is dictated essentially
by certain cells in the myocardium that have the capacity to depolarize spontaneously and to emit electrical
impulses 70 to 80 times per minute. This stimulation propagates throughout the entire myocardium and
triggers, in succession, contraction of the atria and the ventricles.
Blood circulation
The sinoatrial node Q, located in the wall of the right atrium, is where cardiac excitation begins. When its
cells depolarize (on average every 0.8 seconds), they create an electrical action potential. By propagating
rapidly from one cell to the next via the internodal tracts W, this impulse provokes contraction of the
atria. When it reaches the atrioventricular node E, the impulse passes through the bundle of His R (or
atrioventricular bundle), which is the only electrical conduit between the atria and the ventricles. The
impulse descends along the interventricular septum, reaches the apex of the heart, and then propagates
rapidly in the muscle mass of the ventricles via the Purkinje network T. The ventricles contract about
0.16 seconds after the atria contract.
left atrium
right atrium
The sinoatrial node is also known as

the pacemaker. Q
0
The internodal tracts propagate the

electrical impulses of the sinoatrial
node in the two atria. W
0 E
0
atrioventricular node R
0
The bundle of His, divided into two

branches, directs the impulse along
the septum to the apex.
T
0
Large muscle fibers in the outer walls

of the myocardium, the Purkinje
network, propagate the impulse
throughout the ventricular wall.
ventricles
interventricular septum apex
THE ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
The electrocardiograph is an apparatus that uses sensors placed on the skin to measure the intensity of
electrical currents resulting from depolarization of the heart’s muscular fibers. The graph of the results, an
electrocardiogram, shows the deflections (deflections P, Q, R, S, and T) that correspond to the different
phases of the cardiac cycle.
1 mV The P deflection indicates
R deflection atrial depolarization, which
leads to contraction of the
0.5
T deflection atria. It is followed by the QRS
P deflection sequence, corresponding to
depolarization of the ventricles.
0 The T deflection represents
Q deflection ventricular repolarization,
S deflection which occurs immediately after
-0.5 contraction of the ventricles.
0 0.4 0.8 s
85
The lymphatic system
Drainage and cleansing of the body’s fluids
The lymphatic system is closely connected to the cardiovascular system. Plasma
Blood circulation
constantly leaks out of the blood capillaries and accumulates in the tissues, where
it forms interstitial liquid. Through its network of vessels, the lymphatic system
drains this liquid (called lymph at this stage), thus keeping the tissues from
swelling. Infectious agents are removed in the lymph nodes, and then the lymph
is reintroduced into the cardiovascular system. Other organs, such as the spleen,
thymus, and tonsils, play a role similar to that of the lymph nodes, although they
do not process lymph directly.
DRAINAGE OF LYMPH
The lymphatic system consists of a one-way network that collects about three liters of lymph per day from
the body’s various tissues. The lymph is evacuated by the lymph capillaries, passes through the nodes to
be filtered, then flows into two main canals: the right lymphatic duct, which drains the right upper quarter
of the body, and the thoracic duct, which receives lymph from the rest of the organism. These two vessels
join, then open into the subclavian vein, through which the lymph is sent into the cardiovascular system.
tissue cells
blood capillaries
A system of valves prevents

backflow of the lymph.
lymph capillaries
LYMPHATIC VESSELS
The lymphatic vessels run alongside the blood
vessels throughout the body, except along the
central nervous system and in the top layer of
the skin. Lymph capillaries are formed of an
extremely thin, permeable membrane that
enables interstitial liquid to penetrate by
The endothelial cells of the lymph simple pressure. The bacteria that it contains
capillaries are very thin and permeable are evacuated and then destroyed by white
to interstitial liquid. blood cells.
86
The tonsils, located on the palate, the pharynx, and the back of
the tongue, protect against bacterial infections of the throat.
cervical nodes
Blood circulation
right lymphatic duct
The thymus, composed of lymphoid tissue, is where
certain lymphocytes are differentiated.
axillary nodes
thoracic duct
THE SPLEEN: A FILTER

The spleen, located behind the stomach, has two types of
tissues: red pulp, which has abundant red blood cells, and
white pulp, which forms small masses of lymphocytes along
the arteries. Aside from its role in immune defense, the
spleen filters the blood by destroying old red blood cells.
It also constitutes a large blood reservoir.
red pulp
white pulp
intestinal
nodes
splenic artery
inguinal nodes splenic vein
THE LYMPH NODES

After being drained by the lymphatic vessels, lymph flows
through the lymph nodes, specialized organs containing a great
quantity of white blood cells (lymphocytes and macrophages),
which filter and clean it. A large number of these small (1 to
25 mm diameter) organs are arranged in bunches along the
vessels, mainly in the underarms (axillary nodes), in the neck
(cervical nodes), in the groin (inguinal nodes), and in the
intestines (intestinal nodes).
capsule
The germinal centers
contain B lymphocytes.
efferent lymphatic
vessel
The capsule extends into the node in

afferent lymphatic vessel fibrous trabeculae.
87
Immunity
How the body defends itself against infection
Blood circulation
To protect itself against foreign bodies, the body has a number of complementary
defense modes. The epidermis, which functions as a physical barrier, is seconded by
tears, sebum, saliva, and gastric juices, which contain chemical defenses (acids,
enzymes, etc.). If a pathogen manages to break through this first line of defense,
the body responds to the assault with an inflammatory reaction or a specific
immune response. In both cases, white blood cells play a major role, reaching the
infected region of the body through the blood and lymphatic vessels and destroying
the foreign bodies and affected cells.
THE INFLAMMATORY REACTION

histamine
When pathogens (bacteria, viruses, parasites, etc.) are
Q
0 attacked cell introduced into the body, the injured region reacts with
a group of nonspecific mechanisms that are called the
pathogen
inflammatory reaction.
When a cell is attacked Q, a chain of chemical reactions
take place that result in a release of substances, such as
histamine, that increase the diameter and permeability of
blood nearby blood vessels, causing the redness, heat, and swelling
capillary characteristic of an inflammation. These substances also
attract white blood cells to the infection site by a mechanism
W
0 neutrophil called chemotaxis. Neutrophils W are the first to appear:
in less than one hour, they cross through the walls of
the blood capillaries and begin to destroy pathogens by
phagocytosis E. They are joined by monocytes, which are
transformed into macrophages R. These large cells continue
with the destruction of the intruders, and they also
E
0 phagocytosis destroy infected cells and dead neutrophils.
When there is chronic inflammation, the dead white blood
cells and debris of microbes form a yellowish liquid, pus,
R
0 which accumulates in the wound. If the pus is not
macrophage
eliminated quickly, it can form an abscess, which makes
its dispersion more difficult.
dead
neutrophil
PHAGOCYTOSIS
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes are phagocytic cells – white blood cells capable of engulfing and
digesting other cells. Phagocytosis takes place in several steps. The phagocytic cell contacts a pathogen with
its pseudopods Q. The foreign body is pulled toward the cell membrane of the phagocyte, which surrounds and
engulfs it W. Lysosomes adhere to the vesicle in which the prey is enclosed E, which allows enzymes to
destroy it R. Residues may be used by the phagocytic cell or ejected to the outside.
phagocytic lysosome
cell
pseudopod vesicle
pathogen
Q W E R
88
SPECIFIC IMMUNE RESPONSES
The inflammatory reaction is not adapted to a particular type of assault. It is therefore sometimes insufficient
and must be complemented by specific immune responses: the cellular immune response and the humoral
immune response.
Blood circulation
THE CELLULAR IMMUNE RESPONSE
Pathogens Q that enter the body are attacked by macrophages W. Unlike neutrophils, macrophages do not
completely digest the cells that they phagocytose, but decompose them into fragments of proteins that
they incorporate into their membrane. All T lymphocytes with a receptor specific to this antigen react by
becoming active and multiplying. Auxiliary T lymphocytes E secrete cytokines, substances that stimulate
the immune response. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes R move to the site of the infection, where they attack the
cells infected by the pathogen T.
auxiliary T
lymphocyte
T lymphocytes that recognize the
antigen multiply. E
0
After a pathogen is
phagocytosed, its antigen
adheres to the membrane of
the macrophage. W
0
Pathogens are composed of Q

0
antigens, proteins foreign
to the body.
infected cell
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes T
0
destroy infected cells by
The cytokines activate
piercing their membranes. R
0 cytotoxic T lymphocytes.
THE HUMORAL IMMUNE RESPONSE

In the presence of an antigen, B lymphocytes also multiply, and they differentiate into plasmocytes Q, cells
capable of secreting antibodies. The antibodies W act in different ways against pathogens. Some cause
microbes to clump and be destroyed by phagocytic cells E. Others attach to the antigen and attract the
complement R, a group of proteins. The complement proteins pierce the cell membrane of the pathogen and
make it explode T.
During the immune reaction, some T and B lymphocytes differentiate into memory cells, long-lived cells that
retain a memory of the antigen that activated them. Their presence in the body greatly accelerates the immune
response if there is a new infection by the same pathogen.
complement
Each plasmocyte secretes
2,000 antibodies per second. Q
0
R
0
antibody W
0
A phagocytic cell can digest pathogen

many pathogens before dying. E
0 T
0
The endocrine system
Hormones: the body’s chemical messengers
The human body secretes and circulates some 50 different hormones. A wide variety
Blood circulation
of these chemical substances are produced by endocrine cells, most of which are in
glands. The hormones then enter the blood system to circulate throughout the body
and activate target cells. The endocrine system, tightly linked to the nervous
system, controls a large number of the body’s functions: metabolism, homeostasis,
growth, sexual activity, and contraction of the smooth and cardiac muscles.
THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS

The endocrine system is composed of nine specialized glands (the pituitary, the thyroid, the four parathyroids, the
two adrenals, and the thymus) and a number of organs capable of producing hormones (including the pancreas,
heart, kidneys, ovaries, testicles, and intestines). The hypothalamus, which is not a gland but a nerve center, also
plays a major role in the synthesis and release of hormonal factors.
Unlike substances produced by the exocrine glands, which flow through ducts, the hormones are released directly
into the space surrounding the secreting cells. The very high vascularization of endocrine glands enables hormones
to spread throughout the blood system via the capillaries. Some of them circulate freely in the blood, while others
must attach to carrier proteins to reach the target cells.
hypothalamus
Generally considered the master endocrine gland,
the pituitary secretes 10 different hormones.
Some of these substances then act on the other
endocrine glands.
The adrenal glands, located above each kidney, are

composed of two distinct parts. The adrenal cortex
secretes cortical hormones such as aldosterone and thyroid gland
cortisol, as well as the male and female sex hormones
(androgens and estrogens). The adrenal medulla produces
mainly adrenaline and noradrenaline, the hormones that thymus
are involved in the body’s response to fearful stimuli.
adrenal glands
adrenal
medulla adrenal cortex
Above each kidney is
an adrenal gland.
pancreas
kidney
90
THE THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland, consisting of two lobes, one on either side of the larynx, is activated
by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted by the pituitary gland. The thyroid
hormones, commonly called T3 and T4, are made from iodide of blood. Their main task
is to regulate growth and metabolism.
Blood circulation
Thyroid hormones are stored
in tiny sacs, the thyroid
follicles.
trachea Located behind the thyroid gland,

thyroid gland the parathyroid glands produce
parathormone, which controls the
calcium level in the body.
THE PANCREAS
The pancreas, which plays an important role in digestion by producing enzymes, is also part of the
endocrine system. Groups of cells called islets of Langerhans secrete four different hormones, the most
important of which are glucagon and insulin, which regulate the glycemic level in the body.
The islets of Langerhans

are the seat of endocrine
activity in the pancreas.
The acini are groups of cells

pancreas responsible for exocrine production
of pancreatic enzymes.
HOW HORMONES WORK

When a hormone diffuses outside of a capillary, it can act on a target cell – a cell with receptors that
correspond to it. There are two types of hormonal activity. A steroid hormone Q is capable of crossing
through the cell membrane of the target cell. It unites with a receptor protein located inside the nucleus,
which stimulates or blocks the cell’s genetic activity. A proteinic hormone W, on the other hand, cannot
penetrate the target cell. It attaches to the cell’s membrane and activates a receptor that releases, in turn,
a messenger within the cell.
Each target cell has between 5,000 and 100,000 hormone receptors
on its surface. Their number may be reduced or increased to adapt to
the quantity of hormones in the blood.
Hormones belong to different classes of chemical target cell

products: steroids (testosterone), proteins (insulin),
polypeptides (parathormone), derivatives of amino acids
(adrenaline), and eicosanoids (prostaglandin).
target cell
proteinic
nucleus hormone
W
0
capillary
steroid Q
0
hormone
91
The hypothalamus
and the pituitary gland
The control centers of the endocrine system
Blood circulation
Because it controls the activity of a number of other glands, the pituitary gland is
often considered the main gland of the endocrine system. However, it is
controlled by the hypothalamus, a nerve center involved in the regulation of many
vital functions. Between them, the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland produce
one third of all the hormones in the body and influence actions ranging from
lactation and urine retention to skin pigmentation and bone growth.
THE HYPOTHALAMUS
Located under the thalamus, the hypothalamus is composed of several
nuclei that control the autonomic nervous system and regulate hunger,
thirst, body temperature, and sleep. The hypothalamus also influences
sexual behavior and controls the emotions of anger and fear. Closely
linked to the pituitary gland, it acts as a coordinator between the
nervous and endocrine systems.
THE PITUITARY GLAND

A small mass, about 1.3 cm in diameter,
the pituitary gland is located in a cavity in
sphenoid
bone the sphenoid bone, the sella turcica. It is
composed of two very different structures:
The hypothalamus the neurohypophysis, which contains the axonal
contains a dozen extensions of the secreting neurons of the
nervous nuclei. hypothalamus, and the adenohypophysis,
which is composed only of endocrine cells.
pituitary gland
neurohypophysis adenohypophysis
ACTIVITY OF THE THYROID GLAND: AN EXAMPLE OF HORMONAL FEEDBACK CONTROL

The production of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland is regulated by a chain of hormonal stimulation.
First, the hypothalamus Q secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which travels through the
capillary network to stimulate the adenohypophysis W. This body reacts by releasing thyrotropin (or TSH),
which, in turn, activates the thyroid gland E, thus provoking production of thyroid hormones.
This mechanism is controlled by a feedback system. If the nerve receptors detect signs of too high a
concentration of thyroid hormone in the body, production of TRH by the hypothalamus is inhibited.
Receiving less stimulation, the pituitary gland reduces its secretion of thyrotropin, which affects the
activity of the thyroid gland. This is called negative feedback. In contrast, if there is not enough of a
hormone in the body, feedback to the hypothalamus stops, and it then releases TRH.
hypothalamus 0
Q
adenohypophysis W
0
feedback
thyroid gland E
0
92
ADENOHYPOPHYSIC HORMONES
Controlled by the hypothalamus via a capillary network,
nervous nucleus the adenohypophysis secretes six different hormones:
melanocyte-stimulating hormone, thyrotropin, prolactin,
The axons of the secreting
corticotropin, growth hormone, and gonadotropin.
Blood circulation
neurons of the hypothalamus
route hormones (vasopressin
and ocytocin) to the
neurohypophysis.
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
governs the synthesis of melanin,
the pigment that colors the skin.
NEUROHYPOPHYSIC Thyrotropin governs the

secretion of hormones by the
HORMONES
thyroid gland.
The secreting cells of the
hypothalamus synthesize
and secrete two hormones:
vasopressin and oxytocin, which
are released into the blood
system by the neurohypophysis.
Prolactin triggers and

controls the synthesis of milk
by the mammary glands.
neurohypophysis adenohypophysis
Vasopressin orders the kidneys The activity of the adrenal

to reduce the quantity of urine cortexes (especially production
excreted, provokes constriction of cortisol, which regulates
of arterioles, and reduces the storage of glucose) is
perspiration. stimulated by corticotropin.
Growth hormone is the main

pituitary hormone. This protein
stimulates general body growth
and affects the metabolism.
Follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing

Oxytocin provokes uterine contractions hormone are gonadotropins. They act on the
during childbirth and triggers the release ovaries and testicles, in particular triggering
of milk by the breast in reaction to a production of ova and spermatozoa and the
stimulus: sucking on the nipples. secretion of estrogen and testosterone.
93
The urinary system
How the kidneys filter the blood
Water, which forms 60% of the weight of the human body, circulates mainly via
Blood circulation
the blood, carrying nutritive elements and waste. The urinary system allows the
body’s volume of water to be controlled and certain substances to be eliminated
through the urine. The kidneys function as filters by extracting waste from the
blood without depriving it of nutritive elements. The urine produced is stored in
the bladder, then evacuated via the urethra. To compensate for this loss of liquid,
an adult must ingest two liters of water per day.
THE ORGANS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

Located on either side of the aorta and the inferior
vena cava, the kidneys are supplied by the renal
aorta arteries. They filter the blood and produce urine,
which is transported to the bladder by two ureters.
renal artery The urethra, which carries urine out of the bladder, is
longer in men than in women.
kidney
vena cava
ureter
bladder
bladder
The woman’s urethra
opens to the exterior
above the vaginal
opening. In men, the urethra passes
through the penis.
THE BLADDER
Before being eliminated, urine is temporarily stored in
ureter the bladder. This sac, made of muscle tissue, is spherical
in shape when it is full and flat when it is empty.
openings of ureters The bladder can hold up to an average of 500 ml, but
the micturition (urine evacuation) reflex appears when
the bladder contains 200 to 400 ml of urine. The
detrusor detrusor urinae muscle contracts, while the internal
urinae sphincter relaxes, which leads to evacuation of urine
via the urethra. The external urethral sphincter,
voluntarily controlled, allows micturition to be blocked.
mucosa
urethra
empty bladder full bladder

94
renal capsule cortex
medulla renal
THE KIDNEYS artery
Small bean-shaped organs with an average renal
Blood circulation
length of 11 cm, the kidneys are enclosed in vein
a fibrous capsule and surrounded by adipose
tissue. They are composed of an outside layer,
the cortex, and an internal area, the medulla,
in which there are conical structures called
pyramids. The pyramids are formed of many renal ureter
tubules that converge to form collecting ducts
that empty into the small and large calyces.
The calyces receive the urine produced by the
nephrons (functional units located in both
the cortex and the medulla) and drain into the
renal pelvis, a cavity that leads to the ureter.
pyramid
small calyx
The glomerulus is formed of a large calyx renal pelvis

mass of capillaries folded inward
in Bowman’s capsule.
afferent arteriole
Q
0
Bowman’s
capsule
The renal tubule descends

into the medulla, where it
W
0 R
0 efferent arteriole forms the loop of Henle.
filtrate E
0
T
0 Y
0
peritubular
capillaries
renal tubule U
0
Ducts of Bellini collect the urine Urine is 90% water, but it

made in many renal tubules. also contains urea, creatinine,
uric acid, and ions.
NEPHRONS: FROM BLOOD TO URINE

Each kidney contains about 1 million nephrons, units that filter the blood and produce urine. Blood enters
the nephrons via an afferent arteriole Q, which subdivides into numerous capillaries to form a glomerulus W,
a small sphere enveloped in a Bowman’s capsule. Some of the constituent elements of blood (water, mineral
salts, glucose) pass through the walls of the capillaries and form a liquid called filtrate E. The capillaries
come together again in an efferent arteriole R, which leaves the glomerulus. The filtrate enters a renal
tubule T, which winds through the cortex and the medulla, exchanging substances with peritubular
capillaries Y. These exchanges enable the blood to re-absorb some useful products. It is estimated that out
of 180 liters of filtrate produced every day, about 179 liters are re-absorbed. What remains of the filtrate
becomes urine U, which is drained toward the calyces via the ducts of Bellini.
95
Like all living organisms, the human body needs certain products to survive and develop.
Two major systems supply it with the elements needed by its metabolism: the respiratory system
and the digestive system. Respiration puts the oxygen in the air in contact with the blood, while
digestion is a process for assimilation of nutritive substances.
Respiration and nutrition
98 The respiratory system
Oxygenating the body
100 Respiration
Exchanges between air and blood
102 Speech
Vibration, resonance, and articulation
104 The digestive system

How foods are transformed and absorbed
106 The teeth

The first step in digestion
108 The stomach

A pouch with an acid environment
109 The intestines

A succession of tubes
110 The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder

Biochemical laboratories
The respiratory system
Oxygenating the body
Because the cells in the human body cannot be deprived of oxygen, the organism
must constantly be oxygenated through respiration. This generally involuntary

function, governed by specialized neurons of the brain stem, consists of bringing air
from outside the body to the depths of the lungs via the branching network of the
lower airway system. These innumerable ramifications constitute most of the mass
of the lungs, which are the main organs of respiration.
THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION

The respiratory system is composed of a series of passages designed to transport air from outside the body to
the alveoli of the lungs, where gas exchanges occur. The upper airway is composed of the nasal cavities and
the pharynx. The lower airway is composed of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
middle nasal superior nasal

concha concha
orbit The nasal cavities, separated by the nasal septum, meet in
the pharynx, at the back of the nose. The conchae, bony folds
covered with mucus, guide the air along canals (or meatuses)
where dust is trapped.
maxillary sinus
inferior nasal concha
nasal septum hard palate
The pharynx (or throat) connects the nasal

cavities, the mouth, and the larynx.
larynx
The downward extension of the larynx, the
trachea consists of a tube about 12 cm long esophagus
and 1.5 cm wide that divides to form the
two bronchia. A series of 15 to 20 horseshoe-
shaped pieces of cartilage protect the front
of the trachea, while a muscle separates the
back of the trachea from the esophagus.
The right lung has three lobes, while the
left lung, on the same side of the chest
as the heart, has only two lobes.
left lung
heart
The diaphragm is a musculo-

tendinous partition that separates
the thorax from the abdomen.
98
THE LUNGS
The trachea divides into two main bronchi that lead to the two lungs. These channels, in their turn,
subdivide into secondary bronchi that lead to the lobes, then into tertiary bronchi, which ramify into
narrower, even more numerous bronchioles. This arborescent structure is the bronchial tree.

The inside of the trachea, like the rest of the bronchial tree,
is covered with a ciliated mucosa that directs impurities to
the outside. At the carina, the trachea divides into the left
and right main bronchi.
cilia
left main bronchus
upper lobe
carina
right main
bronchus
secondary
bronchus
tertiary
bronchus
Each lung has about

250,000 bronchioles. lower lobe
The lung is enveloped in a double membrane, the

pleura. The space between the two layers is filled
with a lubricating liquid, the pleural fluid.
99
Respiration
Exchanges between air and blood
The diaphragm and the intercostal muscles work together to cause inspiration,
which brings air deep into the lungs. No muscle work is needed for expiration, which
expels the carbon dioxide produced by the cells. At the ends of the bronchial tree
are tiny cavities, the pulmonary alveoli, which are in close contact with the blood
capillaries. There are so many alveoli that their total area is more than 100 m2. It is
along this surface that gas exchanges between air and blood take place.
INSPIRATION AND EXPIRATION

The coordinated activity of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles inflates the lungs. During the
inspiration phase, the diaphragm Q and the intercostal muscles W contract. Their contraction enlarges
the ribcage and increases the volume of the lungs E. The difference in pressure draws air in through the
trachea R. Expiration, on the other hand, is an essentially passive phenomenon, due to the elasticity of
the ribcage as the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax.
trachea R
0
W
0 intercostal
muscles
lung E
0
Q
0 diaphragm
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
The sinuses are facial bony cavities that heat the

inhaled air and contribute to vocal resonance.
nasal cavity
nostril
THE ROLE OF THE NOSE IN RESPIRATION

Inhaled air enters the body through the nostrils and crosses the
nasal cavities to the pharynx. As it passes, the air is filtered by
the hairs in the nose, which hold back the largest dust particles.
The mucus that lines the nasal cavities also traps undesirable
particles and helps to humidify the air. Finally, tiny blood vessels
heat cold air before it reaches the lungs.
inhaled air
exhaled air
oxygenated blood

oxygen-poor
blood
The respiratory bronchioles Q

0
are the terminal channels of
the bronchial tree.
Individuals have an estimated W

0
600 million alveoli, which give
the lungs their spongy consistency.
alveolar atrium
oxygen molecule
The blood capillaries coil E
0
around the alveolar masses.
carbon dioxide
GAS EXCHANGES OF RESPIRATION molecule
At the end of the respiratory bronchioles Q, the inhaled air
reaches the alveoli W, small cavities grouped in bunches around
alveolus
an alveolar atrium. The alveoli are wrapped in a dense network of T
0
R
0
blood capillaries E. The respiratory membrane R that separates an
alveolus from the capillaries that surround it is extremely thin and
permeable, allowing for gas exchanges between the blood and the respiratory
air. During inspiration, oxygen molecules pass from the air to the membrane
blood, while carbon dioxide molecules transported by the red blood capillary
cells T pass through the membranes in the opposite direction to
be evacuated during expiration. red blood cell
throat
COUGHING AND SNEEZING
diaphragm nasal cavity When particles obstruct the airways, special
respiratory actions are spontaneously
triggered to expel them. Coughing frees
the bronchia, trachea, and throat, while
sneezing produces a powerful current of
air in the nasal cavity. It is estimated that
air is expelled at a speed of 150 km/h!
COUGH SNEEZE
101
Speech
Vibration, resonance, and articulation
To express themselves, humans are capable of producing a great many different

speech sounds (the phonetic elements of a language), which are formed into
words. This ability is the result of a complex interaction between many parts of
the body, including the brain, the lungs, the larynx, the pharynx, and a collection
of mobile articulators: the tongue, lips, lower jaw, and soft palate (or velum). The
lungs and larynx provide the sound source, which is shaped by the upper airway
known as the vocal tract.
THE PROCESS OF SPEAKING
If the vocal folds are close together, pressure
supplied by the exhaled air sets them into
soft palate nasal cavities vibration to produce a tone. This is called
phonation. The size and shape of the cavities
of the vocal tract (pharynx, nose, and mouth),
oral cavity determined by the positions of the mobile
articulators, amplify certain frequencies of the
tone. This resonance produces a complex sound
that is unique for each phonetic element of the
language.
Attached to the mandible by muscles

and tendons, the hyoid bone supports
the larynx.
The epiglottis is a cartilaginous flap
lips that covers the larynx during swallowing
pharyngeal to keep food from entering the lungs.
cavity teeth
vocal folds
tongue
larynx thyrohyoid
membrane
THE LARYNX
The larynx, situated on top of the trachea, opens into
the pharynx and is considered part of the upper airway. thyroid
It is composed of cartilages linked by ligaments and cartilage
muscles and completely covered by mucous membrane.
The largest of these cartilages, the thyroid, forms a
visible bump in the neck in men, the Adam’s apple.
Within the thyroid cartilage are the vocal folds.
cricoid cartilage
trachea
102
epiglottis THE VOCAL FOLDS
The vocal folds are long, smooth, rounded bands of muscle tissue
that can be lengthened or shortened, tensed or relaxed, and
separated or approximated. They are attached to the thyroid
cartilage in the front and to the arytenoid cartilages in the back.

Activation of the various intrinsic muscles, also attached to the
vocal folds arytenoid cartilages, causes the vocal folds to open wide during
respiration or to close, tense, and stretch during phonation. For
sound to be produced when exhaled air passes through the vocal
folds, their edges must be more or less closed: the amount of
closing affects voice quality.
thyroid cartilage
In general, men’s vocal folds
are longer and have greater
mass than women’s, which is
arytenoid cartilage why men have a lower voice.
The posterior cricoarytenoid muscle

causes the vocal folds to separate.
The glottis is the space
The lateral cricoarytenoid muscle causes between the vocal cords.
the vocal folds to meet in the midline.
The cricothyroid muscle stretches

the vocal folds, resulting in a rise
in the pitch of the voice. epiglottis
Phonation Q requires the vocal folds to be closely

approximated. The tension of the intrinsic muscles,
along with the pressure applied from the lungs,
determines the quality of the sound that is produced. On
the other hand, no sound is produced when the glottis is
wide open W and the larynx is used solely for breathing. Q
0 W
0
ARTICULATION OF CONSONANTS AND VOWELS

A large number of muscles act to position the tongue, lips, jaw, and soft palate in various combinations to
articulate different consonant or vowel sounds.
Many consonants result from the presence of obstructions to the air flow by the tongue and lips with teeth
and hard palate. Occlusive consonants (p, t, k) are produced by the complete obstruction and then sudden
release of the air flow, while fricative consonants (f, th, s, sh) are produced with an incomplete obstruction,
resulting in noise-like sounds. For both of these categories, sounds are also produced while the vocal folds
are vibrating, resulting in voiced consonants (b, d, g, v, z, j).
p t f s g
Articulation of vowels involves no major obstacles to

nasal resonator the passage of sounds from the larynx to the mouth opening.
Therefore, resonance is what differentiates these sounds. The
size and shape of the vocal tract, the degree of lip rounding,
and the degree of muscular tension are the most important
factors affecting vowel articulation. Changes in oral, labial,
oral and nasal cavities also contribute to vowel articulation. In
resonator some languages, such as French, the nasal resonator is involved
in articulation of nasal vowels, when the velum of the soft
labial palate moves to let some air pass through, adding a nasal
resonator quality to the sound.
103
The digestive system
How foods are transformed and absorbed
The energy that the human body needs to function is supplied by food. Working
together, the 10 organs that form the digestive system decompose food, absorb its
nutrients, and eliminate the waste. The series of conduits and pouches through
which food travels before being evacuated in the form of fecal matter is called the
digestive tract. This nine-meter-long tract starts at the mouth and continues, in
order, through the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
and anus.
Some related organs contribute to digestion although they are not part
of the digestive tract. The teeth and tongue help to transform food
into alimentary boluses. The salivary glands, liver, pancreas, and
gallbladder produce or store digestive substances (including
enzymes) and release them into the digestive tract.
THE PATH THAT FOOD TAKES

The food that we eat begins to be transformed in the mouth, where it is ground up
by the teeth, compacted by the tongue, and moistened by the saliva. Amylase, a
digestive enzyme contained in the saliva, begins to transform sugars. In less than
one minute, the mouthful has become an alimentary bolus Q – a soft, moist ball.
Swallowing requires perfect coordination of the muscles of the mouth and pharynx.
The alimentary bolus is pushed by the tongue to the back of the mouth, where it
enters the pharynx. The tongue is raised toward the velum of the palate, which
obstructs the nasal cavity and keeps the bolus from entering it. As it slides into the
pharynx W, the alimentary bolus pushes the epiglottis down, closing the entrance to
the trachea. The pharynx and tongue combine to propel the alimentary bolus down
the esophagus.
gallbladder
alimentary bolus velum of the palate
nasal cavity
Q
0 tongue
W
0
pharynx
epiglottis
trachea
esophagus
104
Once swallowed, the alimentary bolus descends the
esophagus E in a few seconds. It enters the stomach R,

where it is mixed with gastric juices containing enzymes
that begin to decompose the sugars and proteins. This
step, which lasts two to four hours, transforms the
alimentary bolus into chyme.
tongue Most of the digestion and absorption occurs in the small
teeth intestine T, where the chyme remains for one to four
hours. Bile and pancreatic juices completely decompose
the food, and its nutrients are absorbed by the
Three pairs of salivary intestinal mucosa. In the large intestine Y, where
glands produce saliva. some of the water and ions are absorbed, the waste is
transformed into fecal matter, then stored for at least 10
hours before being evacuated via the anus U.
E
0 The esophagus, a tube about 25 cm long, propels
the alimentary bolus to the stomach with a series of
involuntary muscular contractions called peristalsis.
The liver is the largest organ in the human body

except for the skin. It contributes to digestion by
producing a number of substances.
R
0 The stomach can contain up to four liters of food.
The pancreas controls the sugar level in the body

and releases digestive substances.
T
0 The small intestine looks like a folded inner tube.
It is between 4 and 7 meters long.
Y
0 The chyme is transformed into fecal matter
in the large intestine.
rectum
U
0 The sphincters that surround the anus relax
to permit defecation.
105
The teeth
The first step in digestion
Before being decomposed by gastric and intestinal juices, food undergoes a
physical transformation in the mouth. The teeth, numbering 20 in children and 32

in adults, play a crucial role, as they fragment food and transform it into a
lubricated alimentary bolus for swallowing. Mastication (or chewing) is thus the
first step in preparing food for digestion.
TYPES OF TEETH
Thirty-two teeth in total make up the adult human dentition, 16 in the upper jaw and 16 in the lower jaw.
There are four tooth types (incisors, canines, premolars, and molars), which all have differently shaped
crowns and roots. Each crown shape plays a different role in mastication.
upper jaw
crown
root
The eight incisors have sharp edges All four canines have a single,
that enable them to cut foods. long root. Their pointy crowns are
They are either central or lateral used to grip and rip food.
in position.
occlusal surface
The eight premolars replace the Twelve molars erupt into the bony
deciduous molars. They have an arches of the growing jaws. They have
occlusal surface that can grind two or three roots and a broad occlusal
foods. lower jaw surface.
Q DEVELOPMENT OF THE DENTITION

The formation of teeth, which begins when the fetus is only a few
permanent molar
weeks old, continues until adulthood. At birth Q, the teeth are
not visible, but the jawbones contain tooth buds that develop, grow,
temporary and finally pierce through the gums at six months of age.
incisor
By five years of age W, the child has 20 temporary teeth (or milk
teeth): eight incisors, four canines, and eight molars. The permanent
W teeth are already developing in the jaws, pushing toward the oral
cavity and absorbing the roots of deciduous teeth. Replacement of
wisdom tooth the milk teeth by permanent teeth takes place over several years,
generally between the ages of six and 12.
An adult’s dentition E has 32 permanent teeth. The four last molars
(wisdom teeth) do not emerge before 17 years of age, and they
often remain in the bone if the jaw does not grow enough.
E
106
THE HARDNESS OF TEETH
The permanent teeth, which appear during childhood, must be able to chew food for decades. They are hard
and strong because of the nature of their tissues: enamel, composed mainly of calcium phosphate and calcium
carbonate, contains less than 1% organic materials.

The tooth crown is covered with a protective
layer of enamel, the hardest substance in The crowns of molars and premolars
the human body. have points called cusps.
Pulp, highly innervated and

vascularized, is a gelatinous
organ that occupies the
center of the crown and the The crown is
root canal. the visible part
of the tooth.
gum
The narrow part of

The teeth are formed mainly
the tooth root, just
of calcified connective tissue,
below where the
dentine.
enamel margin ends,
is called the neck.
root canal
jawbone The root of the

tooth extends
below the gum.
The roots of teeth are covered
with a layer of cement, which
resembles bony tissue.
A layer of fibrous connective tissue, The apical foramen is a narrow opening

the periodontal ligament, holds the through which nerves and blood vessels
tooth root firmly in the jawbone. enter the tooth.
TREATMENT OF A CARIES CAVITY

When bacteria attack the enamel of the tooth, they create a hole called a cavity Q, which increases as the
caries (decay) progress through the enamel into the dentine W. After drilling the tooth to remove all traces of
infection, the dentist fills the hole with a sealing compound E. If left untreated, the caries continue to
propagate, infecting the living tissues in the pulp R, and may even form an abscess T. In this case, a root
canal treatment must be performed Y to stop the infection. This consists of completely removing the pulp
tissue, then sealing the root canals permanently with an inert substance. This operation deprives the tooth of
its innervation and blood vessels, but the periodontal ligament, root, and crown remain.
enamel sealing
cavity dentine material pulp root canal
Q
0 W
0 E
0 R
0 T
0 Y
0
abscess
107
The stomach
A pouch with an acid environment
The alimentary bolus moves from the esophagus into the stomach, an elastic
pouch about 25 cm long that secretes extremely acid juices. Mixed together
through constant movement of the stomach’s muscle layers, foods are slowly
transformed into a mush called chyme, which is expelled into the duodenum in
small quantities.
THE MUCOSA OF THE STOMACH
The interior mucosa of the stomach consists of an epithelium that is
invaginated to form many folds. The gastric glands that are located in esophagus
the stomach release different substances (hydrochloric acid, enzymes,
mucus, hormones) that combine to form gastric juices. The mucosa
sits on a vascularized submucosa, which covers three muscle layers.
The fibers in each layer are oriented in a different direction, which
ensures that foods are well mixed.
The pylorus has a sphincter, a small ring-

shaped muscle, to control the exit of
chyme from the stomach.
duodenum
The mucosa of the stomach
includes many cavities, called
crypts, at the bottom of which muscle layers
are the gastric glands.
The stomach is covered by the

peritoneum, a transparent membrane
that surrounds all viscera.
The gastric glands produce a number of different

substances, including hydrochloric acid, which
sterilize and break up the alimentary bolus.
Separated from the mucosa by a thin layer of muscle,

the submucosa of the stomach contains many blood
and lymphatic vessels.
THE GASTRIC CYCLE

When it reaches the stomach, the alimentary bolus is kneaded, mixed with the gastric juices, and transformed
into a whitish mush: chyme Q . Regular contractions of the stomach push the chyme toward the closed
pylorus W. The sphincter opens repeatedly to release small quantities of chyme into the duodenum E.
chyme pylorus duodenum
Q W E
108
The intestines
A succession of tubes
After being kneaded in the stomach, the chyme enters the intestines, a long

series of tubes where most of the digestion process occurs. The small intestine
absorbs nutrients, and the large intestine transforms the chyme into fecal matter.
Muscular contractions of the intestines evacuate the waste via the anus.
THE SMALL INTESTINE

The small intestine, formed of the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum, is a very long, folded tube, where
intestinal juices secreted by its mucosa, pancreatic enzymes, and bile perform most of the digestive process.
Absorption also takes place in the small intestine through epithelial cells. The many villi on the internal
lining considerably increase the absorptive surface.
The bile duct transports bile gallbladder

from the liver and gallbladder
to the duodenum.
stomach
villi
The duodenum receives
the chyme released by
the stomach.
pancreas
The small intestine is lined

with rounded folds covered transverse
colon
with villi.
jejunum
absorbent
cell right colon
capillary ileum descending

network colon
cecum
sigmoid colon
Sometimes, the appendix, rich
in lymphatic tissue, suffers an acute
inflammation, appendicitis.
The liquid part of the chyme, the chyle,

enters the lymphatic network via the
chyliferous vessels of the villi.
The rectum is a canal 12
to 16 cm in length.
THE LARGE INTESTINE
The chyme passes from the ileum to the cecum, the first anal canal
part of the large intestine, then to the colon, where
bacteria complete its degradation. As water is absorbed external
by the mucosa of the colon, the chyme solidifies and is sphincter
transformed into fecal matter. The colon pushes the fecal
matter to the rectum, which triggers the reflexive opening
of the internal anal sphincters. The external sphincters, The opening of the anus is internal
contraction of which is voluntary, enable defecation to triggered by the internal and sphincter
be controlled. external sphincters.
109
T h e l i v e r, p a n c r e a s ,
and gallbladder
Biochemical laboratories
The digestive tract could not perform all of its functions without the assistance
of certain organs related to the digestive system. The liver, pancreas, and
gallbladder manufacture many digestive substances, store them, then release
them into the duodenum.
THE LIVER
The liver, which weighs almost 1.5 kg, is the largest gland in the human body. Located on the right side of
the abdomen, it is composed of two asymmetrical lobes separated by the falciform ligament. It is an effective
biochemical laboratory, involved in more than 500 different chemical reactions due to the large quantity of
blood that it receives from the hepatic artery, which comes from the heart, and the hepatic portal vein, which
rises from the small intestine (1.5 liters of blood per minute). Among other things, the liver makes bile,
cholesterol, and proteins, stores glucose, iron, and vitamins, and degrades certain toxic products contained
in the blood, such as alcohol.
falciform ligament left lobe
hepatic vein
right lobe
The liver has an amazing capacity

to regenerate itself if part of it is
amputated.
common hepatic duct
cystic duct
The muscles of the gallbladder

contract to eject the bile that
it holds. hepatic artery
Formed by the junction of the hepatic portal
vein
cystic duct and the hepatic duct,
the common bile duct transports
bile to the duodenum.
THE GALLBLADDER
The liver synthesizes almost one liter of
bile per day. This yellowish-green liquid is
temporarily stored in the gallbladder, an
organ 7 to 10 cm long, which concentrates
the bile and then releases it into the
duodenum at mealtime. The bile salts
contained in bile emulsify fats (fragment
them into tiny droplets), making them
easier to digest.
duodenum pancreatic duct
110
LIVER LOBULES
The liver looks like a grouping of hexagonal units, each measuring about 1 mm in diameter: the liver
lobules. These lobules, irrigated by branches of the hepatic portal vein and the hepatic artery, are made of
specialized cells, hepatocytes, radiating out from the central vein of the lobule.

hepatocytes
The sinusoids, spaces between

the hepatocytes, act as capillaries
by linking veins and arteries.
liver lobule
central vein of the lobule
Kupffer cells destroy

dead cells and bacteria.
central vein of
the lobule
hepatocyte
canaliculus bile duct
The branches of the hepatic

artery bring oxygenated blood
to the liver.
R
0 E
0
W
0 Blood loaded with nutrients from the small
intestine circulates in the branches of the
hepatic portal vein.
T
0
Q
0 sinusoid
bile duct HOW BILE IS MADE

Flowing in blood vessels Q that surround the lobule,
branch of the hepatic blood is carried toward the central vein via the sinusoids W.
portal vein The hepatocytes E near the sinusoids extract the nutrients
contained in the blood and make bile, which is ejected into
the canaliculi R, then into the bile ducts T. These ducts
pancreas join to form a branching network that leaves the liver via
the hepatic canals. The blood flows into the central vein
of the lobule, then into the inferior portal vein.
The cells that produce

pancreatic juices are grouped
in masses called acini.
THE PANCREAS
The pancreas, located behind the stomach, is an elongated
gland that secretes two types of substances. The acinar cells
produce pancreatic juices, rich in enzymes (amylase, lipase).
These juices are transported by the pancreatic duct to the
duodenum, where they help with digestion. The islets of
islet of Langerhans, much less numerous, make hormones (insulin,
Langerhans glucagon) and are part of the endocrine system.
111
What are the anatomical and physiological differences between men and
women? How is the ovum fertilized by a spermatozoid? What are the steps in development of the fetus?
How does childbirth take place? Because they affect the origin and transmission
of life, the questions around sexuality and reproduction are particularly interesting.
Reproduction
114 The male genital organs
Making and transporting spermatozoa
116 The female genital organs

Organs mainly hidden inside the body
118 Fertilization
The fusion of sexual cells
120 The life of the embryo

The first weeks
122 Maternity
Gestation, childbirth, and nursing
The male
genital organs
Making and transporting spermatozoa
Reproduction
Like other sexual animals, human beings reproduce by mating. The man’s
reproductive apparatus includes two testicles, supported outside of the abdomen by
the scrotum, a group of additional ducts and glands, and the penis. The testicles are
essentially inactive during childhood and begin to mature at puberty, which occurs
generally between the ages of 12 and 15. Up to the end of a man’s life, the testicles
produce male sexual cells called spermatozoa. They also play an endocrine role by
secreting the main male sexual hormone, testosterone.
The genital organs grow

during puberty.
Stimulated by testosterone, facial hair and a

deep voice are secondary sexual characteristics
among men.
When it is not sexually stimulated,

the penis is flaccid.
CHILD ADOLESCENT ADULT
The scrotum is a sac of skin that holds and supports the

two testicles. It has several muscular layers capable of letting
the testicles drop from or bringing them closer to the body,
thus regulating their temperature. The ideal temperature for
development of spermatozoa is 34°C.
The tip of the penis, the glans, is
partially covered by a fold of skin,
R
0 seminal the foreskin.
vesicle
T
0 prostate THE PATH THAT SPERMATOZOA TAKE
Y
0 Cowper’s Spermatozoa, produced constantly by the testicles Q,
gland are stored in epididymides W, where they mature.
Sexual excitement causes them to flow up the vas
E
0 deferens E. They are combined with secretions from
vas deferens
the seminal vesicles R, the prostate T, and the
U
0 Cowper’s glands Y to form a whitish liquid, semen.
urethra If stimulation intensifies, the sperm is ejected from
W
0 epididymis the urethra U through rhythmic contractions of
muscles at the root of the penis; this is ejaculation.
Q
0 testicle
114
vas deferens
THE PENIS bladder
The cylindrical bodies (two lateral corpora
cavernosa and one central corpus spongiosum)
that form the penis become engorged with
blood during sexual excitement. The penis
undergoes a major transformation called an
erection: it hardens, becomes thicker and
longer, and stands up. The urethra, located
in the center of the corpus spongiosum, routes
the semen to the end of the penis, where it is
ejected via the meatus of the urethra.
corpus spongiosum
corpus cavernosum
urethra
The glans is part of the Cowper’s
corpus spongiosum. gland
The urethra opens through a narrow channel, prostate

the meatus of the urethra. testicle
seminal
foreskin scrotum vesicle
efferent ductule
epididymis
lobule THE TESTICLES
The testicles, contained in the layers of muscle and
skin forming the scrotum, are oval masses 3 to 5 cm
long, divided into about 250 lobules. Each lobule
contains small ducts called testicular tubules, within
which the male sexual cells, spermatozoa, develop.
rete testis The tubules converge in the back of the testicle to
form the rete testis. When they leave the testicle via
the efferent ductules, the spermatozoa reach the
epididymis.
testicular
tubules
membrane of the
lumen testicular tubule
flagellum
SPERMATOGENESIS
The immature cells that line the membrane of the tubules,
the spermatogonia Q, multiply by mitosis. Some stay close
to the membrane, while others detach and differentiate into Q
0
primary spermatocytes W. These grow and divide by meiosis, W
0
recombining their genetic material. The cells that result,
secondary spermatocytes E, are haploid – they contain not E
0
46 but 23 chromosomes. They divide once more to become R
0
spermatids R, then spermatozoa T, which are drawn into the
lumen of the tubule. This process, known as spermatogenesis, T
0
takes about 74 days.
A spermatozoid, about 0.06 mm long, is formed of three

parts: the head, which contains the nucleus; the middle head middle piece
piece, where the mitochondria are concentrated; and the
flagellum, which supplies propulsive force.
115
The female
genital organs
Organs mainly hidden inside the body
Reproduction
Like men, women have a pair of specialized sexual glands. These glands, the ovaries,
are responsible for the production of oocytes (sexual cells) and steroid hormones
(estrogen and progesterone). They are located deep within the pelvis, but they are
connected to the exterior via a system of ducts and cavities that includes the
fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the vagina.
Women’s external genital organs, commonly referred to as the vulva, include the labia
majora, labia minora, and clitoris. Although the breasts are not directly involved in
reproduction, they are also considered organs of the reproductive system.
Aside from their role in nursing, the breasts

are an erogenous zone.
The woman’s wider hips
facilitate childbirth.
In women, distribution
of hair is concentrated
mainly at the pubis.
CHILD ADOLESCENT ADULT The labia majora are

two rounded folds of
labia minora fat that meet in the
midline.
THE WOMAN’S REPRODUCTIVE APPARATUS fallopian tube
The ovaries are the female sexual glands: they
are responsible for the production of ova and the uterus
main sexual hormones. Two ducts, the fallopian
tubes, link the ovaries to the uterus, a muscular
organ in which the embryo develops. The wall of
the uterus is formed of a thick layer of muscle,
the myometrium. The cavity of the uterus is lined myometrium ovary
with a mucosa called the endometrium.
endometrium
The uterus is connected to the vagina, a
fibromuscular tube about 7 to 10 cm long at the cervix
level of the cervix. The vagina has very elastic
walls and can dilate to receive the penis during
sexual relations and to allow the baby to pass vagina
through during childbirth.
labia
minora
The hymen, a thin membrane that partially blocks the entrance
labia
to the vagina, is usually broken during the first time a woman majora
has sexual relations.
116
endometrium
The muscle layer of the uterus, the

myometrium, contracts strongly
during childbirth to expel the baby.
bladder
pubic bone
Adipose tissues that cover the pubis

form a protective cushion called the
mons veneris.
The clitoris, made of erectile tissues similar

to those in the penis, plays an important
role in sexual excitement in women.
The urethra opens between

labia majora
the clitoris and the vagina.
labia minora vagina

OOGENESIS
At birth, a girl has 1 to 2 million oocytes (immature sexual cells) in her ovaries. These cells are contained in
tiny sacs, the primordial follicles Q. Each month, starting in puberty, the sexual hormones cause 20 to 25
follicles to ripen and be transformed into primary follicles W. Most of them degenerate; only one continues
to mature and becomes a secondary follicle E. This follicle grows rapidly: in a few days, its wall thickens and
liquid accumulates around the oocyte that it contains. It is then known as a graafian follicle R. When the
wall of the follicle ruptures, the oocyte is expelled from the ovary and captured by the fimbriae of the
fallopian tube: this is ovulation T. At this point, the oocyte is called an ovum.
The mucosa of the fallopian tube is covered with cilia If the ovum is not fertilized by a
whose movements draw in the expelled ovum. spermatozoid, it degenerates
after a few days.
As it develops, the graafian follicle forms
a bump on the surface of the ovary.
The oocyte inside the secondary

follicle divides by meiosis; it has
only 23 chromosomes.
T
0
primary
follicle R
0
E
0 ovary nucleus
primordial W
0
follicles Q
0 blood plug
After ovulation, the follicle is

transformed into a corpus luteum,
which secretes progesterone and
estrogen before being reabsorbed and
corpus albicans degenerating into a corpus albicans.
117
Fertilization
The fusion of sexual cells
For fertilization to occur – for a spermatozoid to unite with an ovum – the man
Reproduction
must ejaculate into the woman’s vagina. This expulsion occurs during sexual
relations, when a man achieves an intense moment of pleasure called orgasm.
However, an ejaculation does not necessarily lead to fertilization, since the period
of fertility lasts only a few days in the ovarian cycle. If the ovum is not fertilized
during this short period, it degenerates and is eliminated with the menstrual flow.
SEXUAL RELATIONS
Many different types of sensory and psychic stimulation may cause sexual excitement. In men, this
stimulation causes an erection of the penis, while in women the vagina secretes lubricating mucus, and the
clitoris, labia majora, and nipples also become erect. Sexual relations (or coitus) begin when the man’s penis
enters the woman’s vagina. Both partners then have heightened pleasurable sensations.
When the man’s pleasure reaches a climax, muscular spasms expel the sperm contained in his urethra: this
is ejaculation. The woman may also feel an orgasm, but it is not accompanied by ejaculation. However, the
contraction of the muscle walls of her vagina may provoke her partner’s orgasm. During ejaculation, 300 to
500 million spermatozoa are deposited deep within the vagina. Propelled by undulations of their flagella,
the spermatozoa migrate into the uterus and up the fallopian tubes, where one of them may fertilize an egg.
prostate
Only several thousand spermatozoa reach
the fallopian tubes.
clitoris
uterus
testicle
urethra
The in-and-out movements of the erect penis The lubricants secreted by the vagina
in the vagina create pleasant sensations for facilitate the penetration and movement
the man and the woman. of the penis.
118
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Between puberty and menopause, a woman ovulates between 400 and 500 times, in a cycle lasting an
average of 28 days. In the pre-ovulatory phase, a follicle develops in one of the ovaries and releases estrogen
that encourages the endometrium, the internal lining of the uterus, to thicken. The rise in estrogen level also
causes a surge in the release of luteinizing hormone by the pituitary gland, which provokes ovulation.
Reproduction
Once the ovum is expelled into the fallopian tube, the follicle that produced it is transformed into a corpus
luteum. It then secretes large quantities of progesterone and estrogen, which increases vascularization of
the endometrium and prepares it for a possible pregnancy. If the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum
degenerates after about eight days. The resulting drop in hormone levels causes the blood vessels in the
endometrium to constrict, and its top layer begins to detach 14 days after ovulation. A small amount of
blood, mucus, and tissues, the menstrual flow, flows out of the vagina for three to seven days. Then the
cycle starts again.
Due to the effect of the estrogen and

progesterone the endometrium
thickens by several millimeters.
The degradation of the
endometrium triggers
the beginning of the
menstrual flow.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
menstrual pre-ovulatory post-ovulatory

phase phase ovulation phase
ovum
estrogen level
progesterone level
spermatozoid
Q
0
Certain follicle cells form a sort of W

0
protective cap over the ovum, the
corona radiata.
The ovum is surrounded by a gelatinous layer E

0
made of protein, the zona pellucida.
FERTILIZATION
cytoplasm R
0
The spermatozoa and ovum generally meet in the upper
part of a fallopian tube. When a spermatozoid Q comes
into contact with the corona radiata W, it releases
enzymes that enable it to penetrate. It crosses through
the zona pellucida E and reaches the cell membrane of flagellum
the ovum. When the head of the spermatozoid enters
the cytoplasm R, the ovum secretes enzymes that make head of the
it impenetrable to the other spermatozoa. The flagellum spermatozoid T
0
of the spermatozoid detaches itself and remains outside
the ovum, while the head, which contains its nucleus,
nucleus of the
unites with the nucleus of the ovum T. ovum
119
The life of the embryo
The first weeks
Only 12 weeks elapse between fertilization of the ovum by a spermatozoid and
Reproduction
the appearance of the future baby’s fingernails. During these first three months,
the fertilized egg develops considerably and is gradually transformed into a
fetus – a being that looks human.
FROM FERTILIZATION TO IMPLANTATION

Expelled by the ovary Q, the ovum is released into the fallopian tube W, where it encounters spermatozoa.
When fertilization E takes place, the nuclei of the ovum and the spermatozoid merge to form a single
nucleus with 46 chromosomes. This fertilized egg, called a zygote R, divides immediately after fertilization
and begins to descend the fallopian tube. The cellular divisions continue at a quickening pace, and after
four days the zygote forms a solid ball of 64 cells: the morula T. The next day, the morula enters the uterus
and becomes a blastocyst Y. Seven days after fertilization, the blastocyst attaches to the endometrium and
implantation U begins. Several days later, the blastocyst is completely buried in the endometrium, which
supplies it with the nutrients it needs.
The zona pellucida gradually

degenerates.
R
0 zygote
morula T
0
E
0 blastocyst
fertilization
W
0 fallopian
tube
Y
0
Q
0
uterus
ovary
If the ovum is fertilized, hormones prepare

the endometrium to receive the egg.
The embryo develops from an embryonic U

0
disk, a mass of cells nested inside
the blastocyst.
The trophoblast, the cellular covering of

the blastocyst, will become the placenta,
umbilical cord, and amniotic sac.
120
GROWTH OF THE EMBRYO
Two weeks after fertilization, the blastocyst is deeply anchored in the endometrium and the embryonic disk
begins to develop; it is now called an embryo. The systems of the body (nervous system, cardiovascular
system, etc.) are created after the first weeks, while the limbs are slower to develop.
Reproduction
Even though it is only about 5 mm long, the
four-week-old embryo already has a model
of the spine and nervous system. Its heart
begins to beat and the limbs begin to form.
At the end of the sixth week,

the embryo is about 1.3 cm long.
Its head, as big as the rest of the
body, contains models for the model of the eye
eyes, ears, and mouth.
The arms develop and rudimentary

hands appear. umbilical cord
The six-week-old embryo still

has an obvious tail.
THE FETUS
After eight weeks, the embryo is called a fetus. It is beginning to look more like a human baby, even
though it is still only 3 cm long and weighs only a few grams. During the rest of the pregnancy, the
different organs of the fetus finish developing and its body grows considerably: its weight is multiplied
almost 1,000 times between the eighth week and birth.
The nine-week-old fetus has well-formed limbs. Its head is still large
compared to the rest of its body, but it already has eyes, covered by
fused eyelids. The ossification of cartilage has begun.
At nine weeks, the fingers

have separated.
At 12 weeks, the fetus is 8 cm long. The features of the face

become better defined, the eyelids will soon be able to open,
and the external ears are clearly visible.
Oxygen, nutrients, and

antibodies pass into the
fetus’s body via the
umbilical cord, composed
of two arteries and one The fingernails begin to
large vein. form in the 12th week.
umbilical cord
121
Maternity
Gestation, childbirth, and nursing
During the nine months of gestation, the future baby develops inside the
Reproduction
mother’s body and is totally dependent on her. The baby becomes physically
separate from the mother at childbirth but maintains a special bond with her,
mainly through nursing.
NINE MONTHS OF GESTATION
In general, 40 weeks (about 9 months) pass between fertilization of the ovum and childbirth. This period
is called gestation. During the first trimester, the pregnancy is not yet visible but the woman experiences
nausea and her breasts begin to swell. In the second trimester, growth of the fetus causes the abdomen to
swell. This growth continues in the third trimester, and the resulting compression of organs may cause
minor problems, such as incontinence or heartburn. The pregnant woman’s heart rhythm and blood volume
increase as the fetus develops, and so do her pulmonary volume and her appetite.
FIRST TRIMESTER SECOND TRIMESTER THIRD TRIMESTER
breast
uterus bladder
The fetus is surrounded The placenta is a highly vascularized organ

by a liquid-filled pouch, that forms against the wall of the uterus
the amniotic sac. and provides nutrition to the fetus.
THE BREASTS pectoral muscle

The breasts, which develop at puberty, are glands that adipose tissue
cover the pectoral muscles and are surrounded by adipose
tissu. Each mammary gland is formed of 20 lobes arranged in
bunches. The breasts grow larger during pregnancy
and produce milk after childbirth when stimulated by a
hormone, prolactin. The mother’s milk is routed by the
mammary ducts to reservoirs, the lactiferous sinuses,
where it is stored until it is ejected from the nipples
through tiny orifices.
Each lobe is connected to the

nipple by a mammary duct.
mammary duct
The areola, which forms a circle around the
nipple, contains sebaceous glands.
nipple
lactiferous sinus
122
CHILDBIRTH
In the weeks preceding childbirth, the fetus, which usually presents head first, gradually descends
between the bones of the pelvis and rests on the cervix.
muscles of the uterus
Reproduction
DILATATION
Childbirth begins when the combined action of a number
of hormones provokes rhythmic and painful contractions of
the uterus. These uterine contractions, which propagate
from top to bottom, gradually dilate the cervix and cause
the amniotic sac to rupture.
vagina
cervix
EXPULSION
Several hours may pass before the cervix and vagina are
sufficiently dilated to allow the baby to pass through.
When the opening is about 10 cm, the baby’s head enters the
vagina. With strong contractions of the mother’s abdominal
muscles, the child is expelled in less than an hour.
amniotic sac
DELIVERY OF PLACENTA
After childbirth, the uterine muscles continue to contract
in order to expel the placenta. These contractions also prevent
hemorrhage by compressing the damaged blood vessels.
Complete retraction of the uterus and vagina may take
several weeks.
placenta umbilical cord
NURSING
After childbirth, the mother can nurse her baby –
nourish it with milk produced by her breasts.
Mother’s milk is easily digestible, contains nutritive
substances, and boosts the newborn’s immune
defenses. Stimulation of the nipples also provokes
uterine contractions, helping the uterus to return
to normal size.
The baby’s sucking action is sensed by the

receptors in the nipple. The nervous information
is transmitted to the pituitary gland, which
secretes prolactin, a hormone that stimulates
production of milk by the mammary glands, and
oxytocin, a hormone that causes the milk to be
ejected from the mammary glands.
123
Glossary
abdomen cartilage enzyme
Region of the body between Strong semi-opaque connective Protein that acts as a catalyst for
the thorax and the pelvis. tissue composed of chondrocytes a chemical reaction.
adipose tissue covered with a dense network of erogenous zone
Connective tissue formed mainly collagen and elastic fibers. Part of the body susceptible
of adipose cells, or fat cells. chemotaxis to sexual excitement.
afferent The effect of attraction or repulsion fiber
Describing a path (nerve, blood exerted by certain chemical Substance formed of a large
vessel, canal) that leads to an organ. substances on a cell that is capable number of filaments; the main
of moving. component of certain tissues.
amino acid
Organic acid that is the basic collagen follicle
structural unit of proteins. Fibrous protein that is an essential Small pocket or gland.
component of connective tissue.
amniotic sac genetic
Sac filled with amniotic fluid within commissure Having to do with genes and
which the fetus is immersed. Band of tissue joining two parts of heredity.
the body, especially in the central
anatomy glycemia
nervous system.
Science that studies the shape and Level of sugar in the blood.
structure of organs and organisms. concave
Curved inward. haploid cell
antibody Cell that has undergone meiosis
Soluble protein capable of attaching convex and, in the human species, has
itself to a specific foreign substance Curved outward. only 23 chromosomes instead of 46.
and helping to destroy it. cortex Only sexual cells are haploid.
antigen Outside layer of an organ or hemorrhage
Foreign substance that causes an structure, especially in the cerebrum, Blood leakage outside the blood
antibody to react when it is cerebellum, kidneys, and adrenal vessels.
introduced into the organism. glands.
homeostasis
apex distal Maintenance of the internal
Tip of an organ. Designating the end of an organ normal state of an organism.
aponeurosis or structure that is the farthest
from the center of the body. hyaline
A sheet of dense connective tissue,
Resembling glass.
resembling a tendon, that links a efferent
muscle to another muscle or to a Describing a path (nerve, blood intrinsic muscle
bone. vessel, canal) that leads from an Muscle contained entirely within
organ. an organ or a part of the body.
arrector muscle of hair
Smooth muscle attached to a hair; electroencephalogram juices
its contraction causes the hair to Graph made by an apparatus that Organic liquids containing enzymes.
rise to a vertical position. records the electrical activity of limb
bacterium neurons in the cerebral cortex. One of the four parts of the body
Single-celled micro-organism. endolymph detached from the trunk (upper
Potassium-rich liquid that fills and lower limbs).
callus
Mass of soft bone tissue that forms the cavities of the inner ear and lipid
in a fracture and is gradually surrounds the organs of hearing Organic water-insoluble substance
replaced by mature bone tissue. and balance. that makes up a fatty body.
124
Glossary
matrix nociceptor refraction
Homogeneous intercellular substance Nerve ending sensitive to pain Deflection of light when it changes
in all tissues. stimuli. milieus.
meatus orbit sebum
Opening from a canal to the outside Pyramid-shaped bony cavity that Substance secreted by the sebaceous
of the body. holds the eyeball and its associated glands, intended to lubricate the
meiosis organs. skin and hairs.
Type of cellular division producing organ sinus
exclusively sexual cells. It involves a Part of the body composed of a Cavity inside a bone.
phase of random distribution of
number of different tissues, with a solute
genetic material and a phase of
definite shape and performing a Substance dissolved in a solvent.
division that leads to the reduction by
particular function.
half of the number of chromosomes stem cell
(from 46 to 23 in the human species). photoreceptor Immature cell capable of multiplying
Cell in the retina capable of indefinitely and differentiating into
membrane
converting light into nerve impulses. all cell types in the human body.
Thin layer of tissue.
physiology steroid
metabolism
The group of biochemical reactions Science that studies the functioning Type of hormone secreted mainly by
that enable the exchange of of organs or organisms. cortico-adrenal glands and sexual
materials and energy within the pigment glands. Steroids belong to the group
body. It includes synthesis reactions Substance responsible for the of sterols, which also include
(anabolic) and organic degradation coloration of a tissue. substances such as cholesterol and
reactions (catabolic). vitamin D.
placenta
microvillus Spongy, highly vascularized organ stimulus
Microscopic extension of the cellular that forms in the uterus during Environmental element capable of
membrane of certain epithelial cells, pregnancy and is connected to the stimulating a sensory receptor.
notably on the intestinal mucosa. fetus via the umbilical cord. trabecula
molecule
pore Fine cord of connective tissue
Particle formed of two or more
Small orifice on the surface of the extending within an organ and
atoms.
skin, of a membrane, or of a mucosa. supporting it. Bony trabeculae are
mucosa interwoven to form spongy bone
protein
Mucus-secreting membrane lining the tissue.
Organic substance made of long
cavities and canals of the body.
chains of amino acids, found in vertebral body
neurotransmitter abundance in living matter. Main part of a vertebra.
Molecule serving as a chemical
messenger between two neurons. proximal villus
Synthesized in an axonal ending, the Describing the end of an organ or Small protuberance at the surface of
neurotransmitter is released into the structure that is the closest to the a mucosa or organ.
synaptic cleft in response to a nerve center of the body. virus
impulse. puberty Very small micro-organism composed
nitrogenous base Period of life, generally between 11 of a chain of nucleic acid; it cannot
Nitrogen-bearing organic molecule and 16 years of age, during which live except as a parasite on another
that is involved in composition of physiological processes transform the living being, from which it draws
nucleotides. body so that it is able to reproduce. enzymes and amino acids.
125
Index
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 104, 106, 108, 110
A capillary 80
cardiac conduction 85 digestive tract 104
Achilles’ tendon 35 CARDIAC CYCLE 84 DNA 10, 12
actin 37 cardiac ventricle 83, 84 duodenum 109
adenine 11 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 78
adenohypophysis 93 caries 107 E
adrenal gland 90 carpal bones 30
agonist muscle 40 cartilage [G] 22 EAR 64
alimentary bolus 104 CELL 8, 10, 12, 14 ejaculation 114, 118
amino acid [G] 13 cell cycle 12 elbow 32
amniotic sac [G] 123 cell division 12 electrocardiogram 85
ampulla 67 cell membrane 8 electroencephalogram [G] 50
amygdala 51 cement 107 EMBRYO 120
ankle 31 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 46 enamel 107
antagonist muscle 40 centromere 10 endocrine gland 90
antibody [G] 89 cerebellum 46, 49 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 90, 92
antigen [G] 89 cerebral cortex 50, 59, 63 endometrium 116, 119, 120
anus 105, 109 cerebral hemisphere 48 endoplasmic reticulum 9
aorta 79, 83 cerebral lobe 48 epicranial aponeurosis [G] 39
apophysis 28 cerebral ventricle 49 epidermis 18
ARTERY 78, 80 cerebrospinal fluid 47, 49 epididymis 115
articulation 102 CEREBRUM 46, 50
epidural cavity 47
astigmatism 62 childbirth 123
epiglottis 100, 102
astrocyte 15 chromatid 10
epiphysis 20
atlas 28 chromatin 9, 11
epithelium 14
atrium 83, 84 CHROMOSOME 10, 12
erection 115
auricle 64 chyme 108
clavicle 26 esophagus 105
autonomic nervous system 54
clitoris 117 estrogen 119
axon 45
coagulation 76 ethmoid bone 27
eustachian tube 65
B coccyx 28
expiration 100
cochlea 65, 66
BALANCE 67 cochlear nerve 65 external oblique muscle 34
basement membrane 14 codon 13 EYE 40, 60
biceps 35 coitus 118 eye muscles 40
bile 111 collagen [G] 14 eyelash 61
bile duct 109, 110 colon 109
bladder 94 compact bone tissue 21 F
blastocyst 120 complement 89
BLOOD 76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 94 connective tissue 14 face 27
blood groups 77 contraction of a muscle 37, 40 fallopian tube 116, 118, 120
blood platelet 76 convolution 48 FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS 116
blood pressure 79 cornea 60 FERTILIZATION 118
BLOOD VESSELS 78, 80 corona radiata 119 fetus 121, 122
BONE GROWTH 22 corpus luteum 117 fiber [G] 14
BONE STRUCTURE 20 coughing 101 filaments 37
BONE TYPES 26 cranial nerves 52 filum terminale 46
BONES 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32 crown 107 finger 30, 41
bony callus [G] 23 crystalline lens 60 flat bone 26
BRAIN 46, 48 cupula 67 follicle 117
brain stem 46, 48 cytokines 89 fontanel 27
breast 122 cytoplasm 8 FOOT 30
bronchial tree 99 cytosine 11 foramen magnum 27
bronchiole 99, 101 forearm 41
bronchus 99 D foreskin 114
buccinator 39 fornix 51
dendrite 44
dentine 107 fovea 61
C deoxyribonucleic acid 10 fracture 23
calcaneus 31 dermis 18 free nerve endings 59
callosal convolution 51 diaphragm 98, 100 frontal bone 27
canine 106 diastole 84 frontal muscle 38
Terms in CAPITAL LETTERS and page numbers in boldface type refer to a main entry. The symbol [G] indicates a Glossary listing.
126
Index
G L N
GALLBLADDER 110 labia majora 116 nail 31
gastric juices [G] 108 labia minora 116 nasal cavity 72, 98
genes 13 lacrimal gland 61 nephron 95
genetic heritage 11 large intestine 105, 109 nerve impulse 44
GENITAL ORGANS 114, 116 larynx 102 nerve tissue 15
gestation 122 lateral geniculate body 63 NERVES 52
glans 114 ligament 32 nervous system 44, 46, 48, 50, 52, 54
glial cell 15 limb [G] 25 neurohypophysis 93
glomerule 95 limbic system 51 NEURONS 15, 44
glottis 103 lingual papillae 70 neurotransmitter [G] 45
Golgi apparatus 9 LIVER 105, 110 neutrophil 77, 88
graafian follicle 117 liver lobule 111 nipple 122
gray matter 46, 50 long bone 20, 26 nitrogenous base [G] 11
greatest gluteal 35 lumen 80 nose 72, 100
growth plate 23 lung 99, 100 nostrils 72
guanine 11 lymph 86 nuclear membrane 9, 10
gum 107 lymph node 87 nucleolus 9
lymph vessels 86 nucleotide 11
H LYMPHATIC SYSTEM 86 nucleus 9, 10
hair 19 lymphocytes 89 nursing 123
HAND 22, 30, 41
HEAD 27, 38 M O
HEARING 64, 66 occipital bone 27
macrophage 14, 88
HEART 82, 84 olfactory bulb 73
MALE GENITAL ORGANS 114
heel 31 olfactory cell 73
malleolus 31
hematoma 23 olfactory cilia 73
mamillary bodies 51
hemoglobin 77 olfactory epithelium 72
mammary gland 122
hepatic portal vein 110 oligodendrocyte 15
marrow 21
heredity 11 optic chiasm 63
masseter 39
hippocampus 51 optic nerve 61, 63
MATERNITY 122
hormonal feedback control 92 orbicular of the eye 38
medulla oblongata 48
hormones 90, 92 orbicular of the mouth 38
medullary canal 21, 23
humerus 26 organ of Corti 66
hymen 116 melanin 19
meninges 47, 49 organelles 9
hypermetropia 62 orgasm 118
HYPOTHALAMUS 50, 90, 92 menstrual cycle 119
metacarpal bones 30 ossicles 65, 66
ossification 22
IJ metaphysis 20
metatarsus 31 osteocyte 21
iliac bone 24, 26 microgliocyte 15 osteon 21
IMMUNITY 88 microvilli [G] 14 ovary 117
incisor 106 ovulation 117, 119
mitochondria 8
inflammatory reaction 88 ovum 117, 119
mitosis 12
inspiration 100 molar 106
intercostal muscles 100 monocyte 76 P
intervertebral disk 29 morula 120 pacemaker 85
INTESTINES 109 MOTOR FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS pain 55
intraventricular septum 83 SYSTEM 54 palate 68
iris 60 mouth 105 palm 30
irregular bone 26 MOVEMENTS 40, 41, 55 palmar aponeurosis [G] 41
islets of Langerhans 91
mucus 72 PANCREAS 91, 105, 110
jaw 27
muscle fiber 36 pancreatic juices [G] 111
JOINTS 32
MUSCLES 15, 34, 36, 38, 40 parasympathetic system 54
MUSCLE TISSUE 15, 36 parathyroid gland 91
K myelin 45 parietal bone 26
keratin 18, 31 myocard 82 pathogen 88
kidney 95 myofibril 36 pectoralis major 34
knee 32 myopia 62 pelvis 24
kneecap 26, 32 myosin 37 penis 94, 115, 118
127
Index
perichondrium 22 sclera 60 temporal muscle 39
periosteum 20, 22 scrotum 114 tendon 35, 36, 41
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 52 sebaceous gland 19 testicle 115
peritoneum 108 sebum [G] 18 thalamus 50
phagocytic cell 88 semen 114
thumb 30, 41
phagocytosis 88 semicircular canals 67
phalanges 30 thymine 11
senses 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72
pharynx 98 sexual relations 118 thyroid gland 91, 92
phonation 102 shaft 20 TISSUES 14
photoreceptor [G] 60 short bone 26 toe 31
PITUITARY GLAND 90, 92 shoulder 32 tongue 69, 70
placenta [G] 122 shoulder blade 26 tonsils 68, 87
plasma 76 SIGHT 60, 62 TOUCH 58
plasmocyte 89 sinus [G] 100
trachea 98
pleura 99 SKELETAL MUSCLES 34, 36, 40
precapillary sphincter 80 trapezius 35
SKELETON 24
premolar 106 SKIN 18, 58 triceps 35
progesterone 119 skull 27 trophoblast 120
prostate 114 small intestine 105, 109 tympanum 65, 66
protein synthesis 9, 12 SMELL 72
pubis 116 sneezing 101 U
pulmonary alveoli 101 somatosensory cortex 59
pulmonary artery 79 SPEECH 102 umbilical cord 121, 123
pulmonary bloodstream 79 spermatozoid 115, 119 uracil 13
pulmonary vein 79 sphenoid bone 27 ureter 94
pulp 107 sphincter 39 urethra 94
pulse 79 spinal bulb 48 URINARY SYSTEM 94
pupil 60, 63 spinal cord 46 urine 95
pus 88 spinal ganglion 47
pylorus 108 uterus 116, 120
spinal nerves 46, 53
utricle 67
SPINE 28
QR spinothalamic tract 59
quadriceps 35 spleen 87 V
rectum 109 spongy bone tissue 20 vagina 116, 118
red blood cell 77 stem cell [G] 77 valve 80, 83
red bone marrow 20, 77 sternocleidomastoid muscle 38
VEINS 78, 80
reflex 55 sternum 29
vena cava 78
reproduction 114, 116, 118, 120, 122 STOMACH 105, 108
swallowing 104 vertebra 26, 28
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 98, 100
retina 61, 62 sweat gland 18 vertebral foramen 29
rib 29 sympathetic ganglion 46, 54 vestibular nerve 65
ribcage 29 sympathetic system 54 visual cortex 63
ribonucleic acid 13 synapse 45 vitreous body 60
ribosome 9, 13 synaptic cleft 45 vocal folds 103
risorius 39 synovial fluid 32
vulva 116
RNA 13 systemic bloodstream 79
root of the tooth 107 systole 84
W
S T white blood cell 76, 88
saccule 67 tactile receptor 18, 55 white matter 46, 50
sacrum 28 talus 26, 31 wrist 30, 32
saliva 68, 105 target cell 91
salivary gland 68 tarsus 31 YZ
sarcomere 36 TASTE 68, 70
sartorius 34 taste bud 71 yellow bone marrow 21
scar 19 tear 61 zona pellucida 119
Schwann cell 45 TEETH 106 zygomatic muscle 38
sciatic nerve 53 temporal bone 27 zygote 120
128

The HumanBody (Lalumière, Marc Bourbonnière, Josée Roth Etc.)

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The HumanBody (Lalumière, Marc Bourbonnière, Josée Roth Etc.)

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THE VISUAL GUIDES

Printed and bound in Slovakia.

41 The movements of the hand

74 | Blood circulation 96 |Respiration and 112 | Reproduction 124 | Glossary

10 Chromosomes and DNA

Cytoplasm, which fills the

Lysosomes contain enzymes

Microtubules, which form the

Made mainly of lipid molecules,

The ovum is the largest cell in

Cilia, formed of a group of microtubules

The body’s building blocks

Chromatin, the main component of the nucleus,

The nuclear membrane has Ribosomes are made in the nucleolus,

The Golgi apparatus resembles a series

Microfilaments are made of a protein,

Vacuoles, small liquid-filled vesicles,

TRANSPORT OF PROTEINS IN THE CELL

nucleolus The nucleus is separated from

The chromosomes float in a gelatinous

Human cells have 46 chromosomes, except for sexual cells,

INSIDE THE NUCLEUS

The body’s building blocks

The nucleotide is the basic component of the

phosphate group thymine

The nitrogenous base, linked to deoxyribose,

THE GENETIC HERITAGE AND HEREDITY

DNA matrix newly synthesized

The bases of the messenger RNA molecule

TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION

microvilli EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Collagen fibers, made of

The body’s building blocks

Skeletal muscle tissue is formed of very elongated

The fibers of cardiac muscle tissue are also striated,

Smooth muscle tissue includes shorter, spindle-shaped

Neurons are highly specialized cells that transport

Tiny microgliocytes rid nerve tissue

Oligodendrocytes are the

The many extensions of the astrocytes

24 The human skeleton

30 The hand and the foot

34 The skeletal muscles

38 The muscles of the head

40 The action of the skeletal muscles

41 The movements of the hand

Although it is very thin (0.1 mm), the

The cells of the basal layer are

The dermis is composed of connective

The hypodermis, located under the dermis,

The perspiration produced by the sweat glands

The architecture of the body

PIGMENTS FOR SUN PROTECTION

Melanocytes comprise 8% of the epidermic

Sebaceous glands produce sebum, a substance

arrector muscle of hair

HOW THE SKIN FORMS SCARS

epidermis dermis fibrin crust scar

deep wound fibroblasts reconstructed tissue

SPONGY BONE TISSUE

The architecture of the body

The lacunae of the osteon are connected

The lacunae are filled