Impacts of climate change on livestock and agriculture

production in northeastern Somalia

 Chapter 1: Introduction

Climate is an important factor which affects the ecosystems. It has been defined by the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2018) as “the average weather, or more

rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant

quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years.”

The world’s climate has been changing drastically. This change has been defined by the United

Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as a change is that is caused by

any anthropogenic activity. This change leads to an alteration in the natural climate over a period

of time (IPCC, 2018). This global issue has been affecting three major facets, namely, economic,

social, and natural. Amongst various factors that lead to climate change are anthropogenic

activities. These main activities include burning fossils for energy, deforestation, and agriculture-

related activities. Observations provide evidence of predictions over how drastically climate will

change in the present century (Karl, Melillo, Peterson, & Hassol, 2009). These activities lead to

emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen dioxide (N2O), and methane. Consequently, this has

increased the heat absorbed within earth’s atmosphere (IPCC, 2014). When considering climate

change, it is important to consider the convergence zones caused when two different flows

interact with one another to cause various weather conditions. Three major zones are the Inter

Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ). These are

important considerations because climate change is different in various areas of the world

depending on the geographical location, environmental factors, capacity of adaption, etc. Africa

is a place that has contributed the least to the factors that boost a change in climate, however, it

has had most drastic affect on the continent. This impact has due to lack of capacity to adapt,
existence of multiple climatic conditions, and overly depending on the agriculture to support the

economy. The present study is focused on Somalia, the north eastern part to be precise. This

country built around agriculture and livestock contributes to 75 percent of the Gross Domestic

Product (GDP) (The World Bank, 2018). This suggests how pastoralism or a semi version of it is

the main source of livelihood for most of the population. This dependency and lack of adaptation

practices makes Somalia one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change (Chhogyel et al.

2020; as cited in Warasame, Sheik-Ali, Ali, and Sarkodie, 2021).

1.1 Problem Statement

The country of Somalia is highly dependent on agriculture and livestock as a source of their

income. The northeastern region is susceptible to drought, changes in vegetation, lack of soil

fertility, higher incidence of disease in crops, and health hazards. This has shifted the trend from

growing crops to managing crops and livestock as a means of survival. Despite this, it is hard to

survive in a region where there are frequent floods and droughts which has caused people to lose

hope in this sector. The amalgamation of the effect of climate change and lack of soil moisture

decreases the amount of output produced by the agricultural land. Besides the existence of these

problems, Somalia lacks the adaptation and mitigation measures that are required to counter the

impact of climate change on agriculture. Moreover, this impact is doubled by the lack of any

mitigation policies by the government (Warasame, Sheik-Ali, Ali, and Sarkodie, 2021).

Therefore, the existence of such measures become essential for not only the environmental

restoration but also for food to avoid famines such as the one in 2011 (Maxwell & Fitzpatrick,

2012).
1.2 Objectives of the study

This study aspires to assess the impact of climate change on agricultural production and livestock

activities in northeastern Somalia with the following objectives in place:

 Evaluate the impact of climate variability and climate change on livestock and

agriculture production.

 Understand and document how farmers and pastorals are adapting with those Variability

and changes.

 To recommend Adaptation and mitigation measures to minimize these impacts.

1.3. Research Questions

This study aims to answer:

 What is the impact of climate variability and change on livestock and agriculture sector in

Somalia?

 How are farmers adapting to these changes?

 What adaptation and mitigation measures should be recommended to minimize these

impacts?

1.4. Research Methodology

The present research would encompass primary as well as secondary research. The secondary

research would involve a review of literature whereas primary research would be qualitative in

nature. This qualitative research would involve a questionnaire with close and open ended

questions from key respondents. These respondents will encompass pastoralists, semi-

pastoralists, farmers, environmentalists, and staff from Ministry of Agriculture of the

northeastern region of Somalia, also known as Puntland. The questionnaire would be divided

into three sections, namely, demographics, agriculture, and livestock and distributed to a sample

size of 100 respondents whose participation would be voluntary.

1.5. Organization of the study

The study would be organized into five chapters, namely:

 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Chapter 2: Literature Review

 Chapter 3: Methodology

 Chapter 4: Results

 Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion

 Appendix 1: Questionnaire
 Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Agriculture and livestock sector in Somalia

Agriculture is one of the most important aspects of many economies of the world. It is one of the

most important aspect for the country of Somalia as well. It accounts for 75 per cent of the Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) (The World Bank, 2018). Therefore, suggesting the dependence on

pastoralism and farming.

Unruh (1991) reports how the climatic change, degradation of land, and other problems (Kamm,

1990; Winter and Predergast, 1990) highlight the problem of the famine in the African regions.

In contrast to the increasing crop yields in other parts of the world, Africa has seen a fall in its

yield.

Most agricultural projects take place in the “arid” or “semi-arid” regions where there is

abundance of water which gets not relief to areas where these projects are most needed

(Shepherd, 1985; Jacobson, 1988; Scudder, 1989; as cited in Unruh, 1991).

There are multiple aspects which have a profound effect on the agriculture within the African

country of Somalia which are detailed under the headings below.

2.1.1 Irrigation

The irrigation system present within the region have been perceived as failures due to their

constant under-performance. This under-performance has cut down on any increase in

productivity that may have resulted from these huge investments (Carter, 1986). The

improvements in the “small-scale irrigation” also have had no effects given that these systems
are not technologically advanced (Kimmage, 1991). These failures directly impact the farming

systems especially in areas that are not blessed in terms of climate (Carter, 1986).

2.1.2 Pastoralism

Pastoralists travel along with their herds in the dry season to places where there is an abundance

in supply of water. The lack of resources in terms of water or otherwise can result in huge

livestock death rates, degradation of land, and overgrazing (Shepherd, 1985). The conditions and

the livelihood of these pastoralists depend on the storage units composed on water and “drought

forage” (Campbell, 1981). The migration of these pastoralists to other regions is sometimes

challenged by the development projects in place. These disruptions can have a major impact as

the herds are left to graze and use resources in the region where there is already a limited supply

of resources. As a result, land degradation occurs as the area exceeds its carrying capacity. This

is one of the major reasons for loss of productivity in African regions. The increasing land

degradation puts even more pressure on the pastoralists and makes them vulnerable to the effects

of drought (Unruh, 1991). When the pastoralists migrate from one region to another, they are left

to compete with other farmers and pastoralists for the resources required to maintain the health

of their animals. This cause over-grazing and conflicts (McCabe, 1990). These conflicts result in

broken agreements and leaves pastoralists to constantly defend their regions. Farmers can also

suffer as a result as they are also dependent on the same water supply and livestock. Any loss of

livestock can lead to a loss of manure (Toulmin, 1985), loss of “livestock products” (Little,

1987), loss of labor in form of pastoralists (Horowitz & Salem-Murdock, 1987), and loss of

income due to lack of pastoralists (Unruh, 1991).

2.1.3 Drought and famine

Drought and famine continue to impact the developing countries of Africa. It is worth noting that

famine may follow drought but drought is not a prerequisite of famine. It is important that both

of these are managed effectively to result in minimum consequences for the society. The

measures taken for the management of farming and “pastoral production” help protect against

drought (Swinton, 1988; as cited in Unruh 1991). These measures are instrumental for famine

more than they are for drought. One of the tool of this coping mechanism is migration for the

pastoralists. The lack of this coping mechanism has a huge impact on the livestock industry

which further translates to a huge losses due to loss of animals and “impoverishment of

pastoralists” (Unruh, 1991). This would have a far worse effect considering that the economies

would be unable to feed the population (Biswas et al., 1987). It is noteworthy that the famine

relief programs may have profound effects on the agricultural development plans as reallocation

of pastoralists around rivers and water sources may result in increased an increased chance of

conflict with farmers (Unruh, 1991). These programs and increasing competition can have huge

impact on agriculture management which are already under pressure of keeping up with the

demands of the local and international consumers (Glantz, 1986; as cited in Unruh, 1991).

2.2 Climate

2.1.1 Definitions

Werndll (2016) defines climate in several ways detailed below:

 “Climate as distribution over time for constant external conditions” – Under this

definition, climate is defined as the amalgamation of “small fluctuations” occurring over

 a defined two periods of time due to external or internal conditions (Dymnikov &

Gritsoun, 2001).

 “Climate as distribution when the external conditions vary as in reality” – Under this

definition, climate represents variability where the external factors vary in reality over a

period of thirty years (Hulme et al., 2009).

 “Infinite versions” – Under this definition, the climate is defined by “infinite distribution

over time” (Palmer, 1999; Dymnikov & Gritsoun, 2001).

 “Climate as Ensemble distribution for constant external conditions” – Climate is “an

ensemble of initial conditions that is evolved forward in time, but actual initial conditions

are unique.”

 “Climate as Ensemble distribution when the external conditions vary as in reality’ –

Under this definition, climate is defined ‘as the actual ensemble distribution.” It is “the

climate at time t1 is the distribution of the possible values of the climate variables at t 1

given the actual path taken by the external conditions and conditional on our uncertainty

in the initial values at t0” (Daron & Stainforth, 2013).

2.3 Climate Change

The temperature of the earth has increased by 1℉ during the 20th century. This has had a

profound effect on the on the ecosystem. This small change has translated into big changes for

the environment where the heat waves are intense and drought season is longer (NASA, 2016).
IPCC (2018) categorizes it as “the average weather, or more rigorously, as the statistical

description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time

ranging from months to thousands or millions of years.”

Pielke (2004) cites FCCC definition of climate change where it is defined as “a change of

climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity, that alters the composition of

the global atmosphere, and that is in addition to natural climate variability over comparable

time periods.”

These contrasting definitions have profound effects for the management of the impact brought

forth by the climate change. The acceptance of a one definition over the other impacts mitigation

and adaptation measures. One example is the bias against adaptation brought on by the

acceptance of IPCC’s definition (Pielke, 2004).

2.3.1 Causes of climate change

There are multiple causes of climate change. A few major ones are discussed in detail under the

headings below.

2.3.1.1 Natural factors

Nature can have a profound effect on the way the climate changes. The emissions of CO 2 from

the volcanoes is one of the causes of climate change. However, this only contributes to a small

change in climate. The average emissions, as reported by NASA, ranges between 130 and 230

billion tonnes annually (Jameel, 2016).

2.3.1.2 Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases can be defined as the “Infrared (IR) active gases, principally water vapor

(H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and ozone (O3) naturally present in the Earth's atmosphere” which
“absorb thermal IR radiation emitted by the Earth s surface and atmosphere.” (Ledley et al.,

1999). This leads to a rise in temperature by 30°C and is also known as the ‘greenhouse effect.’

The gases responsible for such a change are known as “greenhouses gases” (Ledley et al., 1999).

The increase in such gases has caused concern for the authorities as that it is one of the major

proponents of climate change which as a result of the heat getting trapped within the Earth’s

atmosphere (NASA, n.d.).

Scientists are of the view that anthropogenic activities have been responsible for global warming

caused by the ‘greenhouse effect’ in the last century. There are particular types of gases which

act as trapping tools for the heat. Amongst these, there are two types (NASA, n.d.):

 The first type are called ‘feedbacks’ which are gases that respond ‘physically and

chemically’ to fluctuations in temperature gases while staying in the atmosphere for a

long time.

 The second type are called ‘forcing’ which are gases that do not respond ‘physically and

chemically’ without being affected by the temperature fluctuations. These gases also stay

in the atmosphere foe a prolonged period of time.

The gases fitting within the above two categories are outlined below (NASA, n.d.):

 Water vapor – Water vapors are found abundantly in the atmosphere and is amongst the

second type of gases known as ‘feedbacks.’ The increase in water vapor directly

translates to the increase in atmospheric temperature. The presence of clouds and rain,

however, can counter its effect.

 CO2 – This gas belongs to the first class of gases known for ‘forcing’ change. It is one of

the most common and essential gases found in the atmosphere. It is produced when
 human being or animals exhale. The volcanic eruptions also lead to the production of this

gas. Moreover, anthropogenic activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation,

and changes in the way land is used also lead to its production. Figures show that human

beings have caused this component of the atmosphere to increase by 48 per cent due to

industrial activities. In case of burning of fossil fuels such as coal has increased the

concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. The underlying reasoning is that when a fossil

fuel is burnt it uses the combination of carbon with oxygen and results in the production

of CO2.

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – These gases also belong to the second category of

‘forcing’ change. These are basically ‘synthetic compounds’ which are used in numerous

industrial applications such as refrigerators and ‘spray propellants.’ The harmful effect of

these gases have been regulated as of late by international contracts such as Montreal

Protocol as these gases were responsible for the ‘destruction of the ozone layer’ (Ledley

et al, 1999; NASA, n.d).

 Methane (CH4) – This gas also belongs to the first category of gases which are unaffected

by the fluctuations in temperature, however, they readily force change in temperature.

This is a hydrocarbon gas as denoted by the chemical representation of CH 4. It is

produced due to reasons with origins in natural sources as well as in anthropogenic

activities. Such anthropogenic activities include waste decomposition, and agricultural

activities such as cultivation of rice, ‘manure management associated with domestic

livestock.’ It is one of the most active of the greenhouse gases even more so than CO 2 but

it is found less abundantly in the atmosphere.

  Nitrous oxide (N2O) – This gas also belong to the first category and is one of the most

‘powerful greenhouse gas.’ It is produced by agricultural activities such as cultivation of

soil, and usage of fertilizers. Other sources include ‘biomass burning,’ ‘fossil fuel

combustion, nitric acid production.’

Anthropogenic activities have increased and changed the equilibrium of these greenhouse gases

present in the Earth’s atmosphere. Activities like brining of fossil fuels are major factors which

have led to climate change, however, other industrial, agricultural, and other anthropogenic

activities have also contributed towards increasing the level of greenhouses gases in the

atmosphere (NASA, n.d.).

2.3.2 Impact of climate change

Climate change is a result of many factors, as discussed in the precious section, but it also causes

several issues as well. The increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases may result in

(NASA, n.d.):

 Warmer temperatures – The temperature of the Earth may shift where some regions may

have to endure warmer temperatures while other may remain unaffected.

 Fluctuations in evaporation and precipitation levels – The changing temperatures may

result in changes in evaporation and precipitation levels for various regions where some

regions may become dryer and other may receive excessive rainfall.

 Melting of glaciers and rising sea levels – The strength of the greenhouse effect will have

a direct impact on how warm the ocean gets. If it is strong then it will increase the

temperature of the ocean and lead to the melting glaciers and ‘ice sheets’ which would

result in the rise in sea level. Additionally, the simple rise in temperature will cause

expansion of water bodies which would add to as further rise in sea levels.
  Other effects – The rising temperatures can lead to the extremities and natural disasters

such as flooding, and droughts. These conditions can cause a loss of agricultural produce,

‘threaten the livelihood’ of these producers, and, ultimately, pose a risk to the availability

of food on a global level.

2.4 Impact of climate change on agriculture

Climate has a huge impact on agriculture. Some of these are detailed below:

 Fluctuation in crop yields – The increased concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere can

lead to fluctuations in the yields of various crops. Some may suffer a loss while others

may have an increase in the yields. For some plants, higher levels of CO 2, can help

increase their growth rate. However, these yields may not always be achievable due to

other factors such as change in temperature, destruction of ozone layer, lack of water, and

lack of nutritional profile needed for growth. Moreover, the increase in the temperature

beyond a maximum optimum point could affect the yield adversely (NASA, n.d.).

 Diseases and pests – The change in temperatures can also lead to increases in the number

of pests found in crops. This happens due to the presence of weeds and fungi along with

pests which ‘thrive’ in higher temperatures, increased moisture content, and elevated

levels of CO2. It can also lead to emergence of new diseases which may have a threefold

effect on human beings, animals and plants. This increases the risk of ‘for food security,

food safety and human health’ (NASA, n.d.). Moreover, the presence of these pests,

weeds and diseases increase the amount of capital spent on countering their aftereffects.

An example is of a US farmers who spend $11 billion annually to counter these problems

(Halfield, 2014; as cited in EPA, n.d.). The constant mutation of these pests along with

their increase with climate change poses new risks for farmers (EPA, n.d.).
  Extreme temperatures – The presence of persistent extreme temperatures and lack of

rainfall can also result in reducing the yield of the crops. Extremities such as droughts

and flooding can have harmful consequences for crops. One example is of USA where

extreme temperatures resulted in loss of $220 million in cherries in the year 2012

(USDA, 2016; as cited in EPA, n.d.).

 Dry soil – An increase in temperature can result in the loss of moisture content from the

soil. It becomes more problematic due to drought. One solution might be to increase

irrigation to these areas to increase fertility, however, it might not be possible due to lack

of water supply or limited water supply which limits the amount of water available for

irrigation especially in cases where frequent watering is required for dry soil (EPA, n.d.).

 Decreasing nutritional value – The rise in the CO 2 concentration levels beyond a certain

level may lead to the decreasing the ‘nutritional value’ of crops as its concentration

decreases the presence of proteins, and other important nutritive elements in plants. One

example is the reduced level of protein and nitrogen in soybean plants due to elevated

CO2 (Hatfield, 2014; as cited in EPA, n.d.). It can also lead to loss of essential minerals in

crops like rice and wheat. Moreover, the increasing levels of CO 2 can have a negative

impact on the ‘human health,’ Other health risks may be posed by use of pesticides

beyond a certain level which may be impossible to control as a result of increase in pests

and lack of efficacy of these pesticides (Ziska et al., 2016).

2.5 Impact of climate change on livestock

Climate change can have a huge impact on livestock industry directly and indirectly. Some of the

impacts are discussed below:

 Impact of heat waves – The change in climate has led to the increase in heat waves. This

could threaten animals both directly and indirectly. The stress caused by heat increases

the chances of animals to get infected with diseases more often, reduce the fertility of

animals, and decrease the production of milk (EPA, n.d.). These heat waves are expected

to increase over time which puts livestock at a great risk. An example of such an event

was the ‘heat-related losses’ tantamounting to $1 billion was suffered by farmers in 2011

(Hatfield, 2014).

 Impact on pasture and feed supplies – Drought can have lasting effects on the feed

supplies. This is because it reduces the amount of ‘quality forage’ that is required for the

grazing. The regions which suffer prolonged drought seasons as a result of high

temperature and lack of rainfall are more at a risk of having problems for quality feed

supplies. Moreover, livestock that is heavily dependent on grains may suffer more due to

drought (EPA, n.d.).

 Increase in diseases – The fluctuations in temperature can also give birth to certain

diseases that may threaten the lives of the animals. The arrival of spring and warmer

seasons gives way to ‘parasites and pathogens’ where they could survive and infect

animals more easily. Areas with increased precipitation help ‘moisture-reliant pathogens’

to survive and, thus, infect livestock (CCSP, 2008; as cited in EPA, n.d.).

 Risks to food chain – Changes in the ‘veterinary practices’ such as over-reliance on using

‘parasiticides’ and various other treatments as a response to increase in diseases due to

climate change could increase the risk of ‘pesticides’ becoming a part of the ‘food chain.’

Adversely, it could also lead to ‘pesticide resistance.’ This may have consequences
 related to the ‘safety, distribution, and consumption of livestock and aquaculture

products’ (Ziska et al., 2016).

 Reduction in quality of pasture – Climate change caused by increased levels of CO 2 in the

atmosphere can be instrumental for increasing the productivity of pasture. However, this

increased productivity is not directly translated to the quality. In other words, it reduces

the quality while increasing productivity. These elevated levels of CO 2 also increases the

productivity of plants which serve as feed for animals. The same applies here where the

increased levels of CO2 reduces the nutritional value of these plants. Therefore, animals

have to be fed more to make up for the lack of nutrients present in the feed (EPA, n.d.).

2.6 Adaptation measures

Adaptation strategies can increase the resilience of crops and help improve the productivity of

animals (USDA, 2013). These measures can have a significant effect in managing the impact of

climate on agriculture and livestock (FAO, 2009).

These involve the ‘production and management system modifications, breeding strategies,

institutional and policy changes, science and technology advances, and changing farmers’

perception and adaptive capacity’ (USDA, 2013; as cited in Rojas-Downing, 2017). However,

which measures to apply requires careful consideration based on the particular problems and the

underlying system.

2.6.1 Adaptive capacity and the perception of farmers

One of the most important factors required for the employment of any plan is the capability of

farmers to identify that a problem exists. Only then can it be addressed by way of adopting

adaptation or mitigation measures (Jones et al., 2013). This makes it essential to have
information on what farmers perceive about these measures. One way is to carry out a qualitative

review by using open-ended questions or having detailed interviews to understand their opinions

as well as the underlying reasoning behind this reasoning (Barnes et al., 2008). By catering for

the perception of farmers who are facing the difficulties on the field, a better ‘rural development’

policy can be designed. Not only will it be more effective at addressing the problems but it will

also have address other ‘environmental conservation objectives’ (Olivier et al., 2012).

Educational programs, and building social farming communities can also help farmers become

less risk-averse. A study by Barnes (2013) evaluated risk perception of dairy farmers with

respect to climate change. The results of the study showed that the family members of farmers

make them more risk-averse towards climate change and, ultimately, impact the planning

process. It was concluded that the ‘social capital farming communities’ should be put in place to

promote communication for better acceptance of risks associated to climate change (Rojas-

Downing et a;., 2017).

2.6.2 Production and management system

This measure requires modifications to be made in the production and management systems

related to crops and animals. These modifications include (IFAD, 2010; as cited in Rojas-

Downing et al., 2017):

 ‘changing the timing and locations of farm operations’

 effectively integrating systems of crop production and ‘forestry’ with ‘livestock systems’

 having diverse animals and crops

The farmers who maintain diverse animals and crops are at better odds at countering the effects

caused by climate change in the form of heat wave or drought. This would also help increase

productivity even when the livestock is exposed to extreme conditions. It also helps fight against

diseases that take birth as a result of climate change (IFAD, 2010).

Another measure could be the plantation of trees by the crop fields and pastures to counter

elevated CO2 levels, protect the environment, and manage land without compromising on

agricultural production. This practice is known as ‘Agroforestry.’ It would help increase overall

productivity and improve ‘quality of air, soil, and water, biodiversity, pests and diseases, and

improves nutrient cycling’ (Rojas-Downing et al., 2017).

Food security can be improved by employment of systems that rely on a mix of crop and

livestock. This system has been successfully employed in more than half of the world. This type

of system can also improve the efficiency as it has the potential to produce more crops on less

surface area and uses a limited amount of resources (Herrero et al., 2010).

An improvement in feeding practices helps increase the productivity of livestock (Havlík et al.,

2013). Renaudeau et al., (2012) suggests that in order to increase productivity the diet macros

should be modified. He also suggests changing ‘feeding time and/or frequency’ to increase

efficiency. Other measures include inclusion of ‘agroforestry’ plants in diet, and providing

proper training to these farmers to better manage the diets of their livestock (Rojas-Downing et

al., 2017). This can not only increase productivity but also counter impact of climate change as

the ‘heat load’ would be lower, and ‘reducing animal malnutrition and mortality’ (IFAD, 2010;

as cited in Rojas-Downing et al., 2017).

Another adaptive measure is to keep switching the places where livestock graze and crops are

grown as to prevent ‘soil erosion’ and ‘nutrient retention.’ Crops could also be rotated during

times when there is variability in precipitation (Rojas-Downing et al., 2017).

2.6.3 Breeding strategy

A change in the breeding strategy can also have a huge impact in the tolerance levels of animals

against heat waves and diseases caused by rise in temperature. This could also increase their rate

of growth and benefit their development in a positive way (Henry et al., 2012). However, this

area requires further research to arrive at strategies that do not compromise growth and

development of livestock (Thornton et al., 2008). The policies put forth by the government is a

crucial step for this measure. An example is the development of the gene bank which could help

improve the breeding programs in place (Rojas-Downing et al., 2017).

2.7 Mitigation measures

Mitigation measures can help improve and manage the impact that livestock and agriculture has

on climate (Dickie et al. 2014). These mitigation strategies are an integral part of managing the

effect of livestock and agriculture on climate change (FAO, 2009). These measures help counter

the greenhouse gas emissions that can have an impact on the climate. Some options include

‘manure management,’ ‘carbon sequestration,’ and using the fertilizers effectively. But, for these

measures to be successful, they requires government support (Rojas-Downing et al., 2017).

2.7.1 Manure Management

The ‘anaerobic treatment’ is one of the major causes of the CH 4. Mitigation measures for such

are rathe difficult to employ due to dispersion of manure. Therefore, the mitigation measures

include ‘shortening storage duration, improving timing and application of manure, used of
anaerobic digesters, covering the storage, using a solids separator, and changing the animal diets’

(ICF International, 2013; as cited in Rojas-Downing et al., 2017). The ‘anaerobic digestion’ can

also lead to production of biogas. For this matter, ‘anaerobic digestors’ are employed to capture

the release of biogas and utilize it as an ‘energy’ source. This way the emissions are reduced but

it is difficult to employ because it is costly. Government has an important role to play here where

they could give ‘incentives’ for adaptation of digestors. Other low-cost alternatives include

(Rojas-Downing et al., 2017):

 covering ‘ponds’ and ‘lagoons,’

 cutting down the time duration for storing manure

 enhancing ‘waste management systems’

 ‘removing bedding from manure by using a solids separator’ – it helps reduce methane

emissions and prevents ‘crust formation’

These practices, in contrast to ‘anaerobic digestors’ require a longer period of time and work.

Another way to manage manure could be to change the diet of the livestock to have balance of

nutrients (Rojas-Downning et al., 2017).

2.7.2 Carbon sequestration

This is achieved through (as cited in Rojas-Downning et al., 2017):

 opting for crops that result in higher yields (Steinfeld et al., 2006)

 “decreasing deforestation rates, reversing of deforestation by replanting” (Carvalho et

al., 2004)

 management of water (Steinfeld et al., 2006)

  Land management (Steinfeld et al., 2006)

A study by Gerber et al. (2013) demonstrates that the improving the efficiency of livestock and

crops resulted in the reduction of greenhouse gases by 25 per cent. Another way to mitigate the

effects is to cultivate soil through ‘conservation tillage, erosion reduction, soil acidity

management, double-cropping, crop rotations, higher crop residues, mulching’ etc. (Rojas-

Downing, et al., 2017).

Another technique is to improve pasture management by planting more trees, ‘introducing

earthworms,’ etc. Increasing the number of livestock in grasslands where lower number of

animals graze can also help in increasing ‘grass productivity’ (Rojas-Downing, et al., 2017).

2.7.3 Fertilizer management

The efficient use of fertilizers can also help reduce the production of N2O (Bouwman, 1996).

Several measures could be employed for this matter including (Rojas-Downing, et al., 2017):

 efficient use of nitrogen – it can be enhanced by only applying nitrogen when it is

needed.

 soil testing on regular basis – it can become an important component of ‘nutrient

management plan’ with consideration to the area and type of crops.

 use of ‘technologically advanced fertilizers’ – these fertilizers have the ability to inhibit

‘nitrification’ which slows the ‘degradation of fertilizer’ and ensure that all the nutrients

are available for the plant growth.

 using a mixture of ‘legumes’ with grass – the use of legumes counters nitrogen through a

bacteria present in them which results in reducing the overall need for nitrogen.
 ‘genetic modifications’ – it can help cut down on the use of fertilizers.
 References

Barnes, A., Beechener, S., Cao, Y., Elliot, J., Harris, D., Jones, G., Whiting, M., 2008. Market

Segmentation in the Agriculture Sector: Climate Change, DEFRA Project FF0201. ADAS, UK.

Barnes, A.P., 2013. Heterogeneity in climate change risk perception amongst dairy farmers: a

latent class clustering analysis. Appl. Geogr. 41, 105–115.

Biswas AK, Masakhalia YFO, Odero-Ogwel LA, and Pallangyo EP (1987) Land use and

farming systems in the Horn of Africa. Land Use Policy 4:419-443

Bouwman, A.F., 1996. Direct emission of nitrous oxide from agricultural soils. Nutr. Cycl.

Agroecosyst. 46 (1), 53–70

Campbell DJ (1981) Landuse competition at the margins of the rangelands: an issue in

development strategies for semiarid areas. In Norcliffe G., and Pinfold T. (eds.), Planning

African Development, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.

Carter RC (1986) Small-Scale Irrigation in Africa. A Casebook. FAO-Silsoe College, Rome,

FAO

Carvalho, G., Moutinho, P., Nepstad, D., Mattos, L., Santilli, M., 2004. An Amazon perspective

on the forest–climate connection: opportunity for climate mitigation, conservation and

development? Environ. Dev. Sustainability 6 (1–2), 163–174.

CCSP (2008). The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources,

and Biodiversity in the United States. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program

and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Backlund, P., A. Janetos, D. Schimel, J.

Hatfield, K. Boote, P. Fay, L. Hahn, C. Izaurralde, B.A. Kimball, T. Mader, J. Morgan, D. Ort,
W. Polley, A. Thomson, D. Wolfe, M. Ryan, S. Archer, R. Birdsey, C. Dahm, L. Heath, J. Hicke,

D. Hollinger, T. Huxman, G. Okin, R. Oren, J. Randerson, W. Schlesinger, D. Lettenmaier, D.

Major, L. Poff, S. Running, L. Hansen, D. Inouye, B.P. Kelly, L Meyerson, B. Peterson, and R.

Shaw. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA.

Chhogyel N, Kumar L, Bajgai Y, Hasan MK (2020) Perception of farmers on climate change and

its impacts on agriculture across various altitudinal zones of Bhutan Himalayas. Int J Environ Sci

Technol, 17,3607–3620.

Daron, J. D., & Stainforth, D. A. (2013). On predicting climate under climate

change. Environmental Research Letters, 8(3), 034021.

Dickie, A., Streck, C., Roe, S., Zurek, M., Haupt, F., Dolginow, A., 2014. Strategies for

mitigating climate change in agriculture: Abridged report. Climate focus and california

environmental associates, prifadred with the support of the climate and land use Alliance.

Dymnikov, V. P., & Gritsoun, A. S. (2001). Climate model attractors: chaos, quasi-regularity and

sensitivity to small perturbations of external forcing. Nonlinear Processes in Geophysics, 8(4/5),

201-209.

EPA (n.d.). Climate Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply. Available at

https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-agriculture-and-food-

supply_.html

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2009b. The state of food and

agriculture: Livestock in the balance. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Gerber, P.J., Steinfeld, H., Henderson, B., Mottet, A., Opio, C., Dijkman, J., Falcucci, A.,

Tempio, G., 2013. Tackling Climate Change Through Livestock: A Global Assessment of

Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities. FAO, Rome.

Glantz MH (1986) Drought, famine and the seasons in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Climate and

Human Health, Proceedings of the Symposium. Vol. I, 22-26

Hatfield, J., G. Takle, R. Grotjahn, P. Holden, R. C. Izaurralde, T. Mader, E. Marshall, and D.

Liverman, 2014: Ch. 6: Agriculture. Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third

National Climate Assessment, J. M. Melillo, Terese (T.C.) Richmond, and G. W. Yohe, Eds.,

U.S. Global Change Research Program, 150-174. 

Havlík, P., Valin, H., Mosnier, A., Obersteiner, M., Baker, J.S., Herrero, M., Rufino, M.C.,

Schmid, E., 2013. Crop productivity and the global livestock sector: Implications for land use

change and greenhouse gas emissions. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 95, 442–448

Henry, B., Charmley, E., Eckard, R., Gaughan, J.B., Hegarty, R., 2012. Livestock production in

a changing climate: adaptation and mitigation research in Australia. Crop Pasture Sci. 63, 191–

202.

Herrero, M., Thornton, P.K., Kruska, R., Reid, R.S., 2008. Systems dynamics and the spatial

distribution of methane emissions from African domestic ruminants to 2030. Agric. Ecosyst.

Environ. 126, 122–137.

Herrero, M., Thornton, P.K., Notenbaert, A.M., Wood, S., Msangi, S., Freeman, H.A., Bossio,

D., Dixon, J., Peters, M., van de Steeg, J., Lynam, J., ParthasarathyRao, P., Macmillan, S.,
Gerard, B., McDermott, J., Sere, C., Rosegrant, M., 2010. Smart investments in sustainable food

production: revisiting mixed croplivestock systems. Science 327, 822–825.

Horowitz MM, and Salem-Murdock M (1987) The political economy of desertification in White

Nile province, Sudan. In: Little PD, Horowitz MM, Nyerges AE (eds.) Lands at Risk in the Third

World: Local Level Perspectives. Westview Press, London

Hulme, M., Dessai, S., Lorenzoni, I., & Nelson, D. R. (2009). Unstable climates: Exploring the

statistical and social constructions of ‘normal’climate. Geoforum, 40(2), 197-206.

ICF International, 2013. Greenhouse gas mitigation options and costs for agricultural land and

animal production within the United States.

IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development), 2010. Livestock and climate change.

IPCC, (2018). Annex I: Glossary. In V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J.

Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R.

Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield

(eds.), Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of

1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the

context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable

development, and efforts to eradicate poverty.

IPCC, 2014. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of

Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change.
Jones, A.K., Jones, D.L., Edwards-Jones, G., Cross, P., 2013. Informing decision making in

agricultural greenhouse gas mitigation policy: a best-worst scaling survey of expert and farmer

opinion in the sheep industry. Environ. Sci. Policy 29, 46–56.

Kamm H (1990) One sign of our times: world's refugee flood. The New York Times

Karl, T. R., Melillo, J. M., Peterson, T. C., & Hassol, S. J. (Eds.). (2009). Global climate change

impacts in the United States. Cambridge University Press.

Kimmage K (1991) Small-scale irrigation initiatives in Nigeria: The problems of equity and

sustainability. Applied Geography 11:5-20

Ledley, T. S., Sundquist, E. T., Schwartz, S. E., Hall, D. K., Fellows, J. D., & Killeen, T. L.

(1999). Climate change and greenhouse gases. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical

Union, 80(39), 453-458.

Little, PD (1987). Land use conflicts in the agricultural/pastoral borderland: the case of Kenya.

In: Little PD, Horowitz MM, Nyerges AE (eds.) Lands at Risk in the Third World: Local Level

Perspectives. Westview Press, London

Maxwell D, Fitzpatrick M (2012) The 2011 Somalia famine: Context, causes, and complications.

Global Food Security. 1:5-12

McCabe JT (1990) Success and failure: the breakdown of traditional drought coping institutions

among the pastoral Turkana of Kenya. Journal of Asian and African Studies 25:146-159

NASA (n.d.). the Causes of Climate Change. Available at https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/

Olivier, J.G., Janssens-Maenhout, G., 2012. Part III: Greenhouse gas emissions, in: International

Energy Agency (IEA), CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion, 2012 Ed, Paris, France, pp. III.1–

III.51.

Palmer, T. N. (1999). A nonlinear dynamical perspective on climate prediction. Journal of

Climate, 12(2), 575-591.

Pielke Jr, R. A. (2004). What is climate change?. Energy & environment, 15(3), 515-520.

Renaudeau, D., Collin, A., Yahav, S., De Basilio, V., Gourdine, J.L., Collier, R.J., 2012.

Adaptation to hot climate and strategies to alleviate heat stress in livestock production. Animal 6

(05), 707–728.

Rojas-Downing, M. M., Nejadhashemi, A. P., Harrigan, T., & Woznicki, S. A. (2017). Climate

change and livestock: Impacts, adaptation, and mitigation. Climate Risk Management, 16, 145-

163.

Scudder T (1989) River basin projects in Africa. Environment 31: 432

Shepherd A (1985) Water, pastoralism and irrigation schemes in eastern Sudan: development of

the Butana prairie. Papers in the Administration of Development No. 22, Development

Administration Group, University of Birmingham, UK.

Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T., Castel, V., Rosales, M., Haan, C., 2006. Livestock’s

Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. FAO, Rome.

Swinton SM (1988) Drought survival tactics of subsistence farmers in Niger. Human Ecology

16:123-144
The World Bank (2018). Agriculture Remains Key to Somalia’s Economic Growth and Poverty

Reduction. Available at

https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/03/28/agriculture-remains-key-to-

somalias-economic-growth-and-poverty-reduction

Thornton P.K., Herrero M., Freeman A., Mwai O., Rege E., Jones P., McDermott J., 2008.

Vulnerability, climate change and livestock: Research opportunities and challenges for poverty

alleviation. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya.

Toulmin C (1985) Livestock losses and post-drought rehabilitation in sub-Saharan Africa. LPU

Working Paper No. 9, International Livestock Center for Africa, Addis Ababa

Unruh, J. D. (1991). Nomadic pastoralism and irrigated agriculture in

Somalia. GeoJournal, 25(1), 91-108.

 USDA (2016). Economic Research Service, undated. What is Agriculture’s Share of the Overall

US Economy?

USDA (United States Department of Agriculture), 2013. Climate Change and Agriculture in the

United States: Effects and Adaptation. USDA technical bulletin, Washington, DC.

Warsame, A. A., Sheik-Ali, I. A., Ali, A. O., & Sarkodie, S. A. (2021). Climate change and crop

production nexus in Somalia: an empirical evidence from ARDL technique. Environmental

Science and Pollution Research, 28(16), 19838-19850.

Werndl, C. (2016). On defining climate and climate change. The British Journal for the

Philosophy of Science, 67(2), 337-364.

Winter R and Prendergast J (1990) An embargo for the people of Sudan. The Washington Post
Ziska, L., A. Crimmins, A. Auclair, S. DeGrasse, J.F. Garofalo, A.S. Khan, I. Loladze, A.A.

Pérez de León, A. Showler, J. Thurston, and I. Walls, 2016: Ch. 7: Food Safety, Nutrition, and

Distribution. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific

Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, 189–216.