CLIMATE-SMART

AGRICULTURE AND RURAL

HOUSEHOLD INCOME IN
ONDO STATE, NIGERIA

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 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 ................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 ............................................................................. 10
LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 10
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

T
he agricultural sector has to produce more food and it will
be certainly impacted by climate change. As an integral part
of the economy, it has also been called upon to contribute
to mitigating climate change, United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC 2008) (Lovett et al.,
2009). The question is how and to what extent agriculture and food
systems can contribute to climate change mitigation without
compromising food and nutrition security. Climate change poses
major risks for food production, livelihoods, and nutrition through
high temperatures, erratic rainfall, drought, flooding, and sea level
rise Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Masson-
Delmotte et al., 2021). On the flip side, agriculture and food
systems produce almost a third of global greenhouse gas
emissions—yet they could be a global carbon sink supporting
vulnerable small-scale producers to adapt to climate change and
reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agri-food value chains are
essential for sustaining food systems and ensuring food and
nutrition security, Consultative Group on International

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Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The compelling evidence of
climate change is indisputable, with global ramifications that
particularly impact impoverished rural households in developing
nations, as highlighted in studies by Asfaw et al., (2018), Gupta et
al., (2019), and Omerkhil et al., (2020). Numerous investigations,
such as those conducted by Bandara and Cai (2014) and Das et al.,
(2020), underscore the vulnerability of rural farm households in
developing countries to the adverse effects of climate change.
Additional empirical research by (Knox et al., 2012), (Sato et al.,
2020; Tabata et al., 2020; Tumbo et al., 2020), (Ureta et al.,
2020)and (Kricorian et al., 2020) reveals that even a modest
temperature increase negatively impacts (Kraemer & Maurer, 2008)
crucial cereal crops like rice, maize, and wheat, particularly affecting
rain-fed farmers. Due to their dependence on rain-fed agriculture,
these farmers are disproportionately affected by climate change,
leading to compromised production, diminished food supplies, and
an upsurge in poverty.(Danso-Abbeam et al., 2021). Nevertheless,
it is crucial to acknowledge that climate change may also yield
positive outcomes.

Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach to help the

people who manage agricultural systems respond effectively to
climate change. The CSA approach pursues the triple objectives
of sustainably increasing productivity and incomes, adapting to
climate change, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions where
possible. (HADAD-ZERVOS, 2017a) It is important to note that
the implementation of every practice in all locations may not yield
universal "triple wins." Instead, the CSA approach aims to
minimize trade-offs and foster synergies by considering these
objectives when making decisions at local, regional, and global
levels, over both short and long-term horizons. The goal is to
derive solutions that are locally acceptable, as emphasized by the

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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
Given that the majority of the world's impoverished population
resides in rural areas, where agriculture constitutes a primary source
of income, enhancing the productivity and incomes of smallholder
crop, livestock, fish, and forest production systems becomes
pivotal for achieving global food security in the coming decades.
Notably, developing countries are anticipated to bear the brunt of
climate change, experiencing higher temperatures, altered
precipitation patterns, rising sea levels, and more frequent extreme
weather events.(Nkumulwa & Pauline, 2021).

Agriculture is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions.

Mitigation can often be a significant co-benefit of actions to
strengthen adaptation and enhance food security, and thus
mitigation action compatible with national development priorities
for agriculture is an important aspect of CSA, (FAO, 2023).
Smallholder farmers across East Africa have started to embrace
climate-resilient farming approaches and technologies, according
to new research recently published by the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) The Climate Change,
Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS) Research Program
highlights that, concurrently, survey findings indicate that a
majority of alterations in farming practices are evolutionary rather
than revolutionary.(CGIAR, 2022). Moreover, the prevalence of
elevated levels of food insecurity acts as a hindrance, preventing
many individuals from implementing the comprehensive changes
required to effectively address the challenges posed by a shifting
climate, as indicated by the CGIAR. (CGIAR, 2012)

In 2005, agriculture (crop and livestock) directly accounted for

13.5 percent of global GHG emissions, Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change. This figure is based on activities carried out in

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the fields and with livestock. But agriculture’s role in climate
change and, importantly, its mitigation potential, should be
considered from a wider perspective of ‘food systems’. This

includes the impact these systems have on forests, the energy

sector, and transport. Expanding our consideration of agriculture’s
role in climate change is warranted because some of the on-farm
emissions are not included in the 13.5 percent figure, but are
grouped in other sectors, such as electricity used in farm buildings
and fuel used in farm equipment and food transport. Also,
agriculture is a major driver of deforestation, which roughly
accounts for an additional 17 percent of global GHG emissions
(CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and
Food Security). This is why agriculture is included in the study on
the drivers of deforestation, which was requested by the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
on the 17th Conference of the Parties (COP 17) in Cancun to the
Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA).
Climate change is a global environmental issue that has been a
major concern for researchers, policymakers, and the general
public. This has become a global concern due to its adverse effects
on agriculture and food production. Climate change has become a
global challenge affecting both developed and developing
countries. In Nigeria, where the agricultural sector contributes
significantly to the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the
sector is vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate change, and
rural farmers have been particularly affected (Haywood & Schulz,
2007).

To achieve food security and agricultural development goals,

adaptation to climate change and lower emission intensities per
output will be necessary. This transformation must be

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accomplished without depletion of the natural resource base
(World Bank, 2011 2017b). Enhancing food security while
contributing to mitigating climate change and preserving the
natural resource base and vital ecosystem services requires the
transition to agricultural production systems that are more
productive, use inputs more efficiently, have less variability and
greater stability in their outputs, and are more resilient to risks,
shocks, and long-term climate variability.

Problem Statement
Despite the potential benefits of Climate-Smart Agriculture
(CSA), the adoption and implementation of CSA practices have
been slow in many developing countries, including Africa. This is
primarily attributed to a lack of awareness, knowledge, and
technical skills among smallholder farmers, who are the primary
beneficiaries of CSA practices. The limited uptake of CSA practices
hinders the ability of rural communities to effectively mitigate the
impacts of climate change and improve their livelihoods. Climate
change has become a pressing global issue, and its impact on
agriculture and rural communities cannot be ignored. In Nigeria,
the agricultural sector is a significant contributor to the economy,
particularly in rural areas. Climate change poses substantial
challenges to agricultural productivity and sustainability, which
directly impact the income and livelihoods of rural households
(World Bank, 2011). Rural communities heavily rely on agriculture
as their primary income source (Johnson et al., 2010; Moffitt &
Cajas-Cano, 2014). However, climate-related challenges, such as
shifts in temperature and rainfall patterns, pose significant threats
to agricultural productivity and livelihoods (IPCC, 2014). These
challenges result in decreased rural household income,
perpetuating poverty and food insecurity (Nhemachena et al.,

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2007). Addressing this issue requires the implementation of
climate-smart agricultural practices (FAO, 2013). However, there
is a lack of comprehensive research on the relationship between
climate-smart agriculture and rural household income, particularly
in the study area.

Rural income, derived from agricultural activities such as crop

cultivation and livestock rearing, is vital for the livelihoods of
households in rural areas. However, rural households face
challenges including limited market access, inadequate
infrastructure, and adverse environmental conditions. In the study
area, agriculture is the primary income source, supporting both
subsistence and commercial farming. However, reliance on
traditional practices and the effects of climate change pose
significant obstacles to rural income generation. Climate change,
through temperature and rainfall shifts, and extreme weather
events, directly and indirectly affect agricultural productivity,
leading to crop failures, livestock losses, and reduced output.
Consequently, rural household income decreases, exacerbating
poverty and food insecurity

Therefore, it is crucial to explore and understand the

relationship between climate-smart agriculture and rural household
income in the area. This research aims to investigate the impact of
adopting climate-smart agricultural practices on rural household
income, providing valuable insights for policymakers and
stakeholders. By addressing the identified problem, this project
seeks to contribute to the design and implementation of effective
strategies that promote climate-smart agricultural practices,
improve rural livelihoods, and enhance the overall resilience of
agricultural systems in the study area.

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 Research Questions
To address the objectives of the study and gain a
comprehensive understanding of the relationship between climate-
smart agriculture and rural household income in the study area, the
following research questions will be explored:

 What are the socio-economic characteristics of farmers in

the study area?

 What are the climate-smart adaptation strategies being

implemented in the study area?

 What are the factors that influence the adoption of climate-

smart agricultural practices in the study area?

 How does the adoption of climate-smart agriculture

adaptation strategies impact household income in the study
area?

Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of the study is to investigate climate-smart
agriculture and rural household income in Akoko North East of
Ondo State, Nigeria. The specific objectives of the study are to:

 ascertain the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers

in the area;

 identify the climate-smart adaptation strategies in the area;

 estimate the factors affecting the adoption of climate-smart

agricultural practices in the area; and

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  determine the effect of climate-smart agriculture adaptation
on household income

Significance of the Study

The research findings will provide crucial insights to
policymakers and government agencies responsible for
formulating effective strategies and policies. These insights will
inform the development of evidence-based approaches that
promote climate-smart agriculture and sustainable rural
development, addressing the specific challenges encountered by
rural communities in Akoko North East. Policymakers will be able
to leverage the study's outcomes to design targeted interventions
that enhance income levels, improve agricultural productivity, and
increase resilience to climate change impacts.

The study directly benefits farmers and rural households by

identifying effective climate-smart adaptation strategies, the
research outcomes will empower farmers and rural households to
enhance their income levels, improve agricultural productivity, and
increase their resilience to climate change impacts. This will
contribute to poverty reduction, increased food security, and
improved livelihoods within these communities.

Agricultural Extension Services and NGOs operating in the

study area can make use of this researched work as useful tools by
sourcing important and evidence-based information and practical
recommendations, the study will assist these organizations in
promoting climate-smart agricultural practices and supporting rural
income generation. The research will equip them with the
necessary insights to design and implement targeted programs that
facilitate the adoption of climate-smart practices and provide
necessary support to farmers and rural households.

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 The study findings will also be of interest to financial
institutions and investors seeking to support climate-smart
agriculture initiatives. The research outcomes will facilitate the
assessment of investment opportunities in the study area.
Moreover, the study will provide insights for the development of
tailored financial products that cater to the specific needs of rural
farmers. This will encourage investment in climate-smart
agriculture and rural development, promoting sustainable
economic growth in the region.

The research outcomes will contribute to the existing body of

knowledge on climate change, rural income, and agricultural
practices. Serving as a reference for future researchers, the study
will inspire further exploration and innovation in the field of
climate-smart agriculture and its impact on rural household
income. It will encourage continued research efforts to expand
understanding and promote sustainable agricultural practices
within the context of rural development.

The study insights and recommendations align with the United

Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly
Goal 1 (No Poverty), Goal 2 (Zero Hunger), and Goal 13 (Climate
Action). By addressing poverty, food security, and climate change
mitigation and adaptation at the local level, the research outcomes
contribute to the achievement of these global targets. The study
plays a vital role in bridging the gap between the SDGs and the
local context, supporting sustainable development efforts in
Akoko North East and beyond.

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Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Climate-Smart Agriculture: Understanding the Path to

Resilient Farming

C
limate change poses significant challenges to agricultural
systems worldwide. As the frequency and intensity of
extreme weather events increase, farmers face mounting
pressures to adapt their practices and ensure food security. In
response to these challenges, the concept of Climate-Smart
Agriculture (CSA) has emerged as a promising approach to
promoting sustainable and resilient farming. Sub-Saharan Africa is
a region where rural households depend heavily on agriculture and
where farming systems are highly sensitive to volatile climatic
conditions (Rudi et al., 2012). By 2080, global agricultural
productivity will decline by 3–16%. The loss in Africa could be
even higher with 17–28% (FAO, 2011). Less developed countries
continue to insist that significant reductions in GHG emissions are
a precondition for the effectiveness of climate change adaptation
initiatives (Rudi et al., 2012). African countries still desperately
need to improve their agricultural production systems and tackle

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the threats of climate change and uncertainty, given the limited
progress made within the United Nations Framework Convention
(Ramirez et al., 2013). Given that agriculture is the leader in most
low-income developing countries, the resilience of farming systems
in adapting to climate change is crucial (Conant, 2009).
Improvements in farm production systems also provide a major
mitigation source by increasing carbon stocks in terrestrial systems
and reducing emissions by increasing efficiency (Mahendra et al.,
2011).

Climate-Smart Agriculture Definition

Climate-Smart Agriculture is a holistic and integrated approach
that aims to enhance agricultural productivity, promote climate
resilience, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Lipper et al.,
2014). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines CSA
as "agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, enhances
resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes greenhouse gases
(mitigation), and enhances achievement of national food security
and development goals" (FAO, 2013).

Three Pillars of Climate-Smart Agriculture:

The CSA concept encompasses three main pillars that form
the foundation of its approach:

 Productivity: This pillar focuses on improving the

efficiency and productivity of agricultural systems through
the adoption of innovative practices, improved
technologies, and better resource management (Vermeulen
et al., 2012). Increasing productivity is vital to meet the
growing global food demand while minimizing the
expansion of agricultural land and mitigating environmental
impacts.

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  Adaptation: The adaptation pillar centers on building
resilience in agriculture to cope with the adverse impacts of
climate change. This involves implementing measures that
enhance the capacity of farms to withstand and recover
from extreme events such as droughts, floods, and heat
waves (Lobell et al., 2014).

 Mitigation: Mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from

agricultural activities is crucial for climate change
mitigation. The mitigation pillar of CSA emphasizes the
adoption of practices that reduce emissions of carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O)
from agriculture, thereby contributing to global efforts to
limit climate change (Smith et al., 2014).

Benefits and Challenges of Implementing Climate-Smart

Agriculture:
Implementing CSA practices offers numerous benefits to
farmers and the environment. By enhancing productivity and
resilience, CSA can contribute to improved livelihoods, food
security, and rural development (Campbell et al., 2014).
Additionally, CSA practices can help reduce pressure on forests
and natural ecosystems, conserving biodiversity and ecosystem
services (Tittonell et al., 2016). However, there are also challenges
associated with the adoption of CSA. These include the need for
substantial investments in research, extension services, and
infrastructure to support the transition to climate-smart practices.
Additionally, policy and institutional support are essential to create
an enabling environment for CSA adoption at scale (Garrity et al.,
2010).

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