LITERATURE

WORLD LITERATURE

French Literature
French literature is considered one of the greatest literatures if all time. In general, it is
focused on national pride and national identity. It is also a fact that most European literary
movements originated from France – making its literature worth reading and emanating.

The Middle Ages

10th Century - most writers used Latin in their works
11th Century - literature in French emerged in the form of epics and
poems
- the “Chanson de Geste” was written – this is about the heroic deeds of
the knights battling with or against Charlemagne
- “Chanson of Roland” was written
- considered a masterpiece among the 80 chansons
- about the death of Charlemagne’s nephew, Roland
12th Century - The “Romans Courtois” was written.
- written in verse in Roman tongue
- must be read aloud before an aristocratic audience
- about the heroism of the knights fighting for their ladies
- most were set at King Arthur’s court
- steeped in the Celtic Mythology of Brittany, Cornwall,
and Wales
- “Tristan and Isseult” was written
- evocated a love that is as strong as death
- inspired poets in Europe
- this was the basis of “Tristan and Isolde” by Richard
Wagner
- Chretien de Troye was considered the greatest poet of
this era
- he wrote “Erec”, “Lancelot”, and “Perceval”
- Lais became very famous
- these are short Roman Courtois
- Marie de France was the most famous writer of Lais
- “Roman de la Rose” was written
- this is the single most significant medieval poem
 - the first part was written by Guillaume de Lorris (1230)
- the second part was written 40 years after by Jean de
Meung
- the Fabliaux become famous
- these were short narratives in simple, earthy, and
bantering Verses
- fables were also famous
- fables are stories with animals as the characters
- the most celebrated fable of this time is “Reynard the
Fox”
- the “Testament” (1461) was written by Francois Villion -
the greatest poet of the late medieval period
- Billion was a thief, murderer, and prison inmate

The French Renaissance

1534 - Francois Rebalais pioneered the rebirth in France
through his work “Gargantua”
1500’s - the literature and thought of antiquity was revived
- printed books became popular
- translation of ancient texts were encouraged
- precise critical methods were developed
- Humanism was forged
- Protestantism emerged and competed with Catholicism
pioneered by John Calvin
- Michel de Montaigne, a humanist, invented the genre,
“essay”
- Pierre de Ronsard was considered by the prince of
Renaissance poets

The Victory of Classicism

17th Century - considered the Golden Age of literature (the reign of
Louis XIV)
- the reinforcement od royalty and the Catholic Church
was evident
1635 - Cardinal Richelieu founded the “Academie Francaise”
- the aims of the school were language regulation and
literary expression
1600’s - there was a faction between writers who are for
 creative freedom (baroque) and those who are for strict
acceptance of literary rules
- Classicism won over baroque
- Nicolas Boileau-Despreaux, founder of literary criticism,
codified the components of French Classicism
- in his book, “Art of Poetry” (1674) he said that
outstanding literary values must be reason, proportion
and harmony
- two great dramatists emerged in this period
- Pierre Corneille
- wrote “The Cid” (1637) – it is a conflict between Duty
and Passion
- wrote in accordance with Aristotelian ideals of Time,
Place and Action
- Jean Racine
- wrote “Andromache” (1667) and “Phaedra” (1677)
- used a simpler style in writing and used realistic
characters and plot structures
- novels in this era were long, diffused, and filled with
improbable Adventures

The French Enlightenment

18th Century - characterized by the spirit of scientific inquiry
- the French monarchy experienced a decline in authority
- Pierre Bayle wrote “Dictionnaire Historique et Critique”
(1704) - he was an advocate of religious toleration
- he set the tone of the literature of that century with his
works
1700’s - Voltaire wrote “Dictionnaire Philosophique” (1764)
- he wrote tragedies in classical mode, works of history,
deistic poetry and light verse
- Charles de Montesquieu wrote “The Spirit of the Laws”
(1748) - he adopted the method of comparative analysis
- Jean Jacques Rosseau wrote “The Social Contract”
(1762) - he asserted the idea of the collective sovereignty of the
people
- he was a forerunner of Romanticism and popularized
the term “return to nature”
 - poetry in this century was characterized by the
desiccating influence of rational analysis
- only one poet emerged – Andre Chanier
- his works were influenced by harmonies of classical
Greek and by love of liberty

The 19th Century French Literature

19th Century - characterized by the transition and triumph of the
Romantic Movement that started in the 18th century
- poetry regained its strength as a literary genre
- novels dominated this era because of its suitability in registering Social
Upheavais
- most of the themes in literary works were the conflicts between
Reactionaires and Liberals; The Church and the Anticlericals; and the
Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat
1800’s - Vicomte de Chateaubriand wrote a novel defending the
Catholic Church entitled “The Beauties of Christianity”
(1802)
- Alphonse de Lamartine brought French poetry back to its lyric roots with
“Meditations Poetiques” (1820)
- Theophile Gautier made the first break in Romanticism who has the
credo “Art for Art’s Sake”
- he announced the arrival of the Parnassians – a group of poets who
believed in the importance of formal perfection and objectivity
- Charles Baudelaire wrote “The Flowers of Evil” (1857)
- he had Parnassian influences but he was determined to create beauty
out of morbid and horrific things
1830-1850 - there were enormous changes in terms of novels in the
span of 50 years
- Madame George San exemplified romanticism in its most individualistic
sense.
- Stendhal injected the dominant role of passion in a romantic novel
- Victor Hugo, the representative of the romantic credo, evocated
medieval Parisian life, seen in his work “The Hunchback of Notre Dame”
(1831)
- Honore de Balzac introduced Realism in the latter part of the century
through his work “Human Comedy” (1842)
 - Realism was triumphantly realized in the novel, “Madame Bovary” by
Gustave Flaubert (1857)
- Guy de Maupassant wrote short stories that were characterized by irony
and reality

The 20th Century French Literature

20th Century - characterized by the expansion in literary works and the
fast paced experimentation with fresher means of expression
- most works were influenced by Marxism and Freudianism
- symbolisms continued to be the inspiration of French poets
- Guillaume Apollinaire coined the term “Surrealist”
- Surrealism’s aim is to revolutionize poetry through an exploration of the
subconscious
1930’s - Jean Paul Sartre led the existentialist movement in
France
- he believes that human beings have the right to choose and to forge
one’s own values
1950’s - the Antinovel or the New Novel became popular
- the writers of antinovels reject plot and verisimilitude as traditionally
understood

Italian Literature
Italian literature is characterized by fidelity to tradition, respect for style, and concern
for political and social queries. Italian literature (works in Italian language) was considered slow
developing because Latin was used in Italy for a very ling time. Only during the reign of
Frederick II that Italian literature flourished. It started with the writers who were members of
the Sicilian school. These writers used amatory substance of the Provencial troubadours in their
lyrics. They also added their own refined style.

After death of Frederick II, the North of Italy became the center of Italian literature.
Themes of the literary outputs had a wider range (social, political, and religious).

Famous Italian Writers

Dante Alighieri - wrote the “Divine Comedy”, which is considered
the greatest poem of the middle ages
- it was a reflection of the 13th century society
- composed of three books: Paradise, Purgatory,
and Hell
Petrarch
Giovanni Boccaccio
Leon Battista Alberti
Luigi Pulci
Ludovico Ariosto
Nicolo Machiavelli
Baldassare Castiglione
Alessandro Manzoni
- wrote sonnets and songs
- Italian sonnets are sometimes called
Petrarchan sonnets
- famous for injecting deep emotional commitment and technical
mastery in his works
- wrote “Canzonierre” or the song book
- he was a forerunner of humanism and he focused on the deeper
appreciation of the classics
- friend and admirer of Petrarch
- wrote the “Decameron” (1351-1353)
- he was also an architect
- wrote “On the Family” (1433-39) – which was a lengthy treatise
- polished the Carolingian epic in his work
“Morgante Maggiore”
- wrote the romantic epic “Orlando Furioso” (1532)
- author if “The Prince” (1532) which was a unique
political work that examined the real from the ideal
- author of “The Courtier” (1628), which was as
about the court life and manner in the renaissance
period
- the leader of the Italian Romanticism
- wrote the semi-romantic historic novel, “The
Betrothed”

Greek Literature
The Greeks produced the earliest literature in Europe. They served as the pioneer of all western
literature in both prose and poetry. It also survived all challenges – including time. It also
became the basis of other literatures in Europe on rebuilding their traditions.

The Archaic Period (8th to 6th Centuries BC)

Greek literature began with the epics “The Odyssey” and “The Iliad” by Homer Iona,
where Homer came from, was considered the cradle of the ancient philosophy, science and
historiography. Athens, which was destined to be the haven of great literature, was quiet at this
time, but in the 6th century, Solon wrote his great personal and political poems. One of the most
famous figures in this time was Pindar from Thebes.

The Classical Period (5th-4th Centuries BC)

 During this period, Athens entered its Golden Age (6 th Century). Tragic drama was one
important literary genre in this period. The plays showed archetypal figures of heroic myths to
show man’s life and his position in the universe. In this period, three tragedians emerged name,
Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles. Amidst the fame of Tragedies, one comedy play writer
emerged – Aristophanes.

This era also produced many great orators such as Gorgias, Lysias, Andocides, and
Antiphon. Philosophers in this era also questioned some ancient beliefs, which became the
basis of some thought by Socrates. Hippocrates and Herodotus were also notable literary
figures of this time. Herodotus wrote the history of the Persian War that chronicles Athens’ day
of triumph. On the other hand, Thucydides chronicled the war against Sparta and the decline of
Pericles. By the end of the 5th century, Athens’ political supremacy declined.

During the 4th century, two great Greeks emerged – Xenophon and Plato. These two,
however, went into different directions. Xenophon focused on history, philosophy and other
interests, while Plato (student of Socrates) moved away from civil life and founded a school
(The Academy). Plato’s student, Aristotle, also founded his own school (The Lyceum) and
widened the range of Greek philosophy.

The Hellenistic Period (3rd and 3nd Centuries BC)

Alexander’s death in the year 323 paved the way for a new literary age. It was said that
Athens was overshadowed by the other colonies of the empire (Asia, Macedonia, and Egypt).
Writers in this age focused more on the personal aspects of life rather than on panoramic view.
Most of the themes of the literary works in this tome were about the attainment of happiness,
and living rightly. A library in Alexandria became very famous and attracted many scholars such
as Apollonius of Rhodes and Callimachus. Both of these writers focused on literature for the
educated and not for the public at large. Among the roster of Greek writers were Polybius
(historian), Plutarch (biographer), Lucian (Satirist), Longus (prose), and Plotinus (Neoplatonism).

German Literature
German literature embraced not only the literature from Germany but also from
Austria, and German-speaking parts of Switzerland. German literary writers tried to inject
foreign concepts such as France. That is why German literature (works written in German)
emerged only before the 17th century.

Early and Medieval German Literature

800-1050 - there was a conflict between the heroic tradition of the
 Germanic tribe (honor, valor, and fate) and the Christian gospel (humility,
renunciation, and love)
- “The Song of Hildebrand” (800) was written
- an alliterative verse fragment
- emphasized fate, therefore considered pagan
- “Heliand” (830) was written
- a Christian counterpart of “The Song of Hildebrand”
- an epic poem about the life of Christ
- Otfriend von Weissenburg wrote “Evangelienburch” (870)
- Monasteries in this era served as centers of culture
- Old high German was replaced by Latin
- classical hexameter was introduced through”Walter of Aquantine” (930)
- “Ecbasis Captivi” (940) was considered the very first fable in Germany
- “ Ruodlieb” (1050) was written
- Hroswitha von Gandersheim (950) was known as the first German writer
1050-1300 - German literature reached its golden age (1180-1220
- Secular culture became the concern of the knights who
celebrated courtly love in complex lyrics
- Walther Von Der Vogelweide became very famous
- he overcame literary convention by expressing powerful emotions of
love
- Hartman Von Aue wrote “Henry the Leper” (1195)
- Wolfram Von Eschenbach wrote “Parzival” (1210)
- “Nibelungenlied” (1200) was considered the greatest German epic
1300’s - knighthood declined and paved the way for the rise of
city burghers
- dramas in this period were mostly parodies and satires
with course humor
- popular literature flourished
- Chapbooks were widely read (chapbooks are simple
romantics verses)
- Faust legend became very popular and had several
version
1400’s - Martin Luther translated the Bible into German

The 17th Century

1600’s - characterized by the German belief that their language
is superior to the other languages
 - Sprachgeselischften (Academies) were founded to
improve grammar and establish a pure language
- the tenet of Neoclassicism were formulated (1624) by
Martin Opitz
- There was an obvious distinction between the
tragedies and drama
- There were two types of drama in this era – those
modeled from Seneca and those made by the Jesuits (in
Latin
- in terms of poetry, the sonnet and the alexandrine
verse were preferred

The 18th and the 19th Centuries

1700’s - there were two opposing movements that concern poetic theory – the
French classical and those who followed the influences of religious epics
- Gotthold Lessing introduced the concept of tragic experience
- he changed courtly tragedies into bourgeois drama
- he wrote “Minna Von Barnheim” (1767) – the best German comedy
1770-1785 - also called the “Sturm and Drang” movement
- this was characterized by the praising of original genius and demanding
a poetry of strong emotions
founded by Johann Gottfried
1800’s - the romantic movement in Germany started
- the aim of this movement was to present passion regardless of any
traditional forms

20th Century Literature

1900’s - Stefan George Rainer Maria Rilke, and Hugo Von
Hofmannsthal introduced symbolism as a reaction to naturalism
1910-1925 - Expressionism became very active as a literary
movement

Russian Literature
The conversion of Russia into Christianity paved the way for the dawning of Russian
literature in the early 10th century. During this time As Kiev was the most important city in
Russia; that is why this period is also called the Kievan Period. The writers during this time used
Old Church Slavonic in composing literary pieces. Most of the written literatures in this time
were Biblical and Liturgical texts, and some romances from Greece.
The Muscovite Period
1240-1480 - the princess of Russia ruled as Tartar Vassals
- Moscow ascended as Russia’s most important city
- literature remained religious, historical, and didactic
- most of the themes are focused on the lives of the saints and some
chronicles

The 18th Century

1682-1725 - this era was led by Tsar Peter the Great
- Russia was under the influence of the literatures in Western Europe
- many Russian writers strove to equal the literatures of neighboring
countries
1709-1744 - Antioch Kantemir wrote the first poem using the vernacular language
entitled “On the Detractors of Learning, to my Mind” (1729)

The 19th Century

1800’s - during this period, one poet emerged – Aleksandr Pushkin
- he wrote the verse novel “Eugene Onegin” (1823)
- after the fame of Pushkin, there was a shift from poetry to prose
- Nikolai Gogol introduced realism as a reaction to romanticism
- Realism became very famous in the mid-part of the 19th century
- Russian realism focused on the urge to explore the human codition in
the spirit of serious enquiry

Famous Russian Writers

Ivan Turgenev - famous for his “Sportsman Sketches” (1847)
- this is about the serf of life
- famous for his love stories and the sequence of sic novels including
“Fathers and Sons”
Fyodor Dostoyevsky - famous for his novel “Crime and Punishment”
Leo Tolstoy - famous for his masterpieces “Anna Karenina” and “War
and Peace”
Anton Checkhov - famous for his short stories and plays
- considered as Russia’s greatest dramatist
- his plays are about isolation and despair
- his works include: “Uncle Vanya”, “The Three Sisters”, and the “Cherry
Orchard”