GIy >CONTENTS ‘Characteristics of chemical reactions ‘Types of chemical change or chemical reaction _ Energy change in chemical reactions 3.41 Introduction 31 3.2 Physical properties of water 2 3.3 Water is universal solvent 33 3.4. Solutions as mixtures of solids in water 35 3.5 Saturated solution 36 3.6 Concentration of a solution 37 3.7 Solubility 37 3.8 Crystals and crystallization 39 3.9 Hydrated and anhydrous substances 40 3.10 Properties 42 3.11 Drying and dehydrating agents 43 3.12. Soft and hard water 45 3.13 Types of hardness temporary and permanent hardness 46 4. ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING 4.1 Definition of an element 50 42 Definition of an atom 50 4.3 Constituents of an atom 50Discovery of neutrons Atom — Its structure ‘Atomic number [Z] Distribution of electrons in the orbits — Bohr-bury scheme ‘Valence electrons Reason for chemical activity of an atom Isotopes Electrovalent (or ionic) bond Covalent (molecular) bond Reasons for classification of elements Dobereiner’s triads ‘Newland’s law of Octaves, ‘Mendeleev’s Periodic table Atomic number as basis for modem periodic law Periodicity in the modem periodic table ‘Types of elements ‘Merits of the modem periodic table Deffects of the modern periodic table General trends of the modem periodic table ‘Study of specific groupscharacteristic properties of gases ‘motion : Relationship of temperature, pressure and volume Jaws REVIEW QUESTIONS 152 GLOSSARY 154 PAPER-1 (SOLVED) 160, PAPER-2 (UNSOLVED) 166 PAPER-3 (UNSOLVED) 169> THE LANGUAGE OF CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS () Symbol of an element; valency; formulae of radicals and formulae of compounds. Balancing of simple chemical equations. ‘+ Symbol ~ definition; symbols of the elements used often. * Valency ~ definition; hydrogen combination and number of valence electrons of the metals and non- metals; mono, di, tri and tetra valent elements. * Radicals ~ definition; formulae and valencies ‘+ Compounds — name and formulae. standard H atom or 1/12th of carbon 12 atom. * Definitions + Chemical equation — definition and examples of chemical equations with one reactant and two or three Products, two reactants and one product, two reactants and two products and two reactants and three ‘r four products; balancing of equations. (by hit and trial method). (ii) Relative Atomic Masses (atomic weights) and Relative Molecular Masses (molecular weights): either — + Calculation of Relative Molecular Mass and percentage composition of a compound, 1.1 INTRODUCTION Chemistry is a branch of science in which we study about matter, ie. what is matter made up of, what is its nature, structure and what changes are observed when it is subjected to different conditions. Many theories were proposed regarding matter which helped us to discover the real essence of matter, i.e, matter is nothing but a complex relationship between ‘elements. An element is a simple and pure form of matter which cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. Alll elements are made of atoms, the smallest particles of an clement which represent all the properties of an element. A set of atoms of the same type together form the molecule of the element. Molecules can be monoatomic, diatomic and even polyatomic. Monoatomic molecules ~ elements having only one atom in their molecules, e.g. helium, neon and other inert gas molecules. Diatomic molecules ~clements having two atoms in their molecules, e.g. hydrogen (Hy), Oxygen (03), Nitrogen (N3). Tetratomic molecules — elements having four atoms in their molecules, ¢:g. phosphorus (P,). Octatomic molecules ~ elements having eight atoms in their molecules, e.g. sulphur (Sy). ‘Thus, we can say that a molecule is the smallest particle that has capability to exist independently. The molecule of an element exhibits all the properties of that element. When atoms or molecules of different elements combine, they form the molecule of a compound. To name a few, sodium chloride (NaCI), water (H,0), ammonia (NH,) are molecules of compounds. The names of elements and compounds are abreviated by using certain symbols and formulae, Before 1600 A.D., alchemists tried to represent the substances that they used for their experiments by different kinds of pictographic symbols, such as a triangle for the earth, a crescent for silver, etc. Dalton used some other types of symbols to represent elements, such as a circle [O] for an oxygen atom, a circle with a dot in its centre [@] for hydrogen, ete. Later, Johann Berzelius suggested that the initial letter of an element written in capitals should represent that particular element, such as O for oxygen, H for hydrogen, C for carbon, and so on. But in some cases, the suggested symbol did not agree with the English name of the clement. This was because some of the symbols were based on the Latin names of the elements, as shown in Table 1.1. €1>Table 1.1 : Symbols of certain elements based on their Latin names ‘Name of element | Symbol Latin name 1. Gold Au Aurum 2. Silver Ag Argentum Mercury Hg Hydrargyrum 4. Copper cu Cuprum 5. Lead Pb Plumbum 6. Tron Fe Ferum 7. Sodium Na Natrium 8. Potassium K Kalium 9. Tin Sn ‘Stnnum 10. Antimony Sb Stibium 11, Tungsten w Wolfram However, the method suggested by him laid the is of the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of chemical symbols and formulae, 1.2 CHEMICAL SYMBOLS A symbol is the short form that stands for the atom of a specific element or the abbreviations used for the names of elements. Each element is denoted by a symbol, which is usually the first letter of its name in English or Latin, written in capital. Example : Sulphur, an element, is denoted by the symbol ‘S’. Similarly, hydrogen is denoted by the symbol ‘H’ However, when the first letter of more than one element is the same, the elements are denoted by two letters. The first letter is written in capital, while the second one is written in small Example : Carbon, cobalt, copper, calcium, cadmium, chromium, and chlorine are elements whose first letter is C. Therefore, only carbon is denoted by the symbol ‘C’. Cobalt is denoted by two letters ‘Co’, Copper is denoted by the two letters ‘Cu’ [taken from its Latin name cuprum]. Calcium by Ca, Cadmium by Cd, Chromium by Cr and Chlorine by Cl. ‘A symbol is not merely an abreviation for the name of an element but also has significance, Si ificance of a symbol It represents : (Name of the element ‘Symbols of some common elements Name in. ‘Symbol ‘Name in Symbol English English Magnesium | Mg Hydrogen H Aluminium | AL Nitrogen N Calcium Ca Oxygen ° Chromium Cr Fluorine F Manganese | Mn || Chlorine a Cobalt Co Bromine Br Nickel Ni Todine 1 Zine Zn Carbon ¢ Silver Ag Sulphur s Barium Ba Phosphorus: P Arsenic AS Boron: B Platinum Pt Silicon Si Radium Ra Arsenic As Uranium U Helium He Lithium Li Neon Ne Germanium | Ge Argon Ar. (ii) One atom of the element ii) Quantity of the element equal in mass to its atomic mass or gram atomic mass. For example, the symbol N stands for (i) The element Nitrogen (ii) One atom of Nitrogen (iii) 14 parts by weight of Nitrogen. This weight being the atome weight of the element. Note ; Be careful about capital and small alphabets. For example ; Co means the element cobalt. CO means the compound carbon monoxide. 13 FORMULA Atoms of elements combine to form molecules. So itis possible to represent the molecules in terms of symbols of the constituent atoms. The symbolic representation of a molecule is known as formula or molecular formula. A molecular formula also known as chemical formula employs symbols to denote the molecule ofan element or of a compound. A molecule of an element may contain one or more atoms of it. For example a molecule of elements hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, contains two atoms and are written as Hy, >, No, Cl, Bry and Ip respectively. In case of a compound, the molecule containing —— 2different atoms united in certain fixed ratio, is represented by placing symbols of the elements present in it side by side indicating their numbers written in subscript. Thus, NH,CI represents one molecule of ammonium chloride containing one atom of nitrogen four atoms of hydrogen and one atom of chlorine. NajCO; denotes one molecule of sodium carbonate which contains two atoms of sodium, one atom of carbon and three atoms of oxygen. 2H,0 represents two molecules of water i.e. dihydrogen oxide, each molecule containing two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Thus by looking at a formula, we understand the ratio in which the different atoms are united to form the molecule. ‘Significance of molecular formula The molecular formula of a compound has quantitative significance, It represents : (® both the molecule and the molecular mass of the compound. Gi) the respective numbers of different atoms present in ‘one molecule of the compound. (ii) the ratios of the respective masses of the elements ‘present in the compound. For example, the formula CO means that: (i the molecular formula of carbon dioxide is CO,; Gi) each molecule contains one carbon atom joined by ‘chemical bonds with two oxygen atoms; the molecular mass of carbon dioxide is 44, given that the atomic mass of carbon is 12 and that of oxygen is 16. 1.4 VALENCY valency. (For details refer to chapter Atomic Structure). Elements with one, two or three electrons in their outermost shell (valence shell) are usually metals. Electrons in the outermost shell are known as valence electrons. To attain stable electronic configuration, these atoms lose their valence electrons and form positive ions*. Na - e-— Nat —_(univalent) 2,81 2.8 Mg — 2e — Mg? (divalent) 2,8,2 2,8 Al - 3e > Al (trivalent) 2,83 a8 Positive ions are known as cations. Elements with five, six or seven electrons in their outermost shell are normally non-metals. To attain stability, these atoms have to have eight electrons in their outermost orbit; so they gain electrons. Note : Out of the elements that have four electrons in the outermost orbit — Carbon is a non-metal, Silicon and Germanium are metalloid and rest are metals. Cl+e3 Cr (univalent) (2, 8, 7) 2, 8,8 O + 2 0% — divalent) 2,6) 2,8 N+ 3e-— N* (trivalent) 2,5) 2,8 Negative ions are known as anions. No. of electrons) |1}2|3 |4|5]6|7|8 in outermost shell Valeney is the combining capacity of an atom or of a radical. ‘Valency is measured in terms of hydrogen atoms. or oxygen atoms. It is the number of hydrogen atoms or double the number of oxygen atoms that can combine with it. Since no other element has combining capacity less than that of hydrogen, its valency is taken to be one (1) and is considered a standard. Modern Definition of Valency The number of electrons, that atom can lose, gain or share during a chemical reaction is called its Vatency 1f2[3 [4 [3] 2]filo The valency of an element or of a radical is the number of hydrogen atoms that will combine with or displace one atom of that element or radical. Examples of sharing of atoms (i) One atom of chlorine combines with one hydrogen atom to form a molecule of hydrogen chloride. So, the valency of chlorine is one. H-cl * Tons are charged particles which are formed by loss or gain of electrons 3 >——(ii) One atom of oxygen combines with 2 atoms of hydrogen to form a molecule of water, So, the valency of oxygen is two. a Na In an ammonia molecule, one atom of nitrogen combines with 3 atoms of hydrogen, So, the valency of nitrogen is three. N We iN H7 nH NH In a methane molecule, one carbon atom combines with 4 hydrogen atoms. So, the valency of carbon is four. ii) (iv) Variable valency Certain elements exhibit more than one valency, i.e, they show variable valency. Reasons for variable valency An atom of an element can sometimes lose more electrons than are present in its valence shell, i.e. there is a loss of electrons from the penultimate shell too. Therefore, such an element is said to exhibit variable valency. If an element exhibits two different positive valencies, then we use the suffix “ous” for the lower valency and the suffix “ic” for the higher valency. Moder chemists use Roman numerals in place of these trivial names. For example, SnCly, i.e. stannous chloride is written as Tin (II) chloride, SnCly, ie, stannic chloride is written as Tin (IV) chloride. Non-metals like nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur also show variable valency. Nitrogen and phosphorus exhibit valencies of 3 and 5 while sulphur exhibits valencies of 2, 4 and 6. Table 1.2 : Examples of variable valency ‘Metal Valency Name of compound formed Formula ig |e oer OO ae ave 3° Ferrie [Iron (Il) oxide Fe,0, Copper ne Cuprous (Copper (1)] oxide Cu,0 2 Cuprie [Copper M1] oxide Cu Mercury c Mercurous (Mercury (1)] oxide Hg,0 2 Mercurie (Mercury (I1] oxide HgO Tend (2 Pemboar: [Leeda] oxide PbO 4 Plumbie {Lead (IV)] oxide PbO, EPR Mculnse Grek 4 Stannic (Tin (IV)] chloride Sn, 1.5 RADICALS ‘The molecule of a compound is usually made up of two parts, these parts separately are known as radicals. For example, molecule of potassium chloride has two parts, potassium and chloride, so potassium is one radical and chloride is the other radical; similarly magnesium sulphate has magnesium and sulphate as radicals. A radical is an atom or a group of atoms of the same or of different elements that behaves as a single unit with a positive or negative charge. A radical is called simple radical when it is an atom only like sodium (Na*) and magnesium (Mg?*). It is known as a compound radical when it is made up of a group of two or more different atoms (polyatomic) like sulphate (SO,2) made up of one sulphur atom and four oxygen atoms. Note : An acid reacts with a base to produce salt and water as a result of neutralisation. Potassium +Hydrochloric > Potassium + Water hydroxide acid chloride: (Base) (acid) (Salt) Inthe formation of potassium chloride, the potassium, radical has been contributed by the base potassium hydroxide and is therefore called basic radical, the chloride radical has been contributed by hydrochloric acid and is, therefore, termed an acid radical. When a salt is dissolved in water, it splits up into constituent radicals, the basic radicals are found to carry positive charge and so are termed electro- positive radicals or cations. The other part carries negative charge and so are called electronegative radicals or anions. (4)Thus, in potassium chloride, potassium is electropositive and chloride is electronegative radical. Similarly, in magnesium sulphate, magnesium is electropositive and sulphate is electronegative radical. List of basic radicals is given in Table 1.3. List of acid radicals is given in Table 1.4, ‘Table 1.3 : List of some common electrovalent positive ions (basic radicals) ‘Monovalent electropositive Divalent electropositive ‘Trivalent electropositive 1. Ammonium NH,'| 1. Argentic [Silver] Ag | 1. Aluminium Abe 2, Aurous [Gold (1)] Aut | 2. Barium Ba | 2. Arsenic As 3. Argentous [Silver (D] Ag | 3. Calcium ca | 3. Auric (Gold (IID) Au 4, Cuprous [Copper (I]] Cut | 4. Cupric [Copper(tD] cu® | 4. Bismuth Bi 5. Hydrogen Ht | 5, Ferrous [Iron (1)] Fe | 5. Chromium ce 6. Lithium Lit | 6. Magnesium Mg? | 6. Femi [Iron (II)] Fe 7. Sodium Nat | 7. Manganese Mn? 8, Potassium K+ | 8 Mercuric [Mercury (D] Hg™* Tetravalent electropositive 9. Mercurous [Mercury (D] Hg* | 9. Nickel Ni | 1 Plumbie [Lead (V)] Pb 10. Plumbous [Lead (1D) Po | 2. Platinic (Platinium (IV) Pe** 11. Platinous [Platinum (I)] Pt’ 3. Stannie (Tin (IV)} Sn 12. Stannous [Tin (1)] Sn 13. Zine Zn ‘Table 1.4 : List of some common electrovalent negative ions (acid radicals) ‘Monovalent electronegative Divalent electronegative ‘Trivalent electronegative 1. Acetate CH,COO- | 1. Carbonate co? 1. Arsenate AsO 2. Bicarbonate or 2. Dichromate cr,07 2. Nitride Nn Hydrogen carbonate HCO, 3. Bisulphide or 3. Oxide o 3. Aluminate Al0> Hydrogen sulphide HS” 4. Bisulphate or 4. Peroxide o> 4, Arsenite ASO, Hydrogen sulphate HSO,- 5. Bisulphite or 5. Sulphate so, 5. Phosphide pe Hydrogen sulphite HSO,- 6, Bromide Br 6. Sulphite s0,- 6. Phosphite POs 7. Chloride cr 7. Sulphide se 7. Phosphate POs 8, Permanganate Mn0,- 8. Silicate sioe- 8. Borate BO, 9. Fluoride F 9. Thiosulphate 8,0,> 10. Hydride 1 10. Zineate Zn0;> ‘Tetravalent electronegative 11, Hydroxide on 11. Plumbite PbO, 1. Carbide oa 12. Iodide re 12. Stannate ‘$n0,> 2. Ferrocyanide —Fe(CN), 13. Cyanide oe 13. Manganate Mn0? 14, Nitrate No, 14, Chromate C10, 15. Nitrite NO, 15. Oxalate (C00),> 16. Chlorite : co, 17. Hypochlorite co" 18, Chlorate cio, 19, Perchlorate co, 20, Meta-aluminate AIO,"Radicals have their own combining power (valency), and itis according to this combining power that they form chemical formulae. For example, in the compound ammonium carbonate (NH,);CO; ammonium (NH,*) is a basic radical with combining power 1 and carbonate (iv) Write the interchanged valency numbers to the lower right of the radicals. If the radical is a group of atoms and has a valency number more than 1, enclose it within brackets. Based on the steps, mentioned alongside formulae can be written in the following way. (CO;*> is an acidic radical with combining power 2. ‘Name of ‘Symbols with ‘Exchange of | Formula 1.6 WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE Compound | _valencies valency The following steps should be taken while [Magnesium | Me cit | Mg? ,c! | Meci, attempting to write a formula. The method is called _ | ehloride wg, Sci, criss-cross method. Calcium cat ot % . , finan i oxide: viding by H.C.F, | Ca? CaO () Write the symbols side by side, basic radical is itvecmes C0] ca, 20, | mtg Fecal becomes >| meen tte written first and then acidic radical. Jauminin | arom’ | aP yor! |"AlCon, (ii) Write the valency of each atom on top of its [hydroxide nee Phosphorus Pe oh fe P.O, symbal, trioxide », Mo, oe (ii) Divide the valency numbers by their highest |. in fet ioe | nes mae pee common factor (H.C.F.), if any, to get the {met Na, PS (AIG, simple ratio. Ignore the (+) or (-) symbols of _ | luminate ‘ is i 4 i Sodium Nat aloy | Naty Aloe | Nayalo, the radicals. Interchange the valencies of the [Sodium sah RE See radicals. IMPORTANT FORMULAE Chemical Name ‘Symbol with charge| Formula ‘Chemical Name ‘Symbol with charge] Formula Potassium chloride Kea Kcl Potassium plumbite K!*PbOy- K,PbO, Potassium bromide one ‘KBr ‘Sodium chloride Nal¥cih ‘NaCl Potassium iodide Key KI ‘Sodium hydroxide: NaltOH NaOH Potassium hydroxide | K!*OH!- KOH Sodium nitrite Nal*No- NaNO, Potassium nitrite KINO} KNO, Sodium nitrate Nal*No}- NaNO, Potassium nitrate Kino} KNO, Sodium hydrogen Nal*HCO}- NaHCO, Potassium hydrogen | K!*HCO!- KHCO, |} carbonate carbonate ‘Sodium hydrogen sulphite | Nal*HSO!- NaHSO,, Potassium hydrogen K"Hso}- KHSO, Sodium hydrogen sulphate| Nal*HSO!- NaHSO, sulphite Sodium metaluminate | Na!*AlO}- NaAlO, Potassium hydrogen | K!*HSOj- KHSO, ‘Sodium sulphite Nal*so}- Na,SO, ee ‘Sodium sulphate Nal*SO}- Na,SO, Potassium metaluminate | K'*AlO}- KAI, ‘Sodium carbonate Nal*co? Na,CO, Potassium permanganate | K'*MnO}- KMn0, |) Sodium zincate Nal*Zn0}- NaZn0, Potassium sulphite KESOF K,SO, Sodium plumbite ‘Na!*PbO}- Na, PbO, Potassium sulphate Ki*sop K,SO, Silver chloride Aghcl Agcl Potassium carbonate» | K'*CO2- K,co, Ammonium chloride | NHJ*CU- NH,CI Potassium dichromate | K!*Cr,07- K,Cr,0, Ammonium sulphate | NH}*SO}- (NH,),SO,| Potassium zincate KZ KZ00, || Ammonium hydroxide | NH}*OH NH,OH Cont.. (6 >Calcium chloride Calcium hydroxide Calcium nitrate Calcium hydrogen carbonate Calcium hydrogen sulphite Calcium sulphite Calcium sulphate Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide Calcium silicate Calcium nitride Magnesium chloride Magnesium hydroxide ‘Magnesium nitrate ‘Magnesium oxide ‘Magnesium nitride Zine chloride Zinc hydroxide Zine nitrate Zine sulphate Zine carbonate Zinc oxide Lead [I] chloride Lead {II} bromide Lead [II] hydroxide ‘Lead (11) nitrate ca*Coy ca Oe Ca®*Si0}- CateNE Mg*ci Moun! ‘Mg**NO!- Mg?t0> Mg*N> zac zn%+OH- 2n2*NOL- es Zn**C03 Zntto- Pbci- Po Br! Pb*OH- Pb*NO,! CaCl, Ca(OH), Ca(NO,), 20108), PbBr, POOH, PHINO,)» Lead [It] sulphate Lead {I1] oxide Manganese chloride “Manganese sulphate Aluminium chloride Aluminium sulphate Aluminium hydroxide Aluminium sulphide ‘Aluminium oxide ‘Chromium chloride Chromium sulphate (Chromium oxide Copper [1] (cuprous) Copper {1} chloride ‘Copper [I] oxide Copper [1] sulphide Copper [II] (cupric) Copper {II} chloride Copper {11} hydroxide Copper [II] nitrate Copper [II] sulphate ‘Copper [II] sulphide Copper [I] oxide Iron [I] (ferrous) Iron [II] chloride Iron {Il} hydroxide Zeon [IT] nitrate Tron [IT] sulphate Iron [If] sulphide Iron [IT] oxide Iron [IIf] (ferric) Iron [HII] chloride Ion [HIN] sulphate Iron {IIT} hydroxide Iron (IIT sulphide Iron [H1K) nitrate Iron [III] oxide Pb?sop Poo MnCl Mn®*sOp Amal AB*SOP AP*OH!- ABS ABYOe coxa ee*sop cro cual culto® culls? orc Cu*OH™ ano} cx**so}- Cutts? cuto FeCl Fe*OH™ FeNO!- eso} Fe*s> Fettoe ieee Fe'soP RetOHE rest Nor FOr PbO MnCl, MnsO, AlCl, Al{SO,); AM(OH), ‘AUS, ALR Cr,(S0,), Gr,05 1,0 ony cucl, cu(OH), Cu(NO,), ‘Cus cud FeCl, Fe(OH), Fe(NO,)y FeSO, FeS FeO FeCl FeSO), Fe(OH); Fes; Fe(NO,); Fe,0, 1.7 NAMING CERTAIN COMPOUNDS 1, A metal and a non-metal : The metal is written first and then the non-metal, the suffix ide is added to the non-metal. For example : Calcium + Nitrogen —> Calcium nitride {Ca,N3] 2. Two non-metals : The prefix tri or tetra or penta, etc. is added, as the case may be. 7 For example, PC, is phosphorus trichloride and PCI, is phosphorus pentachloride, 3. Two elements and oxygen : represented at the end of the formula. Oxygen is ‘The name of the compound depends on the number of oxygen atoms present in the compound.‘The prefix ‘hypo’ is used if the number of oxygen atoms is less than 2, NaClO ~ Sodium hypochlorite The suffix ‘ite’ is used if the number of oxygen atoms is 2. NaCIO, ~ Sodium chlorite The suffix ‘ate’ is used if the number of oxygen atoms is 3. NaCI0; - Sodium chlorate The prefix per is used when the number of oxygen atoms is more than 3. NaClO, — Sodium perchlorate 4. Naming of acids (@) Names of binary acids are given by adding the prefix ‘hydro’ and the suffix ‘ic’ to the name of the second element. Examples : (i) HCLis hydrochloric acid (Gi) HF is hydrofluoric acid (b) Names of acids containing radicals of polyatomic groups are given on the basis of the second element present in the molecule, and the prefix ‘hydro’ is not used. Examples : (i) In H,SO,, the second element is sulphur, hence the name sulphuric acid. (ii) In HNO,, the second element is nitrogen, hence the name nitric acid. (ii) In HPO, the second element is phosphorus, hence the name phosphoric acid. If the number of oxygen atoms is less, then suffix ‘ous’ is used instead of ‘ic’. Thus H,SO, is sulphurous acid, HINO, is nitrous acid. 5. Trivial names There are certain compounds with names that do not follow any systematic rule, Such names are called trivial or common names, and they are widely accepted. Examples; (i) Nitrogen trihydride is called ammonia (NH,] Gii) Hydrogen monoxide or dihydrogen oxide is called water [1,0]. 18 TO CALCULATE THE VALENCY FROM THE FORMULA The valency of elements can be determined based on the knowledge of the valencies of negative radicals and of the fact that the valency of : Hydrogen [H] Oxygen [0] = 2; Chlorine [Cl] = 1 Procedure to find the valency 1, Write the given formula, 2. Interchange the subscript and write it as superscript. 3, The valency of oxygen is taken as 2, therefore, multiply both the superscripts | by 2. 4. The result gives the valency of the elements. Thus, from the formula NO», we find that the valency of nitrogen EXCERCISE 1(A) 1, What is « symbol ? What information does it convey ? 2. Why is the symbol S for sulphur, but Na for sodium and Si for silicon ? 3. If the symbol for Cobalt, Co, were written as CO, what would be wrong with it? 4, What do the following symbols stand for ? @H &) H, (© 2H. ‘5. (a) Explain the terms ‘valency’ and ‘variable valency’ (b) How are the elements with variable valency named ? Explain with an example, 6. Give the formula and valency of (@) aluminate (b) chromate (©) aluminium (@) cupric 7, What isa chemical formula ? What isthe rule for writing a formula correctly ? ‘8 What do you understand by the following terms ? (@) Acid radical —_—_() Basic radical —_—_——‘9. Match the following : (Refer common names in the beginning of the book) ‘Compound Formula (a) Boric acid (i) NaOH (b) Phosphoric acid (ii) SiO, (©) Nitrous acid (ii) Na,CO, (d) Nitric acid (iv) KOH (©) Sulphurous acid (v) Caco, (® Sulphuric aci (vi) NaHCO, (g) Hydrochloric acid (vii) H,S (t) Silica (sand) (viii) H,0 ( Caustic soda (ix) PH, (sodium hydroxide) (@) Caustic potash (®) CH, (potassium hydroxide) (®) Washing soda (xi) NH (sodium carbonate) () Baking soda Gil) HCL (sodium bicarbonate) (m) Lime stone. (xiii) H,S0, (calcium carbonate) (n) Water (xiv) HNO, (0) Hydrogen sulphide (xv) HNO, (p) Ammonia (vi) HBO, (@) Phosphine (xvii) HPO, (®) Methane (wii) H,S0, 10. Select the basic and acidic radicals in the following ‘compounds. (@) Mgso, () (NH,),SO, © AL{S0,), (a) 2nCO, (©) Mg(OH), 11. The valency of an element A is 3 and that of element B iis 2. Write the formula of the compound formed by the ‘combination of A and B. 12. Write chemical formula of the sulphate of Aluminium, Ammonium and Zinc. 13. Write the chemical names of the following compounds (@) CaPO,)y &) K,CO, (© K.MnO, @ Mn,(BO,), (©) Mg (HCO,), (8) NayFe(CN), (g) Ba (ClO), (h) Ag,SO, ( (CH,COO),Pb @ Na,Sio, 11, Write the basic radicals and acidic radicals of the following, and then write the chemical formulae of these compounds. (a) Barium sulphate (b) Bismuth nitrate (©) Calcium bromide (@)-errous sulphide (©) Chromium sulphate (f). Calcium silicate (g) Potassium ferrocyanide (b) Stannic oxide (Calcium siticate (@ Magnesium phosphate (k) Sodium zincate (D Stannic phosphate _(m) Sodium thiosulphate (a) Potassium manganate (0) Nickel bisulphate 12. Give the names of the following compounds. (a) Naclo (b) Nacio, (©) NaClO, @ Nacio, 13. Complete the following statements by selecting the correct option : (@) The formula of a compound represents @ anatom i) a particle (ii) a molecule (iv) a combination. (b) The correct formula of aluminium oxide is (@ AIO, (i) AIO, Gii)_A1,0, (©) The valency of nitrogen in nitrogen dioxide (NO,) is @ one Gi) two (ii) three (iv) four, 1.9 CHEMICAL EQUATION A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction using the symbols and formulae of the substances involved in the reaction. For example: Burning of coal in air is a chemical reaction in which a new substance, carbon dioxide, is formed. The reaction can be represented by either a word equation or a chemical equation (using formulae and symbols), as shown below : _— Word equation : Carbon + Oxygen —*> Carbon dioxide Chemical equation : c+0, —*, co, Steps involved in writing a chemical equation : (i) Write the symbols or the formulae of the reactants on the left hand side, with a (+) sign between them. (ii) Write the symbols or the formulae of the products on the right hand side, with a (+) sign between them. Dee eee ae ee ea ey(ii) Put the sign of an arrow (+) in between the reactant side and the product side. (iv) Represent the reactants and the products in their molecular forms [because their atomic forms are usually neither stable nor capable of separate existence]. For example : Sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. 2Na + 2H,O — 2NaQH + Hy A chemical equation tells us what substances are involved in a given reaction (REACTANTS) and what are the substances formed as a result of the reaction (PRODUCTS). For example : ‘CuSO, + 2NaOH —» Cu(OH), + Na,SO, i) Reactants Products In the given equation copper sulphate and sodium hydroxide (REACTANTS) react to produce copper hydroxide and sodium sulphate (PRODUCTS). Chemical reactions may involve : (@ one reactant and two or more products Gi) two reactants and one product ii) two reactants and two products (iv) two reactants and three or more products (i) one reactant and two or more products Examples @ CaCO; > CaO + CO, cc) 2Pb(NO2). > 2PKO + 4NO, +0, (ii) two reactants and one product Examples @ NH; + HCL —> NHCI © N2+3H, > 2NH, (ili) two reactants and two products Examples : (@) AgNO; +NaCl_—> AgCl_+ NaNO, (b) NajSO, + BaCl, > BaSO, + 2NaCl (iv) two reactants and three or more products Examples : (@) Cu +2H,S0, — CuSO, + 2H,0 + $0, (b) 2KMn0, + 16HCI > 2KCI + 2MnCl, + 8H,0 + SCl, Skeleton equation : It is an equation that represents a chemical change but is unbalanced. In other words, the total number of atoms of each element on the two sides are not equal. The following example will make the point clear. KNO; — KNO, + 0, In the above chemical equation, the number of oxygen atoms in the reactant (KNO,), on the left side, is not equal to the number of oxygen atoms in the products formed (KNO, + O,), on the right side. 1.9.1 Balanced equation Itis an equation in which the total number of atoms of each element in the reactants, on the left side of the equation, is the same as the number of atoms in the products formed, on the right side of the equation. Examples : (a) CaCO, > Ca0 + CO, In this equation, the number of atoms of Ca, C and O on both sides is the same, i.e. the equation is balanced. (b) KNO, + KNO, +0, In this equation, since the number of atoms of oxygen on both sides is not the same, the equation is not balanced, The balanced form of the equation is : 2KNO; -» 2KNO, + 0 Why should an equation be balanced ? An equation must be balanced in order to comply with the “Law of Conservation of Matter”, which states that matter is neither creatednor destroyed in the course of a chemical reaction. An unbalanced ‘equation would imply that atoms have been created or destroyed. 1.9.2 How to balance a chemical equation ‘There are two methods of balancing an equation: (i) Hit and trial method ii) Partial equation method 1. Balancing by hit and trial method This method consists of counting the number of atoms of each element on both sides and trying to equalize them. Take the following steps : (Count the number of times (frequency) an element occurs on either side. (ii) The element with the least frequency of occurrence is balanced first. -_ee OO S301(iii) When two or more elements have the same frequency, the metallic element is balanced first. Example I : Balance the following equation Cu +H,S0, + CuSO, + SO, +H,0 Solution : Step 1: Count the number of atoms of all the elements on either side of the chemical equation, Element —_Reactant side Product side cu 1 1 H 2 2 s 1 2 oO 4 7 Step 2: Copper and hydrogen are equal on both sides so to equalise sulphur atoms multiply H,SO, by 2. Cu + 2H,S0, — CuSO, + SO, + H,0 Step 3: To equalise hydrogen atoms, multiply H,0 by 2. This gives the balanced equation. Cu + 2H,S0, > CuSO, + $0, + 2H,0 Example 2 ; Balance the following skeleton equation. A8;03 + SnCl + HCl > SnClp + As + H,0 Solution : Step 1: Count the number of atoms of all the elements on both sides of the equation, Element —_ Reactant side Product side As 2 1 Sn 1 1 ca a 2 H 1 2 oO 3 1 Step 2: To equalise As and O, multiply As by 2 and H,0 by 3. A803 + SnCly + HCI > SnCl, + 2As + 31,0 Step 3: To equalise H atoms multiply HCI by 6. As,03 + SnCly + GHCI > SnCl, + 2As + 3H;0 Step 4: Multiply SnCl, and SnCl, both by 3. As,03 + 38nCly + 6HCI > 3SnCl, + 2As + 34,0 This is te balanced chemical equation. Example 3 :Balance the following skeletal equation: Fe+H,0 — Fe,0; +H, Solution : Step 1: Count the number of atoms of all the elements on both sides of the chemical equation. Element Reactant side Product side Fe 1 atom 2 atoms H 2 atoms 2 atoms ° 1 atom 3 atoms Step 2: To balance Fe atoms, multiply Fe on the LHS by 2. 2Fe +H,O — Fe,O; + Hy Step 3: To balance oxygen atoms on the RHS, write 3 before H,O on the reactant side. 2Fe + 3H, > FeO, +H, Step 4: Now there are 6 hydrogen atoms on the reactant side and only 2 hydrogen atoms on the product side. To balance the hydrogen atoms, write 3 before hydrogen on the product side. 2Fe + 3H,0 — Fe,0, + 3H, The above equation is a balanced equation Example 4 : Ammonia is prepared by heating a mixture of ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide. Write a balanced equation of the reaction. Solution : (i) NH,CI+ Ca(OH), ~> CaCl, + NH, + H,0 This is the skeleton equation, (ii) To equalise Cl atoms multiply NH,Cl by 2 2NH,Cl + Ca(OH), > CaCl, + NH, +H,0 (iii) To equalise nitrogen atoms multiply NH, by 2 2NH,Cl + Ca(OH), —> CaCl, + 2NH, + 2H,0 (iv) To equalise oxygen atoms multiply H,0 by 2 2H,Cl + Ca(OH), -> CaCl, + 2NH, + 2H,0 The above equation is a balanced equation. Example 5 : Potassium dichromate reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce potassium chloride, chromium chloride, water and chlorine. Write the skeletal equation of the reaction and balance it. Step 1: The skeletal equation is K,Cr,0, + HCI > KCI + CC + H,0 + Cl, Step 2: Balance oxygen, hydrogen, potassium, chromium and chlorine, starting with oxygen because OO 1it occurs at the minimum number of places. + To equalize oxygen, multiply H,O by 7; K,C1,0, + HCl > KCl + CrCl; + 7H,0 + Cly + To equalize hydrogen, multiply HCI by 14; K,Cr,0, + 14HC] > KCl + CrCl; + 7H,0 + Cp + To equalize K and Cr, multiply both KCI and CrCl, by 2; K,Cr,0; + 14 HCl > 2KCl + 2CrCl, + 7H,0 + Cl, + To equalize Cl, multiply it by 3, ie. 3Cl, K,Cr,0, + 14 HCl > 2KCI +2 CrCl; +7 H,0 +3 Cl, Now the equation is balanced. Note : A balanced equation need not represent the real reaction. For example : Cu + HySO4 — CuSO, + H, is a balanced reaction, but experiments show that copper reacts with conc. H,SO, to give SO, and not hydrogen. ‘The correct chemical equation is : Cu + 2H,SO, + CuSO, + SO, + 2H,0. ‘The hit and trial method is very useful for balancing simple chemical equations, but it has some limitations. (i It takes time to balance complicated equations. (ii) The mechanism (steps of the reaction i.e. how the reaction has taken place) of the reaction is not clear. Balancing can be done more easily by supposing the complex reaction to take place in steps. Write the equations for these individual steps and then add the equations. This method is known as balancing by partial equation method. ‘The following examples will make it more clear. Example 6 : Liberation of iodine from potassium iodide by reacting it with hydrogen peroxide is supposed to be completed in the following ‘two steps : (HO, decomposes to give water + nascent oxygen H,0, > H,0 +0 self) (ii) Nascent oxygen so produced oxidizes potassium iodide in the presence of water to give iodine and potassium hydroxide. * Not in syllabus 2K + H;,0 + O > 2KOH + I, nit) Adding the two equations (i) and (ii) we get H,0) > H,0 +0 2K1 + H,0 + O > 2KOH +h 2KI + H,0, > 2KOH + I, H,O and O occur on the product side, in the first reaction, while on the reactant side in the second reaction, so they get cancelled. The resultant equation is a balanced chemical equation. 1.9.3 Information conveyed by a balanced chemical equation Refer to the following equations : (2) 2NaOH + HySO, -> Na,SO, + 24,0 The above equation tells us : (@) about the actual result of the chemical change. (b) about the reactants involved and the products formed as a result of the reaction. (© about the number of molecules of each substance taking part and formed in the reaction, Here two molecules of sodium hydroxide and one molecule of sulphuric acid react to give one molecule of sodium sulphate and two molecules of water. (@ about the chemical composition of the respective molecules; one molecule of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) contains one atom of sodium, one atom of oxygen and one atom of hydrogen. (e) About molecular mass; that 80 parts by weight of sodium hydroxide reacts with 98 parts by weight of sulphuric acid to produce 142 parts by weight of sodium sulphate and 36 parts by weight of water. 2NaOH + H,SO, > NaSO, + 2H,0 22341641) + (2432464) = (46432464) + 22416) => 80 +98 142 +36 => 178 178 ( It also proves the law of conservation of mass, ie. the total mass of the substances on either side of the equation is the same. According to the above equation, 178 gram of reactants are producing 178 gram of products. —{ 12>‘Note : On the basis of experimentas it is found that 224 litres of every gas, at 760 mm pressure and temperature of 0°C (STP), weighs the same as its ‘molar mass ie, molecular mass expressed in grams. For example : 22.4 litres of hydrogen at S.TP. 22.4 litres of ammonia at S.TP. and so on. (2) CaCO, + 2HCI > CaCl, + H,0 + CO, 100 73 ii 18 44 ‘This balanced chemical equation conveys the following information : (a) One molecule of calcium carbonate reacts with two molecules of hydrochloric acid to produce one molecule each of calcium chloride, water and carbon dioxide. (b) 100 g of calcium carbonate reacts with 73 g of hydrochloric acid to produce 111g of calcium chloride, 18 g of water and 44 g of carbon dioxide. (Note that the masses of the reactants and the products are taken in grams) (c) 100 g of calcium carbonate, on treatment with 73 g of HCl, will produce 22.4 litres of carbon dioxide at S.TP. 1.9.4 Limitations of a chemical equation A chemical equation does not tell us : (a) the physical state of the reactants and the products, i.e. whether the substances are solid, liquid or gas. (b) the time taken for the completion of the reaction. (©) whether heat is given out or absorbed during the reaction. (@) the respective concentrations of the reactants and the products. (e) the rate at which the reaction proceeds. (O) whether the reaction is reversible or irreversible. (g) whether the reaction is completed or it is not completed. 1.9.5 A chemical equation can be made more informative by writing the following additional information to it. (a) Information regarding temperature, pressure, catalyst, ete. is provided above and or below the arrow (+) separating reactants and products. For example : Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen in the presence, of catalyst Fe and promoter Mo at 450°C and 200 to 900 atmospheric pressure, to produce ammonia. N, +3H, —EM® > 2NH, 200 = 900 atm (©) Physical states of reactants and products can be provided by using the letters (s) for solid, (0) for liquid, (g) for gas and (aq) for solution in water. For example : Zinc, a solid metal, reacts with hydrochloric acid in aqueous state to produce zinc chloride in aqueous state and a gas, hydrogen. Za(s) + HCI(ag) -> ZnCl,(ag) + Hg) (©) Chemical reactions proceed with evolution or absorption of heat. This information is provided by adding a heat term. For example : C{s) + 0,(g) > CO, (g) + Heat 2C(s) + On(g) > 2CO(g) — Heat (@ Concentration of acids can also be added to the reaction. For example : Magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to produce magnesium sulphate and hydrogen. Mg(s) + H,SO,(ail) > MgSO,(aq) + H,(@) 1. Balance the following equations : (a) Fe +H,0 + Fe,0, +H, (b) CatN, > CaN, (© Zn + KOH > K,Zn0, +H, (@ Fe, +CO>Fe + CO, (©) PbO +NH, > Pb+H,0+N, ee© Pb,0, + PbO+0, (g) PbS +0, > PLO +80, (hy S+H,S0, + SO, + 1,0 (@ S+HNO, + 1,80, +NO,+H,0 @ MnO, + HCI MnCl, +1,0 +C1, (k) C+H,80, + CO, +H,0+0, () KOH+Cl, + KC1+KCIO+H,0 (m) NO, + H,0 — HNO, + HNO, (n) Pb,0, + HC POC, + H,0 + Cl, (©) H.0+Cl, > HCI +0, (p) NaHCO, + Na,CO, + #0 +CO, (@ HNO, +HS NO, +H,0+8 () P+ HNO, + NO, + H,0+H,PO, 110 RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (ATOMIC WEIGHT) Atoms being extremely small, cannot be seen or weighed directly. But indirect methods of physics have enabled us to know the absolute mass of nearly all kinds of atoms. The mass of a hydrogen atom is found to be 1-66 x 10 g while that of carbon atom is 1:9926 x 10-3 g. As these masses are too small, it is not convenient to use kilograms or grams as unit. It has, therefore, been considered appropriate to use the mass of some standard atom as a unit and then relate masses of other atoms to it. The resulting masses of atoms are thus known as Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) ot Atomic Weight. In the beginning, the mass of the hydrogen atom (hydrogen element being the lightest) was chosen as a unit and masses of other atoms were compared with it. In 1961, carbon-12 was finally selected, because its adoption least affected the values of the atomic mass of the various elements on the old standard, The relative atomic mass or atomic weight of an ‘element is the number of times one atom of the element is heavier than +; times of the mass of an atom of carbon-12, Thus: Mass of Latomof the element git themass of one C-I2.atom Relative atomic mass Atomic mass is expressed in atomic mass units [am.u.]. Atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 the mass of carbon atom C-12. (The mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope was given the atomic mass of 12 units, ie, 12 amu or simply 12 u). Thus, the mass of a hydrogen atom is 1 amu, and those of oxygen and helium are 16 amu and 4 amu respectively (Atomic masses of elements are given in the preliminary pages of this book) Note : Experimentally it is found that one atom of C2 (carbon having atomic mass 12) atom has a mass of 1-9926 x 10-3 grams. On dividing this mass by 12, atomic mass unit (amu or U) is obtained. It is equal to 1-6605 x 10-24 gram. Thus, 1 amu or 1 U = 1-6605 x 10° g 1.11 RELATIVE MOLECULAR = MASS (MOLECULAR WEIGHT) The relative molecular mass (or molecular weight) of an element or a compound is the number that represents how many times one molecule of the substance is heavier than 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12. The Relative Molecular Mass (RMM) is obtained by adding together the relative atomic masses (atomic weights) of all the various atoms present in a molecule. For example, relative molecular mass of sulphuric acid (H,SO,) is calculated as: One molecule of sulphuric acid has two atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen. Mass of 2 atoms of hydrogen is 1 x 2 = 2 amu Mass of 1 atom of sulphur is 32 amu Mass of 4 atoms of oxygen is 16 x 4 = 64 amu So mass of HySOq is 2x 1 +32+ 16x 4=98 arm Thus the molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of the constituent atoms present in one molecule of that substance. Example 7 : Calculate the relative molecular masses (or molecular weights) of the following compounds: (4 >(a) Copper sulphate crystals, CuSO,- SH,O (b) Ammonium sulphate, (NH,),SO, (©) Cane sugar, C)9H,,0;, Given that the relative atomic masses of Cu = 63:5, S = 32,0 = 16, N= 14 and C = 12 Solution : (a) The relative molecular mass of CuSO,5H,O = 63:5 + 32 + (16 x 4) + 5(2 + 16) = 159-5 +90 = 2495 () The relative molecular mass of (NH,),SO, = N3H,SO, =14x241%8432+16x4 = 28484324 64 = 132 (©) The relative molecular mass of C)sHy,0,, = 12x 1241x2416 x1 = 144 + 22 + 176 = 342 ‘Ans. Ans. Ans. 1.12 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION Percentage composition of a compound, is the percentage by weight of each element present in it. Percentage of an element in a compound Total wt. of the element in one molecule * Grewmclomlar weight of te ompomd 100 Example 8 : Calculate percentage of hydrogen in water Given that the relative atomic masses of H O= 16. Solution : Relative molecular mass of HO =1x2+16 =18 Since 18 g of water contains 2 g of hydrogen 100 g of water contains 2 X 100 = 11-11 g of Hydrogen ‘Answer : Hydrogen in water is 11-1% Example 9 : Calculate the percentage of sxzrogen in urea NH>CONH>, Given: RAM. of N= 14, C= 12,0 =16,H=1 Solution : Relative molecular mass of urea NHjCONH, is Element No of atoms Atomic mass Total N 2 14 28 c 1 12 12 H 4 1 4 oO 1 16 ~ RAM. = 60 We of nitrogen Total wt. of urea x 100 Percentage of nitrogen = 28 = 0 x 100 = 46-666 or 46-67% Example 10 : Calculate the percentage Composition of various elements in : Sodium carbonate, Na,CO, Given that the relative atomic masses of O= 16, Na = 23 and C= 12. Solution : Relative molecular mass of NayCO, 3x2+12+16%3 = 46 +12 +48 = 106 Since 106 g of NaxCO, contains 46 g of sodium, £100 g of NajCO, contains fee of sodium = 4600 _ 43, = Be = 43-4 g of Sodium Similarly, 106 g NaCO; contains 12 g of carbon, Fa e 12x 100 «100 ing 1200 joe. = 113 g of Carbon Again, 106 g of Na;CO; contains 48 g of oxygen. - at 48x100 ©. 100 iG = 4800 _ 4s. = AAP = 453 ¢ of Oxygen Answer : In NayCO; : Na = 43-4%, C= 113% and O = 45.3% Example 11 : Find the percentage mass of water in washing soda crystals NayCOy 10H,0. Solution : Relative molecular mass of Na,CO,. 10H,0 SS 015=23x2+12+16x3+10(2 +16) = 106 +180 = 286 286 g of washing soda contains 180 g of water of crystallisation, . 100 ya 18000 = Re = 629 8 of HO Answer : The % of H,0 in Na,CO, - 10H,0 = 62:9 For example, the empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide (HO) is HO. It indicates the simplest ratio (1: 1) between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in its molecule whereas its actual formula is HO. Similarly, the empirical formula of glucose (CeH20,) is CH,O. It indicates that the ratio of C, H and O atoms in a molecule of glucose is 1 : 2: 1. The empirical formula mass is the sum of atomic masses of various elements present in the empirical formula. Thus, for hydrogen peroxide (HO), the empirical formula is HO and its empirical formula mass is 1 + 16 = 17. 1.13 EMPIRICAL FORMULA OF A COMPOUND The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest formula, which gives the simplest ratio in whole numbers of atoms of different elements present in one molecule of the compound. CHAPTER AT A GLANCE + Symbol is the short form that stands for the atom of a specific element. * Valency is the combining capacity of an atom or a radical. It is equal to the number of electron(s) losv/gained or shared while combining with another atom or radical. Some elements, like iron, mercury, lead, show variable valencies. + Radical is an atom or a group of atoms of the same or different elements, that behave as a single unit ‘and has positive or negative charge. A radical with positive charge is a cation, e.g. NH,* (ammonium ion), ‘Na* (sodium ion) and a radical with negative charge is an anion, e.g. CI (chloride), CO, ? (carbonate). * Molecular formula is a shorthand notation for the molecule of a substance in terms of symbols and numbers of atoms of each element present in it. + Atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to one twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon~12 (atomic mass of carbon taken as 12). * Molecular mass or relative molecular mass of a substance is the relative mass of its molecule as compared with the mass of a carbon -12 atom, taken as 12 units. + Chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction using symbols and formulae of the substances involved inthe reaction. Since matter is neither created nor destroyed in the course of a chemical reaction, so every equation needs to be balanced. * Balanced chemical equation tells us (i) which substances take part is a chemical reaction (reactants) and which substances are formed (products) and (ii) the number of molecules of each substance involved. + The relative atomic mass or atomic weight of an element is the number of times one atom of the element is heavier than 4, times of the mass of an atom of carbon-12. + The relative molecular mass (or molecular weight) of an element or a compound is the number that represents how many times one molecule of the substance is heavier than 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12. ‘+ The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest formula, which gives the simplest ratio in whole numbers of atoms of different elements present in one molecule of the compound. —C 16 }EXCERCISE 1(C) |. Fill in the blanks : (@) Dalton used symbol .. for oxygen ... for hydrogen. (b) Symbol represents ~ atoms(s) of an element. (©) Symbolic expression for a molecule is called . (@) Sodium chloride has two radicals. Sodium is a (©) Valency of carbon in CH, i (f) Valency of Iron in FeCl, is (g) Formula of iron (111) carbonate is 2. Complete the following table. 3. Sodium chloride reacts with silver nitrate to produce silver chloride and sodium nitrate (@) Write the equation. (b) Check whether itis balanced, if not balance it. (©) Find the weights of reactants and products. (@) State the law which this equation satisfies. 4, What information does the following chemical equations convey ? (@) Zn +H,S0, > ZnSO, +H, (b) Mg +2HCI—> MgCl, +H, ‘5. (@) What are poly-atomic ions ? Give two examples. (b) Name the fundamental law that is involved in every equation. 6. What is the valency of : (a) fluorine in CaF, (b) sulphur in SF, (© phosphorus in PH, (d)_ carbon in CH, (©) nitrogen in the following compounds : @ NO, Gi)N,O, Gii)NO, G@vyNO 7. Why should an equation be balanced ? Explain with the help of a simple equation. 8. Write the balanced chemical equations of the following reactions. (@) Sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid —> sodium sulphate + water (b) Potassium bicarbonate + sulphuric acid —» potassium sulphate + carbon dioxide + water (©) Iron + sulphuric acid —> ferrous sulphate + hydrogen. -_ 1.(@) Chlorine + sulphur dioxide + water —> sulphuric acid + hydrogen chloride © Silver nitrate — silver + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen (® Copper + nitric acid -> copper nitrate + nitric oxide + water (@) Ammonia + oxygen — nitric oxide + water (by Barium chloride + sulphuric acid — barium sulphate + hydrochloric acid (@ Zine sulphide + oxygen — zine oxide + sulphur dioxide ) Aluminium carbide + water — aluminium hydroxide + methane (k) Iron pyrites (FeS,) + oxygen —> ferric oxide + sulphur dioxide () Potassium permanganate + hydrochloric acid —> potassium chloride + manganese chloride + chlorine + water (a) Aluminium sulphate + sodium hydroxide —> sodium sulphate + sodium meta aluminate + water. (a) Aluminium + sodium hydroxide + water —> sodium meta aluminate + hydrogen (©) Potassium dichromate + sulphuric acid > potassium sulphate + chromium sulphate + water + oxygen. (P) Potassium dichromate + hydrochloric acid —> potassium chloride + chromium chloride + water + chlorine. (@) Sulphur + nitric acid — sulphuric acid + nitrogen dioxide + water. (8) Sodium chloride + manganese dioxide + sulphuric acid —» sodium hydrogen sulphate ++ manganese sulphate + water + chlorine. 9.(@) Define atomic mass unt (b) Calculate the molecular mass of the following : (@ CuS0,5H,0 (i) (NH),CO, (iii) (NH,),CO (iv) Mg,Ny Given atomic mass of Cu = 63-5, H = 1, 0 = 16, C = 12, N= 14, Mg= 24, S=32 10. Choose the correct answer from the options given below. (@) Modern atomic symbols are based on the method proposed by (@ Bohr ii) Dalton Gi) Berzelius iv) Alchemist (b) The number of carbon atoms in a hydrogen carbonate radical is @ one i) two Gi) three iv) four (©) The formula of iron (II}) sulphate is @ FeSO, Gi) Feo), Fe,(SO,), (iv) Fes, (@) In water, the hydrogen-to-oxygen mass ratio is. @ 1:8 Gi) 1:16 Gi) 1:32 ) (©) The formula of sodium carbonate is Na,CO, and that of calcium hydrogen carbonate is ( CaHCO, (i) CaCO), Gi) CaCO, (iv) CaCO), 11, Correct the following statements (@) A molecular formula represents an element. (b) Molecular formula of water (H,O) represents 9 parts by mass of water. _ 88 >(©) A balanced equation obeys the law of conservation of mass and so does an unbalanced equation. (@ A molecule of an element is always monoatomic. (© CO and Co both represent cobalt. 12, Calculate the relative molecular masses of : [For atomic masses, refer page no (v)] @ CHCl, (©) (NH), C0, © CuSO, - 5H,O @) (NH,,SO, (©) CH, COONa (O) Potassium chlorate (g) Ammonium chloroplatinate (NH,), PtCl, 13. Give the empirical formula of (@) Benzene (CH) (b) Glucose (CH,,0,) (©) Acetylene (C,H) (@) Acetic acid (CH,COOH) 14, Find the percentage mass of water in the Epsom salt MgSO,;7H,0. 15. Calculate the percentage of phosphorus in : (@) Calcium hydrogen phosphate Ca(H,PO,), (b) Calcium phosphate Ca,(PO,), 16. Calculate the percentage composition of each element in Potassium chlorate, KCIO,. 17. Urea is a very important nitrogenous fertilizer. Its formula is CON,H,. Calculate the percentage of carbon in urea. (C=12,0=16,N=14and H= 1) LE —Ult~—~—~—COCOCCCOCOCOSS 12. (@) 1195 (b) 252 (c) 249-5 (d) 132 (6) 82 (H) 1225 (g) 444 15, (a) 265% (b) 20% 16. K = 31-83%, Cl= 28:98%, O = 39-18% 17.20% -_ 9> CHEMICAL CHANGES AND REACTIONS SYLLABUS * displacement; (The above to be taught with suitable chemical equations as examples). (i) Types of chemical changes. * Direct combination + decomposition (ii) Energy changes in a chemical change. Exothermic and endothermic reactions with examples — evolution/absorption of heat, light and electricity. * double decomposition 2.1 CHEMICAL REACTION ‘A chemical reaction is the process of breaking the chemical bonds of the reacting substances (reactants) and making new bonds to form new substances (products). ‘A chemical bond is the force that holds the a molecule together, as in a compound. of ‘A chemical change or chemical reaction occurs when particles collide. Collisions occur when reactants are in close contact or by supply of energy. Thus, one or more of the following conditions are necessary for a chemical change : (® Mixing (close contact) : In some cases, a chemical reaction occurs when two substances are mixed in their solid states. Example 1 : Iodine and phosphorus react explosively when brought into close contact. 2 : Lead nitrate (white) and potassium iodide (white) react to make lead iodide (yellow). Pb(NOs), (s) + 2K1 (s) -» 2KNOs (s) + Pbl; (s) (ii) Solution : Tn some cases, a chemical reaction occurs when substances are mixed in, ie, molten or aqueous state. Example | : Oxalic acid crystals and’ sodium carbonate react in water solution only. 2: Sodium chloride and silver nitrate also react in a solution state to form the precipitate of silver chloride and sodium nitrate. NaCl (aq) + AgNO; (aq) > AgCl! + NaNO, (aq) white ppt. (iti) Heat : Some chemical reactions occur only on heating. Example 1 : Copper carbonate decomposes on heating (A symbol for heating) into copper oxide and carbon dioxide. Cxco3s) —* cud () + 0,08) 2: Lead nitrate decomposes on heating leaving yellow residue lead monoxide, brown gas nitrogen dioxide and colourless gas oxygen. 2PD(NO;). —*> 2PbO + 4NO, + 0, (iv) Light : Some chemical reactions take place by the action of light. These are called photochemical reactions ot photolysis. Molecules of the reactants absorb light energy to get activated, and then react, rapidly. Example | : Plants form glucose from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light. 6CO, + 6H,0 + C,H),0, + 60; 2: Hydrogen and chlorine react in the presence of sunlight. Hh + ch 45 2Hc1 3: If chlorine water is exposed to sunlight, ‘oxygen is evolved. Cl, + H,0 > HCl + HCIO Sunlight 2HCIO Wado? 2HCI + 0, ee -Note : Solutions of silver nitrate, hydrogen per oxide are kept in brown bottles in the laboratory because they decompose in the presence of light. 4 : Silver nitrate decomposes in the presence of light. 2agno, —Sualight 2Ag + 2NO, +0, (v) Electricity : Certain chemical reactions, like the decomposition of certain compounds, occur only when electricity is passed through the substance. Example 1 : Electrolysis of acidulated water occurs only in the presence of electricity, to give hydrogen and oxygen. 2H,0 —Slestticiy ot, + 0, 2: On passing current through molten sodium chloride, sodium and chlorine are separately obtained. 2naci —lestticity_, ona + cr, (vi) Pressure : Some chemical reactions take place only when the involved substances are subjected to high pressure. Example 1 : Mercuric chloride and potassium iodide when rubbed in a mortar, give a scarlet- coloured substance called mercuric iodide. 2 : Nitrogen and hydrogen, when subjected to high pressure, produce ammonia (in the presence of, iron as catalyst) N; + 3H, === 2NH, shove 200 atm (vii) Catalyst : Some chemical reactions need a catalyst to accelerate or decelerate the rate at which they ocour. The catalysts themselves do not take part in the reaction. Example | : Potassium chlorate decomposes only at 700°C, and even then the rate of release of oxygen is very slow. But when potassium chlorate is heated in the presence of manganese dioxide, decomposition begins at a much lower temperature, 300°C, and manganese dioxide remains unaffected. Thus, in this reaction, manganese dioxide acts as a catalyst. aKcio, M02 , oxc1+ 30, 2: Ammonia reacts with oxygen to produce nitric oxide and water vapour in the presence of (platinum) a catalyst. Pt Ft, ANH, + 50, Gopeg? 4NO + 61,0 (a) Positive catalyst When a catalyst accelerates a reaction, it is known as a positive catalyst. For example, the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide gets increased in the presence of manganese dioxide. MnO, 2H,0, ——+ 5 2H,0 + 0, Promoters : Substances that influence the rate ‘of a chemical reaction by improving the efficiency of the catalyst are called promoters. For example, in the manufacture of ammonia, iron acts as a catalyst and molybdenum as a promoter. Molybdenum increases the efficiency of the catalyst iron. iron+ N, +3H): <> ‘molybdenum 2NH3, (b) Negative catalyst A catalyst employed to retard a reaction is known as a negative catalyst. Example I : Phosphoric acid retards the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. 2: The rate of oxidation of chloroform decreases in the presence of alcohol. Note : Certain chemical reactions proceed by absorption of sound energy. For example : Acetylene breaks up into carbon and hydrogen by absorbing sound energy CoH, S220 + Hy, 2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS Certain chemical reactions are characterized by changes that are quite easily observed. Some of these typical changes are : (®) Evolution of gas : In many chemical reactions, one of the products is a gas. Examples : (a) When zine reacts with dilute sulphuric acid, hydrogen gas is evolved, with an effervescence. Zn + HO; -» ZnSO, + Hy [zinc] {dil. sulphuric [zine sulphate] hydrogen} acid) 2Effervescence : The formation of gas bubbles in aliquid during a reaction is called effervescence. In the reaction given above, one of the reactants is liquid. In such cases, ie. when one of the reactants is a liquid, the produced fom bbb in tei Le efleerenre takes place. =e (i) Change of colour : Certain chemical reactions are characterized by a change in the colour of the reactants. Example When a few pieces of iron are dropped into a blue coloured copper sulphate solution, the blue colour of the solution fades and eventually turns into light green due to the formation of ferrous sulphate. Fe + CuSO,(ag) > FeSO, + Cu {iron} {blue solution) {green solution] {copper} (ed deposit) (ii) Formation of precipitates : Certain chemical reactions are characterized by the formation of insoluble solid substances called precipitates. Examples (@) When a solution of silver nitrate is added to a solution of sodium chloride, a white insoluble substance (precipitate), silver chloride, is formed. AgNOS(ag) + NaCl(ag) + AgClipp) + NaNOs(ag) [silver nitrate [sodium [silver [sodium solution] chloride chloride) nitrate solution] (white ppt) solution} (b) When ferrous sulphate solution is added to sodium hydroxide solution, a dirty green precipitate of ferrous hydroxide is formed. FeSO4(ag) + 2NaOH(aq) > Fe(OH;1 + NaySO,(ag) {ferrous {sodium {ferrous [sodium sulphate} hydroxide] hydroxide) sulphate} (¢imy green ppt) (iv) Change of state : In many chemical reactions, a change of state is observed. The reaction might start with gaseous or liquid reactants and end up with solid products, and vice versa. Example ‘Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to produce solid ammonium chloride. NH3(g)_ + HCI (g) == NHACi(s) EXCERCISE 2(A) 1. (@) What is a chemical reaction ? (b) State the conditions necessary for a chemical change or reaction. 2. Define the following terms (@) Chemical bond (b) Effervescence (©) Precipitate 3. Give an example of a reaction where the following are involved (a) Heat () Light (©) Electricity @ Close contact (©) Solution (Pressure (2) Catalyst 4. Define : (a) Photochemical reaction (b) Electrochemical reaction, Give one example in each case. 5. Give an example of each of the following chemical changes. (@) A photochemical reaction involving @ silver salt Gi), water () A reaction involving @ blue solution (i) formation of dirty green precipitate (©) Two gases combine to form white solid. @ A reaction where colour change is noticed. 6, Write the chemical reaction where the following changes are observed. (@) Gas is evolved (©) Colour change is noticed (©) Precipitate is formed (@ Physical state is changed 7. Give reason for the following (@) Silver nitrate solution is kept in coloured bottles. (b) Molybdenum is used in the manfacture of ammonia. (©) Blue solution of copper sulphate changes to green ‘when a piece of iron is added to this solution. oon23 TYPES OF CHEMICAL CHEMICAL REACTION Direct combination (or synthesis) Decomposition Displacement Double decomposition CHANGE OR Peer 1. Direct combination or synthesis A reaction in which two or more substances combine together to form a single substance is called a combination reaction. A+BAB In the above reaction, a combination of substances A and B takes place to give a molecule of a new substance, AB. In combination reactions: (@ two elements combine to form a compound [this reaction is also called synthesis}. * Carbon burs in oxygen to form a gaseous compound, carbon dioxide. c+ 0, Ms co, +Heat [carbon] [oxygen] [carbon dioxide) + When magnesium is burnt, it combines directly with the oxygen of air to form magnesium oxide. 2Mg + 02 > 2MgO an element and a compound combine to give a new compound. Example : Carbon monoxide, a compound, bums in the presence of oxygen, an element, to form a single product, carbon dioxide. heat Gi) 2C0 (g) + O;(g) ———> 20; (g) fearbon _foxygen] {carbon monoxide) dioxide) + Sulphur dioxide and oxygen combines under certain conditions to form sulphur trioxide. 280, + 0, - 280; two or more compounds combine to forma single product. Example : Ammonia and hydrogen chloride, both compounds, combine to form a new compound, ammonium chloride. NH, (g) + HCl(g) —> NH,Cl(s) [ammonia] (hydrogen {ammonium chloride} chloride} a ed Gi) Experiments : How to perform direct combination reactions. (i) Take some black lead sulphide in a test tube and heat it. The black sulphide reacts with oxygen to form white lead sulphate. PbS + 20, > PbSO, (combination) (ii) Hold a piece of magnesium ribbon over a flame. It burns with a dazzling light, forming magnesium oxide. 2Mg + 0, > 2MgO (synthesis) 2, Decomposition Itis the breaking up of a compound either into elements or simpler compounds, such that these products do not recombine to form the original compound. Decomposition may occur in the presence of heat or light, or by the passage of an electric current. In a decomposition reaction : (@_acompound breaks up into two or more elements. Examples (a) The compound mercuric oxide, when heated, decomposes to form two elements, mercury and oxygen. 2Hg0(s) —4> 2He® + O@) {mercuric oxide] [mercury] {oxygen} Note : The symbol A (delta) is used to signify that heat has caused the reaction. (b) When electric current is passed through acidulated water, the latter decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. a 24,00) Es ae + O@) Gi) acompound can break up to form both elements and compounds. Example : The compound potassium nitrate on heating decomposes to produce a compound, potassium nitrite, and an element, oxygen. >2KNO,(s) Hts 2KNOA(s) + Ole) [potassium [potassium [oxygen] tate) itite iii) 2 compound can break up to form two or more new compounds. Example : The compound calcium carbonate on strong heating decomposes to form two compounds, calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. Caco, beat CaO 0, fea “1000? (eaten a ae carbonate] oxide] dioxide] Thermal decomposition of metal compound (@) Metal hydroxide Hydroxides K_] Metal hydroxides are stable Na | to heat. Ca | Decompose on heating to ‘Mg | form metal oxide and ‘AL | water vapour. Zn | Ca(OH), > Cx0+H,0 Z(OH), > Zn0 +140 Fe | PbO), > PLO+H,0 Pb | Cu(OH), > CxO +H,0 cu Hg | Yields metal, oxygen and ‘water vapour, ‘Ag_| 4AgOH > 4Ag +0, +2H,0 (iii) Metal bicarbonates (metal hydrogen carbonate) Metal bicarbonates or metal hydrogen carbonates decomposes to give metal carbonate, water vapour and carbon dioxide. 2NaHCO, —*» Na,CO, + H,0 +CO, sodium hydrogen carbonate sodium carbonate Ca(HCO;), —*+ CaCO; + H,0 +CO) lcalcium hydrogen carbonate calcium carbonate Mg(HCO;)), —4+> MgCO; + H,0 +CO, magnesium bicarbonate magnesium carbonate (iv) Metal nitrates Nitrates K7] On heating they melt Na_| and decompose to give metal nitrite and oxygen. 2KNO, * 2KNO, +0, Decompose on heating to form the metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. 2Ca(NO,),->2Ca0+4N0, 40, 2E2 S 2Zn(NO,)>> ZZ00 + 4NOxt Op 2PH(NO3); 72Pb0 + 4NO;+0, 2Cu(NO,)>-> 2CuO + 4NO3+ Op Forms metal, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. 4 ‘Ag_| 2AgNO; >2Ag +2NO, +0, FOF (ii) Metal carbonates ‘Carbonates K 7] Stable to heat and Na_| soluble in water. Ca 7] Decompose on heating Mg | with decreasing vigour ‘Al | to form the metal oxide ‘nd carbon dioxide, Zn Mg CO, > Mg0+CO, Fe | ZnCO, > Zn0+CO, Pb | CuCO, > Cu0+ CO, co Hg 7] Forms the metal, oxygen and carbon dioxide, Ag_| 2Ag,C0;> 4Ag +0, +200, ‘Decomposition reactions in our body Digestion of food by our body is an example of a decomposition reaction. ‘The starch present in the food we eat decomposes into glucose and sugar. Proteins undergo decomposition to form amino acids. Fats and oils are decomposed to fatty acids and finally oxidized by respiration into carbon dioxide and water. Starch "YB 5 Giucose Ls co, + 1,0 How to perform decomposition Experiments : reactions. (i) Take some lead nitrate crystals in a test tube and heat them. The crystals first melt and, on further heating, give out both nitrogen dioxide, a reddish brown gas, and oxygen. A yellow solid (lead monoxide) is left behind in the test tube. ————_— “ei2Pb(NO;), — 2PbO + 4NO, T +0, T (ii) Put some zinc carbonate in a test tube fitted with acork and a bent glass tube. On heating, carbon dioxide is given out, which will turn lime water milky. The residue, ice. zinc oxide, is yellow when hot, but it turns white on cooling. ‘ZnCOy ~> Zn0 + CO, T (iii) Heat orange-coloured ammonium dichromate in a test tube. Upon heating, it swells and decomposes, evolving nitrogen and water vapours and a green solid, chromium oxide is left behind. (NH)),Cr,0; > Cr,0, + 4H,0 T +N) 7 ammonium chromium dichromate ‘oxide (iv) When hydrated copper(I) sulphate is heated in a test tube, the blue-coloured crystals change into white anhydrous salt. The change may be represented by the following equation : CuSO, - SH,0() +> CuSO) + SH,O(2) hydrated salt anhydrous salt (blue) (colourless) However, anhydrous copper(I) sulphate may be changed to the blue hydrated form by taking a sample of the anhydrous salt and adding water to it (this is the test to detect the presence of water). CuSO,(s) + SHjO) > CuSO,-5H;0(g) anhydrous salt hydrated salt (colourless) (blue) So far, most of the reactions that we have considered proceed quite definitely in a certain direction, and it is possible to identify the reactants and the products. However, there also exists a group of reactions in which the direction of chemical change can be reversed by changing the conditions under which the reaction is taking place. Such reactions are called reversible reactions. Thus, this is a reversible reaction, and the equation for the reaction is : CuS0,SH,0(s) <= CuSO,(s) + SH,0(8) To show that the reaction is reversible, we put the sign “<—%” in between the reactants and the products. If steam is passed over red hot iron, the latter is partially converted into magnetic oxide, and hydrogen is released. If, on the other hand, hydrogen is passed over the heated oxide, it partially changes back to steam, 3Fe + 4H,0 <> Fe,0, + 4H, In either case, the reaction ends with a mixture of reactants and products. Experiments : To show thermal dissociation (v) Heat some solid ammonium chloride in a test tube. Two colourless gases ammonia and hydrogen chloride are produced. As these gases move up at the upper part of the test tube whic is cooler, they combine to form ammonium chloride, which appears as a white sublimate on the cooler upper side of the test tube. NH,CL = NH; 7 + HCIT A simultaneous reversible decomposition reaction brought about only by heat is thermal dissociation. Example of thermal dissociation. On heating, nitrogen tetraoxide changes to nitrogen dioxide, a reddish brown gas. On cooling, nitrogen dioxide changes into the original compound, nitrogen tetraoxide. heat N30, Sor 2NO2 3. Displacement It is a chemical change in which a more active element displaces a less active element from its salt solution. Experiments : To show displacement reactions. (i) Take a solution of copper sulphate in a beaker, add a few pieces of zinc, and stir with a glass rod. The blue colour of the solution gradually fades, and soon the solution becomes colourless. At the same time, reddish brown particles of copper settle down in the beaker, CuSO, + Zn > ZnSO, + Cul (ii) In a test tube, take some dilute sulphuric acid and drop a small piece of magnesium ribbon. Brisk effervescence takes place, and hydrogen is evolved, which burns with a pop sound on bringing a burning match stick near the mouth of the test tube. Mg + H;SO, MgSO, + H (ii) Pass chlorine gas through a solution of potassium iodide. The colourless solution turns yellow brown as iodine appears. 2KT + Ch > 2KC1 + Ip ReFrom the above examples, it can be noticed that in metal, zinc is more active (reactive) than copper, and magnesium is more active compared to hydrogen. In non-metals chlorine is more active as compared to iodine. By taking similar examples, the following activity series can be prepared. ‘Activity (reactivity) of elements Note : The more reactive clement displaces the less reactive element from its isiver salt solution, Gold Platinum PESOTS PPE ECR Splanunep saxoanep S202 PLY Least active (reactive) metal 4, Double decomposition This is a type of chemical change in which two compounds in a solution react to form two new compounds by mutual exchange of radicals. Double decomposition reaction is also called double displacement reaction, AB +CD—>AD+CB These reactions are of two types: (a) precipitation reactions and (b) neutralization reactions. (a) Precipitation reaction : A chemical reaction in which two compounds in their aqueous state react to form an insoluble salt (a precipitate) as one of the products is known as a precipitation reaction. For example : BaCl, (ag) + Ne,S0, (aq) > BaSO,(s) + NaCl (aq) white ppt CuSO, (aq) + HS (g) + CuS(s) + H,S0, (aq) black ppt Experiments : To show double decomposition reactions. (i) Take a solution of silver nitrate in a test tube and add dilute hydrochloric acid or a solution of sodium chloride. A white, curdy precipitate is formed, AgNO, + HCI > AgCl 4 + HNO; AgNO, + NaCl -> AgCl 1 + NaNO; (ii) Fill one-third of a test tube with a solution of dilute sulphuric acid, and add to it a solution of barium chloride. A thick white precipitate is immediately formed. BaCl; + H,S0, + BaSO, 1 + 2HC1 (b) Neutralization: The reaction between an acid and a base that forms salt and water only is referred to as reaction of neutralisation. ‘The reaction takes place because the hydrogen ion(H*) from the acid combines with the hydroxyl ion(OH-) from the base, to form water. NaOH + HCI NaCl + H,0 OR Nat OH- + Ht Cl- + Na* Cl + H+ OH- Tonic form Cancelling the common ions, Na* and Cl, the only change is the combination of H+ and OH- ions to form un-ionized water, ie. H* + OH- > 1,0. ‘Note : Double decomposition reactions may also ‘occur with evolution of gas. Example : FeS(s) + HySO, (aq) > FeSO, + H)ST NaHCO, + HCI NaCl + H,0 + CO, As a chemical process, neutralization has many uses (a) When someone is stung by a bee, formic acid enters the skin and gives pain, which can be relieved by rubbing the spot with slaked lime or baking soda, both of which are bases. (b) If our stomach glands secrete excess HCI, we experience pain, which is relieved by taking milk of magnesia or sodium hydrogen carbonate, both of which are bases. On the other hand, if there is a deficiency of HCI, some or the other suitable acid is taken in dilute form to make up for it. € 26 D(c) Acid that is accidentally spilled on to our clothes or body can be neutralized with ammonia solution. (@ If the soil is somewhat acidic, and thus unfavourable for growing of certain crops, slaked lime is added to neutralize the excess acid. Hydrolysis : It is the process in which a salt and water react to form an acidic or a basic solution. 2 In the process of hydrolysis, only those salts hydrolyse that are formed by the reaction of (i) strong base ‘and weak acid and (ji) strong acid and weak base. This happens because a salt formed due to a strong base and a weak acid, on dissolving in water, will make a basic solution. kecae eee litmus blue. = : Na,CO3 +2H,0 > 2NaQH + HCO; Strong base Weak acid K;PO, + 3H;0 > 3KOH + HPO, Strong base Weak acid But the salt formed due to a strong acid and a weak base, on dissolving in water, will make an acidic solution, Acidic solutions turn blue litmus red. FeCl, + 3H,0 > Fe(OH), + 3HCI ‘Weak base Strong acid Za$0, + 2H,0 > Zn(OH), + H,SO, ‘Weak base Strong acid Note : Strong acids and strong bases ionize to a large extent in aqueous solution. Weak acids and weak bases ionize to only a small extent in aqueous solution, and the salts formed by them usually do not hydrolyse. EXCERCISE 2(B) 1. Complete the following statements. (a) ‘The chemical change involving iron and hydrochloric acid illustrates a reaction, (b) In the type of reaction called .... two compounds exchange their positive and negative radicals. (© A catalyst either . the rate of a at the end ‘When hydrogen bums in oxygen, water is formed; when electricity is passed through water, hydrogen and oxygen are given out. Name the type of chemical change involved in the two cases. 3. Explain, giving one example for each of the following chemical changes: (@) Double decomposition (b) Thermal dissociation (©) Reversible reaction _—_(@) Displacement 4. What is synthesis ? What kind of chemical reaction is synthesis ? Support your answer by an example. ‘5. Decomposition brought about by heat is known as thermal decomposition. What is the difference between thermal dissociation and thermal decomposition. 6. Define neutralization reaction. Give three applications of neutralization reactions. 7. What do you understand by hydrolysis ? Explain giving examples. 8. Iron (II) chloride is acidic while sodium carbonate is basic. Explain. 9. What is decomposition ? Support your answer by an ‘example. 10. State the type of reactions each of the following represent and balance the ones that are not balanced. (a) Cl, + 2KBr > 2KCI + Bry (b) Fe + CuSO, + FeSO, +Cu (©) 2Hg0 — 2Hg +0, (@) PbO; + SO, > PLSO, (©) AgNO, + NaCl > AgCl + NaNO; (® 2KCIO > 2KCI + 30, (g) 24,0; + 2H,0 + 0, (h) KNO, + HySO, —> HINO, + KHSO, @ CoO + Hy > Cu + H,0. (@ CaCO, + CaO + CO, (k) NH,Cl > NH, + HCL _—_—_——_—_——————— (224 ENERGY CHANGE REACTIONS In every chemical change or chemical reaction, change in energy is involved, ie. there is a difference between the chemical energies of the reactants and the products. This energy can be in the form of heat, light, sound and electricity. Every substance has a fixed amount of stored energy, which is in the form of potential energy, and is referred to as its chemical energy. A chemical reaction involves the breaking up of chemical bonds between atoms resulting in absorption of energy in the form of heat, and simultaneous formation of bonds with release of energy. These two types of energy are different from each other, i.e. there is either a surplus or a deficit of energy during the reaction. Therefore, in a chemical reaction, energy is either absorbed or released. Depending upon the energy released or absorbed, chemical changes or chemical reactions are of two types : 1. Exothermic 2. Endothermic IN CHEMICAL 1, Exothermic reaction : A chemical reaction in which heat (a form of energy) is given out is called exothermic reaction. It causes a rise in temperature. Examples : (a) When carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide, a lot of heat is produced. C + 0 > CO, + Heat [carbon] [oxygen] [carbon dioxide) (6) When water is added to quicklime, a lot of heat energy is produced [along with alkaline calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)]. CaO + H,O + Ca(OH), + Heat {quicktime} Islaked lime) (©) Formation of water : When hydrogen is burnt in oxygen, water is formed and heat is released. 2th, + 0 A> 28,0 + Heat (@) Formation of ammonia : Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen in the presence of catalyst (finely divided) iron at 450°C to 500°C, and above 200 atmospheres of pressure to form ammonia. No + 3H, —4.> 2NH; + Heat Note : The sign A indicates heat. Respiration, rusting, and burning of coal, petrol, kerosene, etc., are some common exothermic reactions. 2. Endothermic reaction : A chemical reaction in which heat is absorbed is called endothermic reaction. It causes a fall in temperature. This reaction cannot be sustained without supply of energy from an external source. Examples : (a) Formation of carbon disulphide : When carbon is heated with sulphur at high temperature, liquid carbon disulphide is formed. c+28+—4+ cs, (b) When nitrogen and oxygen are heated together to a temperature of about 3000°C, nitric oxide gas is formed. This is an endothermic reaction. Heat eat Nz + 0 * Gooorc} 2NO (g) (c) Calcium carbonate decomposes into carbon dioxide and calcium oxide when it is heated to a temperature of about 1000°C; this is also an endothermic reaction. > CaO (8) + CO; (g) [calcium oxide] [carbon- dioxide] CaCO, (s) + heat fealcium —1000°C) carbonate] PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTION It is a reaction that occurs with absorption of light energy. Examples : 1. Photosynthesis 6CO, + 12 H,0_chlorophyll_, C6H,,0, + 6 H,0 + 60, sunlight 2. 2AgNO, _sualight_, 2Ag + 2NO, +O, ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION It is @ reaction that occurs with absorption of ‘electrical energy. 88 >Examples : 2. Acidulated water breaks into hydrogen and 1. Fused potassium chloride, on passing current oxygen. through it, breaks into charged particles (ions) of electric E 2,0 —Seattics on, + 0, potassium and chloride. wh current 2+ Or Kel 82S 5 K+ 4 cr CHAPTER AT A GLANCE Whenever energy is applied to matter, changes occurs. Changes are mainly of two types : physical and chemical. A change in which only the physical properties of a substance get changed, not its chemical composition, is called a physical change, viz. breaking of glass. A physical change is a temporary change and is reversible in nature. During a physical change, only the physical properties, such as state, colour, shape, efc. undergo a change, ‘A change in which chemical composition and chemical properties of reacting substances undergo a change is called a chemical change, viz. burning of paper. ‘A chemical change is a permanent change, ic. it is irreversible. Changes occur by (i) mixing the substances in solution state (ii) by heat (ii) light (iv) electricity (v) pressure (vi) in the presence of a catalyst. ‘A chemical reaction is the process of breaking the chemical bonds of reactants and formation of new bonds to form new products. Chemical reaction is confirmed by (i) evolution of gas (ii) change of colour (iii) formation of precipitate (iv) change of state. A reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new substance is called a combination reaction : Fe +S — FeS. A reaction in which a substance is broken down into two or more substances is called a decomposition reaction : 2Hg0 — 2Hg + 0). A reaction in which one part of a molecule is replaced by another is called a displacement reaction : CuSO, + Fe > FeSO, + Cu. A reaction in which two reacting molecules exchange their corresponding ions, is called a double displacement reaction : NaCl + AgNO, — AgCl + NaNO, A reaction in which one of the products formed is an insoluble substance that is thrown out of the solution as solid (precipitate) is called precipitation reaction : Na,SO, + BaCl, > BaSO, + 2NaCl. A reaction in which heat is liberated (or given out) is called an exothermic reaction. A reaction in which heat is absorbed is called an endothermic reaction. _—_———-——— 2 >EXCERCISE 2(C) 1, State the main characteristics of chemical reactions. Give at least one example in each case. 2. Define exothermic and endothermic changes. Give two ‘examples in each case. 3, State the effects of endothermic and exothermic reactions oon the surroundings. 4. Give an example of a reaction where the following are involved (@)_ Evolution of heat (b) Absorption of heat (©) High pressure is required 5. Define : (@) Photochemical reaction (b) Electrochemical reaction. Give one example in each case. 6. Give an example of each of the following chemical changes. (a) A reaction involving (change of state (i) formation of precipitate (b) An exothermic and an endothermic reaction involving carbon as one of the reactants. (©) A reaction where colour change is noticed. 7. What do you understand by ‘chemical reaction.’ ? 8. Complete and balance the following reactions : (@) NaCl (aq) + AgNOs (ag) > (b) Pb(NO;)2 + KI > © cco; 45 (@) PH(NO,), —> (© NH; +0, Ly 9, What do you observe. When (@) Lead nitrate is heated. (©) Chlorine water is exposed to sunlight. (©) Hydrogen peroxide is exposed sunlight. (@ H,S gas is passed through copper sulphate solution. (©) Barium chloride is added to sodium sulphate solution. 10, Name : (@) a carbonate which do not decompose on heating. (b) a nitrate which produces oxygen as the only gas. (©) acompound which produces carbon dioxide on heating. (@) a nitrate which produces brown gas on heating.WATER SYLLABUS () Water as a universal solvent: + Solutions as ‘mixtures’ of solids in water; saturated solutions. + Qualitative effect of temperature on solubility (e.g. solutions of calcium sulphate, potassium nitrate, sodium chloride in water). (ii) Hydrated and anhydrous substances (a) Hydrated substances Water of crystalisation ~ meaning and examples (b) Anhydrous substances : Meaning and examples only (©) Properties : * Efflorescence + Deliquescence * Hygroscopy (Definition and examples of each of the above) (ili), Drying and dehydrating agents Meaning and examples only (Wv) Soft water and hard water. ‘+ Meaning (in terms of action of soap) + Advantages and disadvantages of soft water and hard water. «Types and causes of hardness. ‘+ Removal of hardness (i) by boiling (ii) by addition of washing soda. 3 A. WATER Formula : HO Water exists in all the three physical states : as solid (ice), as liquid (water) and as gas (water vapour). Chemical name : Dihydrogen oxide Molecular mass : 2x 1+16x1=18 amu aA : wy (HG 0G) es os Fig. 3.1 Covalent bonding in a water molecule 3.1 INTRODUCTION Water is the most important natural resource; more than 70% of Earth’s area is occupied with water. However, hardly 2:5% of this water makes up the world’s supply of fresh water, including the frozen water in polar ice caps and glaciers. ay 0°) Rain ety Fig, 3.2 Water cycle. 3.Water is a major constituent of all living things (plants, animals and human beings) and of the atmospheric environment in which we live. Nearly 70% of our body weight is water. ‘Water occurs in both free and combined states. Ordinarily, water exists in the liquid state. When heated under normal pressure (760 mm Hg), water boils at 100°C and changes rapidly into its gaseous state (steam). When steam condenses back into water, heat is released. This heat is called latent heat of condensation, and it is equal to latent heat of vaporization. It is the sudden release of latent heat of condensation that causes the violence associated with torrential rain, 3.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER 1, Nature : Pure water is a clear, transparent liquid. It is colourless, odourless and tasteless. ‘The taste water is due to gases and solids 2. Boiling point : Under normal pressure, pure water boils at 100°C. The boiling point of water is affected by pressure because boiling point of a liquid is considered as the temperature when vapour pressure equals the atmospheric pressure. Thus, the greater the pressure, the higher the boiling point, and vice versa. This is the principle by which a pressure cooker works. In the hills, water boils at temperature lower than 100°C with atmospheric pressure being Iow (70°C on the top of Mount Everest) and so food is not cooked properly there. Therefore, pressure cookers are useful in the hills, ‘The boiling point of water also increases due to the presence of dissolved impurities in it. 3. Freezing point of water or melting point of ice : Pure water freezes at 0°C under normal pressure (one atmosphere). The freezing point of water decreases with increase in pressure. The freezing point of water also decreases due to the presence of dissolved impurities in it, 4. Density : At 4°C, water has its maximum density, 1 g/cm? or 1000 kg/m’, and minimum volume. Water expands on freezing, i.e. 92 volumes of water become 100 volumes of ice. Therefore, with relative density of ice being 0-92, it floats. 5. Anomalous expansion of water : Water has an unusual physical property. When cooled, it first contracts in volume, as do other liquids, but below 4C, it starts expanding and continues to do so till the temperature reaches °C, the point at which it freezes into ice, 1.000 DENSITY (ont) 8 | k aa \I a a eT TEMPERATURE °C > Fig, 3.3 Water has maximum density at 4°C The property of anomalous expansion of water enables marine life to exist in the colder regions of the world, because even when the water freezes on the surface, it remains a liquid below the ice layer ig. 3.4). AIR BELOW 0 Fig. 34 Formation of ice atthe top of a pond. 6. Latent heat of fusion of ice : The latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to change a substance from the solid state to its liquid state at its melting point without any change in temperature. ‘The amount of heat energy required by ice to change into water, is called latent heat of fusion of ice. Its specific value is 336 J/g or 80 cal/g. The same amount of heat is released when 1 g of water solidifies to form 1 g of ice at 0°C. It is on account of high specific latent heat of solidification that lakes and rivers do not freeze suddenly. _ OO7. Latent heat of vaporization of water : When water is boiled, it changes to gaseous state. The energy required to change water into its vapour at its boiling point without any change in temperature is called latent heat of vaporization of water, and its specific value is 2268 J/g or 540 cal/g. The same amount of heat is released when 1 g of steam condenses to form 1 g of water at 100°C. "It is on account of high specific latent heat of vaporization that steam causes far more serious burns than water at 100°C. 8. Specific heat capacity : Ithas been found that 1 g of water, when heated through 1°C, always absorbs 4.2 J (or 1 calorie) of heat energy. The fixed amount of heat absorbed by 1 g of water, when heated through 1°C, is called its specific heat capacity. Water because of its high specific heat is commonly used as coolant in motor car radiators, desert coolers, etc. Due to its high specific heat capacity, the presence of large amount of water is able to modify the climate of the nearby land areas, making them warmer in ‘winter and cooler in summer. Land and sea breeze are also set up because of this great moderating property of water. 3.3 WATER AS UNIVERSAL SOLVENT Water is a remarkable solvent. It dissolves many substances, forming aqueous solutions (water solutions). Water has a high dielectric constant. As a result, it reduces the electrostatic force of attraction between positive and negative ions and dissolves even inorganic compounds, which are usually electrovalent. Not only solids, but also gases and other liquids dissolve in water. Hence, it is difficult to find absolutely pure water in nature. For the same reason, water is also called universal solvent. Substances that are apparently insoluble in water actually dissolve in it in traces. Even when we put water in a glass vessel, an extremely small amount of glass dissolves in it. It is for this reason that, when distilled water is kept in a sealed bottle for a long time, it leaves etchings on the inside surface of glass. 23 Experiment : To show that ordinary tap water contains dissolved solids. Procedure : Put some tap water on a clean watch glass, and place it over a beaker containing water, as shown in Fig. 3.5. Boil the water in the beaker. When all the water has evaporated from the watch glass, remove it from the burner and let it cool. (88g waren SILICA GLASS TUBE APPEARANCE OF THE WATCH: ‘GLASS AFTER EVAPORATION HEAT Fig. 3.5 To show that water contains dissolved solids Observation : On looking at the watch glass against light, a number of concentric rings of solid matter are seen, These are the dissolved solids left behind after evaporation of water. Importance of dissolved salts in water ‘The dissolved solids in water are salts, minerals and impurities. 1. They are essential for growth and development of plants. 2. They add taste to water. 3. They supply the essential minerals needed by our bodies. ‘Note : Tap water, river water and well water contain dissolved solids, but rainwater and distilled water do not contain dissolved solids, and so concentric rings are not formed in their case. AIR DISSOLVED IN WATER Air is present in dissolved state in all the natural sources of water. Of the two main components of air (nitrogen and oxygen), oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen. Note : Since oxgyen is more soluble in water compared to nitrogen, the air dissolved in water differs from ordinary air.Experiment : To show that tap water contains dissolved gases (air). Procedure : Fill around-bottom flask completely with tap water, and arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 3.6. A graduated tube or burette filled completely with water is inverted over the end of the delivery tube in a trough of water. Fig. 3.6 To show that water contains dissolved gases Observation : Heat the water in the flask. Gas bubbles are seen escaping from water. They are collected in the graduated tube by downward displacement of water. The water vapour present in the gases condenses on coming in contact with the cold water in the tube. Obviously, the remaining gases come from the air dissolved in water, and they escape on heating. Read the volume of the gas thus collected, The volume of the gas (air) collected in the graduated tube shows the presence of dissolved gases in tap water. The solubility of a gas is often expressed by the volume of that gas dissolved in a certain volume of a solvent, For example, the solubility of H, in water is expressed as 0-02 volume of hydrogen per unit, volume of water, at 0°C or 506 volumes of hydrogen chloride per unit volume of water, at 0°C. The composition of air dissolved in water is 33% oxygen (compared to 21% in ordinary air), 66% nitrogen and 1% carbon dioxide. Note : The gases dissolved in water can be easily expelled by boiling the water (Fig. 3. Note : Distilled water and boiled water have no taste. ‘The pleasant taste of drinking water is due to the presence of dissolved matter, like air, carbon dioxide and minerals. IMPORTANCE OF AIR DISSOLVED IN WATER Air dissolved in water is biologically very ‘important. (1) Marine life, like fish, use the oxygen of the air dissolved in water for respiration, and thus aquatic life is sustained. 1 dm} of water contains nearly 40 cm! of dissolved oxygen. (2) Carbon dioxide (i) Aquatic plants make use of dissolved carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, i.e. to prepare their food. chlorophyll 6CO, +12H,0 == C,H),,0, + 60,+ 6H,0 sunlight glucose (ii) Carbon dioxide dissolved in water reacts with limestone to form calcium bicarbonate. CaCO, + CO, + H,0 — Ca(HCO,), limestone calcium bicarbonate Marine organisms such as snails, oysters, etc. extract calcium carbonate from calcium bicarbonate to build their shells. 1, Water exists in all the three states. Discuss. 2. Why is water considered a compound ? 3. (a) Why does temperature in Mumbai and Chennai not fall as low as it does in Delhi? (©) Give the properties of water responsible for controlling the temperature of our body. 4, ‘Water is a universal solvent’. Comment. “5. What causes the violence associated with torrential rain ? 6. (a) Which property of water enables it to modify the climate ? (©) Density of water varies with temperature, What ar its consequences ? (©) State the melting point, boiling point, specific heat capacity, specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent heat of vaporization of water. 7. How does fishes and aquatic animals survive when the pond. gets covered with thick ice ? (34 >