Socio-technical systems theory as a diagnostic tool for

examining underutilization of wiki technology

Andrea J. Hester
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, Illinois, USA

Purpose – This paper aims to examine organizational information systems based on Web
2.0 technology as socio-technical systems that involve interacting relationships among
actors, structure, tasks and technology. Alignment within the relationships may facilitate
increased technology use; however, gaps in alignment may impede technology use and
result in poor performance or system failure. The technology examined is an
organizational wiki used for collaborative knowledge management.
Design/methodology/approach – Results of a survey administered to employees of an
organization providing cloud computing services are presented. The research model
depicts the socio-technical component relationships and their influence on use of the wiki.
Hierarchical latent variable modelling is used to operationalize the six main constructs.
Hypotheses propose that as alignment of a relationship increases, wiki use increases. The
partial least squares (PLS) method is used to examine the hypotheses.
Findings – Based on the results, increased perceptions of alignment among technology and
structure increase wiki use. Further analysis indicates that low usage may be linked to gaps
in alignment. Many respondents with lower usage scores also indicated “low alignment”
among actor-task, actor-technology, and task-structure.
Research limitations/implications – The sample size is rather small; however, results may
give an indication as to the appropriateness of dimensions chosen to represent the
alignment relationships. Socio-technical systems theory (STS) is often utilized in
qualitative studies. This paper introduces a measurement instrument designed to evaluate
STS through quantitative analysis.
Practical implications – User acceptance and change management continue to be important
topics for both researchers and practitioners. The model proposed here provides measures
that may reveal predictive indicators for increased information system use. Alternatively,
practitioners may be able to utilize a diagnostic tool as presented here to assess underlying
factors that may be impeding effective technology utilization.
Originality/value – The paper presents a diagnostic tool that may help management to
better uncover misaligned relationships leading to underutilization of technology. Practical
advice and guidelines are provided allowing for a plan to rectify the situation and improve
technology usage and performance outcomes.
Keywords Alignment, Empirical study, PLS method, Socio-technical systems theory, Wiki
technology Paper type Research paper

The author would like to thank “SkyCo” for their participation in this study and their continued support in publication efforts. Thanks also to
the Guest Editor, Gavin Baxter, and the anonymous reviewers for exceptional reviews that greatly enhanced the quality of this paper.
1. Introduction
Despite the increasing maturation of Web 2.0 technology, understanding of organizational
implementation and user acceptance of Web 2.0 technology continues to be a difficult and
complex process. Web 2.0 technology provides innovative web-based collaboration
systems, that involve layers of complexity rooted in social dynamics.
A balance between technological capabilities and social structures of organizations is
needed for successful system outcomes. This paper suggests consideration of socio-
technical systems theory as a diagnostic tool to examine relationships among social and
technical subsystem components of organizational work systems that utilize Web 2.0
technology. We suggest that having even just one relationship out of alignment can
impede utilization and overall performance.
More work on drilling down to the source of potential gaps in alignment within socio-
technical systems is needed. This research seeks to answer the question of what are
underlying factors related to situations of misalignment. More specifically, we seek to
identify dimensions that capture the essence of relationships involving aligning pairs of
socio-technical system components: actors, structure, tasks and technology.
The organization studied in this research, “SkyCo”, is a major player in the cloud
computing arena. SkyCo is located in the Midwest and classified as a small business
according to number of employees (less than 50). As a technology provider, SkyCo
utilizes numerous systems as both the product provided to clients, and the means for
conducting internal processes.
As a leader in innovative technologies, SkyCo utilizes a wiki technology-based system
for collaborative knowledge management. Although the wiki has evolved since its
inception, management expressed concerns that the wiki was not utilized to the best of its
abilities. Research involving wiki technology provides an interesting context. Much of the
current literature examining wiki technology has a limited focus on either technological
aspects or cultural aspects (Lykourentzou et al., 2011). This research provides a more
encompassing study that involves both technological and social dynamics.
In order to uncover potential underlying causes for underutilization of the wiki, the
research approach uses STS as a diagnostic tool. As presented here, the first step in
tackling this problem is to analyze the organization and business process and delineate the
findings into components that comprise a socio-technical work system. The second step is
to ascertain user perceptions of the STS demonstrated by SkyCo. A survey was
administered to SkyCo employees to uncover perceptions of relationships among socio-
technical system components. By incorporating these steps, this paper provides a
“diagnosis” in terms of an assessment of alignment or “fit” among any two components,
and the influence of those relationships on wiki usage. Future work with this study will
address findings of the fit analysis in effort to begin to improve wiki utilization.
This paper proceeds as follows: section 2 discusses relevant literature; the research
framework is developed in section 3; the research methodology is given in section 4; the
research analysis and results are presented in section 5; and section 6 presents the
discussion with section 7 concluding.
2. Relevant literature
2.1 Socio-technical systems theory
In seminal work in socio-technical systems theory (STS), Bostrom and Heinen describe
organizational work systems as being composed of a social subsystem and a technical
subsystem (Bostrom and Heinen, 1977). The social subsystem is comprised of structure
and people, and the technical subsystem is comprised of technology and tasks (see Figure
1). Bostrom and Heinen note that management information systems (MIS) have a direct
effect on technical subsystem components. Nonetheless, MIS problems and failures often
stem from organizational behavior issues which involve social subsystem components. In
their work, the authors propose that a socio-technical systems approach will provide a
realistic view of organizations. Bostrom and Heinen recommend that when designing MIS
a deeper understanding of and focused attention on the independent yet interacting
components of the socio-technical system is needed. Beyond a qualitative assessment of a
given socio-technical system, further work is required to examine the interaction between
technical and social aspects and the extent to which a gap in a given relationship can be
detrimental in successful system use.
When considering a socio-technical system at the work system level, outputs of the
system are realized when interaction takes place between the social subsystem and the
technical subsystem (Bostrom and Heinen, 1977). These interactions may be delineated as
relationships between any two given components, yielding six separate relationships
(actor-structure, actor-task, actor-technology, task-technology, task-structure, and
technology-structure). In further defining the social subsystem, consideration of the
attributes of actors, including attitudes, skills and values, and the relationships among
actors and authority structures is needed. Further understanding of this social interaction
may be drawn from other definitions of structure. Giddens describes structure as giving
“form and shape to social life”, referring to the internal sense of rules humans resort to as
the engage in external action (Giddens, 1989). Structure may also be viewed as emerging
from recursive interactions between technology and humans (Orlikowski, 2000). In each
of these descriptions, there is an understood interplay among entities. Consideration of
these views lends to the focus of this research to study the interactive relationships among
socio-technical system components.

Figure 1.
Socio-technical system
2.2 Fit and alignment
Theories and studies focusing on “fit”, “alignment”, or “appropriation”, aim to uncover
conditions that facilitate a positively interactive relationship among two or more entities.
A positive relationship can then be characterized as congruence, match, or similarity
between the entities. This vast research has examined various contextual classes of entities
including person-environment fit (Edwards and Cooper, 1990), task-technology fit at the
individual level (Goodhue, 1995, Goodhue and Thompson, 1995) and group level (Zigurs
and Buckland, 1998, Fuller and Dennis, 2009, Zigurs et al.,
1999), and technology system fit at the group level (Dennis et al., 2001) and organization
level (Hung et al., 2011, Strong and Volkoff, 2010).
Problems arise when these relationships are not functioning symbiotically. In studies of
person-environment fit, individuals reflect on organizational characteristics such as
physical working environment, opportunities for growth and development, terms and
conditions of employment, and organizational values (Edwards and Billsberry, 2010).
These characteristics are just a few that comprise multiple dimensions of overall person-
environment fit that include person-vocation fit, person-organization fit, person-group fit,
person-job fit, and person-people fit. A perceived lack of congruence among individuals
and their environment has been studied as a cause of stress (Edwards and Cooper, 1990),
strain (Ayyagari et al., 2011) and work exhaustion that may ultimately lead to turnover in
the IT workforce (Moore, 2000).
Task-technology fit theory posits that insufficient fit among task characteristics and
system characteristics may impede system impact on individual performance in terms of
effectiveness, productivity and overall job performance (Goodhue and Thompson, 1995).
At the group level, performance may be affected by alignment of technology dimensions
that provide communication support, process structuring, and information processing and
task environments characterized as simple, problem, decision, judgment, and fuzzy (Zigurs
and Buckland, 1998). In this case, fit occurs with an appropriate match between
technology support and task environment, for example, improved group performance
occurs when decision tasks are supported by a technology configuration that emphasizes
information processing and process structuring. The concept of task-technology fit is
extended in studies of group or team appropriation of technology (Dennis et al., 2001,
Fuller and Dennis, 2009). The notion of fit-appropriation suggests that even when tasks
and technology capabilities are in congruence, adequate appropriation of technology is
needed to significantly improve performance (Dennis et al., 2001).
More recently, researchers have examined fit between an organization and an
information system, such as cross-enterprise collaboration systems (Hung et al., 2011) and
enterprise systems (Strong and Volkoff, 2010). Strong and Volkoff suggest that the
extensive research examining this area is often too narrow in scope and neglects to provide
an encompassing view of symbiotic entities functioning at multiple levels of analysis.
Hung et al. do consider organizational fit at three levels: data fit, process fit and user fit. In
their study, Hung et al. posit that the relationship between organizational fit and successful
system implementation is moderated by the relationship among organizations in terms of
trust and interdependence. Strong and Volkoff look at fit between an enterprise system and
an organization in terms of six domains: functionality, data, usability, roles, control and
organizational culture. The study also describes two types of fit: coverage fit and
enablement fit. Coverage fit, described as the absence of deficiency, denotes that the
system meets requirements and includes features for operation. Enablement fit is related to
increased efficiency and effectiveness of processes.
In the specific arena of change management involving information systems, research
addressing the issue continues to fall short of providing a generalizable approach that
focuses too much on technical aspects and not enough on social aspects (Bostrom et al.,
2009). In line with Strong and Volkoff’s suggestion of considering multiple levels of
analysis, Lyytinen and Newman draw on STS to develop a model describing information
system change as socio-technical events (Lyytinen and Newman, 2008). In their study,
Lyytinen and Newman consider relationships among socio-technical components in
combination with three levels of analysis: work system, building system and
organizational environment. Lyytinen and Newman describe a “gap” as a misalignment in
a given relationship that may cause instability in the system and ultimately reduce system
performance. The findings suggest that critical events throughout the change process are
related to gaps in the socio-technical system. Adapted from (Lyytinen and Newman,
2008), Table I summarizes definitions of each socio-technical system component and
descriptions of the nature of relationships among components. Only the definitions
pertaining to the work-system level of analysis are described here.
Table I.
Socio-technical system components and relationships

Socio-technical components Definition

Actors include an organization’s members and its main stakeholders who carry
Actor out or influence the work
The structure covers systems of communication, systems of authority, and
systems of workflow. It includes both the normative dimension, values, norms,
and general role expectations, and the behavioral dimension, patterns of behavior
Structure as actors communicate, exercise authority, or work
Task Task describes the work system’s goals and purpose and the way in which work
gets done within the organization
Technology Technology tools used in the work system
Component relationships Description of alignment
Actor-structure Actors follow operating procedures, structures provide support to actors in their
tasks
Actor-task Actors understand and carry out tasks, actors are trained to perform tasks
Actor-technology Actors understand and accept technology, actors adapt technology to
environment
Task-technology Technology is appropriately chosen and adequate to support tasks
Task-structure Structure is aligned with task, adequate structure defined for tasks
Technology-structure Technology is adapted and modified for given structure, structure takes
advantage of capabilities of technology

Building on the work of Lyytinen and Newman, this research aims to operationalize the
component relationships described in Table I. Constructs were chosen that may
characterize alignment in each of these relationships. Prior to this study, an examination of
four of the six relationships was conducted, including the relationships of actor-
technology, task-technology, task-structure, and technology-structure (Hester, 2012). The
research environment for the study provided a mock organization environment in the form
of undergraduate students enrolled in a senior-level project management course. The
course involved a real world project with students playing the roles of members of project
sub-teams. The resulting socio-technical system involved using information systems to
 plan and develop a “University Student Housing Wiki” following tenets of project
management. Given the confined classroom setting of this early work, the actors, in this
case students, chose team membership thus pre-determining relevant tasks to be
completed. The self-selection of task and structure prompted the decision not to focus on
the actor-task and actor-structure relationships. Results indicated that an alignment among
actor and technology was present and had a positive influence on use of the technology
system, in this case a wiki utilized for management of the project and the end product
itself. On the other hand, results indicated a possible misalignment among the
relationships of task-technology, task-structure, and technology-structure. This research
study aims to build on the earlier work by including evaluation of all six relationships and
improving operationalization of the relationships.

3. Research framework
3.1 Model development
As depicted in Figure 1 and described in Table I, the social and technical subsystems are
each composed of two components, and then each component has an interacting
relationship with each other component both inside and outside of their corresponding
subsystems. This gives six relationships: actor-structure, actor-task, actor-technology,
task-technology, task-structure, and technology-structure. For this study, the
organizational work system represented as a socio-technical system involves the over-
arching goal of supporting clients and technology systems. As the path to achieving the
goal involves engaging in knowledge processes, use of the system should denote that users
are participating in creating and maintaining a source of knowledge. Depicted in Figure 2,
the research model presents socio-technical component relationships and their influence on
system use. For each relationship, consideration of the recursive interaction between the
given components prompted the selection of constructs that, when present, may indicate
that the relationship is in alignment. Alternatively, the lack of perceptions of these
constructs may indicate a misalignment within a relationship.

3.2 Hypotheses
From the structure standpoint, alignment with actors involves systems of communication,
authority and workflow, as well as values and norms supporting actors in their tasks
(Lyytinen and Newman, 2008). We may interpret this interaction by considering the level
of support stemming from relationships among actors. From the actor standpoint,
alignment involves understanding, acceptance and alignment with structure. Negative
views of factors that influence user perceptions of fit with their organization may increase
strain (Ayyagari et al., 2011) and work exhaustion (Moore, 2000). Alternatively, positive
views of user fit with their environment may increase job satisfaction (Rutner et al., 2008).
We suggest that increased perceptions of alignment among technology and structure will
increase use of technology.

H1. Alignment among actors and structure will have a positive influence on system use.
Either by pre-existing qualifications or on the job training, actors should be confident that
they are fully qualified and capable to perform their tasks. The principal factor at the core
of this relationship is self-efficacy. Originating in social cognitive theory, self-efficacy is
defined as an individual’s perception of what they can do with the skills they possess
(Bandura, 1977). We suggest that increased perceptions that users have the skills and
knowledge to perform their tasks will strengthen the actor-task relationship and increase
use of technology.
 Figure 2.
Socio-technical alignment

H2. Alignment among actors and task will have a positive influence on system use.
In an ideal situation of actors, structure and business processes existing in harmony,
technology is useless if it is not accepted by users. Organizations devote valuable
resources to developing and implementing information systems designed to improve
efficiency and effectiveness of business processes. Studies have shown that users value
systems that are easy to use and useful (Venkatesh, 2000), but further motivation is often
needed to overcome user resistance to change. Technology can only reach full potential
when users embrace the technology. We suggest that increased understanding and
acceptance of technology by users will strengthen the actor-technology relationship and
increase use of technology.
H3. Alignment among actors and technology will have a positive influence on system
use.
The relationship between task and technology is the subject of extensive research
(Goodhue, 1995, 1998, Goodhue and Thompson, 1995, Zigurs and Buckland, 1998, Zigurs
et al., 1999). This body of research indicates that fit between task and technology impact
both system utilization and individual and group performance. We suggest that increased
user perceptions of alignment among tasks and technology will strengthen the task-
technology relationship and increase use of technology.
H4. Alignment among tasks and technology will have a positive influence on system
use.
Organizations must leverage their knowledge to maintain viability. Implementing
technology to facilitate knowledge management can be an initiative to harness and share
knowledge. Nonetheless, technology will only be successful if the organization has an
environment that encourages knowledge sharing. We suggest that increased user
perceptions of alignment among tasks and structure will strengthen the task-structure
relationship and increase use of technology.
H5. Alignment among tasks and structure will have a positive influence on system use.
In this study, we focus on structure as an interpretation of organizational culture. We
consider the hierarchy and lines of communication, as well as values and norms. An
organizational culture misfit may occur if a technology has been implemented that requires
operations that go against organizational norms (Strong and Volkoff, 2010). We suggest
that increased perceptions of alignment among technology and structure will increase use
of technology.
H6. Alignment among technology and structure will have a positive influence on system
use.

4. Research methodology
4.1 Company background
SkyCo provides strategic business solutions that help their clients reduce total cost of
ownership of IT infrastructure by means of cloud computing. The major services provided
by SkyCo include cloud computing environments, colocation, infrastructure as a service
(IaaS) and green technology. The core values of the organization are:
. passion;
. integrity;
. fun;
. teamwork;
. superior business value; and
. improving the community in which we work.
SkyCo is organized into two main units: business development and technology and
operations.
Sky Co utilizes numerous technology systems for both providing technology services to
their clients and supporting internal processes. As the overarching goal of the organization
is to serve clients, key business processes include acquiring new clients and supporting
and maintaining current clients. The business development team focuses on direct
relationships with the clients. The technology and operations team focuses on
implementing solutions for the clients. The primary systems used for these processes
include a customer relationship management system (CRM), a service desk system, a
document management system, and a wiki.
The focus of this study is the wiki, called the “SkyCo knowledge base”. The wiki was
implemented to facilitate collaborative knowledge management of both client information
and software/system information. The wiki was first deployed in 2008. The process of
choosing a technology system to improve knowledge sharing was a joint effort among the
senior engineers and managers within the technology and operations division. A solution
was needed to provide quick and easy knowledge sharing in a less structured environment.
Champions for a wiki-based system proposed that the capabilities of wiki technology
could provide exactly the type of knowledge sharing the organization was in need of.
Contributions by those who knew the most about certain clients or systems could be easily
shared and then retrieved from the wiki by others.
At the time of this research, the wiki had been implemented for approximately four
years. The wiki was viewed quite favorably by the organization despite some issues that
required addressing. The wiki had a positive impact in supporting knowledge sharing and
collaboration by allowing key information to be more accessible. At the onset of this
study, the wiki contained semi structured data largely composed of technical information
related to clients. For example, equipment specifications and network diagrams for a given
client were used by engineers to implement and maintain the technology services
requested. The primary concern for SkyCo was that the wiki was underutilized by the
organization and that the content was disorganized and inconsistent across clients and
systems. Implementation engineers and cloud service engineers were dedicated users of
the wiki. However, the issues with the wiki largely resided in what was viewed as a lack of
concerted effort to initiate a page for a client by those who gather the preliminary
information and documentation. In addition to client information, the wiki also provides
areas for recording system information. Such pages include technical support contact
information, configuration details, etc.
In addition to inconsistencies in the data, another issue raised by SkyCo employees,
particularly those who had not fully embraced the wiki, included a difficulty with knowing
where to even get started in the wiki. Some were simply unaware of how to use a wiki.
Another major concern was the difficulty in navigating the links, particularly in the first
main entry page of the wiki. These types of issues were noted throughout the study and
combined with the observations of issues focusing less on the technology itself.

4.2 Research environment

The data collection involves a survey measuring employee perceptions of the socio-
technical environment and self-reported measures of usage of the wiki. The organizational
hierarchy at SkyCo is composed of four executives, seven managers, and 28 “other”
employees. Less than 15 percent of the employees focus purely on business function
support such as accounting, finance and marketing. Of the seven managers, four managers
head a team of four to six employees. This gives a hierarchy that is essentially three levels.
Additionally, within the small teams, the atmosphere is very balanced and cooperative.
Thus, the organizational environment can be described as in essence a flat hierarchy. All
organization members were invited to complete the survey. A total of 26 of the 39 SkyCo
employees completed the survey.

4.3 SkyCo’s socio-technical system

As described in Table II, the work system presented by SkyCo involves the overarching
goal of client and system support. Data and information are gathered from clients and
other sources, and employees expand data and information into knowledge that serves as
inputs to the system. Outcomes of the system include effective utilization and performance
measures such as efficiency and effectiveness in supporting SkyCo clients.
The actors of the system are SkyCo employees who are users of the numerous
technology systems. Most of the employees are in the main location of the business and
distributed among two floors. A few of the employees are out in the field serving clients
on location on a fairly permanent basis, and others are occasionally in and out of the office
visiting clients.
The structures in this system involve lines of communication and authority along with
values and norms. Thus, structure, as described here, includes the amalgamation of
organizational hierarchy, communication style and patterns, and elements of
organizational culture. The hierarchical structure at SkyCo is relatively flat with all
employees working closely together and interacting under norms of cooperation and
collaboration. The dynamics surrounding communication can be described as open,
engaging, and unhindered. In one of the main areas of the company, employee work
stations are in a pod formation in a very large open space with designated areas for
conversation settings and informal meetings. Two of the six core values held by SkyCo are
particularly relevant to this study: teamwork and integrity.
The specific tasks studied here are contribution and retrieval of knowledge via the wiki.
One reason effective knowledge sharing is critical is that the client base is diverse, ranging
in size and industry, and thus also ranging in services provided. As SkyCo employees are
collaborating on client support, having the most up to date, detailed information is crucial.
In other words, tasks are not necessarily routine or simple tasks.

Table II.
SkyCo’s socio-technical System

Socio-technical components SkyCo work system

Actor SkyCo’s employees

Structure Four executives, seven managers, 28 other; core values of teamwork and
integrity; norms of cooperation and collaboration
Task Client and system support through knowledge sharing
Technology Wiki – SkyCo knowledge base

Numerous technology systems are utilized at SkyCo. Part of the goal at SkyCo is to
support and maintain those systems. Other technologies are used to directly support and
maintain the client base. Wiki technology-based systems have been examined as a solution
to facilitate corporate collective intelligence by providing expert matching (Lykourentzou
et al., 2010). In this case, SkyCo’s wiki facilitates knowledge sharing by providing a
central location for collaborative knowledge related to both the numerous technology
systems and the client base.
4.4 Measures
Hierarchical latent variable modeling is used to operationalize the six main constructs of
the research model. Each construct denoting alignment among two components is a
second-order latent variable measured by dimensions captured by first-order latent
variables (see Table III). Questionnaire items measuring the variables and their sources are
given in the Appendix (Table AI). All items were measured on a seven-point Likert scale.
In this study we control for organization tenure, education level, IT/IS certifications,
gender and age.
4.4.1 Socio-technical system relationships. The actor-structure relationship is
characterized by actors having a sense of belonging in their organization and a feeling that
their values match those of the organization. To capture this relationship, we consider the
notion of identification. Identification is defined as the perception of similarity of values,
membership, and loyalty with the organization (Kankanhalli et al., 2005). Positive
perceptions of identification may overcome barriers to system use by motivating users to
put organizational needs before their own. When actors are able to identify with the
organization, we can say that actor and structure are aligned.
The actor-task relationship is characterized by users being capable of performing tasks.
Training and self-efficacy have been studied extensively in user acceptance studies. The
focus of this study involves the task of knowledge sharing. Thus we consider training, as it
is related to use of data, and knowledge self-efficacy as key dimensions. The training
construct used by Goodhue in task-technology fit theory specifies finding, accessing and
using data effectively (Goodhue, 1998). We adopt two measures used by Goodhue along
with a third measure that was adapted to reflect basic job training. To reflect user
perceptions of their own abilities, we include knowledge self-efficacy, defined as
confidence in one’s ability to provide knowledge that is valuable to the organization
(Kankanhalli et al., 2005). When actors have been adequately trained and are confident of
their knowledge sharing abilities, we can say that actor and task are aligned.

Table III. Relationships and measures

Construct First-order latent variables

Actor-structure alignment Identification

Actor-task alignment
Actor-technology alignment
Task-technology alignment
Task-structure alignment
Technology-structure alignment
Knowledge self-efficacy
Job/task training
Perceived ease of use
Perceived external control
Perceived usefulness
Codification effort
Generalized trust
Reciprocity expectation
Teamwork
Pro-sharing norms
Presenteeism

The actor-technology relationship is characterized by actors understanding and

accepting technology. Dimensions that may capture this relationship include perceived
ease of use and perceived external control. Perceived ease of use is the degree to which a
person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort (Davis, 1989).
Perceived external control relates to an individual’s perception of availability of
knowledge, resources, and opportunities required to perform the specific behavior
(Venkatesh, 2000). When actors are able to easily use technology or at least perceive that
they have the means available to use technology, we can say that actor and technology are
aligned.
The task-technology relationship reflects system users’ perceptions that technology is
adequate to support tasks. Dimensions that may capture the relationship between task and
technology include perceived usefulness and codification effort. Going beyond capability
to perform tasks, users also want technology to have an impact when it comes to their
performance. Perceived usefulness is the degree to which a person believes that using a
particular system would enhance his or her job performance (Davis, 1989). Codification
effort is defined as time and effort required to codify and input knowledge into the system.
We suggest that this dimension directly ties the knowledge sharing process with a
knowledge management system. When actors perceive that using the system enhances
their performance and does not impede the knowledge sharing task, we can say that task
and technology are aligned.
The task-structure relationship is described as having adequate structure defined for
tasks. Structure involves norms and behaviors associated with systems of communication,
authority and workflow. The approach taken here is to use dimensions that capture
perceptions that engaging in required tasks will be valued by peers and superiors within
the structure. Additionally, suggested dimensions of generalized trust and reciprocity
expectation are reflective of two of SkyCo’s core values: integrity and teamwork. As
adopted by Kankanhalli et al., generalized trust is the belief in good intent, competence,
and reliability of employees with respect to contributing and reusing knowledge
(Kankanhalli et al., 2005). For SkyCo, this type of trust directly relates to integrity.
Reciprocity expectation is the belief that current contribution to a knowledge system
would lead to future request for knowledge being met (Kankanhalli et al., 2005).
Reciprocity expectation reflects the notion of teamwork when it comes to knowledge
sharing. When users perceive a connection between values and norms of the organization
and the task of knowledge sharing, we can say that task and structure are aligned.
The relationship between technology and structure can be described as technology being
adapted and modified for a given structure, and structure taking advantage of capabilities
of technology. When using technology as a collaborative knowledge management tool,
capabilities of technology should foster a cooperative and supportive environment. In
capturing this relationship, we want to again focus on a SkyCo core value, teamwork, and
norms of sharing and cooperation. Additionally, we want to ensure that communication
structures are supported by technology. Collaborative technologies have the capability of
ubiquitous computing that allows users to participate and contribute any time and any
place. Presenteeism is defined as the degree to which technology enables users to be
reachable (Ayyagari et al., 2011).
Perceptions of presenteeism enhance communication structures. Pro-sharing norms are
defined as the prevalence of norms that are intended to facilitate knowledge sharing in the
organization (Kankanhalli et al., 2005). We adapted these measures to reflect technology
facilitation of pro-sharing norms. To further explore the notion that teamwork is supported
by the technology system, we developed new measures. These new items draw on select
individual measures of perceived group well-being and perceived member support (Dennis
and Reinicke, 2004), as well as an adaptation of one pro-sharing measure. Awareness of
this kind of accommodating environment may indicate technology support for teamwork.
The proposed dimensions of teamwork, pro-sharing norms and presenteeism are indicative
of perceptions of technology-facilitated cohesiveness and connectivity. When these factors
are present, we can say that task and structure are aligned.
4.4.2 Dependent variable. Measures for the dependent variable of system use include
both self-reported and actual measures of usage. This study attempts to capture a more rich
assessment of self-reported usage by measuring usage according to three dimensions.
Frequency (Burton-Jones and Straub, 2006) is measured as less than once a month, once or
twice per month, several times per month, several times per week, once or twice per day,
or several times per day. Duration (Burton-Jones and Straub, 2006) is measured as almost
never, less than 1/2 hour, 1/2-1 hour, 1-2 hours, 2-3 hours, or more than 3 hours. A third
dimension was developed as simple statements measured on a Likert scale of
agree/disagree. The validity of self-reported usage is a highly debated topic. Therefore,
this study also includes actual usage. One advantage of wiki technology is the ability to
track history, and if necessary roll-back to previous versions. As each transaction occurs in
the wiki, it is recorded in the history and users have the option of receiving e-mail
notification of transactions. The transaction log was analyzed to provide a measure of
actual usage.

4.5 Method
The partial least squares (PLS) method was used to examine the hypotheses. PLS is
recommended as an analysis method for complex models focusing on prediction, and
allows for minimal demands on measurement scales, sample size, and residual distribution
(Chin et al., 2003). PLS also allows for hierarchical latent variable models, necessary for
this research model (Wetzels et al., 2009). A two-stage analysis was performed using
confirmatory factor analysis to assess the measurement model followed by examination of
the structural relationships. Path modeling and analysis was performed using Smart-PLS
(Ringle et al., 2005).

5. Research analysis and results

In the first stage of analysis, the measurement model was assessed for reliability and
validity. After dropping seven of the survey items (indicated with an asterisk in the
Appendix, Table AI), the standards for reliability and validity were achieved. The
composite reliability scores exceed the recommended threshold of 0.70 (Chin, 2010). The
AVE scores exceed the recommended threshold of 0.50. And, item indicator cross-
loadings indicated sufficient convergent and discriminant validity. The second stage of
analysis assessed the structural model, including examination of path coefficients and R 2
value. Figure 3 presents resulting path values and R2 value.

Figure 3.
Structural model results
H1 through H6 examine the relationships between the independent variables representing
alignment among socio-technical system components and the dependent variable of
system use. Results are based on the t-test with corresponding t-values and p-values given
in Table IV. Supported hypotheses are indicated with an x and corresponding p-value
highlighted with bold text. H6 was supported; however, H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5 were not
supported.

6. Discussion
The research presented in this paper is subject to limitations. The sample size is rather
small; however, results may still give an indication as to the appropriateness of dimensions
chosen to represent alignment relationships. One caveat to note is that the STS presented
here is an exemplification of just one particular scenario. Each STS component presented
by the SkyCo environment is unique to the goals and mission of the organization.
Generalizations of the findings to other tasks and processes or technologies may not be
applicable.
Table IV
Hypotheses results

Hypothesis t-value p-value

H1. Alignment among actor and structure will have
a positive influence on system use 1.3521 0.089
H2. Alignment among actor and task will have a
positive influence on system use 1.1946 0.117
H3. Alignment among actor and technology will
have a positive influence on system use 1.1099 0.134
H4. Alignment among task and technology will have
a positive influence on system use 1.3069 0.096
H5. Alignment among task and structure will have a
positive influence on system use 0.1188 0.453
H6. Alignment among technology and structure will
have a positive influence on system use x 2.1949 0.015

Conclusions can be drawn from analysis of results. H6 was supported by the data. This
may be interpreted to mean that an alignment among technology and structure was present
and had a positive influence on system use. H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5 were not supported,
indicating a possible misalignment among corresponding components. To examine the
relationships more closely, analysis was performed to ascertain any possible gaps in a
given relationship. This was accomplished by utilizing latent variable scores calculated by
the PLS analysis for both usage and each relationship construct. The average and standard
deviation of the latent variable scores for each relationship construct were calculated. The
relationship was considered to be “in adequate alignment” if the score fell within one
standard deviation of the average. Scores falling below that range were considered as “low
alignment” and scores falling above that range were considered as “strong alignment”.

The respondents were then sorted according to usage latent variable scores. On viewing
the data in this order, analysis of resulting alignment scores was performed. With only a
couple of exceptions, many respondents with lower usage scores also had “low alignment”
in one or more relationships. Furthermore, relationships with the most frequent low scores
were actor-task (5), actor-technology (6), and task-structure (5). The actor-structure, task-
technology and technology-structure relationships each had only three low scores.
Although these relationships did not have a significant positive effect on usage, they were
deemed to have “adequate alignment”.
Findings from the survey in conjunction with the alignment analysis described above
may be used to improve utilization of the wiki. A fairly straight-forward approach may be
recommended to address two of the relationships with lower alignment, actor-task and
actor-technology. The actor-task relationship involves actors having the knowledge and
training to complete tasks. Tasks actors udergo when using the wiki include creating new
pages for technology systems and clients, building on current pages by expanding or
updating the information and knowledge, searching for relevant information within the
pages, and organizing pages and content within pages. SkyCo may be able to develop
training sessions for both new and current employees to better prepare them for acquiring
and sharing knowledge pertaining to both technology systems and clients. This process
may involve listing and describing data and information that is deemed pertinent to the
larger processes of client support. Guidelines for identifying and collecting key
information will foster confidence in employees’ capabilities. These guidelines may be in
the form of manuals, help documentation or templates.
Additionally, a point of misalignment may be the ambiguity of parties responsible for
initiating and maintaining pages. Clearly defined roles for each member within the SkyCo
organizational structure that specify necessary contributions to creation and maintenance
of knowledge within the wiki would be beneficial. For example, a more detailed
description of a given process, such as client acquisition, should include the members
involved at each stage and exactly which tasks should be completed in the wiki as part of
that process. Furthermore, identifying a wiki champion for specific areas of the wiki may
allow for better maintenance of the knowledge. In addition to monitoring specific areas,
champions may also engage in shaping or “gardening” content that includes actions such
as editing, integrating, refactoring and reducing errors in content (Majchrzak et al., 2007).
The actor-technology relationship involves employees’ comfort level with the wiki
technology-based system. Misalignment can occur when employees chose not to
participate in the wiki simply because they feel they do not know how to use the wiki. In
this case, training sessions can be developed to focus specifically on how to use the wiki.
Additionally, documentation on frequently asked questions and common tasks may be
created and made available to employees. Observations and conversations with SkyCo
employees did in fact indicate that some employees did not use the wiki due to fear of
“messing things up”, while others assumed the effort to learn how to use the wiki would
be too time intensive. An easily accessible source of how to use the wiki should improve
the actor-technology relationship.
The task-structure relationship will be more difficult to address. Some work may need to
be done to reassure employees that cooperation and joint effort at building a knowledge
base will be fruitful. The notion of teamwork is intact, thus the issue of trusting each other
may be stemming from the fact that there are issues with missing data in the wiki. For
example, when new clients are acquired, the page for a client needs to be created in the
wiki. A member of the business development team initiates the relationship with the client.
Ideally, this member would create the page in the wiki. However, the page is most often
created by the implementation manager. The manager must gather and often times
decipher the necessary basic information to begin the page. Further drilling down into this
issue is required. The measures chosen may not be clear enough to distinguish between
trusting other employees in general as opposed to trusting whether fellow employees are
fully contributing to the collective knowledge.
For SkyCo, the structure component of the socio-technical system is unique. The
organizational culture at SkyCo reflects their dedication to their core values of passion,
integrity, fun, teamwork, superior business value and improving the community in which
we work. The SkyCo employees are actively involved in numerous charities. SkyCo also
holds events and activities at the workplace to encourage taking a break and having some
fun. SkyCo has also been officially recognized as a healthy work environment. The
evidence is clear that what SkyCo is doing to promote a positive work environment is
working. The scores for the actor-structure relationship were in fact the highest. SkyCo
employees do feel connected to their organization. The strength of the actor-structure
alignment at SkyCo may be compensating for minor issues with tasks and technology. The
employees are dedicated to SkyCo and willing to do whatever it takes to get the job done.
Nonetheless, by addressing the areas of misalignment mentioned above, SkyCo may enjoy
more successful use of their wiki.
7. Conclusion
Despite the limitations, the research presented here provides a first step in a rigorous effort
to develop a model that captures the essence of alignment of relationships among socio-
technical system components. User acceptance and change management continue to be
important topics for both researchers and practitioners. The model proposed here provides
measures that may reveal predictive indicators for increased information system use.
Further research should involve a larger data sample as well as multiple environments
exhibiting a variety of actors, structures, tasks and technologies. Moreover, for this
particular study, further research is needed to evaluate the continued progress of SkyCo.
Recommendations were made to address the results of the initial STS “diagnosis”. The
next step should involve another diagnostic check to ascertain any changes to the STS
balance that may result from addressing the findings and recommendations.
On further development, practitioners may be able to utilize a diagnostic tool as
presented here to assess underlying factors that may be impeding effective technology
utilization. Management may be focused on one or more aspects of the socio-technical
system while ignoring others. Alternatively, perhaps management may assume that certain
factors are aligned when constituents think otherwise. Taking time to explore all avenues
may better uncover potential problems and lead to a plan to rectify the situation and
improve technology usage and performance outcomes.
As a socio-technical system analysis is performed, patterns may become evident
indicating one or more of the components as the source of misalignment. When
relationships involving actors or structure are misaligned, addressing the issues may be
more difficult. Changing employee perceptions and the organizational culture is not an
easy endeavour. Efforts made to boost morale and improve employees’ connection to the
organization’s values will take time, but should be worthwhile. As indicated by the
findings of this study, a healthy organizational environment may boost acceptance of wiki
technology by facilitating users positive perceptions of technological solutions that may
improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the business processes.
Relationships involving the task component may be first addressed with training. As
employees increase their understanding of how to perform tasks, they will be more
confident in their capabilities. Relationships involving the technology component should
be considered carefully. Management should consider whether a technology implemented
to assist in work processes is in fact adequate and appropriate for those processes. Even
when deemed a good solution, user acceptance of technology may need work. Training on
the technology and clear evidence of the usefulness of the technology’s capabilities to
improve work processes should bolster user acceptance.

References
Ayyagari, R., Grover, V. and Purvis, R. (2011), “Technostress: technological antecedents and implications”, MIS
Quarterly, Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 831-858.
Bandura, A. (1977), “Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change”, Psychological Review, Vol. 84
No. 2, pp. 191-215.
Bostrom, R.P. and Heinen, J.S. (1977), “MIS problems and failures: a socio-technical perspective;
part I: the causes”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 1 No. 3, pp. 17-32.
Bostrom, R.P., Gupta, S. and Thomas, D. (2009), “A meta-theory for understanding information systems within
sociotechnical systems”, Journal of Management Information Systems, Vol. 26 No. 1, pp. 17-47.
Burton-Jones, A. and Straub, D.W. Jr (2006), “Reconceptualizing system usage: an approach and empirical test”,
Information Systems Research, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 228-246.
Chin, W.W. (2010), “How to write up and report PLS analyses”, in Esposito Vinzi, V., Chin, W.W., Henseler, J.
and Wang, H. (Eds), Handbook of Partial Least Squares, 1st ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 655-690.
Chin, W.W., Marcolin, B.L. and Newsted, P.R. (2003), “A partial least squares latent variable modeling approach
for measuring interaction effects: results from a Monte Carlo simulation, study and an electronic-mail
emotion/adoption study”, Information Systems Research, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 189-217.
Davis, F. (1989), “Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology”,
MIS Quarterly, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 319-339.
Dennis, A.R. and Reinicke, B.A. (2004), “Beta versus VHS and the acceptance of information technology”, MIS
Quarterly, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 319-339.
Dennis, A.R., Wixom, B.H. and Vandenberg, R.J. (2001), “Understanding fit and appropriation effects in group
support systems via meta-analysis”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 25 No. 2, pp. 167-193.
Edwards, J.A. and Billsberry, J. (2010), “Testing a multidimensional theory of person-environment fit”, Journal of
Managerial Issues, Vol. 22 No. 4, pp. 476-493.
Edwards, J.R. and Cooper, C.L. (1990), “The person-environment fit approach to stress: recurring problems and
some suggested solutions”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 293-307.
Fuller, R.M. and Dennis, A.R. (2009), “Does fit matter? The impact of task-technology fit and appropriation on
team performance in repeated tasks”, Information Systems Research, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 2-17.
Giddens, A. (1989), “A reply to my critics”, in Held, D. and Thompson, J.B. (Eds), Social Theory of Modern
Societies: Anthony Giddens and His Critics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 249-301.
Goodhue, D.L. (1995), “Understanding user evaluations of information systems”, Management Science, Vol. 41
No. 12, pp. 1827-1844.
Goodhue, D.L. (1998), “Development and measurement validity of a task-technology fit instrument for user
evaluations of information systems”, Decision Sciences, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 105-137.
Goodhue, D.L. and Thompson, R.L. (1995), “Task-technology fit and individual performance”, Management
Information Systems Quarterly, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 213-236.
Hester, A.J. (2012), “Measuring alignment within relationships among socio-technical system components: a study
of wiki technology use”, ACM SIGMIS Computers and People Research Conference, Milwaukee, WI.
Hung, S.-Y., Chang, S.-I., Yen, D.C., Kang, T.-C. and Kuo, C.-P. (2011), “Successful implementation of
collaborative product commerce: an organizational fit perspective”, Decision Support Systems, Vol. 50 No. 2, pp.
501-510.
Kankanhalli, A., Tan, B.C.Y. and Wei, K.-K. (2005), “Contributing knowledge to electronic knowledge
repositories: an empirical investigation”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 113-143.
Lykourentzou, I., Djaghloul, Y., Papadaki, K., Dagka, F. and Latour, T. (2011), “Planning for a successful
corporate wiki”, International Conference on Digital Enterprise and Information Systems, July 20-22 2011,
London, England, pp. 425-439.
Lykourentzou, I., Papadaki, K., Vergados, D.J., Polemi, D. and Loumos, V. (2010), “CorpWiki: a self-regulating
wiki to promote corporate collective intelligence through expert peer matching”, Information Sciences, Vol. 180
No. 1, pp. 18-38.
Lyytinen, K. and Newman, M. (2008), “Explaining information systems change: a punctuated socio-technical
change model”, European Journal of Information Systems, Vol. 17 No. 6, pp. 589-613.
Majchrzak, A., Wagner, C., Riehle, D., Shah, P.T.S. and Cunningham, W. (2007), “The role of shapers in
knowledge-sharing”, in Crowston, K., Sieber, S. and Wynn, E. (Eds), IFIP International Federation for Information
Processing, Springer, Boston, MA, pp. 383-386.
Moore, J.E. (2000), “One road to turnover: an examination of work exhaustion in technology professionals”, MIS
Quarterly, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 141-168.
Orlikowski, W. (2000), “Using technology and constituting structures: a practice lens for studying technology in
organizations”, Organization Science, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 404-428.
Ringle, C.M., Wende, S. and Will, A. (2005), SmartPLS, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany.
Rutner, P.S., Hardgrave, B.C. and Mcknight, D.H. (2008), “Emotional dissonance and the information technology
professional”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 32 No. 3, pp. 635-652.
Strong, D.M. and Volkoff, O. (2010), “Understanding organization-enterprise system fit: a path to theorizing the
information technology artifact”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 34 No. 4, pp. 731-756.
Venkatesh, V. (2000), “Determinants of perceived ease of use: integrating control, intrinsic motivation, and
emotion into the technology acceptance model”, Information Systems Research, Vol. 11 No. 4, p. 342.
Wetzels, M., Odekerken-Schro¨der, G. and Van Oppenj, C. (2009), “Using PLS path modeling for assessing
hierarchical construct models: guidelines and empirical illustration”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 33 No. 1, pp. 177-195.
Zigurs, I. and Buckland, B.K. (1998), “A theory of task/technology fit and group support systems effectiveness”,
MIS Quarterly, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 313-334.
Zigurs, I., Buckland, B.K., Connolly, J.R. and Wilson, E.V. (1999), “A test of task-technology fit theory for group
support systems”, Database for Advances in Information Systems, Vol. 30 Nos 3, 4, pp. 34-50.