1.

Divergent thinking is a thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by

exploring many possible solutions. It typically occurs in a spontaneous, free-flowing, "non-
linear" manner, such that many ideas are generated in an emergent cognitive fashion.

Convergent thinking is the opposite of divergent thinking. It generally means the ability to
give the "correct" answer to standard questions that do not require significant creativity,
for instance in most tasks in school and on standardized multiple-choice tests for
intelligence.

2. A problem occurs when something is not behaving as it should, something is deviating

from the norm or something goes wrong.

Decision making is a case of choosing between different alternatives.

3. Define and understand the problem - Once you have been made aware of, and have
identified a problem, investigate exactly what has gone wrong. Try to identify the problem
through signals from routine statistical results, progress meetings, suggestion schemes,
reports, and feedback.

Assess the scale of the problem - Decide how urgent the problem is and how soon it
requires solving. It might be an urgent problem but not really important in the grand scheme
of things.

Gather relevant information - In order to gain a full picture of the problem, a key step in
the process is to gather all the relevant information, involving all the factors which may
have an influence on the problem. Go into detail about the people, activities, processes,
equipment, systems, time-scales and conditions under which the problem occurs.

Identify the root causes - Armed with the key facts, you need to make sure you understand
the root cause of the problem. Causes usually relate to people, systems or equipment. Be
careful not to blame the tool when it could be the operator.

Test the hypothesis - Once you have identified a likely cause, work out a hypothesis to test
exactly what it is you are looking for and how you will know if you are right.

Involve others - Don’t assume that it is up to you to solve every problem. Ascertain whose
responsibility it is and delegate to others as appropriate.

Consider the proposed solution(s) - Don’t be swayed by people with ready-made solutions.
There may be a number of possible solutions, some of which might be more appropriate
than others. This is the time to move from problem analysis to a method of decision-
making.
 Test the proposed solution - Once a consensus has been reached, the idea needs to be tested.
This can be done mentally or physically depending upon feasibility. Mentally assess the
idea by running through different scenarios and seeing how the proposed solution performs.

Champion your decision - Your proposed solution will undoubtedly require an element of
resources in order to implement it within the organization, such as financial or human
resources. If additional resources are required, it may be necessary to present your case to
senior management for approval.

Monitor the results - Once a solution has been found and implemented, don’t rest on your
laurels. Instead, monitor the impact of the changes made. A problem is only truly solved
when the solution has been translated into successful action.

4. Neglecting to test possible causes against the data gathered

Taking on sole responsibility for the problem and the solution

Jumping to an apparently obvious solution without due consideration or evidence that it

will work

Failing to monitor and check that the problem has been solved.

5. Engagement, leading to a feeling of ‘ownership’ of the decision

Confidence in the legitimacy of the decision

Opportunities for the decision to be challenged

Increased transparency

6. Create a constructive environment where dissent is welcome

Ensure that dissenting views are fully explored

Actively seek out information that challenges your recommendations

Keep groups small to maximize effectiveness, since large groups can become unfocused

Be aware of others’ motivations and interests, and be careful that the issue or decision is
not being framed in a particular way to influence you

7. Decision trees can be used to represent uncertainty, revealing the risks and potential
rewards of alternative courses of action.
 The Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle suggests making incremental decisions and
following these up with actions, and then analysis, before moving forward.

Paired comparisons. If you are considering multiple options, pairing them and comparing
their performance on key requirements allows you to quickly eliminate options, allowing
only the preferred options to progress to the next ‘round’.

PMI – plus/minus/interesting is a kind of ‘pros and cons’ list used to make binary yes/no
decisions, where you also record any interesting implications of the choice that do not
clearly fit into the ‘plus’ or ‘minus’ columns.

The Pareto Principle states that 20% of inputs deliver 80% of results. It can be applied
and holds true in a surprising variety of situations. If you are aware of where this principle
applies in your business, you may be able to work out which change option could deliver
the greatest benefits.

8. Your place within the organisation – research has shown that those who are higher up in
the organisational hierarchy are more likely, and perhaps more able, to act on their intuitive
hunches

The nature of your work - managers in customer services, human resources, marketing
and sales are more likely to be intuitive decision makers

The size of your organisation - making decisions in this way is often more acceptable in
smaller organisations, while larger businesses tend to rely more on analytic processes.

9. Confirmation bias – uncritical acceptance of information that confirms existing beliefs

False analogy – assuming that the situation is just like a previous one, ignoring the
differences

Availability bias – allowing your mind to construct a narrative only from the information
that is immediately in front of you

Tunnel vision – failing to see the ‘big picture’ while focusing on the detail

Vividness – ignoring more mundane alternatives in favour of the most vivid option, for
example being swayed by a sales pitch into making an instant decision without considering
alternatives

Sunk cost fallacy – giving weight to resources that have already been spent, when these
do not have an impact on the future costs and gains of pursuing an alternative
 Loss aversion – a preference for avoiding possible losses over pursuing possible gains.

10. Career planning is traditionally understood as the process of assessing personal strengths,
values and aspirations, establishing goals and objectives; identifying the steps needed to
achieve them; and putting this information into a written career plan, which will then be
periodically reviewed and updated.

11. Setting unrealistic goals

Restricting ambitions

Over-detailed and/or rigid planning

Attempting to project years into the future

Ignoring the feedback and opinions of colleagues

Relying on others to determine their career path

Taking unnecessary risks

12. Work-life balance is the equilibrium between an individual’s priorities at work and their
priorities in other aspects of life.

13. Flexible working hours - allowing employees to organize their working hours so as to
accommodate important aspects of their home lives

Annualized Hours – allowing employees vary their working hours throughout the year:
working minimum number of hours a day at times of low activity, but also a maximum
daily number in peak work periods.

Self-rostering – teams of employees negotiating and agreeing their own hours to

accommodate each others’ needs. Compromises may be needed here

Buddy system – pairing people up so that they can cover for each other, enabling each to
take time off when necessary, knowing that someone else will take over their duties and
responsibilities

Flexible working location – remote working brings its own set of challenges for
organizations and individuals. However, working from a different office or from home,
either permanently or on an ad hoc basis, may help employees cope with family
responsibilities and reduce or eliminate commuting time
 Special leave – consider, for example, an allowance of paid or unpaid leave each year, to
give employees time to cope with personal crises, and family and household emergencies,
without using up their holiday allowance.

Career breaks – these could be of varying length, and used for study, travel, bringing up
children, voluntary work, or many other activities that can improve both home and working
life.

Health, wellbeing and employee assistance programs - offer counselling and advice
services, and not just for work related issues. Private health insurance and gym subsidies
could also be considered.

Childcare/eldercare subsidies – a workplace nursery may not be feasible, but subsidized

places in local nurseries or nursing homes may be an option.

Phased retirement – allowing employees to continue working part time and defer or stagger
their receipt of pension benefits. The abolition of default retirement age in the UK has led
to an increase in the up-take of this option.

14. The rational model also assumes:

An individual has full and perfect information on which to base a choice.

Measurable criteria exist for which data can be collected and analyzed.
An individual has the cognitive ability, time, and resources to evaluate each
alternative against the others.
The rational-decision-making model does not consider factors that cannot be quantified,
such as ethical concerns or the value of altruism. It leaves out consideration of personal
feelings, loyalties, or sense of obligation. Its objectivity creates a bias toward the preference
for facts, data and analysis over intuition or desires.

Bounded rationality is a concept proposed by Herbert Simon. It is a human decision-

making process in which we attempt to satisfice, rather than optimize. In other words, we
seek a decision that will be good enough, rather than the best possible decision. Bounded
rationality is the idea that, when individuals make decisions rationality is limited by:
the tractability of the decision problem;
the cognitive limitations of the mind; and,
the time available to make the decision.

Decision-makers, in this view, act as satisfiers, seeking a satisfactory rather than an optimal
solution. Therefore, humans do not undertake a full cost-benefit analysis to determine the
optimal decision, but, rather, choose an option that fulfils their adequacy criteria.
 15. Quick Decisions - Your ability to trust your gut and draw conclusions after limited
experience means you’re able to make efficient decisions.

Creativity - You’re skilled at filling in “missing pieces” after gathering a limited amount
of information, which makes you particularly creative.

Relationships - You place a high amount of trust in others (unless they prove they deserve
otherwise), and that enables you to build solid, valuable relationships.

16.

Autocratic Type 1 (AI) – The leader makes the decision alone by using the information he already has and
informs the decision to the others.

Autocratic Type 2 (AII) – The leader collects specific information from some followers then makes decision
alone. Here, the decision maker not necessarily tell them what the information is needed for.

Consultative Type 1 (CI) – The leader shares the problem to relevant followers individually, then makes
the decision alone after hearing individual input.

Consultative Type II (CII) – The leader shares the problem to relevant followers as a group, then makes
the decision alone after hearing group input and discussion.
Group-Based Type II (GII) – The leader presents the problem to followers as a group and seeks ideas from
them through brainstorming. The leader accepts the decision by the group without forcing his idea.

17. Brainstorming is a group creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a
specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its members. In other
words, brainstorming is a situation where a group of people meet to generate new ideas and
solutions around a specific domain of interest by removing inhibitions.

Nominal group technique (NGT) is defined as a structured method for group brainstorming that
encourages contributions from everyone and facilitates quick agreement on the relative
importance of issues, problems, or solutions. Team members begin by writing down their ideas,
then selecting which idea they feel is best.

18. Go for quantity: This rule is a mean of enhancing divergent production, aiming at facilitation of
problem solution through the maxim quantity breeds quality. The assumption is that the greater
the number of ideas generated the bigger the chance of producing a radical and effective solution.

Withhold criticism: In brainstorming, criticism of ideas generated should be put 'on hold'. Instead,
participants should focus on extending or adding to ideas, reserving criticism for a later 'critical
stage' of the process. By suspending judgment, participants will feel free to generate unusual
ideas.

Welcome wild ideas: To get a good long list of suggestions, wild ideas are encouraged. They can
be generated by looking from new perspectives and suspending assumptions. These new ways of
thinking might give you better solutions.

Combine and improve ideas: As suggested by the slogan "1+1=3". It is believed to stimulate the
building of ideas by a process of association.

19. Some group members are much more vocal than others

Some group members think better in silence

There is concern about some members not participating

The group does not easily generate quantities of ideas

Some or all group members are new to the team

The issue is controversial or there is heated conflict

20. The Delphi method is a forecasting process framework based on the results of multiple rounds of
questionnaires sent to a panel of experts. Several rounds of questionnaires are sent out to the
group of experts, and the anonymous responses are aggregated and shared with the group after
each round.

The experts are allowed to adjust their answers in subsequent rounds, based on how they
interpret the "group response" that has been provided to them. Since multiple rounds of
questions are asked and the panel is told what the group thinks as a whole, the Delphi method
seeks to reach the correct response through consensus.