Group Counseling Strategies for Rural At-Risk High School Students

Author(s): Susan Remen Bauer, Marty Sapp and David Johnson

Source: The High School Journal , Dec. 1999 - Jan., 2000, Vol. 83, No. 2 (Dec. 1999 - Jan.,
2000), pp. 41-50
Published by: University of North Carolina Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40364509

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Group Counseling Strategies for
Rural At-Risk High School Students
Two nine-week group counseling interventions
were developed to improve the self-concept,
school behavior, and school achievement ofat-
risk high school students in a rural school
district Two of the groups received a cognitive-
behavioral model of group counseling, and two
of the groups received a supportive model. The
cognitive-behavioral groups produced signifi-
cant differences on self-esteem and academic
self-concept. Gender differences were not sig-
nificant. Several case studies are highlighted.
Results are discussed with implications for
school counselors.

Introduction And Review Of Relevant

Literature

Susan Remen Bauer The literature is replete with definitions of the

"at-risk" student population (Borba, 1990;
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Rose-Gold, 1991; Schnedeker, 1991). State stat-
Marty Sapp utes and school districts often have narrow
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee guidelines for identifying those students who
David Johnson are in need of school and community services.
Xavier University For example, some state statutes define chil-
dren as at-risk if they are dropouts, truant,
school-age parents, or adjudicated delinquents,
and one or more years behind their age or grade
levels in basic skills or credits leading to gradu-
ation (Van Den Heuvel, 1986).

Research indicates that the strongest predictors

of dropping out of school are poor school
achievement and serious behavior problems in
school (Srebnik & Elias, 1993). Many at-risk
children live in socially and/or economically-
disadvantaged home situations that significantly
impede their emotional, social, and academic
growth and development. If these problems can
be prevented or corrected, at-risk students will
have a better chance of succeeding in school
and in life.

At-risk students often have deficiencies in self-

esteem - of feeling capable and worthy and
having the skills needed to study, live, and
socialize effectively (Borba, 1990). Addition-
Presented at the April, 1996 Annual Meeting of the ally, Werner (1989) found that only one out of
American Counseling Association, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. three high-risk children, who were raised in
We would like to thank Thomas Nebel for running
participants and Walter Farrell, Jr., for proof reading an homes which were characterized by divorce,
earlier version of this manuscript. poverty, alcoholism, mental illness, and physi-
cal abuse, surmounted the odds and grew into
© 2000 The University of North Carolina Press
capable, healthy adults. In Werner's opinion,
41

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The High School Journal- Dec/Jan 2000

tion, Thompson
the key to success for and Rudolph these (1992) pointe
r
to the advantages of using
was the opportunity to supportive
form and cog
nitive-behavioral
relationship with an techniquesadult with childre
wh
however, a majority of the research supportin
The establishment of counselin
these interventions was gathered from popu-
risk students in the schools
lations of adults or children in clinical setting
breaking the cycle of failure
Purpose school is an id
experience. The
The current study was designed to investigate
the use of cognitive-behaviora
with studentsand since
compare the effects ofthe under
two models of group
counseling on at-risk rural
of behavior theory is high school stu-
that all
dents. The interventions
tions, and emotions arehad a psycho-
learne
educational focus and were created
be modified through instructto follow
a supportive counseling model andgroup
1996b). The counseling a direct
educational experience in hy-
cognitive/behavioral orientation. It was wh
bers can learn pothesized
and that the cognitive-behavioral ne
practice
groups would
skills to help them become be more effective in increasing m
students'
school. Group counseling self-esteem and academic self-con-
is oft
cept than the supportive
for children who display behavio counseling groups.
ing, peer conflict,
Method inability t
with anger, shyness or withdraw
Participants
rejection, or school failures (Cor
Participants were selected from a pool of 50
Bond,Coyne & Adams, 1991
students with academic or behavioral prob-
Johnson, & Pollard, 1994; Haw
lems as evidenced by low academic achieve-
1990, 1996a, 1996b, 1997, C
ment (failing grades or a GPA below 2.0) or
Farrell, & Durand, 1995a, 1995
behavioral problems (5 or more detentions,
The benefits of
suspensions,cognitive-beh
or teacher/principal referrals). All
tions are well documented in current research. students were in a rural high school and ranged
Findings from this literature indicate that ain age from 14-18. The subjects were invited
combination of cognitive and behavioral strat-to attend the counseling groups as part of the
egies significantly increases the strength and regular Student Assistance Program (SAP) in
effectiveness of interventions with children who the school district. Parental and administrative
have problems with self-control and hyperac- permission was secured. The students were
tivity (Kendall, 1984; Littrell, Malia, & told that their participation was confidential
Wanderwood, 1995; Meichenbaum & and voluntary. Thirty students, or 70% of the
Deffenbaucher, 1985; Murphy, 1991; Sapp, total population, chose to participate. Addi-
1994;
Sapp & Farrell, 1994; Walter & Peller,tional demographics of the sample revealed
1992).
thathelp
Additionally, cognitive interventions that 25% were identified as LEN (having ex-
ceptional education needs), 39% had an alco-
adolescents increase their positive self-state-
ments have been shown to decrease angerholicand
parent, and 70% had a single or divorced
anxiety and increase self-esteem (Hams parents. &
Szjakowski, 1990). Interventions
Four groups of students were created from the
The techniques and strategies from supportive,
30well
which is a variant of person-centered, work subjects. Two of the groups consisted of
with group counseling models. Carl male
Rogers
subjects, and two of the groups consisted
of female
suggested that the unconditional positive re- subjects. This allowed the measure-
gard and acceptance among group membersmentwasof gender differences and decreased the
inhibitions and self-consciousness often asso-
more potent and meaningful than acceptance
ciated with mixed groupings. Eight females
by the therapist, with the group experience
and 8 males were randomly assigned to cog-
leading to deeper self-exploration, self-under-
standing, and growth (Yalom, 1985). In nitive-behavioral
addi- groups, and 7 females and
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 7 males1988).were The School Short Form is intended ran for
counseling group
use with school-age populations aged 8-15. The
per week Adult Form is intended
for for use with individuals
9 w
the start aged 15-adult. Aof the
significant correlation of .80
considerations was found between the School Short Form and pr
layed treatment
the Adult Form, indicating either could be used
is the researchers'
depending on the age of the population.
help must be giv
The reliability of the Coopersmith Inventory is
trol group would
strongly supported by research data. The inven-
of the research d
tories are reliable and stable (Peterson & Aus-
The cognitive-beh tin, 1985). Internal consistency or the extent to
sions and focused on the identification of aca- which the components of the test measure self-
demic and behavioral goals and strategies to esteem for students is well supported by Kuder-
reach these goals. The supportive groups met Richardson 20 reliability estimates, r=.8O to .92
for 9 sessions to discuss any issues that they and split half reliability coefficients of .89
chose. All groups were facilitated by two fa- (Coopersmith, 1981). Overall, the validity of the
cilitators who were trained in group process Coopersmith Inventory is strongly supported
techniques. The facilitator established a warm, by research (Adair, 1984).
caring, confidential environment in which stu-
3. Academic Self-Concept: The Brookover Self-
dents freely discussed their concerns. The boys'
Concept of Ability Scale was used to measure
groups were facilitated by a male school psy-
academic self-concept (Brookover, Beady, Flood,
chologist and female SAP coordinator while the
Schweitzer, & Wisenb&ker, 1979). The Brookover
girls' groups were facilitated by two females,
Scale is an 8-item scale that ranges from a low
the high school guidance counselor and the SAP
of 0 (low academic self-concept) to a high of
coordinator. All groups participated in open-
40 (high academic self-concept). A survey of
ing exercises that aimed at building trust and
the literature clearly reveals that academic self-
rapport.
concept is highly correlated with academic
The students were pretested and posttested on achievement (Hamachek, 1995). Brookover et
the following four dependent variables: al. (1979) reported correlations from .50 to .70
with academic achievement. It has an internal
1. GPA: All subjects had their GPAs recorded
consistency reliability measure of .82 for males
pre- and postgroup. Differences between GPAs and .77 for females. The Brookover Scale was
for the first semester, or preintervention period,
found to predict, significantly, academic
and second semester, or postintervention pe-
riod, were recorded. achievement with validity coefficients of .65
for males and .72 for females (Brookover, Pater-
2. Self-esteem: The Coopersmith Self-Esteem son, & Schauer, 1962).
Inventory (Coopersmith, 1987) was used to 4. Detentions: All students had the number of
measure self-esteem. It is a 25-item instrument
detentions calculated both before and after the
that measures how students feel about them-
group participation. Detentions were calculated
selves in regard to four areas: social, academic,
by averaging the total number of detentions per
family, and person. Feelings of self-esteem vary
student for an average 10-week period prior to
in different life situations and are dependent
group counseling in comparison to the average
on individuals' positive or negative interpre-
number of detentions for the 20-week period
tation of the interactions they have with sig-
following the start of the intervention.
nificant others. Self-esteem is the degree to
which individuals feel competent, capable, and Treatment Procedures
worthy greatly influence their attitudes andSupportive Counseling Groups. The support-
behaviors. ive counseling groups were based on a variant
of a person-centered model in which therapeu-
The Coopersmith Inventory is one of the most
tic change was facilitated by creating a support-
widely-used self-esteem instruments (Anastasi,
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The High School Journal- Dec/Jan 2000

ive environment in which the counselors Session 5: Study skills based on the research
of successful students by Allen (1971) were
showed genuine caring, unconditional positive
taught and discussed (Sapp, 1990, 1993; Sapp
regard, and empathetic understanding toward
& Farrell, 1994). Additionally, the students
the students. The following five techniques
were used: unconditional acceptance, active
brainstormed any prior successes that they may
have had in school. This was based on the so-
listening, reflection of feelings and meaning,
lution-focused brief therapy interventions
clarification, and summarization. The groups
(Walter & Peller, 1992). They used each other's
were loosely structured and varied in topics
depending on the issues decided upon by the strategies to set goals and steps for reach-
success
ing goals.
group. Group feedback and support were criti-
cal elements to solutions and problem resolu-
Session 6: Each student was given an index card
tion. The expression of feelings and the sharing
and practiced writing self-instructions and ra-
of negative school/home experiences were of-
ten the focus.
tional thoughts for dealing with difficult situ-
ations (Meichenbaum & Deffenbacher, 1988).
Cognitive-behavioral Intervention Groups. The
Application Phase
cognitive-behavioral intervention groups were
Sessions 7 and 8: The Success Inventory was
more structured and based on an expanded
modification of Meichenbaum' s stress inocu-
completed in which students chose new goals
and identified steps to reach those goals. They
lation model with cognitive/behavioral strat-
chose one goal and completed a goal contract
egies which included cognitive restructuring,
listing positive cognitive and behavioral sup-
goal setting, success inventories, contracting,
ports. They provided input, encouragement,
group feedback, and positive reinforcement
and feedback to each other. They practiced
(Meichenbaum, 1988; Sapp, 1997, Chapter 11).
positive statements to help them reach their
Sessions 1 and 2 goal. Role plays were used to reinforce new or
The first phase was the conceptualization difficult behaviors. Finally, session 9 consisted
phase in which the students were told about of a closure, evaluation, and posttest.
the purpose of the groups and identified irra-
Results
tional cognitions. They brainstormed self-de-
The data were analyzed as a factorial
feating cognitions/irrational thoughts on a
worksheet and learned how to restructure
MANCOVA design. The covariates and depen-
dent variables were self-esteem, academic self-
these thoughts. Self-monitoring sheets or
concept, GPA, and detention. The two
thought logs were handed out to help reinforce
independent variables were gender (male and
the process. Students tried to recall difficult
academic or behavioral situations and noted
female) and type of group counseling
(cognitive-behavioral and supportive). There
the cognitions that accompanied these situa-
was not a significant interaction for gender and
tions. They practiced filling out the logs. The
type of group counseling. The multivariate test
next session focused on discussing and com-
Wilks's lambda is .63 and F (4, 19) 2.76, p >
pleting the thought logs based on situations
.05. There was not a significant multivariate
that occurred during the past week.
main effect for gender, and Wilks's lambda is
Skill Acquisition and Rehearsal Phase - .36 F (4, 19) = 2.72, p> .05.
Sessions 3, 4, 5, and 6
There was a significant main effect for type of
Sessions 3-6 consisted of skill acquisition and
skills rehearsal. The first of these sessions ex- group counseling participants received.
MANCOVA found that the adjusted population
plained goal setting. The subjects completed
mean vectors were significantly different. The
a goal sheet that identified one academic goal
multivariate test F (16, 65) = 5.26 (corresponding
and the negative self-statement and behavior
to Wilks's lambda) is significant beyond the .001
that interfered with its accomplishment. The
level. This indicates that the cognitive-
students restructured the negative statements
behavioral groups had a significant effect on
and behaviors to positive self-statements and
the dependent variables (self-esteem, academic
behaviors that helped them reach their goals.
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 self-concept, GPA, Pretest M SD and
tion of MANCO VA for
Self-esteem 51.64 19.13
gression hyperplanes i
and F (16, Academic
53) = 1.64,
Self-concept 24.50 3.76 p
this assumption is ten
GPA 2.00 .48
Univariate ANCOVAs indicate that all four
Detention 3.21 3.83
dependent variables contributed to the multi-
variate significance. These univariate Fs for self-
Table 2. Pretest Means and Standard
esteem, academic self-concept, GPA, and
Deviations for Supportive Counseling
detention, respectively, were as follows: F (4,
Groups
24) = 10.09, p < .001; F (4, 24) = 4.19, p < .01;
F (4, 24) 3.52, p < .05; F (4, 24) = 3.10, p < .05.

Table 1 has the pretest means and standard turned to school after having been suspended
deviations for the cognitive-behavioral groups,
for one semester for violating the school's
and Table 2 has the means and standard de- policy on possession of alcohol or drugs. She
viations for the supportive counseling groups.
was referred to the Student Assistance Program
Tables 3 and 4 have the posttest means and
by the administration to try to prevent any fur-
standard deviations for the cognitive-behavioral
ther drug involvement and school failure. She
groups and supportive counseling groups, re- was randomly assigned to the supportive coun-
spectively. Tables 5 and 6 have the adjusted
seling group.
posttest means for the cognitive-behavioral
The first few meetings were difficult for Carol.
groups and supportive counseling groups, re-
She was quiet and hesitant to share her feel-
spectively. The cognitive-behavioral groups had
ings, thoughts, and concerns with others. The
a higher adjusted posttest mean for detention
other students were reserved toward her, act-
than the supportive counseling groups. The
ing as though they were not quite sure if they
following case studies provide qualitative data
wanted her in the group. However, as the group
that highlight the importance of providing group
continued to meet, she began to talk more
counseling for rural at-risk high school students.
openly. She said that she disliked school and
Case Studies felt it was a waste of time, but she wanted to
Four case studies have been chosen which give
obtain better grades. The researchers were im-
detailed illustration of client change. Thepressed that she wanted to improve her grades
names and identifying details of the students
because in the researcher's office she had ap-
have been changed to protect confidentiality.
peared very unmotivated.
Carol As the group continued to meet, a higher level
Carol was a sophomore who had recently re-
of trust and rapport developed between Carol
and the other group members. Carol frequently
came to one of the researcher's office to say "Hi"
and to check to see when the next meeting
Pretest M SD
would be held. It was noticed that friendships
Self-esteem 48.75 16.54 were beginning to develop between Carol and
the members. They enjoyed meeting and shar-
Academic Self-concept 24.13 4.35
ing their successes and frustrations with school,
GPA 1.71 .32 friends, boys, and family members. This friend-
ship success generalized to friends outside of
Detention 5.63 3.22
the group. Carol reported that she no longer felt
ignored or judged by the students. Students were
Table 1. Pretest Means and Standard
talking to her, and her fears about returning to
Deviations for Cognitive-behavioral
school were gone.
Groups
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 The High School Journal- Dec/Jan 2000

Carol lack of motivation

very scored and concentration,
low on extreme
the
negativism, defiance,
Esteem Inventory at and the verbal abuse. She re-
beginn
ported that he
This was clearly appeared alternately depressed
supported b
nonverbal behaviors. At the conclusion of the or ready to explode. His family background
group, the score on the Coopersmith increasedwas erratic with the parents sporadically tak-
by 16 points. Her academic self-concept score ing an interest in his efforts. They were diffi-
also increased, which coincided with her im- cult to reach and frequently defensive in their
proved grades on tests in two subject areas.communication with school personnel. They
Although her test scores were not frequentappeared to be disinterested in their son and
enough to improve significantly her GPA, Carolhis behavior or school performance.
felt proud when she scored Bs and Cs on tests
Steve was randomly assigned to the support-
compared to the Ds and Es of previous semes-
ters.
ive counseling group. Toward the end of the
group sessions, the researchers were unsure if
At the end of the group, we had each of the girls Steve had received any benefits from the group.
write a list of changes that they noticed in them-We were surprised when Steve appeared at our
selves as a result of the group. Carol's list wasdoor one day to talk. He was very angry with
one of the longest. She wrote that she was "doing his science teacher for suggesting that he drop
better in school, feeling better about school,the course because his attitude was poor. When
getting along better with my family, acceptinghe spoke, he was so angry that he started to get
the fact that I had to be in school and make the tears in his eyes. He said that he loved science
best of it, getting along better with my class- and did not want to drop it because he needed
mates and having a better outlook on life." Thethe credits to graduate. This was the first time
researchers were very proud of her effort andthat he expressed a desire to finish high school.
hard work to make positive changes in her life.We discussed his options. He showed improved
The supportive atmosphere of the group haddecision-making skills, no defensiveness, and
encouraged and nurtured her growth. She evi-took responsibility for his behavior. He decided
denced better decision-making and problem-to talk to his teacher to determine if he could
solving abilities, a more hopeful and optimisticimprove his situation.
attitude, and better communication skills in her
We spoke to him at the end of the school year,
academic and personal life.
and he indicated that he was allowed to stay
Sieve in the science class. He not only passed science
Steve was a student in grade 11. He was in with a "C" but raised his total GPA from a "D+"
the
to a "C+." Additionally, his score on the
EEN program due to significant discrepancies
between his grade level and his academic Coopersmith
abil- Inventory showed an increase. We
were
ity. In several subjects, he tested 5-6 years be-pleased to see improvement because his
hind his age group. He was referred to the score on the Coopersmith was 16 to 46
pretest
Student Assistance Program by his teacher points lower than the scores of the other mem-
who was concerned about his inattentiveness,
bers of his group.

Posttest M SD Posttest M SD

Self-esteem 58.25 18.30 Self-esteem 58.14 15.14

Academic Self-concept 25.88 4.08 Academic Self-concept 25.71 5.05

GPA 1.79 .29 GPA 1.99 .60

Detention 2.50 2.61 Detention .64 1.01

Table 3. Posttest Means and Standard Table 4. Posttest Means and Standard
Deviations for Cognitive-behavioral Deviations for Supportive Counseling
Groups Groups
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Peggy parents, friends,
Peggy, a freshman, was referred by the high pressed that she w
school counselor because of her poor attitude, personal goal and b
low grades, frequent detentions, and promis- her achieve it. The
cuous sexual activity. She was inattentive in Peggy's expression
class, rarely completing assignments and listening and empa
homework. Her attitude toward school and life,
By the end of the g
in general, was characterized by disinterest and
siastically complet
apathy.
academic improvem
She was randomly assigned to the cognitive- to identify though
behavioral group. When she first started attend- help her reach her
ing the groups, her nonverbal behavior was improved, and her
significant. She often sat outside of the circle received one detent
and closed her eyes. At the beginning of each the group, compare
session, she was asked to bring her chair into tentions for the sam
the circle and told that the group wanted to see counseling group.
her and have her included. She agreed to join
The pretest score o
the group, but she was very reluctant to par-
tory, the lowest sc
ticipate in the discussions.
by 36 points by the
Peggy continued to talk very little in the group; ing that she was b
however, a turning point came when the girls worthiness. When members were asked to write
very candidly and openly spoke of the pain of the changes they had noticed, Peggy wrote: "I
living in a family with divorced parents. For have found myself trying a little harder on ev-
the first time, Peggy spoke at length about her erything I do. I actually study. Not a lot, but
family. She told of the fear and anxiety of be- more than none." Peggy's goal sheet captures
ing caught between her father and mother as the essence of how at-risk students change,
well as the rejection she felt from her mother. which is often slow, gradual, and progressive -
After this experience, we noticed a gradual shift not dramatic.
in Peggy from one of reserve to a more open Lee
expression of feeling.
Lee was referred to the counseling group by his
Her goal sheets supported the positive changes grandmother who called to express worry and
in attitudes and behaviors that she exhibited. concern about his poor school performance
She indicated on her Success Inventory sheet, and rebellious behavior at home. The grand-
under behavioral change, that one of the goalsmother said that Lee often seemed depressed
she accomplished was "starting to trust some and sad since the divorce of his parents. Ad-
special people and tell them feelings which Iditionally, she felt that he received very little
never did before." Additionally, she indicated attention from his parents who were very busy
that one of her goals was to be closer to herwith their jobs and lives.

Posttest M Posttest M

Self-esteem 59.65 Self-esteem 56.75

Academic Self-concept 26.32 Academic Self-concept 25.27

GPA 1.89 GPA 1.89

Detention 1.97 Detention 1.18

Table 5. AdjustedTable 6. Adjusted

Posttest Means foP
Supportive
Cognitive-behavioral Couns
Groups
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 The High School Journal- Dec/Jan 2000

Lee was randomly assigned

not expect them to succeed because they were t
"bad and terrible
behavioral group, andstudents." This
he situation was
was in
focus would bea clear on
example ofselfthe extent toand which their aca
ment. He appeared moderate
negative thoughts and feelings influenced their
attending thebehavior.
group The researchers butgently challenged
was i
fact that it was
their irrationala voluntary
thoughts that they were "always
mandatory, bad" and asked them
school to reframe their thinking
program.
to more rational, positive thoughts that would
In the group, Lee worked o
help them change their behaviors.
thoughts about himself from
tive. He and the Moreover other
the psychologist andmemberresearcher pro-
their views of cessed the possible consequences of continued
themselves in ver
Frequently, they destructive school behavior in addition
referred toto brain-
the
in, as well as storming the acts
positive of
feelings, thoughts, vand
and behav-
they participated. iors associated with Theysucceeding in school.
were They
with the police and seemed wrote a letter of apology to the kindergarten class to
tive attention they received. and repaired the display. This situation high-
difficult and lighted the significance of holding students
frustrating to f
the boys often preferred accountable for their actions and allowing to the s
stories" with each other rather than focus on opportunity to change or repair their self-de-
goals setting. feating behaviors. Lee continued to use cogni-
tive restructuring and goal setting to improve
A significant amount of time was spent clari-
his behavior in school. He showed more eye
fying the goals of the group as well as estab-
contact in the group, smiled more often, and
lishing ground rules. One of the most effective
appeared more relaxed. His attitude toward
methods of bringing the group back "on task"
school improved as he set and reached his goals.
was asking the boys to assist in the leadership
He began by setting the obtainable goal of study-
and maintenance of the group. This strategy
ing for tests. This behavior was reinforced when
allowed the boys to feel empowered and in
his grade in science rose from a "D-" to a "C."
partnership with the adult facilitator and Moreover, his overall GPA increased from a 1.77
avoided power struggles. However, the follow- to a 2.31.
ing two rules were enforced at every meeting:
The researchers also noticed that his thoughts
1. The importance of confidentiality to ensure
about himself were more supportive and posi-
a safe place to talk with the understanding that
tive. These improved feelings of self-worth were
any type of harm or abuse to self or others would
documented on his goal sheets and reflected
be referred for clinical help outside of the school.
in the posttest score of the CSEI which increased
2. Negative comments or "put downs" were not by 32 points. Moreover, his academic self-con-
acceptable. The facilitator modeled respect and cept showed a significant increase of 10 points
positive regard for the students at all times. As on the Brookover Concept of Ability Scale. He
the group progressed, the boys exhibited a stron- also received no detentions during the entire
ger sense of cohesiveness, trust, and caring time that he attended the group sessions.
toward each other.
Discussion
A significant event occurred which gave insightThe gender and the type of group counseling
into the way Lee and the other boys vieweddid not interact to simultaneously impact the
themselves. After one of the group sessions, thestudents' self-esteem, academic self-concept
boys ran past a kindergarten room and tore down GPA, and detention. In addition, gender was
a display made by the younger students. The not a significant main effect; however, the type
school psychologist and the researcher gatheredof counseling students received did affect their
the boys to discuss the meaning of their behav-scores on self-esteem and academic self-con-
ior. They were very angry and defensive and cept at the multivariate level. Univariate
said the psychologist and researchers shouldANCOVAs found that self-esteem, academic
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 futures.
self-concept, GPA, In an
to the multivariate
invalid, inacs
individual and make
variables, in
f
means, theineffective
cognitive-
lenge
significantly and
higher e e
academic self-concep
progressive
counseling ineffective
groups. Bot
havioral and
to support
productiv
same of
impact identify
on GPA
ported small
counseling succes
gro
on reducinglate student
detention
havioral groups.
The present
This study tance of
extended estt
1994); Sappdents
and and
Farr a
and Durand environme
(1995a, 1
youths to a critical
at-risk rur c
found thatamong
the adol
cognit
nificantly Inincreased
conclusio s
academic self-concep
bers of the
tioned researchers ha
position to
In programs
contrast to the t
cog
supportiveThis study
counseling
effect on ing method
reducing d
dents in a time-efficient
qualitative data manner. or ca
complex nature of ho
Finally, significant growth and change in atti-
students. tudes
Sapp (1997)
and behaviors can occur in the support-
counseling had an ave
ive atmosphere of counseling groups with
which is considered to
adolescents who are normally highly resistant
while cognitive-beha
to positive changes within the regular school
average effect size
setting. The tentative conclusions drawn from
o
effect. Because the aver
this research confirm the importance and ne-
treatment groups are
cessity of counseling interventions with at-risk
(no effect), one would
students. Additionally, an initial framework for
sistent statistical sign
group counseling is presented that other school
all dependent variab
counselors may follow; however, further docu-
addition,mentation
meta-analy
and research is needed to support
therapy effectiveness
and expand the methods presented in this study.
treatment is consiste
another; References
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