CLAUS PLANT OPERATING PROBLEMS

By

B. Gene Goar

GOAR, ALLISON & ASSOCIATES, INC.

P.O. Box 131390
Tyler, Texas 75713

Preprint of Paper Given to

The Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference
in
Norman, Oklahoma

on
March 1-3, 1993
 CLAUS PLANT OPERATING PROBLEMS

by
B. Gene Goar
Goar, Allison & Associates, Inc.
Tyler, Texas

ABSTRACT

Claus Sulfur Recovery Units have had a long history of operating problems during (1)
start-up, (2) shutdown, and (3) normal operation. The nature of the operating problems vary
from unit to unit. Some problems result from poor design, selection of poor equipment,
contaminants in the feed gas, poor metering & controls, maloperations, and inadequate
maintenance. The background and cause of many problems are discussed. Real-world
solutions are offered for many operating problems.

INTRODUCTION

Brief History

The Claus process was patented by Carl Friedrich Claus, a London chemist, in late
1883. It has been widely used in industry for well over 100 years. Modifications to the
Claus process have been many and varied; but, the basic flow scheme used today remains
essentially the same as proposed and patented in 1938 by I. G. Fabenindustrie (Frankfurt),
and subsequently called the "modified Claus process".

The basic flow scheme and apparent chemistry of the Claus process are deceptively
simple. Selection of the optimum process flow scheme and conditions for a given application
can be critical to success. The novice designer or inexperienced operator can easily fall into
many "traps" or problem areas. Mother nature is certainly on the side of the Claus process
when compared to the wit of the designer or the perseverance of the operator. If a designer
or operator has never been exposed to the actual operation of a Claus Sulfur Recovery Unit
(SRU), it is virtually impossible for them to anticipate all of the potential problems that can
be encountered. In the case of a Claus SRU, some exposure to the "School of Hard Knocks"
is
almost essential. In this "School", real-world experiences are the best teachers, and painful
lessons are learned that are seldom forgotten. Some of the most important lessons seem to
focus on what "not" to do, rather than what to do.

Nature of Sulfur

Sulfur, as an element and compound, can be rather insidious and deceiving. Sulfur is
a very complex element. It is hard to imagine a compound that freezes (becomes solid) at a
temperature of 246°F, which is 34°F hotter than the boiling point of water at 212°F. Who
can imagine a compound that has eight (8) different vapor species, two (2) different liquid
forms and three (3) different crystalline or solid forms? Pure liquid sulfur exhibits an
anomalous behavior with regard to change in viscosity versus temperature. The viscosity’s
of most liquids decrease with an increase in temperature. This behavior is true for liquid
sulfur between its melting point and about 320°F. Then between 320°F and 370°F, the
viscosity of liquid sulfur increases sharply from about 10 cp to 100,000 cp. Above 370-400
°F, the viscosity decreases again with an increase in temperature. The presence of H2S in
produced liquid sulfur reduces the viscosity peak dramatically (10 cp to 80 cp for the critical
region), and causes the peak to shift to a higher temperature. Sulfur produced from the Claus
process contains enough dissolved and complexed H2S to make it potentially lethal,
explosive and highly corrosive when stored under certain conditions. Produced liquid sulfur
is hot to the touch, offensive to the nose, bitter to the taste and aggressive to its
surroundings. Sulfur is recovered from hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which is only slightly less
lethal than hydrogen cyanide (HCN). So why does industry want to recover sulfur from this
noxious, lethal, corrosive compound called H2S? The answer lies in the realm of protection
of the environment. Pollution abatement is a major concern to both mankind and industry
who must learn to live together. If all H2S produced from sour gas. and sour crude oil were
incinerated to SO2 and vented to the atmosphere, massive pollution would result and
mankind's survival in industrial areas would be threatened. A much better alternative is to
use the Claus process to convert H2S into useful and marketable elemental sulfur.
BASIC CLAUS PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The typical, modern-day Claus Unit consists of a thermal stage followed by

two or three catalytic stages (more typically three). Some type of indirect reheat ahead
of each catalytic stage is preferred. A typical Claus Unit process flow sheet is shown
in Figure 1. The thermal stage consists of a Burner, Reaction Furnace, Waste Heat
Boiler and Follow Condenser. In the thermal stage, one-third (1/3) of the H2S is
burned to SO2. Also, hydrocarbons and ammonia (if present) in the feed stream are
burned completely. The SO2 generated then reacts with the unburned portion of the
H2S to form elemental sulfur, which is partially removed from the gas stream by
cooling and condensation. The thermal stage typically accounts for about 60 70% of
the total sulfur recovered in a modified Claus Unit. The main chemical reactions
occurring in the thermal stage are shown below:
 Of course, it is recognized that many side reactions involving H2, CO, CO2, COS,
CS2, NH3 and hydrocarbons may occur in the thermal stage. About 6% of the H2S
entering the burner is thermally dissociated into H2 and S2. Some re-association to H2S
occurs in the W. H. Boiler tubes.

The downstream catalytic reactor stages further increase the conversion to sulfur. In
the catalytic stages, the Claus reaction also occurs:

2 H2S + SO2 - 3/n Sn + 2 H2O

The Claus reaction proceeds to a greater degree of completion and is enhanced by

use of Claus catalyst (activated alumina). A catalytic stage consists of a reheater, catalytic
reactor and sulfur condenser. After the thermal stage, the Claus process is a repetition of the
above three steps (reheat, conversion & condensation). The overall sulfur recovery is
determined by the number of stages used. Typically, a maximum of three catalytic stages are
used along with one thermal stage. For a rich-feed (80-90% H2S) Claus Unit, the typical
overall recovery with a thermal stage and three catalytic stages is 96.0-97.5 % . Much lower
recoveries can result from poor burner/furnace design, catalyst aging or deactivation, inexact
air-to-acid gas control, COS/CS2 losses, fouling of catalyst and heat exchanger surfaces
with carbon, scale & salts, inefficient reheater design, and excessive sulfur losses with the
tail gas stream.

The single most important process control parameter in the Claus process is the
"air-to-acid gas" ratio. The air to the combustion step must be controlled such that an
optimum H2S/SO2 ratio of 2/1 is obtained in the effluent from the thermal stage and in the
rest of the plant. Other important control parameters are: (1) the inlet temperature to each
catalytic stage, (2) the outlet temperatures from the condensers and (3) maintenance of
adequately hot temperatures in all process piping and sulfur rundown lines.
 TYPICAL CLAUS PLANT OPERATING PROBLEMS

Some of the more common operating problems encountered in Claus Plants are
listed below:

1. Carbon or soot formation in process burners

2. Slugs of hydrocarbons to the SRU
3. Catalyst deactivation (from carbon, salts, 02, thermal aging, sulfur deposition, etc.)
4. Oxygen breakthrough to catalyst beds
5. NH3 salts formation and plugging
6. Inadequate purging of burner/furnace
7. Unstable operation of flame scanners
8. Low turndown operation (instability)
9. Inadequate temperature in Reaction Furnace for NH3 destruction
10. Inadequate inlet temperatures to Converter beds
11. Poor COS/CS2 hydrolysis in 1st Converter bed
12. Channeling in catalyst beds
13. High pressure drop in equipment
14. High condenser outlet temperatures
15. Sulfur fogging in sulfur condensers
16. Plugging of sulfur rundown lines & seal pots
17. Loss of Tail Gas Analyzer operation
18. Special start-up problems
19. Special shutdown problems
20. Tube failure in W.H. Boiler or Condensers
21. Plumming of stack
22. Sudden reduction in sulfur recovery
23. Sudden reduction in flame temperature
 BRIEF COMMENTS & SOLUTIONS TO THE TYPICAL OPERATING
PROBLEMS

Brief comments and solutions are given for each typical operating problem listed above.
Then much more in-depth explanations of the nature of the problems and suggested
solutions are given later. The following brief comments/solutions are given in the order of
the problems listed above.

1. Adjust air to burner(s). Increase flame temperature. Replace burner with improved
design. (Consider O2 enrichment to raise flame temperature.)
2. Improve acid gas inlet liquid separation. Correct problem in upstream unit.
3. Cease carbon formation. Stop Oxygen breakthrough. Improve NH3 destruction.
4. Adjust air to burner(s). Replace burner with improved design.
5. Improve NH3 destruction.
6. Purge burner/furnace properly with N2 or air.
7. Check cleanliness of scanner ports. Check aiming of scanners. Check sensitivity of
scanners. Change to special scanner for acid gas flames.
8. Provide better metering and controls of feed streams and air stream(s).
Improve burner turndown capability.
9. Adjust "front/side" split, if applicable. Consider a) feed stream preheating, b)
spiking
with fuel gas, or c) oxygen enrichment. Use an E 2 T pyrometer for more reliable
temperature measurement in the furnace.

10. Raise inlet temperatures to Converter beds. Supplement reheats if necessary.

11. Increase inlet (& outlet) temperatures for No. 1 catalyst bed. Use special catalyst (like
CRS-31) for lower half of the No. 1 bed.
12. Install impingement plate under inlet nozzle.
13. Take pressure profile readings throughout plant. If high ∆P in any condenser, check to

see if rundown lines are plugged. If high ∆P in catalyst bed(s), check for carbon

formation and NH3 salts. If high ∆P in piping, check for liquid/debris in low spots.
14. Try raising the steam pressure to melt out salts. Try lowering the water level to expose
a few tubes in the top layer. Do not operate long in this mode.
15. Increase throughput above critical minimum value, or shutdown and blank some tubes.
16. Isolate from condenser, and rod lines & seal pot. Clean debris out of seal pots.
17. Repair T.G. Analyzer (ADA). Use Drager tubes until analyzer operation restored.
18. Special start-up problems will be discussed later. One such problem may be ignition of
pilot. Another is proper fuel gas firing (metering and controls).
19. Special shutdown problems will be discussed later. One such problem is getting sulfur
out of the unit prior to cool-down.
20. View in furnace & if very cloudy, plan to shut down SRU. If condenser rundown lines
plug frequently, plan to shutdown and examine unit for a possible tube failure.
Repair leaking tubes.
21. Increase load on SRU. Reduce temperature in Incinerator.
22. Check for plugged rundown lines. Check for slug of hydrocarbons. Check capacity, and
if low plan to raise.
23. Check for sudden change in feed gas composition, such as: (1) water content, (2) CO2
content, and (3) massive hydrocarbon carry-over (can cause flame-out).
 CATEGORIES OF PROBLEMS

Most Claus Plant operating problems can be divided into five (5) major categories,
which are related to:

1) Selection of the basic process flow scheme and process design considerations,
2) Detailed engineering design considerations and arrangement of major equipment and
piping,
3) Selection and installation of major equipment, piping, instrumentation and
controls,
4) Start-ups and shutdowns of the Unit, and
5) Operations of the Unit (normal, upset, low turndown, unusual feeds, etc.)

Each category of problems will be discussed in more detail with typical examples
given for many problems commonly encountered in industry.

1. Process Design Considerations

a. Acid Gas Composition

The first design criteria to be considered should be the composition of the
acid gas feed stream(s). If the amine acid gas (AAG) stream contains a
relatively rich amount of H2S (75-80 Mol% or greater), a once-through
process scheme should be selected. If the SRU is to handle Sour Water
Stripper Acid Gas (SWSAG), containing a significant amount of ammonia,
special provisions must be made to achieve proper NH3 destruction and
avoid deposition of NH3 salts. If either feed stream contains significant
amounts of hydrocarbons, selection of a good burner is essential.

b. Desired Sulfur Recovery (%)

The second design criteria to be considered is overall sulfur recovery (%) to
be achieved. If a recovery of 96-97% is acceptable, a 3 catalytic stage SRU
will probably be adequate, unless the feed stream is relatively lean in H2S
(less than 50-60% H2S). In the case of lean feed SRU's several options
should be considered, such as: (1) preheat of the feed streams, (2) oxygen
enrichment of the
 air stream, (3) split-flow operation, or (4) special technologies such as the
Selectox or COPE" processes. For lean feed plants, sulfur recoveries of only
94-96% can typically be expected.

c. Selection of Reheaters
The selection of the type of reheating step ahead of each catalyst bed is very
important. It is highly desirable to use indirect reheat methods. The preferred
method, above all others, is the use of high-pressure steam in a shell & tube heat
exchanger. The typed preferred is a horizontal exchanger with the process gas
passing through the shell side and high-pressure steam on the tube side (prefer U
tubes). In order to perform all reheating steps adequately, the use of 450-600
psig (460 488°F) saturated steam is required. If steam reheats are selected, this
level of high-pressure steam must be available within the plant facility, or it must
be generated in the W.H. Boiler of the SRU. For units of 20 LTPD or smaller
size, it is normally not practical to generate such high-pressure steam in the W.H.
Boiler. For these smaller units, indirect electrical reheaters or some other reheat
method should be considered.

Other types of reheating methods may be used, such as: (a) hot-gas by-pass lines,
(b) gas/gas exchangers, (c) indirect gas-fired reheat furnaces, (d) acid-gas direct
fired reheaters and (e) fuel-gas direct fired reheaters, and (f) hot-oil indirect
reheaters. Each type will be discussed briefly:

1) Hot-gas By-Pass (HGBP) - this method of reheating is considered archaic

and outdated. Many operating and maintenance problems have resulted
from this method of reheating. It is not recommended.
2) Gas/gas exchangers - this method seems to appeal to the novice designer
and the unsuspecting operator. It has created many problems in the past.
To mention a few: (1) poor performance at turndowned conditions, (2)
dependence on a source of hot gases at all times for reheating (start-up
problems), (3) accumulation of liquid sulfur in the shell of the exchanger
(typically installed as a low-point pocket), (4) increased pressure drop, and
(5) relatively expensive to purchase and install. This method is typically
not recommended.
3) Indirect gas-fired reheat furnaces - this method is satisfactory for reheating
purposes, but it has two basic problems: (1) very expensive to purchase,
install and instrument properly, and (2) very poor from a thermal
efficiency standpoint, i.e., use of a lot of fuel gas for the heat input
realized in the process gas stream. This method should be considered in
only special cases, such as the need to reheat the No. 1 catalyst bed inlet
to 450-480°F for a large SRU, and no high-pressure steam is available.
4) Acid-gas direct fired reheaters - this method has been widely used by
some major contractors (designers) in the past. It is a satisfactory method
if at least four (4) criteria are met: (1) the AAG is rich in H2S (70-90%
H2S), (2) the AAG does not contain any appreciable amounts of NH3 or
hydrocarbons, (3) a good quality burner is used, which has good mixing
efficiency and a long service life and (4) the reheat burner/mixing
chamber is sized adequately for start-up, rejuvenation and unusual
operations. This method has the disadvantage of lower sulfur recovery
because some of the acid gas is bypassed around one or more conversion
steps.
5) Fuel-gas direct fired reheaters - this method has been used much more
widely in Europe and Japan than in North America. It appears that the Europeans
and Japanese place much more importance on the selection of good burners than
others do. This method of reheating is excellent if the following criteria are met:
(1) use an excellent quality burner with outstanding mixing efficiency and service
life (such as LD Duiker of Holland), (2) use purchased natural gas (mostly
methane) as the source of fuel (never use refinery fuel gas), (3) provide very
accurate flow meters and controls for the fuel gas and air streams, and (4) provide
adequate firing capacity for start-up, rejuvenation and unusual operations.
6) Hot-oil Indirect Reheaters - this method has been used successfully many
times. It is relatively expensive to install, because of the cost of the hot
oil furnace, pumps, and circulation system. The main problems are: (1)
housekeeping - hot oil leaks at flanges, threaded connections, pump seals,
etc., and (2) if a tube leak develops, the hot oil will deactivate the catalyst
bed rapidly.
d. Operating Temperatures of Catalyst Beds

The operating temperature of the Catalyst beds is of prime importance. The first
Catalyst bed serves two important functions: (1) hydrolysis of COS/CS2, formed in
the furnace, to H2S and CO2 and (2) further completion of the Claus reaction to
form sulfur. In order for the COS/CS2 hydrolysis reactions to proceed to the
desirable degree of completion (90-95 %), the bed outlet temperature (actually the
bottom bed thermocouple) should reach 600-620°F. This means that the first catalyst

bed inlet temperature should typically be controlled at 450-480°F. Lower inlet

temperatures (such as 400-430°F) have been used, but the degree of COS/CS2
hydrolysis will suffer accordingly (only 60-80% conversion). Enhanced catalysts
can be used in all or part (lower 1/2) of the 1st catalyst bed to promote the hydrolysis
reactions. Rhone Poulenc CRS-31 (TiO2) catalyst is excellent for this purpose.

The second and third catalyst beds should be operated at the minimum practical
bottom-bed temperature to favor the Claus - reaction, but still avoid sulfur
condensation in the pores of the catalyst. Two criteria should always be considered:
(1) control the bottom-bed temperature at least 20-25°F higher than the calculated
sulfur dewpoint, and (2) maintain the inlet temperature above the minimum required
to prevent capillary condensation of sulfur in the small pores of the catalyst. It is felt,
from many years of industrial experience, that the minimum inlet temperatures should
be (1) 400-410°F for the second catalyst bed and (2) 385-390°F for the third catalyst

bed. Operation at inlet temperatures significantly less (5-10°F) than those stated
above will usually result in sulfur condensation and deactivation of the catalyst. This
is a mistake commonly made by the novice designer. As a result, the third bed may
be deactivated in the first few weeks of operation, and then the recovery drops to a
2-bed Claus SRU operation. If sufficient reheat capacity is available, the sulfur can
be vaporized and driven from the catalyst by raising the inlet temperature by
30-50°F. But, once the inlet temperature is lowered again to an insufficient level, the
sulfur condensation will recur.
e. Use of Demister Pads in Condensers

The use of a demister pad in the outlet channel of every condenser pass is highly
recommended. Entrained liquid sulfur mist will lower Claus conversion in the
subsequent catalyst bed and can contribute to sulfur dew point (liquid
condensation) problems. A properly designed and adequately heated demister pad
in the outlet channel of each condenser will help overall sulfur recovery and
prolong catalyst life.

f. Destruction of Ammonia

The destruction of ammonia (contained in SWSAG) deserves special attention.

There are basically two methods used for SRU's to destruct ammonia: (1) the
"front/side" split method, and (2) the Comprimo Ammonia Destruction System.
The "front/side" split method involves feeding all of the SWSAG to the front
burner, along with a relatively small portion (20-30%) of the AAG to maintain a
near "stoichiometric burn" in the front section of the furnace. The balance of the
AAC; stream is injected in the side of the furnace at a distance of 1/3 to 1/2 the
length of the furnace downstream of the front main burner. There are many
problems associated with this "front/side" split method: (1) control of the proper
split of AAG to the front or the side of the furnace, (2) hydrocarbons or NH3
present in the AAG stream split to the side of the furnace are not destructed, (3) the
furnace is larger and more complicated that necessary for the alternate method, (4)
the front main burners normally used for this method are unsophisticated and
inefficient for mixing and result in NH3 and/or O2 breakthrough to the catalyst
beds, and (5) the use of oxygen enrichment is severely limited by the relatively
high temperatures (2500-2600∆F) normally maintained in the front zone.

The alternate "Comprimo System" solves the main problem with the "front/side"
split method. In this system, all AAG is preheated to 180-190•F, mixed with the
SWSAG and fed to a single port on the front main burner. There is no need to split
any portion of the AAG to the side of the furnace. It is essential to use a
 special LD Duiker, swirl-vane type, multiple-vortex, highly-efficient main burner
with the Comprimo System. In this burner, the two feed streams and the combustion
air are mixed very thoroughly. Since NH3 burns about ten (10) times faster than
H2S, the NH3 is selectively oxidized in the presence of excess H2S. The
hydrocarbons burn even faster than ammonia. Enough air is added to the burner to
burn all of the hydrocarbons and NH3, and yet bum only 1/3 of the H2S present in
the mixed acid gas stream. The advantages of the Comprimo System are many, such
as: (1) no need to split the AGG stream, (2) hydrocarbons or NH3 present in the
AAG are all destructed, (3) due to the mixing efficiency of the special burner, much
cooler flame temperatures (2200-2350∆F) are adequate in the front end of the
furnace, (4) the furnace is simpler and less expensive, (5) the system is more
amenable to oxygen enrichment, when desired, and (6) the conversion efficiency of
the thermal stage is improved.

g. Operating Temperatures of Condensers

The "Follow" (No. 1) Condenser and all others, except the last condenser, normally
produce 50-70 psig steam. Typically condenser outlet temperatures for a 3-stage
Claus SRU are: (1) 350-375∆F for No. 1 Condenser, (3) 310-330•F for No. 2

Condenser, (3) 310-330°F for No. 3 Condenser, and (4) 265-270•F for the No. 4
(last) Condenser. In order to achieve a cooler outlet temperature, the No. 4
Condenser normally produces 15-20 psig steam or serves as a boiler feed-water
(BFW) preheater. The low pressure steam can be condensed and thermosiphoned
(returned) back to the condenser shell, or flowed to the BFW deaerator system. It is
important for a high-recovery SRU to cool the last condenser outlet to the lowest
practical tail gas temperature (265-270°F). For each 10°F increase in the tail gas
temperature, a recovery loss of 0.2-0.3% may be experienced (with 7080% H2S
feed).

h. Provision of a Tail Gas Coalescer

Even though the last condenser is normally provided with a demister pad, it is
recommended that a separate, vertical Tail Gas Coalescer vessel be provided to
 de-entrain small liquid sulfur droplets from the tail gas stream before it flows to the
incinerator/stack. The coalescer vessel and its demister pad must be adequately
heat-traced and insulated to prevent demister pad plugging problems. Also, the
vessel should be provided with its own sulfur rundown line, seal pot, and look-box
for monitoring of its sulfur production.

i. Water content of acid gas feed streams

The water content of the AAG and SWSAG feed streams can have a marked effect on
operation of the SRU. For instance, AAG saturated with water vapor at 100•°F and

10 psig contains only 3.9 Mol % H2O. If the AAG temperature increases to 140°F at
10 psig and is water saturated, it will contain 11.7 Mol% H2O. The same general
principle applies to the SWSAG stream, say operating at 200°F and 10 psig (46.7

Mol% H2O) versus at 180°F and 10 psig (30.4 Mol% H2O). If the feed streams
enter the SRU containing excessive amounts of water vapor, several undesirable
effects occur: (1) the burner flame temperature is quenched somewhat (2) water
vapor tends to move the Claus reaction equilibrium in the wrong direction and sulfur
conversion suffers, (3) the size of equipment (converters and condensers) must be
increased to handle the larger flow volume, and (4) the tail gas volume increases,
which carries away more sulfur with it (mist and vapor) and recovery suffers. For a
high-efficiency SRU, it is essential to keep the water vapor content of the feed
streams as low as practical to maximize recovery and reduce losses. (NOTE: The
SWSAG stream should not be operated below about 175-180°F, or NH3 salts
plugging of the feed line may be experienced).
2. Detailed Design Considerations and Equipment Arrangement

a. Acid Gas Knock-out (K.O.) Drums

It is highly recommended that relatively large K.O. Drums be provided for
both the AAG and SWSAG feedstreams. For the AAG stream, a demister
pad should be provided in the drum, and consideration should be given to
installing a "Filter Sep" 2-stage separator downstream of the K.O. Drum, to
prevent carryover of mists (amine solution, water, hydrocarbons, etc.) into
the main burner. The K.O. Drum for the SWSAG stream normally does not
have a demister pad, but is provided with heavy heat-tracing-and insulation
on its lower section and all attached instruments (LG's, LC's, PI's, etc.).
Properly sized sour water pumps must be provided for each K.O. Drum. The
use of a common spare pump is not recommended.

b. Main Reaction Furnace Burner

Probably the single most important piece of equipment in a Claus SRU is

the main front-end burner on the Reaction Furnace. And yet, it seems to
demand very little attention from the novice designer. Even experienced
designers sometimes fail to realize its importance. The viewpoint shared by
many designers/contractors seems to be that a few thousand dollars saved
on purchase of a main burner is a significant factor in building an
economical SRU. The real story is that the small savings realized from
purchasing a poorly designed burner versus a highly efficient burner is
virtually insignificant in impacting the overall installed cost of a Claus SRU.
At most, the main burner may represent 2-3 % of the overall installed cost of
a SRU. If you cut the burner cost in half (1/2), you only save 1-1.5% of the
total cost. The selection of a poorly designed main burner for a low cost is
certainly false economy when compared with its importance in the
satisfactory operation of a SRU.

The characteristics of an efficient, well-designed main burner are: (1)

thorough and intimate mixing of all combustibles with the air stream during
normal operation and during fuel gas firing, (2) wide turndown capability
(say at least
 5/1), (3) no oxygen breakthrough from the burner, (4) relatively high pressure drop
at design conditions (say 0.5-1.0 psi), (5) ability to destruct fairly high levels of
hydrocarbons without carbon formation, and (6) long service life (say 3-5 years)
without major repairs or replacement of internal parts. It is highly recommended that
the type burner used for a Claus SRU be a swirl-vane, multiple-vortex, recirculating
type burner. One manufacturer of such burners is LD Duiker of Holland. The LD
Duiker "LMV" type burner costs more than burners typically used in North America,
but its benefits are outstanding: (1) high turndown ratio of 8/1 or greater, (2)
destruction of hydrocarbons (up to 5 Mol% benzene) without carbon formation, (3)
no measurable oxygen breakthrough, even at high levels of O2-enrichment, (4)
efficient burning of start-up fuel gas, at as low as 75 % of stoichiometnc air, (5)
excellent NH3 destruction at levels of up to 2025 Mol% NH3, (6) capability of
oxygen enrichment at levels much higher than most other burners, and (7) longevity
of service (5-7 years) without major repairs or replacements. These burners are used
widely in Europe and Japan.

The same general discussion given above on main burners will apply to acid-gas
fired and fuel-gas fired reheat burners. However, the selection of an efficient burner
for a fuel-gas fired reheat service is even more critical. For this service the fuel gas
must be burned slightly sub-stoichiometric during normal operations. Excess oxygen
can result in sulfur fires and catalyst deactivation. Deficient oxygen can result in
carbon formation and production of dark sulfur and/or catalyst deactivation. A- good
burner with no O2 breakthrough or carbon formation is essential for a fuel-gas fired
reheat service. Also, the metering and controls of fuel gas and air to such a burner is
very critical. Many times, oversized meter runs and poorly designed control valves
are provided for these burners. The use of accurate meter runs (like 1" honed
sections for fuel gas) and properly sized control valves are essential for a satisfactory
operation.

c. Reaction Furnace/Waste Heat Boiler

The Reaction Furnace and its Waste Heat Boiler is really the "heart" of the modified
Claus process. The main burner discharges into the Reaction Furnace,
and its effluent discharges into the W.H. Boiler. As mentioned earlier, about 60-70% of the
conversion of H2S to sulfur is accomplished in the Reaction Furnace. The Follow
Condenser recovers most of this sulfur formed in the thermal stage. The key design
parameters for a Reaction Furnace are: (1) provision of adequate retention time for the slow
Claus reaction (typically 0.7-1.0 second), (2) use of good quality and an adequate thickness
of internal refractory (to protect the steel shell from over-heating and keep it at 450-600•F
during normal operation), (3) provision of a properly designed rain/wind shield (to protect
the steel shell from thermal shocks), (4) provision for longitudinal growth during warm-up
and normal operation, (5) use of internal checker brick walls or matrix-block walls to
enhance radiant heat reflection and mixing, (6) provision for temperature measurement
(prefer E2 T pyrometer) during warm-up and normal operations, and (7) provision of one or
more brick-lined manways for periodic inspections and repairs.

The Waste Heat Boiler is also a critical item of equipment and is usually one of the major
cost items in a SRU. There are many types used. The most common is a fire-tube type with
one or two passes. The first pass normally has multiple larger diameter tubes (usually 2" or
3" size). The first pass tube inlets are provided with ceramic ferrules, surrounded with a 3 4"
thickness of high alumina (90-97%) plastic or castable refractory on the front tubesheet. The
ferrules and refractory are provided to keep the severe thermal shock off of the tube inlets
and the tube-to-tubesheet welds. The second pass (if used) normally has multiple smaller
diameter tubes (usually 1.5"-2" size). The W. H. Boiler can be designed to produce any
level of steam from 50 psig to 600 psi". The maximum practical upper limit is usually
considered to be 500-550 psig steam production. The outlet channel of the W.H. Boiler
must be designed to provide for liquid sulfur removal during normal operations. Small drips
of sulfur will accumulate at design rates, and significant liquid sulfur will appear at
turndowned operations. The outlet channel must be provided with (1) its own sulfur
rundown line, seal pot and lookbox, or (2) an outlet nozzle and piping spool that is
free-draining to the Follow (No.l) Condenser.
 The key design parameters for a W. H. Boiler are: (1) provide 1st pass tubes with
ceramic ferrels, (2) provide the inlet tubesheet with a protective refractory layer, (3)
provide for longitudinal growth during warm-up and normal operation, (4) provide
for dual level measurement and proper water level control on the shell (steam) side,
(5) provide for demisting the steam produced from the shell side, (6) provide for
proper shell-side continuous and quick-opening blowdowns, and (7) provide for
continuous liquid sulfur removal from the outlet channel.

d. Reheaters
The various types of reheaters were discussed in some detail earlier. It probably
bears repeating that the preferred type of reheater is an indirect steam heat
exchanger using 550-600 psig steam. The temperature controls for a steam
reheater are much simpler and more trouble free than for a direct-fired type
reheater. During start-up operations, a lot of carbon can be formed and deposited
on the catalyst during fuel gas firing of a reheat burner that was designed primarily
for acid gas firing.

e. Catalytic Converters

The amount of catalyst volume in a Claus catalytic converter is normally based on a

gas hourly space velocity (GHSV) of 750-1000 SCFH/CF of catalyst. The catalyst
bed depth is typically 36-48". An impingement plate, or deflector, should be placed
underneath the inlet nozzle to prevent eroding away of catalyst depth immediately
under the inlet nozzle and resultant flow channeling. This is a common omission by
the novice designer. The catalyst bed should rest on a 6" layer of a larger-size
support material, which sets on two sizes of 304 SS screens (typically 8x8 mesh on
4x4 support mesh). The screens set on 304 SS grating, which usually sets on
castable-refractory lined I-beams. Thermocouples should be provided at 25%, 50%
and 75% of bed depth at intervals of about every 5-7 feet along the total length of
the catalyst bed. The exterior of the whole converter vessel should be covered with
an adequate thickness of hot insulation. The vessel should have a 2"-3" thick
internal castable lining from the top of the bed and downward. Converter vessels
should be self-draining to condensers.
f. Sulfur Condensers

As mentioned earlier, all condensers typically produce 50-70 psig steam, with the
exception of the final condenser. The condensers are horizontal heat exchangers
with process gas inside the tubes. Normally 1.5-2" diameter tubes are used in
condensers. ' The mass flow through the tubes should be designed for a mass
velocity of about 5.5-6.0 lbs/sec-ft2 for the design rate. Excessive velocities can
cause sulfur re-entrainment and recovery losses. At a tumdown of 411, the tubeside
mass velocities would be about 1.38-1.5 lbs/sec.-ft2. At mass velocities below bout
1.0-1.2 lbs/sec-ft2, a phenomena known as "sulfur fogging" can be experienced. If
this occurs, overall sulfur recovery drops dramatically. The sulfur fog consists of
tiny "aerosol-sized" particles that behave more like a vapor than a liquid, and pass
through demister pads, catalyst beds and coalescer vessels like they were not
present. As a result, sulfur losses in the tail gas stream increase drastically. The
only way to stop the "fogging" condition is to increase throughput rates again, or
shutdown and blank some tubes in order to increase the mass velocity in the other
tubes left open.

g. Piping Considerations

Many special considerations for piping routing and equipment arrangement are
required for the design of a satisfactory SRU. Several are discussed below:

1) Sulfur rundown lines - all sulfur rundown lines should be sized liberally
and treated more like a "trough or sewer line" for liquid sulfur than a
process line. These lines must be steamjacketed with 50-70 psig
saturated steam. Every turn in direction must be made with a cross, with
drop flanges. Tees and elbows are forbidden in sulfur rundown lines. All
rundown lines should slope 1/4" per foot to their seal pot. Each sulfur
production point should have its own rundown line, seal pot and look-box.
At every cross, attention must be paid to the rodability of the rundown
line from both directions. Every rundown line must be provided with a
steamjacketed block valve as close to the sulfur production point as
 .
practical. All look-boxes should be fitted with a hinged lid for easy and convenient
viewing by the operator. The underflow from each look box should flow into a
larger collection line or directly into the underground sulfur storage pit.

2) Process vapor lines should have no low-point pockets where liquid sulfur
or debris can accumulate with time. This statement applies to process
lines between the W.H. Boiler and the Follow (No. 1) Condenser,
between condensers and reheaters, between reheaters and converter
vessels, and between converters and condensers. The rule should be
"absolutely no pockets" in any process vapor lines in a SRU. All vessels
should be self-draining through a condenser, to a seal pot; to a look-box
and into the pit. If the SRU is to be located in a severe winter climate
and is to be operated at low turndown conditions (1/3 of design or less),
the thickness of insulation on all process piping should be increased to at
least 1.5-2.0 times the normal thickness. This is to reduce process heat
losses during low throughput operations. If the SRU is small in size (say
20 LTPD or less) the need for double thickness insulation is even greater
during severe wintertime operations.

3) The general rule for all process piping in SRU's is to keep it as short and
direct as possible. Process vapor piping should be routed from point-to-point and
not run in parallel runs or on pipe-racks. Sulfur rundown lines should be kept
short and have a minimum number of turns or elevation changes.

4) All major items of equipment in an SRU will tend to grow or expand

during warm-up and normal operation. All piping connected to the
various items of equipment must be designed such that it can "move" with
the equipment without putting undue stresses on nozzles and fittings.
Otherwise, piping failures will occur. One of the areas of major concern
is usually the AAG, SWSAG and air piping connecting to the main
burner. Careful attention must be given to the design of these lines.
5) All piping in SRU's is normally constructed of carbon steel material, with
the exception of lines that may operate at a temperature of 1000°F or
higher. If such lines are encountered (HGBP lines), the use of 347 H
stainless steel is recommended.
3. Selection of Major Equipment and Controls

Poorly designed and cheaply built SRU's tend to experience many

operating and maintenance problems. This follows the same logic that
poorly designed and cheaply constructed bridges tend to fail. The
selection of good quality equipment and instrumentation is essential to
good operation of an SRU. Many of these points were made earlier,
but a brief review will be given below:

a. A good quality main burner and reheat burners (if used) are essential
to good operations.
b. Properly designed and quality constructed heat exchangers (W.H.
Boiler, condensers and reheaters) are essential to good
operations.
c. Good quality centrifugal air blowers are preferred (Hoffman or
Lamson types are often used). A 100% installed spare blower is
recommended. Positive displacement or lobe-type air blowers
are not recommended.
d. Good quality sulfur loading pumps (Chas. Lewis or equal) should
be provided. A 100% spare should be installed.
e. Property designed and good quality sulfur seal pots are essential.
Refer to Figure 2 for a schematic of a well-designed seal pot.
An adequate liquid seal depth should be provided. Determine the
maximum static pressure expected in the
SRU, add at least 1.0 psi, and design the liquid seal depth to
hold this pressure. The maximum shut-in pressure of the air
blower should be considered. Make the liquid seal depth equal
for all seal pots. If a TGCU is planned for addition in the
future, consider the extra pressure now for determining the
proper seal depth.
f. Instrumentation and controls for an SRU deserve special attention.
There are many areas of concern:

1) Main air and trim air metering and controls. The main air is
usually 95 % of the total air and is controlled by a
feed-forward ratio controller based on the acid gas feed
stream flow(s). The trim air is usually about 5 % of the
total air flow and is controlled by a feed-back controller
based on the tail gas analysis (H2S/SO2 = 2/1), as
determined by a tail gas analyzer.
 For a 100 LTPD SRU, the main air meter run size might be a 10" and the trim air
meter run size might be a 2".

2) The start-up air for fuel gas firing (start-up and warm-up operations) may
require a meter run of a size in between the main air and trim air meter
run sizes. However, seldom is a start-up air meter run provided. The
proper size for a 100 LTPD SRU start-up air meter run might be a 6~.
If such a start-up meter run is not provided, the operator is forced to use
the 10" meter run (much too large) or the 2" trim-air meter run (much too
small) while firing on start-up fuel gas. Metering accuracy will be much
less than desired. As a result, the "air/fuel gas" redo may be grossly
different than desired, and either oxygen breakthrough or carbon
formation may be experienced. Either event causes catalyst problems. All
flow signals should be lineraized, as this will greatly improve readability
and metering accuracy at low rates. The omission of a properly sized
start-up air meter run is a common error made by the novice designer.
Once this is realized in the field, it would be a simple matter to add the
start-up air meter run. However, operators tend to attempt to operate
what they are provided by the designer/contractor. It usually takes many
years of "suffering" before a properly sized meter run is added, if ever.

3) Ignitors and pilots have historically been very troublesome in SRU

operations. Every burner must have a proper means of igniting it and
permitting it to be warmed-up. This seems rather basic, but it is often
given very low priority. Three types of ignitors are commonly used: (1)
the flame-front generator type, (2) the spark-tip type and (3) the high
intensity arcing type. The most troublesome appears to be the flame-front
generator type. The spark-tip type can be successful if a good quality
ignitor is purchased. Also, the spark-tip type should be designed to be
retractable and removable for easy maintenance and trouble-shooting. The
high-intensity arcing type is used most widely in Europe. It is normally
used to provide a source of ignition for the main burner fuel gas gun and
not for a pilot. If this type is used to ignite the main burner fuel gas gun,
 the burner must be capable of very low firing conditions on fuel gas. A
spark-tip type combination ignitor/pilot is recommended for most
applications in North America.

4) Good quality control valves should be used for control of all streams to
all burners. Fisher (or equal) V-ball type is recommended for main and
trim air control valves. For larger SRU's, the use of V-ball valves for
main air may be impractical, and butterfly valves are used. Control
valves in acid gas service should have positive shut-off capability,
especially if they are to be used as "emergency shutdown" valves also.
Current design guidelines for ESD systems require the use of independent
"double block and breed" valves for sources of fuel and air to a burner.
But, not all companies adhere to these guidelines. Steamjacketed control
valves should be used in SWSAG service, to prevent NH3 salts deposition.
Properly-sized, globe-type control valves, with very positive shut-off
characteristics, should be used for all fuel gas control valves. Steam
jacketed plug valves (Tufline 067FJ or equal) should be used in all sulfur
rundown lines.

5) A good quality and properly installed tail gas analyzer should be provided
for proper trim air control to yield a tail gas stream containing a ratio of
H2S/SO2 of 2/1 or a value of (2SO2 - H2S) = 0. The best analyzer on the
market is believed to be the Western Research Model 700 U.V.
Photometric Air Demand Analyzer (ADA). When properly installed and
adequately maintained, the ADA analyzer seems to give reliable and
relatively trouble-free operation. If difficulty is being experienced on a
repeated basis, then probably something is wrong with the installation or
routine maintenance of the ADA. It is highly recommended that every
SRU in operation be equipped with a tail gas analyzer (ADA type), which
controls a properly designed and correctly sized trim air flow control
loop. The analyzer controller output should serve as the set-point for a
flow controller in the trim air loop, i.e., cascade control.
 If the tail gas analyzer is out of service, use of special Drager tubes is recommended
to give approximate readings of H2S and SO2 in the tail gas stream. Use Drager
tube No. CH28201 (brown color) to determine the "H2S + SO2" value in the tail
gas. Use Drager tube No. 28101 (blue color) to determine the H2S only value in
the tail gas. The difference in the two readings will yield the SO2 value, and enables
calculation of the H2S/SO2 redo. If the ratio is greater than 2/1, increase process air
to the burner. Conversely if the redo is less than 2/1, reduce process air.

6) If the AAG feed to the SRU has a widely varying concentration of H2S,
consideration should be given to installation of an Acid Gas Feed Analyzer
(Western Research or equal) to measure the incoming Mol % H2S and feed-forward
the information into the front-end main air ratio controller logic. This can greatly
help stabilize operations.

7) W.H. Boiler feed water controls vary a great deal. For smaller, low
pressure boilers a single element (level control) system is normally used.
For larger (say 100 LTPD and greater) SRU W.H. Boilers, especially if
producing 400-550 psig high-pressure steam, it is felt that a three-element
boiler feed water control system can be justified.

8) Emergency Shutdown (ESD) System

The major items or events that normally cause an Emergency Shutdown (ESD) are:

a) High liquid level in feed gas K.O. Drum(s)

b) Low water level in W.H. Boiler
c) Low discharge pressure of Air Blower(s)
d) Flame scanner(s) failure on burner(s)
e) High temperature on outlet of No. 1 Converter (uncommon)
f) Low acid gas flow
g) Low main air flow
h) Shutdown of tail gas Incinerator
i) Actuation of operator shutdown button(s).

The flows that are normally stopped at the result of an ESD are:

a) Acid gas feed stream(s)

b) Combustion air feed stream(s)
c) All fuel-gas streams (if in use)
d) Pilot gas stream (if in use)
e) Pilot air stream (if in use)

A properly designed and programmed "PLC-type" shutdown system is essential for

satisfactory and safe operation of a SRU. It should be the responsibility of the operator to
see that all shutdown devices (level switches, flame scanners, etc.) are maintained in a
functional condition. The SRU should not be operated unless the shutdown devices are in an
"armed" condition. The automatically actuated valves required for proper shutdown of
critical feed streams should be checked for correct operation and tight closure on a routine
basis. The ESD system must be keep functional and "armed".
4. Start- ups and Shutdowns of SRU's

Probably more damage is done to Claus SRU equipment and catalyst during
start-ups and shutdowns than during any other time. This is usually the result of
several items mentioned earlier:

a. Poor burner performance

b. Poor fuel gas/start-up air metering
c. Rapid warm-ups that do not allow adequate time for refractory curing or
thermal expansion
d. Oxygen break through from burners
e. Carbon formation in burner
f. Prolonged start-up operations using excessive steam for fuel-gas flame
moderation
g. Overheating of refractory because proper flame moderation is not done
h. Over heating of catalyst beds due to excess oxygen entering the converter
and
causing a sulfur fire
i. Attempted "burn-off" of carbon laid down on catalyst beds.

Fuel-gas firing of the main burner is usually the culprit. Of course, this is required
every time the SRU undergoes a start-up or shutdown. The proper sequences for a
good start-up and shut-down are given below:

A. Proper Start-up of SRU

1) Adequately purge the burner and Reaction Furnace (preferably with
N2),
2) Ignite the pilot and operate for 1-2 hours if furnace is cold,
3) Introduce fuel gas to the burner and slowly warm up the furnace to
200-250°F. If new refractory has been installed or refractory repairs
have been made, follow the warm-up and dry-out schedule prepared
by the refractory vendor If no repairs have been made, a common
procedure is to:
a) Heat-up the furnace at 100°F per hour to 250°F.

b) Hold at 250°F for 4 hours.

c) Increase temperature at 100°F per hour to 500°F.

 d) Hold at 500°F for 3 hours.

e) Increase temperature at 100°F per hour to 1000°F.

f) Hold at 1000°F for 2 hours.

g) Increase temperature at 200°F per hour to 2000°F or expected

operating temperature of furnace.
h) Place furnace on line with acid gas firing.

4) The above furnace warm up procedure is performed using fuel-gas firing.

If the SRU is new, or if a catalyst bed replacement has occurred, fuel gas
may be fired with excess air to control the flame temperature at 2000
2500°F. If the SRU has produced sulfur and used catalyst is present in
the converters, then the fuel gas must be fired at 95-97% of stoichiometric
air to prevent sulfur fires in the unit. At these conditions, N2 or steam
must be used to moderate the flame temperature at 2000-2500°F(desired
range), since excess air cannot be used. If the fuel-gas flame temperature
is not moderated (cooled) with some medium, then temperatures of 3300
3500°F can be experienced in the furnace. This is unacceptable and can
cause refractory damage.

5) While the furnace is being warmed-up, the catalyst beds should be

warmed-up also to a temperature of at least 400°F. The reheaters should
be used to accomplish this. Of course, the sulfur condensers will warm
up and start producing steam at the same time. The W.H. Boiler will
produce steam also.

6) Once the plant warm-up has progressed to this point, the sulfur rundown
lines, seal pots, pit steam coils, etc. should be checked to be sure they are
hot enough to melt sulfur. If the seal pots have been previously filled
with liquid sulfur, then the block valves in the rundown lines may be
opened. Once this is confirmed and all front-end controls are checked for
readiness, amine acid gas (AAG) may be introduced to the burner/furnace.
The transition from fuel-gas firing to acid gas firing should be made as
quickly as practical, but in no more than about 30 minutes. The idea is
 to calculate the amount of acid gas (l/3 H2S burn) required to
consume the amount of air being used to burn the fuel gas stream.
Then slowly introduce acid gas and back-out fuel gas until all of
the pre-determined amount of acid gas is being fired and all of the
fuel gas is backed-out. From this point on, air flow should slowly
be increased, followed by acid gas flow, until all of the available
acid gas is being handled in the furnace. At this time, sulfur is
being formed in the furnace and all catalyst beds. In 4-6 hours or
sooner, sulfur should be evident in the first and second seal-pot
look-boxes, if the pots have been filled with liquid sulfur prior to
start-up.

B. Proper Shutdown of SRU (For long term, such as an inspection, repair or

catalyst change)

1) The acid gas (AAG) feed rate should be reduced to 20-25% of

design rates, maintaining the "1/3 H2S burn" strategy. If SWSAG
is being processed, it should be backed-out first.

2) In order to drive a major portion of sulfur from the catalyst beds and
equipment, a brief operation is sometimes conducted using an "all
SO2" burn strategy. If this option is chosen, the acid gas rate is left
steady (20 25% of design) and the air rate is increased to burn
essentially all H2S to SO2 (say 80-90% of stoichiometric burn).
The flame temperature should be observed and if it starts to rise
above 2500°F, moderation steam or N2 should be used to keep it at

or below about 2500°F. This mode of operation should be

maintained for no more than about 30-45 minutes. (Note: Some
operating companies will not perform this step because of pollution
considerations). If this option is chosen, after 30-45 minutes of
operation, the air should be reduced back to a " 1/3 H2S" burn
strategy.

3) At this point, fuel-gas firing should be started, and acid gas feed
should be backed-out of the unit. Again, the idea is to calculate the
amount of fuel gas (95-97% stoich. burn of fuel gas) required to
consume the amount
 —
of air being used to burn the acid gas stream (1/3 H2S burn). Then slowly
introduce fuel gas and back-out acid gas until all of the pre-determined
amount of fuel gas is being fired and all of the acid gas is backed-out. As
required, moderate the fuel-gas flame with steam or N2 to hold the flame
temperature between 2000-2500°F. At this time, the main air rate should be
at 20-25% of design rate. Fire on fuel gas at this rate and stop all reheater
operation. Reduce steam pressure on the condensers if possible. Continue to
fire at this rate until the catalyst bed temperatures decrease to 300-350°F.
Then fire at a lower fuel gas rate until all sulfur production (flow and drips)
stops from all seal pots. This may take several hours.

Once all sulfur drips stop and the catalyst beds are below 300-350°F, then
fuel gas firing with slight excess air may be commenced. Slowly increase the
air rate, leaving the fuel gas flow constant, to about 5-10% excess air. Use a
portable O2 analyzer to check the combustion gases from the W.H. Boiler to
the No. 1 (Follow) Condenser. If an O2 reading of 0-0.5% is obtained, all is
okay. If greater than 0.5 % 02. reduce the air rate. Fire at this rate for say 2-3
hours. Then increase the excess air flow until a reading of 1 % O2 is
measured at the same point (W.H. Boiler outlet). Be sure to observe the
thermocouples in the catalyst beds. If any thermocouple point starts to
increase sharply, decrease the amount of excess air until the temperature
comes down again. Continue to fire with a slight amount of excess air (say
1-2% O2 measured at W.H; Boiler outlet) until the catalyst beds are cooled
down to 200-250°F. At this point, fuel gas firing should be stopped and the
SRU should be allowed to cool down to ambient conditions. Do not open the
manway on a catalytic converter unless the temperature in the bed is 200•F or
less. At a temperature of 200°F or lower, the catalyst may be exposed to
excess air. So if a more rapid cool-down is desired, consideration should be
given to blowing air or nitrogen through the whole SRU train once all
temperatures (throughout the whole train, except maybe in the Reaction
Furnace) are below 200°F. Air blowing is normally not recommended, but
has been done on occasion
 without producing any severe consequences. If a rapid cool-down is
desired, it is much better to use nitrogen if it is available.

5. Normal Operation of SRU

During normal operation of a SRU, many events may happen that require operator
attention:

a. Tail gas H2S/SO2 ratio higher or lower than desired (2/1) - this requires (1)
adjustment of the air to acid gas redo, (2) maintenance of the ADA analyzer,
or (3) checking of ratio by Drager tubes.
b. Slugs of hydrocarbons - every attempt should be made to determine and
remedy the problem in the upstream amine unit or sour water stripper. If the
SWSAG is the offender, the sour water feed to the SWS should be stopped
until the problem is solved. If the AAG is the offender, antifoam injection,
hydrocarbon skimming and stabilization of amine unit operations should be
pursued.
c. Plugging due to soot or NH3 salts formation - if soot is formed, the burner
operation must be checked. Perhaps fuel gas firing is occurring with far too
little air; or, slugs of hydrocarbon may be causing the soot. If so, this must
be addressed in upstream units. If NH3 salt plugging is occurring, then NH3
destruction must be improved or the SWSAG must be backed-out of the
SRU. Check for a) proper air to acid gas redo, b) adequate temperature in the
furnace, c) control of "front/side" split, if applicable, and d) presence of too
much NH3 (Mol%) in the feed streams.
d. Oxygen breakthrough to catalyst beds - if greater than 100-200 ppmv of O2 if
found in the inlet to any catalyst bed, corrective action should be taken. Items
to be considered are: a) check main or reheater burner operation for proper
fuel gas and air flows, b) check burner for physical damage, such as tip
burned off, and c) increase throughput if possible to improve burner mixing
efficiency. If the O2 problem persists, use of Selectox catalyst (3-6" deep
layer) on top of the catalyst bed will cause the O2 to react with H2S and be
consumed. This will stop O2 degradation of Claus catalyst.
e. Flame scanner operation instability - plan to clean all scanner ports and
windows. Also, the sensitivity adjustment of the scanner may require
tuning. If scanner aiming is poor, the use of swivel joints may be
helpful. Confirm that ports are being purged adequately with air or N2.
f. Inadequate inlet temperatures to Converter beds - as discussed earlier, it is
essential to maintain a minimum critical temperature to each bed. If inlet
temperatures drop too low, they must be raised. If the type of reheater
provided is not capable of raising the temperature, then a supplemental reheat step
must be provided or a different type of reheater must be used.
g. Channeling in catalyst beds - if there is evidence of flow channeling, a deflector
plate must be added under the inlet nozzle in the Converter.
h. High condenser outlet temperatures - this usually indicates partial plugging of
some tubes in the condenser. The pressure drop across the condenser
should be relatively high also. Try raising the steam pressure to melt any salts
or sulfur present. If the high pressure drop persists, a plant shutdown may be
required.
i. Operation at low turndown rates - burner instability may become a problem.
Metering of feed streams is normally a problem. Both of these require
physical modifications to equipment or controls. If there is a drastic
reduction in sulfur recovery efficiency (%), then sulfur fogging is probably
occurring. To solve this problem, the feed rate must be increased or the
unit must be shutdown and some tubes must be blanked.
j. Plugging of sulfur rundown lines and/or seal pots - the look-boxes on each
seal pot should be viewed at least twice per 8-hour shift. If the sulfur
production from any normal producer stops for more than 5-10 minutes,
this usually means that the rundown line or seal pot has become plugged.
Check all steam supply lines to jackets. Check all steam traps to determine if
they are working properly. Use a small chunk of solid sulfur to check all
exposed flanges or couplings to see if they are hot enough to melt
sulfur. If the flow stoppage persists, the block valve in the rundown line
should be closed and rodding should be performed on the seal pot and
rundown line. Rod the dip tube in the seal pot first Then try the flow.
If its is still plugged, each section of line and ultimately the condenser
outlet nozzle may require rodding.
 If surging flows of liquid sulfur are observed in any look-box, this is a good
indication that partial plugging is starting to occur in a condenser outlet
nozzle, and the condenser channel is alternately filling to some level and then
dumping. Also, surging pressure in the SRU usually indicates that a condenser
is starting to plug-off end fill partially with liquid sulfur. A front-end pressure
gauge on the acid gas line to the burner nozzle is a good indicator for observing
surges in the unit pressure.
k. Tube failure in W.H. Boiler or Condensers - if there is an indication or evidence
of a tube failure in a W.H. Boiler or Condenser tube, and massive
quantities of steam are appearing in the process gas, the best policy is to
shutdown the unit and plug or repair the leaking tube(s). Some attempts in the
past have been made to operate for weeks or months after a tube leak is
known to have occurred. This usually results in massive corrosion damage,
frequently plugged rundown lines, and damaged catalyst. The best policy is
not to operate any longer than absolutely required if a significant tube leak
has occurred.
l. Plumming of stack - this phenomenon is usually due to one of two problems: (1)
drastic reduction in SRU sulfur recovery efficiency or (2) much too hot a
temperature in the incinerator. If the condition occurs at low turndown
rates, then sulfur fogging may be occurring. If rates are up, then something
may have happened to severely damage one or more catalyst beds. If the
incinerator temperature is too hot (say above 1300-1400°F) and a significant
amount of sulfur is present in the tail gas stream, then SO3 formation may
occur, which contributes greatly to stack plumming.
m. Sulfur fires or pit explosions - if either of these events are experienced,
consideration should be given to degassing the sulfur product. Several
methods of degassing may be used. The Shell system, using air sparging,
appears to be the most efficient, simple, and trouble free. It is important to
sweep the vapor space in the pit with air, whether the sulfur is being
degassed or not.
 CONCLUSION

Most all Claus plant operating problems can be traced to a design problem, an equipment
deficiency, an upset operation in an upstream unit, or insufficient attention by knowledgeable
operators. It seems that most serious problems occur during start-up or shutdown
operations. The best "rule" would be to start-up a SRU, run it at maximum capacity, and
never shut it down. But the real world we live in does not permit this to happen. In order to
minimize operating problems, a combined effort must be made by the designer, contractor
and operator to provide good equipment and operate it with the attention and care required by
a SRU. If it doesn't get the attention it needs, the SRU will certainly let the operator know.
Claus Sulfur Recovery Units are not "bad. or "difficult" plants. They just demand a certain
amount of respect and attention that sometimes seems to be lacking. Since SRU's normally
are not "positive cash flow" producers, they usually receive low priority. This situation can
change quickly if the regulatory authorities (permit violations) demand a whole plant
shutdown.
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Comprimo/Western Research Seminar on Gas Sweetening and Sulphur Recovery,
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14. Johnson, A., Edwards, T. R. and Miller, M. F., "Techniques Curb Catalyst
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