Anderson, Loren Runar et al "SIMILITUDE"

Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2000
APPENDIX C SIMILITUDE

Engineering is basically design and analysis; with The pi-terms can be written by inspection.
due regard to cost, risk, safety, etc. In the following,
that which is designed is a buried pipe. The analysis Example
is a model that predicts performance. Performance
must not exceed some performance limits. The Write a set of pi-terms for investigating the
major concern, usually, is the model. Mathematical maximum wheel load W that can pass over a buried
models are convenient. Physical, small-scale models flexible pipe without denting the top of the pipe. See
are used occasionally. The most dependable models Figure C-1 for a graphical model. Following the
are full-scale prototypes in service. Mathematical three pi-term requirements;
models are written to describe prototype
performance because it is impractical to perform a fv's bd's
full-scale prototype study for every buried pipe to be
installed. The set of principles upon which a model W = wheel load F
can be related to the prototype for predicting EI = wall stiffness FL
prototype performance, is called similitude. H = height of soil cover L
Similitude applies to all models — mathematical, P = all pressures FL-2
small-scale, and prototype. There are three basic D = pipe diameter L
steps in achieving similitude. E' = soil modulus FL-2
1. Fundamental variables (fv's) — a list of all of the g = soil unit weight FL-3
variables that affect the phenomenon. All of the fv's
must be uniquely interdependent. However, no 7 fv's - 2 bd's = 5 pi's required.
subset of the fv's can be uniquely interdependent.
For example, force, mass, and acceleration cannot pi's (W/E'D2) p 1
all be used as fundamental variables in a more (EI/D3) p2
complex phenomenon, because force equals mass (H/D) p3
times acceleration. Therefore the subset is uniquely (P/E') p4
interdependent. Only two of the three fundamental ((D/E') p5
variables could be used in the phenomenon to be This set of five pi's, by inspection, is not the only
investigated. possible set. If this set is not convenient for
investigating the phenomenon, a different set can be
2. Basic dimensions (bd's) — the dimensions in written. In this case, the maximum wheel load is
which the fv's can be written. The basic dimensions given by a mathematical model:
for buried pipes are usually force (F), distance (L);
and sometimes time (T) and temperature. p 1 = f(p2, p3, p4, p5) . . . . . (C.1)
if we can somehow find the relationship of pi-terms.
3. Pi-terms (pi's) — combinations of the fv's that Principles of physics provide one possibility.
meet the following three requirements; Prototype studies provide the writing of empirical
a) The number of pi's must be at least the number of equations of best-fit lines through plots of data. If
fv's minus the number of bd's. small scale model studies are to be used, Equation
b) The pi-terms must all be dimensionless. C.1 must describe the performance of both model
c) No subset of pi's can be interdependent. This is and prototype. Therefore, the model must be
assured if each pi-term contains a fundamental designed such that corresponding pi-terms on the
variable not contained in any other pi-term. right side of

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Figure C-1 Sketch of a physical model for evaluating that wheel load passing over a buried flexible pipe that
dents the top of the pipe.

©2000 CRC Press LLC

Equation C.1 are set equal for model and prototype.
This can be accomplished, even for small-scale
models, because the pi-terms are dimensionless, and,
therefore have no feel for size — or any other
dimension, for that matter. The subscript m
designates model. In order to design the model,
design conditions (dc's) are:
1. (EI/D3)m = (EI/D3)
2. (H/D)m = (H/D)
3. (P/E')m = (P/E')
4. (g D/E')m = (g D/E')
Using subscript r to represent the ratio of prototype
to model, each of the design conditions can be met
according to the following:
1. (EI)r = (Dr)3 where Dr is scale ratio
2. (Hr) = (Dr) geometrical similarity
3. (Pr) = (E' r)
4. (g r) = (E' r)/(Dr)
Because soil is a complex material, it would be
convenient if the same soil could be placed and
compacted in the same way in both model and
prototype. The result is that E' r = 1, and g r = 1. But
now design conditions 3 and 4 are not met. From
design condition 3, Pr = 1. Therefore, all pressures
P must be the same in the model as at corresponding
points in the prototype. For example, tire pressures
must be the same in model and prototype. The soil
pressure must be the same at corresponding depths
in the model and prototype. But this is impossible
for a small scale model if the soil has the same unit
weight. One solution is to test the model in a
long-arm centrifuge such that centrifugal force plus
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gravity increases the effective unit weight of the soil
in the model. Another approximate solution is to
draw seepage stresses down through the model (air,
or water if the soil is to be saturated) in order to
increase the effective unit weight of the model soil.
For most minimum soil cover studies, it turns out that
the effect of the unit weight of the soil is negligible
so dc 4 is ignored. Once the model is designed and
built, from tests, the weight W can be observed
when the buried pipe is dented.
The prediction equation (pe) is the equation of the
pi-terms on the left sides of Equation C-1 for model
and prototype, i.e.,
(W/E'D2) = (W/E'D2)m
If E' r = 1, then the prediction equation is:
W = Wm (Dr)2
where Dr is the scale ratio of prototype to model. If
the scale ratio is 5 (i.e., 1:5 model to prototype), then
the load W on the prototype that will dent the buried
pipe is 25 times the load Wm on the model that dents
the model buried pipe.
In order to write the mathematical model (equation)
for the phenomenon, enough tests must be made to
provide data plots for p 1 = f(p2) with p3 held
constant and for p 1 = f'(p3) with p 2 held constant.
From the best-fit lines plotted through the data, an
equation of combination can be written for p 1 =
f[(p 2), (p3)]. This becomes the mathematical
model.
In fact, design condition 3 may not be significant.
Just keep tire pressures the same in model and
prototype. Then the mathematical model is simply
the equation of the best-fit plot of p 1 = f(p2). Of
course it can be written in terms of the original
fundamental variables.